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HESPERIA 78 (2OO9) TRAVEL, PICTURES, Pages 421-453 AND A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN

ABSTRACT

The rise ofmass in the late 19th century coincided with advances in photographic technology thatmade it easier for travelers to document their journeys. In the 1890s, the clergyman and scientistT. R. R. Stebbing made a photographic record of his travels in the easternMediterranean. Stebbings images reproduce a way of looking at antiquity prescribed by 19th-century a guidebooks, thereby encoding conventionalWestern view of antiquity. In an corporated into academic network of slide collections, Stebbings images an contributed to authoritative scholarly construction of the classical world inBritain during the early 20th century.

INTRODUCTION

Travel, and particularly that by-product of travel, travelwriting, have been the focus of much scholarly attention.1 Studies trace the rise of modern travel from itsbeginnings in theGrand Tour to the Continent by fashion men able, privileged young British and their entourages through the hiatus caused by theNapoleonic Wars to the growing popularity of the picturesque tour pleasure for thewealthy upper and middle classes.2 Most of travel leave off before the advent ofmass tourism in themid-19th century its and corollary, anti-tourism conducted by the individual traveler.They the links show between philosophy, literature, politics, and technological saw. advances that shaped how and what travelers Much emphasis has on the been placed traveler rather than the tourist: the unique experience of the rather individual than group sightseeing scripted by tour books

1.1 would like to thank Ben ful and further references. access John suggestions Oxford University, who provided who commented on several drafts errors of to the lantern slide net, Any remaining are, course, my teaching collection own. of this article and offered continuous Paul Smith, the archivist at atOxford and freelygranted permis encouragement. Jack Davis and Yiannis Thomas Cook and Company, kindly sion for use of a number of their Hamilakis sent me comments sent me of documents on Cook's insightful copies images. on an earlier and the two earliest excursions to Greece. 2. Hulme and draft, anony Many See, e.g., Youngs mous reviewers to Hesperia provided help thanks go the Faculty of , 2002.

? The American School of Classical Studies at 422 DEBORAH HARLAN

(e.g.,Murray's handbooks and Baedeker's guides) and packaged by tour agents (e.g., Thomas Cook and Son). It is, after all, the individual traveler or so who tells his her story well in the genre of travelwriting. a to Yet tourists also have tale tell.3The stories of these sightseers are preserved in the form of itineraries, boat and train timetables, collections of souvenirs and photographs, and accounts in journals and letters,many not or of which have survived remain in private family collections. One a on such tale is recorded in collection of images taken a tour of the eastern a Mediterranean during the last decade of the 19th century by Victorian gentleman, Thomas Roscoe Reed Stebbing.The collection is housed in the to set archives of the Institute ofArchaeology, Oxford University. In order in Stebbings images context, I review the phenomenon of 19th-century mass a tourism and present short biography of the photographer. Then I turn to as the images themselves, interpreting them Stebbings particular construction of classical antiquity,which in turn is indebted to the 19th century tradition of travel guidebooks. Finally, I trace the career of the as a source Stebbing Collection itself. Stebbings images served for lantern were slides that used in educational contexts, thereby contributing to the general perception of the classical world in early-20th-century Britain.

EARLY MASS TOURISM IN THE AEGEAN

on During the 18th century,Mediterranean travel theGrand Tour invari were ably meant visiting .4 Romanticized Hellenic ideals primarily was viewed through ancient remains inRoman contexts. This due in part or to the large number of Greek classical works their Roman imitations as as found in collections in Italy, well to the highly influentialwork of the German art historian Johann JoachimWinckelmann, who wrote on the Hellenic ideal but never himself traveled toGreece.5 Also, in theminds of many young British men, therewas a close association between the concept of Augustan Rome and the nascent .6 Classical education texts at that time tended to highlight the importance of classical primarily content for their grammatical structure, isolating their from the cultures sea on that had created them.7 Furthermore, piracy at and banditry land made travel further east into the undesirable to many. or Leisure travel to Greece was unusual; only the very adventurous those a or with specific purpose?diplomatic, scientific, topographic?chose that destination. Even then, these earlier travelers described the was as the effect as living in degradation. Their condition often explained of Ottoman a rooted in theWestern notion of the oppression,8 diagnosis 3. Buzard 1993;Withey 1997. between East andWest.9 dichotomy 4. Eisner 1991, pp. 75-76;Withey not the to Greek independence in 1832 did immediately open country 1997, pp. 30-31; Buzard 2002. in marketed as a 5. Constantine 1984, pp. 104-127. widespread travel.The firstbook English specifically guide was in 1840: A Trav 6.Turner 1981, pp. 1-2;Hingley to the region published by JohnMurray Handbookfor 2000;Murray 2000, p. 346. ellers in the , Greece, , Minor, and : 7. 1997, p. 520. a Murray a Guide to the Routes in Those Countries, De 277-279. Being Principal Including 8. E.g., Said 2005, pp. withMaxims and Hints Travellers in theEast.10 This 171-172. scription ofMalta, for 9. Scopetea 2003, pp. was on a an 10. 1840. guidebook based travelogue by Godfrey Levinge, Anglo-Irish Levinge A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 423

gentleman who traveled in the East between 1831 and 1833.11While Lev inge's account established the format for future English-language guides, was the substance of his guide typical ofmany other travelogues published in the early 19th century. Although French, British, and Russian soldiers fought in the Greek to War of Independence and eventually helped overthrow the Ottoman to state "yoke,"Western travelers the newly independent nevertheless to continued be disappointed with the degradation of the "real" Greece as or compared to its classical ideal.12 Leontis describes the conceptual or as a cognitive map ofHellas (the topos, place) construct of neo-Hellenic was Western thought.13 In other words, theHellas of these early travelers an own extension of their perceptions; thus, it is not surprising that the as modern Greeks they encountered did not live up to their expectations "paragons of order" descended from the ancestors of European civilization.14 out Gallant and Tzanelli have both pointed that the "Orientalizing" of modern Greece, by the British in particular, coexisted with the contradic tory concept of an ideal Hellas.15 This view served to rationalize control of a was marginal territory in , and its essential dichotomy preserved in theway travelers perceived the Greeks they encountered. as Practical travel difficulties, such highway robbery caused by bands not of roving brigands, did abate during the violent years of the revolution but continued well into and beyond the turbulentmid-19th-century reign an of King Otho.16 However, escalation in violence, namely the seizure of hostages for ransom, peaked in the 1860s and 1870s. Lord Granville, cases foreign secretary under Gladstone, investigated of British hostages to cases abroad from 1860 1881, finding 11 in southern Europe?Spain, Italy,Greece, and the Ottoman .17 This was considered to be an unusually high number of such incidents,which proved costly to the British was government. The increase in the number of kidnappings explained, in part, by political instability and by the increased presence of British travelers areas and entrepreneurs in these of southern Europe. was as One hostage incident often singled out responsible for stunt a ing nascent tourist trade inGreece. Known as theDilessi orMarathon Murders in the British press, the incident was to become a cause celebre throughout Europe.18 On the afternoon ofApril 21,1870, while returning 11. Gretton 1993,p.viii. from a visit to the ancient site of a of eminent ladies and 12. Herzfeld 1986, p. vii. , party 13. the secretaries to the British and Italian Leontis 1995, pp. 17-22. gentlemen, including legations, H.Tzanelli 22. was a were 2003, p. captured by band of brigands. The ladies freed, and the captors 15.Gallant 2002, 24-25; pp. requested ransom for themen and amnesty for themselves. Greek officials, Tzanelli 23. 2003, p. refused their however, request. Three of the British gentlemen, including 16.Koliopoulos 1987;Gallant 2001, the to the as well as the to the Italian pp. 29-53. secretary legation, secretary legation were near 17. Blinkhorn2000. killed the village of Dilessi in Boiotia. The Western press sen 18. The London Times the sationalized the reported murders, implying that theGreeks handled the situation incidenton 23,1870, 9-10; Shock and from to April pp. ineptly. outrage foreign governments led the resignation its held the repercussions public's of the Greek cabinet and the adoption of revised to deal attention well into the next and radically policies year with acts of in brigandage. beyond, featuring regularly parlia a Thomas Cook and Son tours toAthens and Con mentary discussions. For detailed began conducting see in and one of their was studyof the incident, Jenkins stantinople 1868, parties present inGreece inApril [1961] 1998. 1870 at the time of theDilessi Murders; further development of the firm's 424 DEBORAH HARLAN

