sign in sign up
<<
Home , Sanitation, Water pollution, Water resources

MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE CARIBBEAN

ISSUE 4 / OCTOBER - DECEMBER 2015 ABOUT ECLAC/CDCC

The Economic Commission for and the Caribbean (ECLAC) is one of five regional commissions of the Economic and Director’s Desk: Social Council (ECOSOC). It was established in 1948 to support Latin Water , Climate Change 3 American governments in the economic and social development of and Sustainable Development in the Caribbean that region. Subsequently, in 1966, the Commission (ECLA, at that time) established the subregional headquarters for the Caribbean in Port of Water for Development 4 Spain to serve all countries of the insular Caribbean, as as Belize, Guyana and Suriname, making it the largest United Nations body in the The Impacts of Climate Change on Water 6 subregion. At its sixteenth session in 1975, the Commission agreed to create the Caribbean Development and Cooperation Committee (CDCC) as Integrated Water Resource Management 8 a permanent subsidiary body, which would function within the ECLA structure to promote development cooperation among Caribbean Case Study of the Caribbean 9 countries. Secretariat services to the CDCC would be provided by of 2009-2010 the subregional headquarters for the Caribbean. Nine years later, the Commission’s widened role was officially acknowledged when the Effects of on Water Sheds 10 Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) modified its title to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). and Water 12 CONTENTS Key Areas of Activity Post-2015 Agenda on Realizing the Future we 14 The ECLAC subregional headquarters for the Caribbean (ECLAC/CDCC secretariat) functions as a subregional think-tank and facilitates increased want for all contact and cooperation among its membership. Complementing the ECLAC/CDCC work programme framework, are the broader directives issued by the United Nations General Assembly when in Regular Features session, which constitute the Organisation’s mandate. At present, the overarching articulation of this mandate is the United Nations Sustainable Upcoming Events - 4th Quarter 2015 18 Development Goals. List of Recent ECLAC Documents and 18 Towards meeting these objectives, the Secretariat conducts research; Publications provides technical advice to governments upon request; organizes intergovernmental and expert group meetings; helps to formulate and articulate a regional perspective within global forums; and introduces global concerns at the regional and subregional levels.

Areas of specialization include trade, statistics, social development, science and , and sustainable development, while actual operational activities extend to economic and development planning, demography, economic surveys, assessment of the socio-economic impacts of natural disasters, climate change, data collection and analysis, training, and FOCUS: ECLAC in the Caribbean is a publication of the assistance with the management of national economies. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) subregional headquarters for the Caribbean/Caribbean Development and The ECLAC subregional headquarters for the Caribbean also functions Cooperation Committee (CDCC). as the Secretariat for coordinating the implementation of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. The scope of ECLAC/CDCC activities is documented in the wide range of publications produced by the subregional headquarters in Port EDITORIAL TEAM: of Spain. Director Diane Quarless, ECLAC Editor Alexander Voccia, ECLAC Copy Editor Denise Balgobin, ECLAC MEMBER COUNTRIES ASSOCIATE Coordinator Willard Phillips, ECLAC MEMBERS: Antigua and Barbuda Anguilla Cover Photo Frank Hayes / CC BY. The Bahamas Jamaica Aruba Barbados Saint Kitts and Nevis Bermuda Produced by ECLAC Belize Saint Lucia British Virgin Islands Layout by Blaine Marcano, ECLAC Caribbean Cuba Saint Vincent Cayman Islands Dominica and the Grenadines Curaçao Dominican Republic Suriname Guadeloupe CONTACT INFORMATION Grenada Trinidad and Tobago Martinique ECLAC subregional headquarters for the Caribbean PO Box 1113, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago Guyana Montserrat Tel: (868) 224-8000 Puerto Rico Fax: (868) 623-8485 Turks and Caicos Islands E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.eclacpos.org facebook.com/eclaccaribbean/ Virgin linkedin.com/company/eclac-caribbean Islands Director’s Desk

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, CLIMATE CHANGE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE CARIBBEAN

Over the past two decades, the issue of climate change has assumed increasing importance from the perspective of development thinkers, policy makers, investors, and civil society, as they have sought to design strategies to mitigate its anticipated impact. Stimulated by extensive global dialogue and relentless research of feasible solutions to this challenge, discussion on the need for adaptation and mitigation to address the increased frequency and intensity of natural events, and the importance of security and alternative energy solutions has become an essential element of the dialogue on sustainable development imperatives for the Caribbean.