area was tourist trade in the duly suspended.19Murray's fourth edition of his a Handbook (1872) includes proviso mentioning the incident and indicating that since 1870 the Greek and Ottoman authorities have tried to provide a "state of comparative safety."20In his travel account Five Weeks in Greece went so as to (1876), J. F. Young far include in his preface the entire text a of recent letter fromMr. Malet, the secretary of the British legation in to now Athens, His Majesty the King stating that "brigandage has been completely suppressed in the entire kingdom."21 The damage had been done, however, and many tourists sought pleasure trips elsewhere. During the 1880s, travel inGreece became easier. Outbreaks of vio were now areas lence in the countryside concentrated in the border and in lands still under Ottoman rule, rather than in the heartland of Greece.22 a was a On practical level, travel facilitated by the development of better transport infrastructure: the construction of well-surfaced roads, though to area primarily restricted the around Athens; the growth of the railroad numerous system; and the development of passenger steamship routes in conjunction with the opening of themodern canal at . Given the sea mountainous topography ofmainland Greece, the had always provided the easiest way of traveling around the country; at least three Hellenic were passenger steamship companies, along with competing foreign firms, seas. serving destinations around the Aegean and Adriatic The railroad now to lines made travel faster and easier places previously accessible only or sea by horseback lengthy journeys. Greece, however, was still considered to be "off the beaten track,"23and travelers therewere apt to encounter difficulties. Richard Farrer, an Oxford fellow traveling in 1880, reported that Greece had few tourists and that a as those who came to the country generally stayed for short time, they on to or were usually theirway from India.24 He also mentioned that fear of brigandage still kept many travelers from seeing much of the country outside of Athens, and that the practical conditions for traveling in the interiorwere not well known. Six years later, in 1886, John Sandys indi a want cated that he and his wife were "hampered not little by of definite an account and recent information."25He published of his Easter holiday as a so to visit in Greece practical guide, that itwould be possible large or to resort parts of the country by walking driving without having "to the intervention of a dragoman with his cavalcade of beasts of burden." Nevertheless, he admitted that these inconveniences were still required account in form to see "many portions of the interior."26Sandys's is the a routes timetables of of site-by-site diary with appendixes detailing and a these routes. steamship liners and railroads, along with map showing to In many ways, his account is similar early-19th-century itineraries like those ofWilliam Gell27 and to later 19th-century official guidebooks, which

19. Rae 1891, pp. 112-124, 23. Pemble 1987, p. 48. 270-286. 24. Farrer 1882, pp. v-vi. 20. Watson 1872, p. 3. 25. Sandys 1887, p.vi. x. letter is 26. vi. 21. Young 1876, p. The Sandys 1887, p. 27. and dated January 4,1875. See, e.g., Bennet, Davis, 22. Koliopoulos 1987, p. 214. Zarinebaf-Shahr 2000. A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 425

offered up-to-date practical information. Sandys stated that his publica a tionwas direct consequence of his disappointment with the inaccuracies s a printed in J.P. Mahaffy Rambles and Studies inGreece,28 more romantic anti-tourist representation of travel inGreece in the late 19th century. Despite the setbacks caused by banditry and political instability, the saw 1880s real progress in organized tourism.The popular press, including the Illustrated London News, had been reporting on sensational archaeo some an logical discoveries inGreece for time, and the concept of ancient Hellenic past may well have become part of the general British public consciousness. Thomas Cook and Son set up branch offices in both Athens to and Constantinople in 1883 and began advertising excursions Greece and Turkey in the firms magazine, the Excursionist, the very next year.29 The Excursionist also expressly states that Cook and Son had waited to ensure open these offices until they could their clients' safety from politi cal and military troubles and from the "brigandage formerly existing in certain districts."30

The first Baedeker for Greece, Griechenland: Handbuch fur Reisende, an appeared in 1883;31 English edition followed in 1889.32 By this time, Murray's Handbook for Greece was in its fifth edition (1884).33 The two was volume fifth edition themost detailed and accurate to date, asserting in its preface that it had been "thoroughly revised and brought up to date to recent include archaeological discoveries."34 The section detailing the museum in new collections Athens had also been radically revised in light of catalogues of the antiquities. Archaeological activity peaked in the 1880s with excavations on the at Acropolis and Epidauros, , Olympia, My to name cenae, and , just the sites visited by Stebbing. The plethora of new a material and revised theories sparked greater interest among the were aware reading public, who already of these discoveries through the to popular press. In 1893, responding this need formore information, the headmistress of theGirl's Grammar School atThetford, Emma R. Perkins, 28.Mahaffy 1876. translated Charles Diehl's Excursions in Greece toRecently Sites 29. Excursionist, December Explored of 12, to a Classical Interest provide coherent, popular account in of the 1883; Excursionist, February 1,1884; English recent research inGreece.35 Excursionist, April 19,1884; Cook's archaeological 3. 19th Tours, p. During the century, travelers linked Turkey and Greece in their 30. Excursionist, 3. on April 19,1884, p. imagination, associating them the basis of their shared history.The first 31. Baedeker 1883. edition s ofMurray Handbook likewise grouped and Greece 32. Baedeker 1889. Turkey together, but the onset of the Crimean War and an increase in hostilities between 33.Yule 1884. the two countries a revision. with the third edition36 in 34. Yule 1884, p. 1. triggered Beginning of were into a 35. Diehl 1893 (the originalFrench 1854, descriptions Turkey put separate guidebook.37 Never editionwas in the six published 1890). theless, throughout 19th-century editions ofMurray's handbooks to 36. Bowen 1854. Greece, hints and travel tips always pertain to both Greece and 37. Gretton viii. European 1993, p. An Turkey. unattributed quotation from the Review that appears 38.The "Great Idea" (MeydXn Quarterly in the was an third edition, and is in editions, demonstrates iSea) irredentist concept that repeated subsequent a cautious with the "Great even was firstappeared in themiddle of the 19th sympathy Idea,"38 though the concept It the to not in century. expressed goal unite generally favorwith theWestern powers: all ethnicGreeks in the lands of the former We do not to of the future fate of , particularly aspire prophesy Constantinople, those still but when we think of all underOttoman rule (Gallant those Turkish subjects who speak the 2001, Greek ... pp. 54-60). language and profess the Greek religion we cannot but 426 DEBORAH HARLAN