ignificantly however, the intense and energy security impact of climate change policies. The macro-economic S on water availability and growth of newly emerging management has generally never countries through globalization been featured in such discourse, is also expected to increase this

or given the level of importance ECLAC Alexander, Dale Photo by demand, as changing diets and deserved. In this issue, we give consumption patterns raise the focus to water and its role levels of global per capita water in our future development, use. with a particular emphasis on water as a development issue From a policy standpoint, water in Caribbean Small Island Ms. Diane Quarless, Director, ECLAC subregional and comprise a Developing States (SIDS). headquarters for the Caribbean number of critically interrelated components which impact The UN’s World Water health, this resource is central overall development. These Development Report 2015 to the growth and well-being of include elements such as water puts water at the core of societies. resources, water governance, sustainable development, it water-related , being an essential element of Although water was not and water quality, services which support poverty identified as a specific target of , and sanitation reduction, economic growth and the Millennium Development and . environmental . Goals (MDGs), various Water is of course pivotal to achievements under the MDGs It is all of these factors which led global food security, as an integral to a clear enunciation of water resource sustaining , and sanitation as Goal 6 of and is critical to energy security have resulted in improved the newly adopted Sustainable and industrial development, access to drinking water for Development Goals (SDGs), since it is used for cooling approximately 2.5 billion the ultimate aim of which power production and related persons. Notwithstanding this is to ensure availability and industrial . Water significant milestone, global sustainable management of availability is also integral to water demand is projected to water and sanitation for all by improving social well-being and increase by 55 per cent by 2050, the year 2030. equity, and to fostering inclusive driven by increased . Given its key role in the and urbanization, as well as While for Caribbean SIDS, maintenance of environmental the application of more water progress has already been (continued on page 19) 3 WATER FOR DEVELOPMENT

Access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene plays a central role in achieving development and, as such, is recognized as a right that affects the and livelihoods of millions of persons.

he World Health T Organization (WHO, 2012) estimates that investment in water and sanitation services has the potential for substantial returns, in the order of US $5 to US $28 per dollar invested.

Conversely, a lack of access negatively affects health and well- http://www.unwater.org/worldwaterday/learn/en/ being, which ultimately brings additional financial costs. In this regard, major global platforms including the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the Samoa Pathway and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have underscored the importance of water in alleviating poverty and in promoting growth, degrading water quality impacts are not as widespread as sustainable development.1 and extreme hydrological events they should be. (e.g., and ) present WATER REMAINS serious challenges to national Accelerated global development SCARCE RESOURCE efforts to provide sustainable trends and population growth are water services. exerting pressure on an already Access to water is fundamental scarce resource. Population to economic and social Even though the link between growth and development are development. However, such hydrologic extremes and accompanied by urbanization, developments in turn demand economic losses has been food and energy security policies, increased use of water and bring confirmed by many researchers, and improved living standards environmental impacts. efforts to implement programmes that inevitably lead to sharp to address water-related disasters increases in water consumption Climate change, population and water-related climate change and pollution of sources.

1 According to the WHO and UNICEF (2014), 2.3 billion people have gained access to an improved drinking water source and 1.9 billion to an facility.

4 Competing demands combined network upgrade, maintenance with management challenges will A drop of water is flexible and/or rehabilitation. This has certainly exacerbate A drop of water is powerful resulted in inattention to the and increase the risk of localized A drop of water is in demand1 need to upgrade , conflicts. resulting in significant levels of water leakage3 of between 50 Source: http://www.unwater.org/worldwaterday/learn/en/ WATER IS KEY TO SOCIAL and 70 per cent. This has been DEVELOPMENT a major contributor to the waste a more integrated approach of this vital resource and to the inefficiency of the sector. A recorded 332.5 million cubic to management. Financing, miles of water exist, but only 3 monitoring and infrastructure Fragmented governance percent constitutes freshwater have all been identified as high and outdated infrastructure resources. priority water management issues facing decision-makers. also combine to exacerbate Much of this (approximately 68 existing challenges. Due to its weight, water and percent) is trapped in , CARIBBEAN PERSPECTIVE with a further 30 percent stored distribution consumes large amounts of energy, and in the as underground resources. Caribbean states face three major Caribbean, inefficient energy Readily accessible global obstacles that hinder the optimal consumption represents 30 freshwater resources therefore are management of water. estimated at about 22,300 cubic per cent of the operational budgets of water suppliers. This miles; approximately 1/150th of These are: (i) governance, (ii) is directly related to the lack the one percent of total water infrastructure and (iii) wastewater of funds for investments since resources. Even while discounting management. The water sector many suppliers show below-cost the pressure of climate change is seriously fragmented,2 which recovery revenues, which means and development, water is scarce. results in inefficient use of scarce that tariffs only cover operation resources, both human and and maintenance costs. Energy Nevertheless, freshwater resources financial. Typically, a number efficient transmission and are readily available in and of agencies are responsible for distribution devices could create , and are utilised by many separate but complementary savings between 30 and 40 per sectors across society- including components of the sector cent (Cashman 2013); this is agriculture; energy production; (potable water, , particularly relevant considering recreation and manufacturing-, disposal), creating silos and the subregion’s high levels of with the unfortunate result of a often contributing to a weak indebtedness and dependence virtual tug-o- among its users. enforcement of the existing on imported fossil fuels. In this context, water can be , many of which classed as a resource and a sector. are inadequate and seriously (continued on page 17) It is key to social development, outdated (Cashman 2013). environmental integrity and economic growth. As a sector, In the case of infrastructure, water requires infrastructure priority has been given to development and operational increasing access to potable funds. As a resource it cuts water, with a focus on network across sectors, demanding expansion rather than on

2 Cashman IDB 2013, CReW 2010, Riquelme IDB 2013, WB 2005 3 Unaccounted for water refers to leakage, theft and under-billing.