as look upon the recovery of the Christian nationality of Greece one most or of the important ofmodern events, watch the development of this young kingdom without feeling of themost anxious expec tation.We cannot believe that theMahammedan tide,which was no arrested at Lepanto, will ebb back further than Navarino.39

In 1883,Thomas Cook and Son simultaneously opened offices inConstan a an awareness tinople and Athens, choice that reflects of the shared heri an tage ofTurkey and Greece. Indeed, the firm geared their itineraries to educated clientele, described in theExcursionist as "classical and historical students."40

The growth of mass tourism in the late 19th century coincided with an developments in photographic technology. Photography had immedi tour as a ate appeal for the industry way of capturing time and place and mementos was providing of journeys. At first, the technology complex and difficult enough to keep the practice of photography in the hands of professionals. Many studios selling souvenir photographs and albums some sprang up in popular travel destinations; indeed, of the images in are the Stebbing Collection actually photographs of such commercially produced prints. Individual photographers sold mail-order collections through publishers for the traveler and nontraveler alike. Travel photo most graphs, though gathered by those who did travel,were, for the part, collected in the Victorian middle-class home by nontravelers who used a them to view distant locations through Western lens, imagining the place were represented in the visual image.41Views predominantly stereotyped iconographic scenes42?examples ofwhat Lyons calls "camera vision"43? as a that necessitated only minimal captions prompt.44 In the late 1880s and 1890s, however, handheld cameras with instantaneous shutters, new mass negative formats using dry plates and film, and cheaper production to own methods made itpossible for anyone be their photographer, mark ing the birth of the "holiday snap." Itwas in this new age of touristic and photographic convenience that for Stebbing traveled to Greece. Excursion itineraries and standardized, what mulaic guides?particularly Murray's handbooks?indicated ought to to be seen, not what might be seen, directing the traveler's attention to such as specific places be viewed in specificways.45 Popular magazines Punch satirized thismode of travel; touristswere characterized as unable to to function without their "Murrays" to tell them how appreciate Culture.46 Cook's tours had become ubiquitous throughout Europe, the Near East, was attached to its clients. and Egypt, and the derogatory label "Cookites" more for the traveler to Travel was faster, regimented, and left little time on or and scenes. the when linger ponder the sights By 1890s, Stebbing visited, Greece was finally "on the beaten track."

39. Bowen 1854 ("new [3rd] edi seriesof handbooks, JohnMurray also 43. Lyons 2005, p. 25. the Review. 44. Hamilakis 10. tion"),p. 1;Watson 1872 (4th ed.), p. 1; published Quarterly 2001, p. 40. 4. Palmowski 108. Yule 1884 (5th ed.), p. 8; Pullen 1896 Excursionist, April 19,1884, p. 45. 2002, p. (6th ed.), p. 1; Edgar 1900 (7th ed.), 41. Osborne 2000, p. 56. 46. Buzard 1993, p. 77. p. xxviii. In addition to publishing the 42. Tsirgialou 2003, p. 110. A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 427

THE PHOTOGRAPHER: T. R. R. STEBBING

an or Thomas Roscoe Reed Stebbing (1835-1926) was not archaeologist even a era scholar of theHellenic world, although likemany of his he had a was a received classical education. He awarded BA. at Kings College London and matriculated to Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1853. Steb was a bing ordained in the Church of in 1859 and year later a became fellow ofWorcester College, Oxford. At Worcester he served as tutor,vice-provost, and eventually dean, leaving the college in 1868 in order to marry Mary Ann Saunders.47 His most notable achievements, were however, in the field of . He systematically classified to amphipod Crustacea, contributed the reports of theHMS Challenger expedition,48 and continuously advocated Darwinism in print and in public lectures.

Probably because of his endorsement of the theory of natural selection, never a Stebbing received parish living in the church and spent much of as a his earlyworking life teacher and private tutorwhile living inTorquay. Later in life,having relocated toTunbridge Wells, he gave up teaching and on concentrated his scientific endeavors. In recognition of his work he was a made fellow of the Linnean Society and of the Royal Society. Stebbing to was continued be active in these scientific societies and honored by them his on for many achievements. He published articles natural history,Dar winism, and theology well into his 80s and died at the age of 91 at home in Tunbridge Wells in 1926. In the fields of oceanography and zoology, are a Stebbing's publications still considered to be significant and relevant body ofwork.49 The conclusion of Stebbing's brief autobiography indicates his reticence in detailing his private life:

My record leaves untouched the comedy of life; cat stories,mod est even feats of swimming and boating, cricket and fives, dancing which I was misliked, and pedestrianism ofwhich I fond, play-act or or ing, excursions for pleasure work both combined.50

The key phrase here is "excursions for pleasure," ofwhich, he tells us, we cannot a expect personal record. Indeed, the Stebbing Collection housed in the Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University, appears to be the one sole surviving documentation of such pleasure excursion. Based on the scenes it seems recorded, that Stebbing photographed these images

47. Fellows of Oxford were of earlier colleges (1872-1876), fundedby theAdmiralty scientific explorations, such not to until the uni and the was the first as Darwin's on the in permitted marry Royal Society, voyage Beagle the reformsof 1871 versity (Engel 1983, systematic scientific investigation of 1830s.The resultingpublications from 107;Dunbabin the and the were numer p. 1997, p. 413). Mary physical biological conditions Challenger expedition Ann was the of the youngestdaughter of the earth's oceans, and marked the ous and includedStebbings reporton naturalistWilliam Wil of the distinguished beginnings modern studyof amphipods,published inZoology (Steb son Saunders. She was a botanist and oceanography (Bossard 2004). Itwas bing 1888). became one of the first fellows so named it lady because challenged the 49.Mills 1972,1976a, 1976b, 2004; of theLinnean Society (Stebbing1923, Victorian theorythat thedepths of the Alder 2006. oceans were p. 4). pitch-black and lifeless. 50. Stebbing 1923, p. 5. 48. The Challengerexpedition The expeditionbuilt on the tradition 428 DEBORAH HARLAN

Figure 1.Athens, Arch ofHadrian. T. R. R. Stebbing negative.Mary Ann Stebbing at the rightof the arch. Photo courtesy the Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University

Figure 2. Epidauros Theater. T. R. R. Stebbing negative.Mary Ann Steb at lower Photo the bing right. courtesy Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University

course a during the of single holiday, probably around 1893-1894.51 Never a s theless, despite the absence of written record, Stebbing images themselves 51. Internal evidence from the are often marked by touches. For his wife, Ann, personal example, Mary us with clues to their a images provides appears in number of the photographs of Argos, Athens, , Epi date, particularly those from Athens. dauros, and often the same costume a , Olympia, wearing traveling For example, photograph of the see also and The number of harbors (Figs. 1, 2; Figs. 15, 19, 21, below). restored Choregic Monument of as at as a terminus photographed, such those Smyrna (Fig. 3) and Patras (Fig. 4), well Lysikrates gives post quern as of 1892 and, in another fishing boats and sailing vessels, testify to Stebbings interest in nautical photograph, the absence of construction for the scenes. This interest due to the fact that himself lived near maybe Stebbing Panhellenic stadium near the Temple the sea; that is, was not his mode of travel. Stebbing simply recording ofOlympian Zeus and theArch of The Collection contains 277 complete Stebbing unique negatives, for the 1896Olympic Games or a as contact a terminus ante either film glass, and small number of duplicate images gives quern. A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 429

Figure 3. Smyrna, camels along the coast. R. R. T. Stebbing negative. Photo courtesy the Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University

4. Patras harbor. T. R. R. Figure Photo the Stebbing negative. courtesy Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University

are contact prints. There 194 film negatives, 83 glass negatives, and 18 a or ca. prints, all British standard quarter-plate size (3*4 by AVa inches, 82.5 x same 108 mm). Both glass and film negatives could be used in the an was camera, although the film negatives required adapter. Stebbing not a a are professional photographer, and number of the images either or overexposed, underexposed, superimposed, out of focus. Furthermore, are to on many of the negatives beginning degrade: the emulsion the glass or or some film is showing signs of whitening clouding, and of the glass negatives have developed chips and cracks. They represent 15 different monuments locations in theMediterranean, primarily the sites of ancient were inGreece, but a significant number taken in Constantinople, Asia Minor, and Rome. 430 DEBORAH HARLAN

mi

Figure 5. Istanbul, interiorof the Mosque ofAyia Sophia; tomb of Selim II and family.Labeled "272. Tombeaux du Sultan Selim II et Famine a S. Sofie." Photograph from a Sebah and Joaillier original. Photo courtesy the Institute ofArchaeology, Oxford University

are own The negatives contained in their wooden box, ordered by site, and separated by indexmarkers containing the names of the sites.The order nor of the sites is neither strictly geographical alphabetical, but appears haphazard: Constantinople, Olympia, Patras, Corinth, Tiryns, Epidauros, Argos, Corfu, Ephesos, Smyrna, Nauplia, Mycenae, Athens Museum, Eleusis, Athens, and Rome. The index papers were created from pages an torn from accounting ledger in Stebbings copperplate handwriting. When dates appear on these papers, they range from November 1897 to January 1898. Thus, Stebbing created these index papers sometime after his journey,when he organized the negatives. some were It is possible, though speculative, that of the negatives used a as some contact to produce prints for photographic album, original scenes prints?all ofwhich depict in Rome?are contained in the collec no come tion. However, such album has to light. On the other hand, at were were not least fiveof the negatives produced from print originals that found with the collection. These five show the interior of two mosques in were Constantinople (e.g., Fig. 5) and taken by the professional photo graphic firm of Sebah and Joaillier.52Stebbing probably purchased copies of or these latter images, either in the form of photographic prints postcards,53 as souvenirs during the holiday and photographed them himself.

"WAYS OF SEEING"

It is unknown whether Thomas andMary Ann Stebbing traveled indepen as or as an tour. dently, did John Sandys and his wife, part of organized In addition, clients who chartered an excursion fromCook and Son could opt or a to travelwith without guide.With the aid of the itinerariesmentioned inCooks 1891 excursion brochure54 and the description of places in John s Sandys journal, combined with sites represented in Stebbings images, it is to reconstruct a for and his wife. The possible plausible itinerary Stebbing 52. Ozendes 1999. saw to precise order inwhich Stebbing the sites, however, is less relevant 53. Ozendes 1999, pp. 235-240. the present study than what he chose to record in photographs. 54. Cooks Tours, pp. 7-14. A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 431

Figure6.Ephesos, thepillars the ^^^^^^^|^^^H^^|^^EH^^^|^^^|H^H||^^I BasilicaofSaint John by |^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^|^^^^^^^^^|^H^^^I1^^^E^9 Photocourtesy the ^^^^^I^^^^^^^^^^HI^^^^^^^^^^^II^IIII^^HHHl ofArchaeology, University ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^MliiHIHIjli^lHm^^H

Tourism as

The religious strand that threads itsway throughout Stebbings images is town quite pronounced. In nearly everymajor Stebbing visited, he photo graphed places ofworship: Constantinople (Ayia Sophia and themosques of Ahmet I and Suleyman theMagnificent), Smyrna (the Roman Catholic so Cathedral of Saint John the Evangelist), Athens (Kapnikarea, and the called Little Metropolis), Patras (Ayios Andreas), Corfu (Ayios Spyridon, Ayioi Iason kai Sosipatros, and the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Saint a James), and Rome. This cannot be considered unusual for Victorian clergy even an one was a evan man, unconventional like Stebbing. It timewhen reverence was gelical for the Bible paramount in upper- and middle-class as a source as a society, not only of spiritual solace, but also historical to to document?a virtual guidebook the Holy Land.55 A pilgrimage Greece, Asia Minor, and Rome would have given historical credibility to the scriptures of theNew Testament by associating them with real places. Many of themonuments and sites Stebbing photographed would have own resonated with his spiritual background, because of their place in early as as Christian history. Both the sites of Ephesos and Corinth, well the on Church of Saints Iason and Sosipatros Corfu, had connections with Saint not Paul. Ephesos has special significance for students of the early church, a.d. only because ithosted theThird Ecumenical Council in 431, but also because of its intimate connection with theApostle John and the Virgin on Mary (Fig. 6). A slim pocket-sized book Classical and Christian Ephesos by the excavator, J.T. Wood, published in 1890 by theReligious Tract Soci as was ety volume 14 in their series "By-Ways of Bible Knowledge," aimed was at the biblical student, but popularized by the risingVictorian interest in .56Ayios Andreas in Patras had legendary connections was even with Scotland and theAposde Andrew, and photographed though the churchwas amodern reconstruction 7). The 55. Pemble 1987, pp. 55-60. 19th-century (Fig. Mosque 56.Wood 1890; Challis 2008a, ofAyia Sophia (Fig. 5), originallybuilt by the emperorJustinian (526 was once a pp. 137-139. 565 a.d.), center of the early Orthodox Church. The Mosque 432 DEBORAH HARLAN