5 THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON

Climate change aside, the challenges affecting water availability and quality include population expansion, growing urbanization and increasing demand. Over the last 10 years, global resources have been falling largely because of the increased rate of abstraction. This is a logical progression in response to increasing population growth and related development activities.

esidential water demand heavier rainfall in many areas has increased alongside Box 1. Key water challenges and drought in others. By way R growing population of example, studies by ECLAC Intensifying water inefficiencies in food figures and ranks among the production (2013), suggest that the Caribbean largest category of water users. region has already begun to show Failing access to water and sanitation Population and economic significant hydrological variation, Stressed aquatic and growth also translate into loss with an intensification of increased as during the winter Increasing conflicts on water rights are cleared for development, months (December to March), contributing to drought and Degrading water quality and a decrease during the rainy flooding events. Growing Unsustainable groundwater abstraction season. Measures of anomalies

populations also drive the need Frequent hydrologic extreme events in annual precipitation, from for irrigated agriculture, an the 1960’s to 2000’s show overall Lack of investments to provide adequate activity responsible for more services downward trends for Barbados, than 56 per cent of withdrawals Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts Closing rivers and over exploited from underground sources. systems and Nevis, Saint Lucia and Saint

This kind of agriculture is a Unplanned urban growth threatening Vincent and the Grenadines major source of pollution for water balances (Figure 1). countries with mainly limestone Inadequate human and institutional topography like the Dominican capacities High temperatures also cause Republic and Jamaica. It Sectorial water management leading to an increase in water demand confused, conflicted and unintended policy is increasingly evident that outcomes and a reduction in groundwater growing numbers of people resources. The growing trend of in limited space without the reduced aquifer recharge shows adequate management practices and quality of water resources, the following scenarios. In the can compromise water quality including the variability and first instance, faster and quantity. frequency of precipitation. rates result in reduced water tables. Increased frequency and These competing pressures WATER AVAILABILITY intensity of prevents interact to create complex proper and manifestations that exacerbate Evidence shows that climate increases runoff. In coastal the threats facing water resources change is heating the areas, rising levels raise water (Box 1). When climate change is and increasing overall evaporation tables, but delay effective aquifer added to this equation the impact rates. recharge. Elevated temperatures can be significant, as it affects This in turn increases the volume encourage faster surface , the cycle, availability, quantity of water held in the air, causing which reduces the existence of

6 FIGURE 1: ANOMALY OF ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, SELECTED CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES, 1961 - 2000

Saint Kitts and Nevis Dominica Saint Lucia

Barbados Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Grenada Source: ECLAC (2013) “An assessment of the economic and social impacts of climate change on the water sector in the Caribbean” water in the near-surface interface infrastructure, environmental Limited water availability is an of soil, directly impacting damage and loss of . This issue for Aruba, Barbados to a agricultural production. When variability in time and space lesser extent, the British Virgin there is less downward movement is a factor that deserves great Islands, Cayman Islands and of water through the soil, the consideration when developing Curacao. For countries like opportunity for groundwater appropriate water management Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda, recharge severely diminishes. systems. and the Bahamas, their struggles This worrying situation is not are centred on addressing readily rectified by more rainfall, UNACCOUNTED WATER underground water resources mainly because the infiltration LOSS AND THE EFFECTS that have been exhausted or process is hampered by the high contaminated from either temperatures. For low-lying coral ON CLIMATE CHANGE or saltwater. based islands like Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Cayman At a regional level, the implications Another concern is the high level Islands and the Dutch Caribbean of this variability determine water of unaccounted water loss. The reduced precipitation is already a quality and quantity, which in turn region recorded a staggering 50-60 reality. hinge on size, , topography, per cent loss. This is particularly climate and patterns of socio- noteworthy, considering that

Furthermore, there is another . the Caribbean is the region with perspective that must be added the lowest water availability per Many countries in the region to the discourse to appreciate the capita among all Small Island have restricted water resources complexity of water availability. Developing States (SIDS). because of their geological and The distributes rainfall physical features. Depending unevenly across space and time, on the financial situation of the (continued on page 18) contributing to the variability country, of global water storage. This and may be the only may cause greater downpours possible solutions, especially in and more flash floods leading smaller and drier islands. to tremendous destruction of

1 Source: World Resources, 1998 -1999:Environmental Change and Human Health

7 INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The Global Water Partnership identifies Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) as “a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, and related resources in order to maximise economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.”

here are four main integrated one. Its foundation is 2. Modification of current principles that govern based on the concept that water water management strategies T IWRM reform: resources are essential to the well throughout the region through: being of the . a. Improvement, rehabilitation Principle 1: and maintenance of infrastructure. Freshwater is a finite and Given the threat which climate vulnerable resource, essential to change poses to the long term b. Desalination, especially in sustain life, development and the water availability in SIDS water scarce countries. environment. countries, a broad based strategic framework for IWRM is necessary c. Rainwater harvesting. Principle 2: to ensure future . Water development and d. Harnessing the potential management should be based Such a framework should include benefits of greywater as an on a participatory approach the following: alternative to increase the involving users, planners and availability of water and to address policy makers at all levels. 1- Implementation of the the global challenge of wastewater following adaptive strategies: management. Principle 3: a. Infrastructural – build coastal Women play a central role in and water guards to regulate 3. Strengthening of water the provision, management and sea-level rise and flooding, and resource management through safeguarding of water. devise techniques that increase assessments of water resources, water use efficiency (e.g. drip economic assessments of the Principle 4: agriculture). sector, water forecasting and Water has an economic value in industrial reform, capacity all its competing uses and should b. Behavioural – raise awareness building, and establishment of be recognised as an economic in order to modify production water monitoring networks. good as well as a social good. and consumption behaviours (e.g. efficient potable water 4. Development, design and With specific reference to Principle to be used as needed). implementation of water policies, 3, it is clear that gender should which include integrated water be addressed comprehensively c. Managerial –change resource management (IWRM), to ensure that the views and practices, for example by growing national water information contributions from both men and drought resistant crops that adapt systems to increase availability women are treated equitably in to the changing weather, and and accessibility of sector shaping the development agenda. demand management policies information. such as pricing, metering and IWRM underscores that access classification of water use groups. 5. Elaboration of sustainable to clean water and sanitation is a practices and basic right that should be afforded d. Government policy – adjust mainstreaming of development to all. IWRM changes the status planning guidelines, building planning. quo, eschewing a disjointed codes and utilization of renewable approach to water resources sources of energy (e.g. solar, wind, management in favour of an geothermal).

8 CASE STUDY OF THE CARIBBEAN DROUGHT OF 2009 - 20101

Recent evidence provides a good indicator of the likely impact of prolonged water deficits in the Caribbean on the basis of the 2009/2010 Caribbean Drought experience.

Caribbean Drought of 2009 – 2010 – Key Impacts of the 2009 – 2010 Drought: Characteristics:

• Began during the 2009 rainy season (in particular • Water rationing in some Caribbean States. the month of October) • Water courses greatly depleted. • Regional awareness through Caribbean Drought and Precipitation Monitoring Network (CDPMN); • Major crop losses; 25 % loss in onion crop, 30 % prior to this no official action loss in tomato crop in Antigua.

• In 2010, stations in Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, • Increases in food prices; prices of tomatoes rose Jamaica, Saint Vincent, Saint Lucia and Trinidad, from $2.35/ pound in Feb 2010 to $6.00/ pound recorded their lowest ever February rainfall totals in Mar 2010.

• Stations in Anguilla, Dominica, Grenada Saint • Hydro power contribution in Saint Vincent Vincent and Trinidad recorded their lowest ever 3 dropped from 28.69% in Feb 2009 to 12.01% in month (January to March, 2010) totals Feb 2010

• Stations recorded their lowest six month (October • In one of Guyana’s Regions cost US $16,000 per 2009 to March 2010) totals. day to deliver water (pumping and creation of ) to one of its 10 regions; pumping saline • These included stations in Barbados, Grenada, water to about 150 acres of rice . Guyana, Saint Vincent, Saint Lucia and Tobago • Record numbers of bush fires in all Caribbean; • Over 24 years of record at Point Saline Airport in in Dominica, 160 fires (mainly bush fires) during Grenada; 2009 lowest annual total the 1st quarter of 2010, the entire year 2009 realised 103 fires. • Drought subsided in April, 2010 in northeast Caribbean and in May, 2010 in the southeast • Severe landslides when returned.

1 Source: Trotman, Farrell and Cox, 2010 – Caribbean Institute and Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and

9 EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION ON WATERSHEDS

According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), in 2014, 54 per cent of the global population lived in and it is expected that by 2050 this number will increase to two- thirds of the population.

rbanization is a significant continuous exchange of water is greater, the rate demographic trend in most between the atmosphere, land of infiltration and recharge is Ucountries, particularly in and water bodies. reduced, the amount of water developing countries. By the It consists of processes such that can be stored is lowered, year 2050 , two-thirds of the as precipitation, evaporation, there are increased runoff world’s population will be living infiltration and condensation. volumes and peak flows in in cities. rivers, and An urbanized area consists occurs more frequently. Urban A growing, increasingly of large areas of impervious development significantly prosperous and rapidly urbanizing surfaces that disrupt the increases the amount of global population will demand infiltration of water into water and the frequency of more food, more energy and the soil which results in the extreme hydrological events more water resources to meet its disruption of the recharge of experienced by the ’s needs (Figure 1). These demands groundwater, exacerbating catchments. The increased from industrial development flood risks. runoff causes more intense and rapid population growth local flooding, while droughts encourage investments in water FIGURE 1: GLOBAL WATER DEMAND during dry weather are more and sanitation infrastructure. IN 2000 AND 2050 severe and longer.