7. Figure Patras, 19th-century church ofAyios Andreas. T. R. R. Stebbing Photo the Institute of negative. courtesy Archaeology, Oxford University

Figure 8. Constantinople, Turkish T. R. R. cemetery. Stebbing negative. Photo courtesy the Institute ofArchaeology, Oxford University

an ofAhmet I inConstantinople, converted from earlier Byzantine church, was built on the site of the Byzantine Imperial Palace and the Late Roman was Hippodrome. The Mosque of Siileyman theMagnificent designed as a and built direct rival toAyia Sophia. Even the Rumeli Hisar ofMeh met a II marked key point in Christian history: theOttoman conquest of Constantinople, which reverberated in the nations of theWest. This religious theme is also echoed in the photographs of funerary one markers. These photographs include of theTurkish cemetery (Fig. 8) and theSebah andJoaillier image of the tombof Selim II and his family inConstantinople (Fig. 5). In Athens, views of the Street ofTombs in the numerous and photographs of grave stelai in theNational Mu seum a as show similar interest.These markers, symbols of grief, sorrow, and human mortality from different cultures and religions, expressed sentiments akin to those conveyed by the elaborate and familiar British tombstones of A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 433

Figure9., Monastery of ^^HII^BIHhRH Daphneon the Sacred Way. T. R. R. ^^^^^^H^^HfBI^^B^k ^HHH^^^^H. Stebbingnegative. Photo courtesy the ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H|[^HHb^|.::-' ^H^^^^^Hh InstituteofArchaeology, Oxford University ^^^^^BtKKBKKBB^^tlKKBKKI^^^^m: ^^R|BH^^H|

theVictorian period. Many Victorian visitors to the Kerameikos remarked on how these tomb markers memorialize personal grief.Mahaffy found on parallels between the sentiments expressed the Athenian tombstones to and inTennyson's poem InMemoriamP Sandys referred the tombstones as a scenes "representing, in style of quiet and chastened reserve, the tender as of parting."58Murray's 1884 Handbook described them follows: a These sepulchral reliefs have peculiar interest for us, because in scenes sorrow so the which they represent, and in the which they we a tenderly commemorate, have genuine expression of the feelings of the individual.59

Stebbing also took the trip along the SacredWay fromAthens through to the Pass of Daphne Eleusis and itsTemple of theMysteries. Though the ruinswere described as in a chaotic state and not worth the visit,many came to view the celebrated Greek sanctuary. Often they came on foot, as to a recommended by the guidebooks, perhaps experience part of the ancient rite.The 1889 Baedeker indicated that the chaos ofmarble debris to made the plan of the site difficult see,60 and Cooks 1891 excursions list were a state simply stated that the ruins "not in fine of preservation."61 to Diehl attributed the unintelligibility of the "confused heaps of ruins" was no as was at the fact that there guidebook for the site available there s Olympia.62 Stebbing images show the ruins of the temple precinct, views from above, and the massive fortifiedwall of theTelesterion. Also worth was on visiting along the Sacred Way theMonastery of Daphne (Fig. 9) the outskirts ofAthens, where Stebbing photographed the remains of the fine of Christos Pantokrator in the apex of the church dome with 57. 1876, pp. 67-77. a Mahaffy circular frieze of saints and prophets below. 28. 58. Sandys 1887, p. was Stebbing's interest in religious subjects suggests that he making 59.Yule 1884, p. 276. a of sorts, and indeed the entire of travel has been as 60. Baedeker 1889, p. 112. pilgrimage process sociated with ritual: the the order of at the 61. Cooks Tours, p. 8. guidebook "provid[es] worship 62.Diehll893,p. 306. shrines of the beautiful, the historic, and the foreign, telling the potential 434 DEBORAH HARLAN

touristwhat kind of behavior is appropriate to each site and indicatingwhat kind of fulfillment to expect from it."63Thus, culture becomes the "new re on ligion," and the cultural pilgrimage is centered the shrines of art,history, and the exotic. Indeed, Hamilakis and Yalouri have argued that, inmodern Greece, the ideological construction of antiquity is imbued with religious so a overtones, that antiquities become "artifacts of secular religion"64 and museums a visiting archaeological sites and is akin to pilgrimage.65 This leads us to the concept of cultural tourism in the 19th century.

Nineteenth-Century Cultural Tourism

as Cultural tourism has been described "a genre of special interest tour on new ism based the search for and participation in and deep cultural or experiences, whether aesthetic, intellectual, emotional, psychological."66 on com In practice, this type of tourism today focuses heavily traditional munities and their environment, lifestyles,heritage, crafts, and performing arts. In 19th-century cultural tourism inGreece, "deep cultural experiences" were often framed in terms of the classical past. The Greek classics were so were a deemed to embody values similar to Victorian values and way for theVictorians to think about themselves.67Mahaffy explained in 1874 that theGreek classics

are men writings of of like culture with ourselves, who argue with same the logic,who reflectwith kindred feelings. They have worked out social and moral problems like ourselves, they have expressed as we to use. In a them in such language should desire word, they more are thoroughly modern, modern than the epochs quite proxi mate to our own.68

Traditional British classical education,69 allusions in literature, and motifs in contemporary art, architecture, and decorative ornaments embedded Hellenic concepts and forms inVictorian society.70 Albums of travel photographs of the classical world and stereoscope as as collections in the private sphere, well lantern slide shows of foreign the travel71 and large-scale panorama displays72 in public arena, provided a direct visual linkwith classical lands. In addition, 19th-century British artifacts? classical archaeologists provided information?and, importantly, to and to a Brit from sites supplement well-known literaryworks73 augment ish national identity as inheritors of the classical past.74The popular press

see 1998 an overview. also listed in the Brothers cata 63. Stowe 1994, p. 29. studied; Stray for Riley Lantern 2008. 64.Hamilakis andYalouri 1999, 70. Jenkyns1980; Vaughan 1998. logue, Magic Society 71. Lantern slide sets were available 72. Comment 8. p. 116. 1999, p. Large accom circular 65.Hamilakis andYalouri 1999, from commercial firms usually panorama displays?continuous slide For on the walls of a p. 118. panied by printed readings. representations hung Cities and Places Interest in rotunda?often 66. Stebbins 1996, p. 948. example: of reproduced cityscapes ca. fromthe Grand Athens 67. Turner 1981, p. 8. theMediterranean, 1887, produced Tour, including andmar and 68.Mahaffy 1874, p. 1, cited in byYork and Son (London) Constantinople. and 73. Cook 153. Turner 1981, p. 10. keted byRiley Brothers (Bradford); 1998, p. classi the two series From London to Greece 74. Challis 18-19. 69. The topic of 19th-century 2008a, pp. and and the both ca. cal education in Britain has been widely Athens Piraeus, 1894, A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 435