Currently, an average person uses Aquatic are also more than double the water than a affected by urbanization. This hundred years before (UNESCO may occur in the form of 2013), and urbanization is increased discharges that erode keeping domestic water use on stream beds and banks, which an upward trend, accounting may cause the straightening for 11 per cent of total water of a stream by the process worldwide. However, of channelization. There is pollution and over exploitation also the loss of stream bank are seriously affecting the natural Source: UN-Water 2015. World Water Development Report 2015. tree cover, which may be hydrological processes, and the lost during floods or due to world is projected to face a 40 per human activity. Additionally, cent water deficit by 2030 under increased contaminants in the business-as-usual scenario. In urban areas there is the water and increased fine occurrence of a number in stream bed can also THE IMPACT OF of scenarios that affect the take place. Furthermore, there URBANIZATION ON THE hydrological cycle. For example, is a growing HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE the interception of rainfall is of pollution into the rivers AND ECOSYSTEMS reduced due to removal of trees, due to the runoff from land the rate of which affects the quality of The hydrological cycle is the is much lower, surface run-off water available for use. When

10 services. Ultimately, this demand from manufacturing, results in overall degradation thermal of the aquatic . and domestic use, all of which mainly result from growing , QUALITY urbanization in developing AND DEMAND countries.

Since much of the water According to the U.N. consumed by cities generally Department of Economic and comes from outside its limits, Social Affairs, around 1.2 and the pollution generated billion people, or almost one- tends to flow downstream, fifth of the world’s population, the impact of cities on water live in areas of physical water resources goes beyond their scarcity, and another 1.6 boundaries. billion face economic water shortage in countries that lack Cities also import significant the necessary infrastructure to amounts of food, consumer extract water from rivers and goods and energy, which . require large amounts of water at the point of production, In many urbanized areas the transportation and sale. This availability of virtual demand of cities greatly and groundwater sources exceeds direct water use. has been reduced (Figure 2). Therefore, cities have to go Rapid urbanization, increased farther or dig deeper to access industrialization, and water. In some cases they will improving living standards have to depend on innovative generally combine to increase solutions or more advanced the overall demand for water technologies, such as reverse in cities. It is projected that osmosis for desalination, or by 2050 global water demand , to meet their may increase by 55 per cent, water demands. largely because of the growing

FIGURE 2: FRESHWATER AVAILABILITY

urban development occurs, protection of biodiversity and the conservation and restoration of ecosystem services tend to not be the main priorities; therefore organisms in ecosystems are affected due to the destabilization of ecological processes between the food chains of different organisms which can restrict the provision of ecosystem Source: UNEP 2008

11 WATER QUALITY AND WASTEWATER

The United Nations Environment Programme and Human Settlements Programme (UNEP/ UN-Habitat, 2010) define wastewater as a combination of one or more of: domestic consisting of (excreta, and faecal ) and greywater (kitchen and wastewater); water from commercial establishments and institutions, including ; industrial effluent, and other urban run-off; agricultural, horticultural and effluent, either dissolved or as suspended matter.

his variety of contaminants Microbial pollution is associated WASTEWATER AS A and pollutants is produced with high of excreted RESOURCE T primarily by the domestic/ . As a result, it is estimated urban, industrial and agricultural that 1.45 million people a year die As cities and populations have sectors, with the latter accounting due to diarrhoeal illness, of which grown, countries and international for 70 per cent of total fresh 58 per cent is caused by inadequate organizations have strived to devote water consumption. Extraction of water, sanitation and hygiene. It is resources to guaranteeing access water for food production and its critical to note that 43 per cent of to water and sanitation to citizens resulting diffuse the deaths occur in children aged worldwide. are likely to be exacerbated by five and under (UN- Water, 2015). However, most efforts have been population growth, considering dedicated to granting access to safe that by 2050 the agriculture sector The broad definition of wastewater, drinking water and appropriate will need to produce 60 per cent which includes domestic, sanitation systems, without more food globally, and 100 per commercial, industrial and complementary actions to manage cent more in developing countries. agricultural end products, highlights the end products of water and the complex and multisectoral sanitation provision. “… MDG Inadequate treatment of wastewater of the challenge. It also targets on improved sanitation have can have detrimental effects on water recognizes the importance of focused resources on increasing quality. Most impacts are caused by coordinated and integral approaches service coverage in terms of access to (i) chemical and to address a complex issue within a improved facilities, but with far (ii) microbial pollution. Chemical sector with multiple and competing less attention paid towards ensuring contamination is caused by excess uses and users. ( and ), FIGURE 1: RATIO OF which can stimulate and result in algal blooms, dissolved depletion, biodiversity loss, increased , invasion of alien and competitive , and an overall reduction in water quality. Furthermore, “the deterioration in water quality resulting from eutrophication is estimated to have already reduced biodiversity in rivers, lakes and by about one- third globally” (UN- Water, 2015).

Source: UNEP/UN-Habitat. 2010. Sick Water? The central role of wastewater management in sustainable development

12 that waste streams are adequately treated. The treatment capacity of the next 40 years, rising from 3.4 collected and treated prior to developing countries is below the billion to over six billion people. discharge into the environment. global average of 20 per cent, and Furthermore, most of this growth As a result, the majority of waste considerably lower than the capacity and the rapid changes that it , septage and faecal of high- income countries, set at entails are already taking place in are discharged without any form of 70 per cent, reflecting disparities developing countries, which have treatment into the environment…” among and within countries (Figure limited capacity to address these (World Water Council, 2012). This 1). issues, withmany cities currently problem is particularly serious in lacking adequate wastewater developing countries, where UN- Additionally, the World Water management. Water (2015) estimates that only Council (2012) expects urban (continued on page 16) eight per cent of wastewater is populations to almost double in

FIGURE 1: WASTEWATER PRODUCTION BY SECTOR

Scores Domestic/Urban Industrial Agricultural

Contaminants and - Blackwater - Diffuse industrial pollutants Non-point or diffuse water pollutants - Greywater pollution: - End-of-pipe point discharges - Sediment runoff - Surface water run-off and illegal dischargers - runoff - Stormwater - Microbial runoff - Chemical runoff

Current situation 1.8 per cent annual 5-20 per cent of total water Largest user of water, 70 population growth in urban is used by the sector per cent of total global fresh areas water 70 per cent of industrial By 2030, 60 per cent of the discharges in developing By 2050, agriculture will world’s population will be countries is dumped need to produce 60 per urban dwellers untreated cent more food globally

2.6 billion people lack Global water demand for Inefficient use of water for access to basic sanitation manufacturing will increase crop production depletes by 400 per cent from 2000 aquifers, reduces flows, Over 70 per cent of water to 2050 degrades habitats, has been used in other and has caused salinization productive activities before of 20 per cent of the global entering urban areas irrigated land area

80-90 per cent of all wastewater generated in developing countries is discharged directly into surface water bodies

Source: author’s compilation based on information from UNEP, UN-Habitat and UN- Water.

13 POST- 2015 AGENDA ON REALISING THE FUTURE WE WANT FOR ALL

The Millennium Development Goals proved that access to water and wastewater management are multisectoral issues that pose cross- cutting challenges due to the variety of stakeholders and institutions involved. The Post- 2015 Development Agenda aims at solving the most pressing issues of our time: poverty eradication; safe and sufficient food; sustainable energy; population growth; urbanization; and adequate management of water and environmental resources.

uilding on lessons learned and economic, legislative and Equitable, participatory and and understanding that environmental aspects vary accountable approaches should Bwater plays a fundamental within and among countries. be accompanied by appropriate role in almost all the global Therefore, water management policy and legal frameworks, challenges we face, UN-Water should be locally appropriate and institutional and human identified five inter-linked and new approaches and capacities and structures. areas that must be addressed technologies must consider in an integral manner to existing socio-cultural settings. In this context, the Sustainable achieve sustainable access and Development Goals (SDGs) management (Figure 1). ACHIEVING ADEQUATE and the Samoa Pathway WATER MANAGEMENT have incorporated water Science, technology and management as a fundamental innovation will play a key component of sustainable The ecosystem-based approach role in moving towards green development. Both instruments should be complemented with economies, as they help to focus on critical areas such as: a rights-based approach to understand the complexities (i) integrated management, promote participation from of sustainable use of water. (ii) sustainable management, all agents, prioritize non- Adaptive measures to (iii) water efficiency, (iv) discriminatory access to water improve water and wastewater wastewater management, and and ensure . management are crucial to use (v) institutional and human water efficiently and to provide In order to achieve adequate capacities. Ultimately, these access to all. There is also a need water management, it is also measures will contribute to for new technologies for using necessary to address key issues accomplishing SDG 6 “ensure different sources of water, such such as sectoral governance, availability and sustainable as rainwater and harvesting, access to financial resources, management of water and and untreated coherent regulatory and sanitation for all.” SDG 6 river water. monitoring frameworks, expands the MDG focus on and improvement of data drinking water and basic However, water is not quality. Data and innovative sanitation to now cover the distributed equally among monitoring techniques are entire water cycle, including societal sectors and across crucial to understand the the management of water, geographical boundaries. state of water resources and wastewater and ecosystem Additionally, water culture, design cohesive policies. resources.