on as reported excavations; fashionable exhibition halls such the Crystal more museums Palace75 and the rarefied displayed material culture that served to familiarize middle-class touristswith things Greek own even before they left their shores. In essence, traveling toGreece?the a land fromwhich the classical world sprang?was cultural pilgrimage. was The positive reception of the classical world inVictorian Britain nurtured by the universities. The authors of the three late-19th-century were travel accounts mentioned earlier,Mahaffy, Farrer, and Sandys,76 all academics?at Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, respectively. Mahaffy were and Sandys also prominent members of the Hellenic Society. The as purpose of the society, outlined in the 1879 inaugural address by Charles was Newton, the promotion of Hellenic studies, including the language and literature, art and architecture, and manners and customs of three or general periods: ancient, Byzantine, and what he termed "Neo-Classical" are a present-day.77We also told byNewton that travelers played significant to to role, namely, "collect matters of interest this society."78Constantine remarks on the difference between the earlier "fanciful" or "romantic" ac

counts and themore "factual" or "scholarly" accounts of the 19th century came that with the rise of professionalism.79 Thus, travel accounts in the late 19th century are framed less as records a more as co of Grand Tour and compendia of pedagogical observations, inciding with the phenomenon of the institutionalization of knowledge in Britain andWestern Europe.80 To this pattern of travel belong American tours to scholarly study Greece in the late 19th century.Murray and Run was an nels found that there increasing number of such study tours after the foundation of theAmerican School of Classical Studies atAthens in tourswere to ar 1881, indicating that the integral the training of young chaeologists.81 Commercial travel companies followed suit, directing their advertisements toward the educated middle classes.

The subject of archaeology and in the construction of the is not a new past one, and several studies have looked at the relationship linking archaeology, early photography, and the emerging state ofmodern a Greece.82 The following is brief review relevant to early British tourist activity in that country.The renovation and excavation of classical monu ments a a made manifest "foundation myth" that provided deep history for themodern state.83Reconstructions began in earnest during the reign of in 75. Challis 2008b, pp. 181-190. King Otho themid-19th century and later continued under the direction 76. Farrer Mahaffy 1876; 1882; of the State Archaeological Service. This project went hand in hand with 1887. town in towns Sandys planning, particularly those that had been devastated by 77. Newton 1880, pp. 1-2. was theWar of Independence. The aim to efface all evidence ofOttoman 78. Newton 1880, p. 5. rule and to link the new Greece to theWest its with 79. Constantine 1984, pp. 211-212. through continuity the "cherished" of its 80.Tzanelli 2003, p. 22; Daunton periods past.84 More than other in as new was 2005. any city Greece, Athens the capital 81. and Runnels 2007. to a monuments to a Murray subjected building program that used the project link 82. E.g., Hamilakis 2001; Papado new between the classical past and the present.85The 2005. capital's city-planning poulos laid out in some scheme, 1832, restored of the glory of the ancient town 83. Hamilakis 2001, pp. 6-9. 84. from the rubble and the huts that hid Yerolympos 1993. by freeing antiquities poor decrepit 85. Bastea them.The monuments were meant to be in a 2000; Athanassopoulou displayed picturesque setting 2002. where all saw theymight inspire who them. In keeping with this ideal, DEBORAH HARLAN 436

^^^^H^^|hH[^HH^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^H Figure ^^^^^H^^^nHB^^^H^H^^I^^^^^^^^^^^^^HHj the fromthe ^^^^^^^^^^^B^^^^^^HhH^^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^H Photo courtesy of Archaeology,

new the Academy building, the only modern public building Stebbing was a photographed in the city, constructed in neoclassical style. The ideological connection between the classical past and its physi cal expression, enhanced by excavation programs and the renovation of was monuments, fostered by the far-reaching influence of .86 or The Periegesisy Description ofGreece, would have been well known to any to student of classical literature like Stebbing. Scholarly travelers Greece or not only took along theirMurrays Baedekers, but also their copies of Pausanias.87 Various editions of theDescription ofGreece, in the original or were at trav Greek in translation, readily available the time Stebbing eled to Greece.88 to One key understanding the influence of Pausanias is recognizing was see to see how his narrative determined what significant to and how was 86. and Eisner it.Pausanias selective inwhat he recorded: sacred sites, generally, de Alcock, Cherry, as set s 2001. scribed if in timeless isolation.89 Later travelers, following Pausanias 87. Sutton 2001, p. 181. lead, viewed (and described) these landscapes without reference to the 88. Sandys (1887, pp. 113-114) local as if were disconnected from their native people, they communities, lists translations of Pausanias and of or an monuments were they described empty landscape.90 The settings of other ancient authors as well as modern seen as on romanticized, pristine places of beauty that epitomized the glories books Greek traveland topography inhis I. ofWestern civilization. Tour operators and tour books continued this Appendix can 89. Sutton 2001, p. 176; Pretzler practice, and it be argued that the disconnection of sites from their 2004, p. 208. still continues For theBlue Guides92 are settings today.91 example, organized 90. Sutton 1996; Bennet, Davis, and itineraries followed that indicate what is to by (nowadays by car) significant Zarinebaf-Shahr 2000, p. 370. see s are along theway. Stebbing images predominantly of Classical sites in 91. Sutton 1996; 2001, pp. 185-188. monuments 92. Gretton notes unpeopled landscapes; they isolate the from their immediate (1993, p. xxii) canon. that theBlue Guides, first setting, following?though perhaps unwittingly?an established published just afterWorld War I in not s seven 1918, only Stebbing photographs of Athens include distant views of the inherited this tradition from Murray's the hill Ten additional of Acropolis, circling (e.g., Fig. 10). photographs handbooks,which had ceased to be monuments on the show the the of but were also issued in direct Acropolis Propylaia, Temple published, with Nike, the Erechtheion, and the (Fig. 11) from different angles. competition Baedeker's guides. A IN VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN GREECE 437

zn 2 ...... ?r zz Z ...... T il V4. MUM- ...... -a lm M.-M...... --- ...... - ...... 'q...... MRX II-0 ...... I ...... MIUM0U-4 ...... I ...... Ml ......