14 FIGURE 1: COMPONENTS OF THE PROPOSED GLOBAL GOAL FOR WATER

Source: UN- Water 2014

SDG 6 contains six targets on importance was acknowledged communities in water and outcomes across the entire at the Rio+20 Conference, such sanitation management. water cycle, and two targets on as water quality and wastewater the means of implementing the management, water scarcity and With water at the very core outcome targets: use efficiency, integrated water of sustainable development • Targets 6.1 and 6.2 build on resources management, and the of Small Island Developing the MDG targets on drinking protection and restoration of States (SIDS), and specifically water and basic sanitation, water-related ecosystems. Caribbean SIDS, SDG 6 does providing continuity while • Targets 6.a and 6.b acknowledge not only have strong linkages to expanding their scope and the importance of an enabling all of the other SDGs, but also refining definitions. environment, addressing the the ability to underpin them: • Targets 6.3 to 6.6 address the means of implementation realising SDG 6 would in fact broader water context that was and aiming for international go a long way towards achieving not explicitly included in the cooperation, capacity-building much of the 2030 Agenda. MDG framework, but whose and the participation of local

15 (continued from page 13) WATER QUALITY AND WASTEWATER

CURRENT SITUATION UNEP, 85 per cent of wastewater Assessment (2005) reported IN THE CARIBBEAN entering the Caribbean Sea that 60 per cent of global remains untreated and 51.5 ecosystem services are being According to UNEP/UN- per cent of lack degraded or used unsustainably, Habitat, the world is facing sewer connections. In contrast, an ecosystem-based approach to a water crisis (quality and only 17 per cent of households wastewater management should quantity) due to continuous are connected to acceptable consider the full wastewater population growth, which collection and treatment cycle, from source to final intensifies industrialization and systems. disposal, and include both food production, increases living freshwater and marine waters. standards and consumption, and Wastewater discharge has been tends to result in poor water a large contributor to the loss WASTEWATER use strategies, socioeconomic of over 80 per cent of living MANAGEMENT conflicts and unplanned coral in the Caribbean in the past 20 years. Additionally, urbanization. In light of the complexities UNEP (2004) has shown surrounding wastewater that pollution by has Intensive use is often management and considering caused some serious problems accompanied by pollution the incessantly growing in the subregion, such as: (i) which undermines the demand of water for various increased mortality; (ii) ecosystems’ ability to regulate uses and users, it is possible eutrophication; (iii) threats to and restore themselves, in to understand the enormous corals, swamp ecosystems and addition to their capacity to pressure on the resource. provide water-related services. seagrass beds; (iv) biological The Caribbean is not exempt diversity loss; (v) red tides; and Currently, management in from these challenges, and (vi) threats to human health most countries does not countries have long recognized that affect local populations consider all the elements of the that pollution from diverse and touristic activity. wastewater cycle. Technologies productive activities has are often developed without negative impacts on marine Several regional and taking national infrastructure ecosystems, which are one of international organizations fully into account, and the subregion’s most valuable agree that there are three supporting data is not always resources for economic and main challenges that have adequate or available, resulting social development. led to ineffective wastewater in sewers and treatment treatment and its associated being under- or over–utilized, The degradation of the marine problems: and wastewater streams being ecosystems in the Caribbean is a. Inadequate policy and combined. In terms of impacts primarily driven by the discharge legal frameworks, including on the ecosystems, poor of untreated wastewater and enforcement and monitoring. management has resulted in is a consequence of rapidly b. Insufficient funding. overloaded natural processes, expanding urban populations, c. Low priority given to the affecting and suboptimal , development of the wastewater maintenance of soil structure. and inadequate or absent sector. facilities Wastewater management refers (CReW, UNEP, CWWA). In this context, and considering to systems that “work with According to GEF-CReW and that the millennium Ecosystem rather than against natural

16 ecosystem processes” (UN- population size and density, the bacterial decomposition Water 2015). The ultimate goal institutional and technical process produces . of wastewater management capacity, carrying capacity of is to reduce the level of the ecosystem, and level of Regardless of the selected pollutants before reusing development, among others. approach, there are two or disposing the wastewater critical elements that into the environment. In Complementarily, there is a new authorities should consider. order to accomplish this, paradigm which emphasizes First, management must be countries must put in place the usefulness of wastewater continued, as systems have to administrative structures as a resource, shifting away be periodically maintained to responsible for the design from framing it merely as a avoid failures. This includes and operation of wastewater problem. If adequate standards appropriately trained , management systems. It is are put in place, wastewater allocation of resources, and necessary to understand the can complement water supply adequate regulatory frameworks situation and role of both the in environmental applications, that include incentives, receiving environment and the urban reuse and industry, but sanctions, and monitoring production and consumption the agriculture sector is the and inspections. On the other processes before designing main user of reclaimed water. hand, systems should be locally sustainable infrastructure Wastewater can be harnessed appropriate and reflect the and systems that respond to a as a drought resistant source local environment, culture and particular societal organization. of water in agriculture, as well resources. While there are different types as in non-agricultural lands of wastewater management (parks, golf courses), as a approaches, their suitability source of nutrients, reducing will vary and depend on the use of chemical ; certain characteristics, such as and as a source of energy, since