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An 1870 publication byWilliam Stillman, which may have been available to Stebbing, reproduces Stillmans photographs of theAthenian Acropolis, on beginning with distant views of theAcropolis before concentrating its individual monuments shown from different angles.93 Pausaniass route was around the city plotted with reference to this central landmark: the area or area Agora and the to thewest and north, the "City ofHadrian" the area area to the east, the to the south, theAcropolis itself, and the of the Pnyx immediately to the west. Murray's Handbook and Baedeker's Guide route at diverge from Pausaniass around the city only the starting point, new the parliament building. Stebbing photographed theDoric Temple ofHephaistos in theAgora, a monument the so-called Theseion (Figs. 12, 13), well-preserved that was repeatedly represented in early photographs.94 Papadopoulos, in his cultural biography of this building, shows that representations of it held symbolic value in terms of national identity.95This may account, in part, for the fascination it held for 19th-century commercial photographers. One photograph by Petros Moraites, taken around 1870, shows theThe same seion with theAcropolis in the background.96 It is taken from the viewpointas theone producedby Stebbing(Fig. 12), althoughStebbings a more is bit distant. Other photographs, at closer quarters and taken from

93. Stillman 1870; Szegedy Stebbing s journey,however, many of its Maszak 2005. Stebbingmay also have archaeological collections would have access to to new had Stillman's photographs been transferred the neoclassical through commercial photographic building of theNational Archaeologi or cal in the printers through the Hellenic Soci Museum, completed 1860s, which offered more extensive exhibi ety (Harlan, forthcoming). 94. Papadopoulos 2005, p. 140. In tion space. 1834 theTheseion, which had previ 95. Papadopoulos 2005, pp. 135 as a to ously served church dedicated 144. St. George, became the Central Public 96. Papadopoulos 2005, p. 138, 21. Museum ofAntiquities. By the timeof fig. 43$ DEBORAH HARLAN

Figure 12.Athens, Theseion from a distance with theAcropolis in the background. T. R. R. Stebbing Photo the Institute of negative. courtesy Archaeology, Oxford University

13. R. Figure Athens, Theseion. T. R. Photo the Stebbing negative. courtesy Institute ofArchaeology, Oxford University

one the north, depict theTheseion: by James Robertson (ca. 1853-1854) and another by Dimitrios Constantin (ca. I860).97 These two examples are to are not similar Stebbing's close-up (Fig. 13), although they from quite the same angle. Monuments photographed by Stebbing in theRoman Market include or the surviving facade of the Library so-called Stoa ofHadrian, theGate of Athena and the Tower of theWinds. The of the Archegetis, images 97. Papadopoulos 2005, p. 141, structure on Library ofHadrian invariably show the constructed its south fig.23 (Robertson);p. 143, fig.24 east or corner, theMosque ofTzitsouakis.98 The Olympieion, Temple of (Constantin). to 98. The mosque was once the main Olympian Zeus, and theArch ofHadrian the southeast of theAcropolis were mosque of Ottoman Athens, later both photographed from different angles and distances. Between this turned into a barracks and, at the time area southeast and the lies the Monument of were a Acropolis Choregic Lysikrates, the photographs taken, weapons at restored in 1892. To the south of theAcropolis, the base of the hill, two storehouse. It is now theMuseum of monuments were . photographed: theTheater ofDionysos and theOdeion Popular A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 439

ofHerodes Atticus.The carved seats of the theaterwith their claw-footed seat are central for the priest ofDionysos represented in three images, all of which showMary Ann Stebbing seated. The so-called Bema of Phaidios a was (5th century a.d.), relief sculpture that adorned the Roman stage, also photographed. Two images of the Odeion ofHerodes Atticus show several stories of its arched facade, and a statue located in one of the arches at the base of the structure. Stebbing's photographs ofAthens reproduce scenes to similar those created by commercial photographers, including those taken years earlier by Felix Bonfils, and often followed recommended views set down inMurray's handbooks." Images of sites in the include views of Corinth, Nauplia, Argos, Epidauros, Mycenae, and Tiryns, and Olympia and Patras further west. a to the Patras would have been natural jumping-off point forCorfu, are a also visited by Stebbing. Ancient remains mixed with few images marking Stebbing's detached observation of local people, perhaps his way a of seeing the "Other," and number of nonarchaeological noteworthy men places. At Corinth Stebbing photographed themodern train station, a a a caravan at table outside , and donkey along the Corinthian Gulf. In the main square inNauplia he made images of Greek soldiers, a well-dressed townspeople, and humble muleteer watering his animal at a are trough. A group of local Greeks (possibly guides) lined up outside at rough mudbrick houses the entrance to the sanctuary of Epidauros. at are The Venetian fortresses Nauplia, Patras, and Corfu represented in one was a photographs. On Corfu, image taken from terrace of the newly summer constructed , the residence of Empress Elizabeth of Austria, designed and constructed in 1890-1891 by the Italian architect Cardilo.100 It shows the Italianate garden dotted with neoclassical sculp ture. scene on The only Stebbing photographed Corfu thatwould qualify as an monument ancient is the somewhat unimpressive 7th-century b.c. near on circular Tomb ofMenekrates, located the British Cemetery the southeast edge of town. were Usually, however, antiquities Stebbing's main focus. At least four photographs show remains in , including views of the of and Temple the of Peirene. From the port of Nauplia, sites the ofArgos, Epidauros, Mycenae, and Tiryns could be visited. There are are only four photographs ofArgos; all ofGreek and Roman remains, two an including images of the theater.The setting for all four is arid, rocky hillside in an covered low-growing maquis, with occasional century plant for relief,giving the impression that the sitewas isolated and little visited This a (Fig. 14). impression echoes sentiment recorded 10 years earlier by who describes same Sandys, the loneliness of the scene.101 Significantly, was Argos the only ancient site Stebbing visited that had not been excavated the time of the tour and for by prepared the viewer. The images of the Sanc at on tuary ofAsklepios Epidauros, the other hand, strike a different note. French excavations had here begun by 1881. Stebbing photographed the theater with the impressive along . Two out-of-focus images, 99. of the of were also taken at the site. Szegedy-Maszak2001, p. 18. possibly Temple Asklepios, 100. From there are two one Barber [1988] 1990, p. 530. Mycenae landscape shots, showing the posi 101. Sandys 1887, p. 51. tion of the site and the other taken from the citadel. Outside the walled 440 DEBORAH HARLAN

14. theater from a Figure Argos, T. R. distance. R. Stebbing negative. Photo courtesy the Institute ofArchaeology, Oxford University