(continued from page 5) WATER FOR DEVELOPMENT

THE ROLE OF Finally, growing populations, tremendous stress. Access to water GOVERNMENTS weak urban planning and and wastewater management inadequate sectoral governance are thus increasingly becoming Governance and infrastructure combine to exacerbate the global challenges that could also affect the unsustainable problems associated with result in serious environmental levels of extraction in a subregion wastewater disposal. It is problems, posing grave threats where water is naturally scarce. estimated that 85 per cent of to human health and well- wastewater enters the Caribbean being, and negatively impacting Even though water availability sea untreated, becoming the sustainable development. is limited and many countries primary driver of marine already face deficits, the supply- degradation in the subregion demand gap is not necessarily (CReW 2010). due to insufficient resources, but weak infrastructure and It is evident that, in spite of institutional frameworks. climate change, water is under

17 (continued from page 7)

THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES

WATER QUALITY of impact and the potential The tourism based economies flood damage depends on in the Caribbean place With the onset of melt, rainfall intensity, frequency tremendous value on ensuring is already clearly and volume of water. The the adequate supply of potable evident, as accommodate pathogens and impurities water. Managing high water the increased volume of water. from ruptured sewer mains consumption levels and Salt water intrusion intonear alsorepresent a major source of significant wastewater volumes coastal freshwater resources contamination for freshwater is critical to the maintenance turns these reserves brackish. reserves. Additionally, heavy of a viable tourism sector. torrential rains bring , Atelling example of water This occurs often in drought , pollutants, animal consumption by the tourism conditions,when groundwater waste and other impurities, industrythat is not sustainable resources are very low, drawing increasing the microbial load can be found in the Bahamas, in saltwater to replace depleted of the water supply. A high where daily consumption levels reserves. Countries like Cuba, microbial load in the waterways are estimated at between 400 to Hispaniola island, Jamaica, encourages algae blooms, which 1,000 litres per capita, almost and Trinidad and Tobago, deplete oxygen levels, thereby three times the residential have experienced some level of disrupting aquatic ecosystems demand. In Saint Vincent and saltwater intrusion along their and eventually affecting human the Grenadines, water demand coastlines. health. Such events retard the in the tourism industry is natural purification process four times that of domestic Flooding events caused by of oceans and rivers, and consumption. both climatic and non-climatic contribute to overall water conditions have varying levels quality degradation.

UPCOMING EVENTS LIST of Recent ECLAC Documents 4TH QUARTER 2015 and Publications Listed by Symbol Number, Date and Title

30 November - 1 December No. L.4098 November 2015 Caribbean conference on ageing, elder abuse and The Caribbean and the post-2015 development agenda. the rights of older persons. Roseau, Dominica

23 November Expert group meeting on dissemination of Caribbean census microdata to researchers (Webex). Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago

18 (continued from page 3)

THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES

achieved with respect to some is anticipated to have major growth. With respect to public of these elements, there are still impacts on the islands’ two infrastructure, improved water development challenges to be main water sources - ground distribution systems will be overcome in order to guarantee water and surface water. In necessary to reduce the high the sustainable development the case of ground water, level of water lost through future of the subregion. These changing rainfall intensity due leakage. The management of challenges are likely to be further to climate change could reduce wastewater as a water exacerbated by the concomitant ground water recharge during strategy is also critical in this effects of climate change. periods of extremely heavy regard. Water use efficiency Consider for example, climate rainfall, since much of this in the tourism sector will also projections for the Caribbean water dissipates through run- require attention, given the which suggest the likelihood of off. At the same time, drought implications for both financial more intense rainfall over shorter conditions could also result in and environmental sustainability time periods, resulting in periods extreme water extraction from for the region’s most dynamic of both excessive rainfall and aquifers both through use and economic sector. It is my hope drought. This phenomenon has surface evaporation, ultimately that the articles presented in this implications for the subregion’s affecting both water availability issue will provide the necessary ability to implement both flood and ground water quality. In the food for thought to stimulate an management infrastructure case of surface water, climate awakening to the very real, urgent as well as drought mitigation change can induce high levels water challenges confronting us systems, in order to shore up of evaporation from surface in the context of the broader the public water supply, and , rapid run-off during development aspirations of the to provide water for economic heavy rainfall and filtration to subregion. sectors such as tourism and ground water sources. agriculture. Such challenges Yours in Focus, influenced by climate change The Caribbean is also directly impact the availability facing challenges related to of natural water resources of wastewater management and Diane Quarless Caribbean SIDS. growing intersectoral water competition, as it struggles to As noted by the Caribbean provide improved and Institute of Meteorology and other public infrastructure Hydrology, climate change while sustaining economic

19 The Magazine of the Caribbean Development and Cooperation Committee ECLAC Subregional Headquarters for the Caribbean

PO Box 1113, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago Tel: (868) 224-8000 Fax: (868) 623-8485 E-mail: [email protected]

http://www.eclacpos.org