was en enclosure, theTomb ofAtreus photographed showing the dromos, s trance, and corbelled vault. One of Stebbing out-of-focus compositions, taken of the interiorfrom the entrance of the tomb and showing the corbelled an vault, resembles engraving thathad appeared in theIllustrated London News in 1877.102The obligatory photographs of theLion Gate?front and back? are accompanied by images of the excavated Grave Circle A (see Fig. 23, 102. March area are ILNy 31,1877, p. 305, below) and the located above. There fewer images of Tiryns. lower fig. These show the citadel from a the blocks used in its distance, megalithic 103. ILH December 9,1876; ILN, and the covered to thewell. construction, passage February 3,1877; ILN, February24, exca By the time Stebbing conducted his journey,Mycenae had been 1877; ILN, March 24,1877; ILN, was March and two vated byHeinrich Schliemann in 1874-1876 and currently under in 31,1877; follow-up area theGreek Schliemann had articles of the around Mycenae vestigation by Archaeological Society. explored Schliemanns recent dis same as inspired by Tiryns at the time Mycenae, and he later systematically excavated coveries:ILN, April 14,1877, on the sitewith in 1884-1886. Schliemann s discoveries Dorpfeld spectacular Tiryns,Argos, andNauplia; and ILN, were in regularly reported the Illustrated London News,103 providing the April 21,1877, on Corinth and the Isthmus. The latter article also lists two educated British citizen with descriptions?both verbal and visual?of sites books of intereston and artifacts from the age ofHomer. In addition, Schliemann s excavation recendypublished travelto Greece: Mahaffy 1876 and reportswere publishedin English in 1878 (Mycenae)and 1886 (Tiryns), Young 1876. while on current in regular updates archaeological investigations appeared 104. Media coverage in the London the London Times.104 Times at of the archaeology Mycenae Olympia had been the site of German excavations from 1875 until began with Schliemanns discoveries was a in 1874 and continued the 1881. According to its excavator, Ernst Curtius, Olympia holy place through remainder of the 19th includ and devotion to art.105The sitewould, century, symbolizing inspiration, patriotism, the Greek excavations of Christos no have been a of s his ing doubt, highlight Stebbing journey.Among photo Tsountas in the 1880s. Excavations and are the ruins of the of Zeus, the entrance to the Stadium at were in graphs Temple discoveries Tiryns reported (Fig. 15), the circular Philippeion, and theTemple ofHera. Four out of the the London Times from 1886 onward. are museum: 105.Marchand 81. 14 images of sculpture in the theNike of Paionios, the east 1996, p. west 106. Plan of by and pedimental sculpture groups of the Temple of Zeus, and what Olympia Dorpfeld and Kaupert, originallypublished in appears to be a Roman emperor. It is interesting that the famous Late Berlin in 1882.The plan is reproduced Classical statue ofHermes attributed to Praxiteles found in 1877 was not in Sandys 1887; thisplan or variations Also included in this was a among Stebbings subjects. group photograph of it regularlyappeared inMurray's and s a Baedeker's ofDorpfeld plan of the site,106probably taken from guidebook. guidebooks. A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 441

Figure15.Olympia, entrance tothe W^^^^^^^^^^^^^Sj^^^^^B^^^^K^^^^^^m Stadium.T.R. R. Stebbing negative. ;-|H||HH|^^H|^^^^^^^^|B|^^|^^^^^^^^H Ann tothe left the Mary Stebbing by t ]fl : entrance. Photo courtesy the Institute of -1 ^ --^ Archaeology, Oxford University

The inclusion of Rome in the itinerarywould not have been unusual, as was a or a east it convenient place to begin conclude trip further via the same as Italian ports.The images fromRome follow the format the restof the are collection.Most of ancient monuments, themajority taken in unpeopled settings: the Forum Romanum, the Colosseum (interior and exterior), 's Column, the round temple in the Forum Boarium, the Baths of numerous Diocletian, the Pantheon (interior and exterior), triumphal arches and bridges, and various other Roman remains. Other images show interiors as as a scenes and exteriors of churches well few of themodern city.

CONTEXTUALIZING THE COLLECTION

as cannot Historical photographs such those taken by Stebbing be treated as are simply representations of historical facts.They subjective views, taken with specific intentions by individuals under particular circumstances that are a setwithin wider cultural framework.107 Stebbing may have thought was an that through photography he producing accurate and factual record an was of places he saw, empirical point of view that commonplace in the 19th century and demonstrated in his scientificwork. These images are as a not, they appear at firstglance, simply group of outdated and blurry are pictures of Greek monuments forwhich there better copies available were a elsewhere. Rather, Stebbing's views selective, and reflect Victorian worldview filtered through the lens of a late-19th-century British educator, scientist, and theologian. This singular, creator-oriented view of the role of the photographer in camera can selecting what the records be demonstrated by comparing the a Stebbing Collection with collection of photographs recently exhibited a at the Benaki Museum inAthens.108 These photographs were taken at a slightly later date than Stebbing's, and their subject matter is complete contrast. Hubert a French scholar of 107. Edwards 1992, pp. 6-7. Pernot, language, 108. Pernot 2007. literature, and folk music, photographically recorded his visits to Greece 442 DEBORAH HARLAN

a between 1898 and 1913. He later compiled his collection in number of a photographic albums. They are, therefore, composite of his various trips, more geographically extensive than Stebbing's. Unlike Stebbing, however, and possibly because of his academic interest inmodern Greece, Pernot photographed ordinary people and activities in both rural and urban set tings. Occasionally he records ancient monuments, though he rarely ex are cludes from view vestiges of modern life.The photographs unique to Pernot and reflectwhat he saw as significant. a use It is likely that Stebbing foresaw wider for his images, and were to a that they not intended solely be private record of his journey. I scenes classified the images (excluding the duplicate prints of in Rome) seen most or according to the subject in the prominent centrally placed at view, arriving the following totals: antiquities, 148; places ofworship, 53; town scenes, 28; seascapes and harbors, 28; landscapes, 11; and people, 9. museums Antiquities, in the form ofmonuments and sculpture in atAthens and Olympia, far outnumber other subjects. Stebbing must have recognized use. their potential educational Photographs ofDorpfeld's plan ofOlympia an a and of engraving of gold diadem, taken from Schliemann's publication were to Mycenae also useful for instruction and may have been added the collection at a later date. scenes was to tour No doubt Stebbing's selection of due, in part, the a industry's established ways of regulating travelers' progress through land meant scape. The less leisurely travel style of the excursion shorter periods one must spent at any particular site. Stebbing's holiday inGreece have been relatively short, given the absence from the collection of representa tions of commonly visited places: Marathon, Lavrion, Salamis, Aigina, and , all in the vicinity ofAthens, and further afield,. Transport restricted the older and the less adventurous to locations thatwere served or by train, steamship, carriage; when Stebbing conducted his tour, he would have been in his sixties. use Studies of tourism have only recently begun to the concept of heritage to examine the complex, active construction of the past and how a it is understood in different contexts by variety of audiences.110 These on can studies focus mainly contemporary society, but the concept equally to tourist The is be applied earlier periods of activity. past constantly being on individual Steb redefined depending the time, place, and the subject. to saw to bing, and British tourists Greece like him, what they expected out monuments them see. Archaeology and urban planning laid the for to view them. Historians of tourism and the guidebooks told them how as tourist the scene ismade refer to this phenomenon "the gaze": expected an with the concrete, precluding actual?and authentic?engagement a role in the landscape.111 Photography played key framing expected scene, a versatile medium for capturing the constructed picture, and providing 109. Schliemann 281. This the dissemination of this visual message. 1878, pi. was added to the to their photograph perhaps The images in Stebbing's collection, though unique creator, collection at a later date, but to were more in with conventional tourist than the prior keeping photographs 1900. ofHubert Pernot. followed an es images Stebbing's photographs loosely 110. Baram and Rowan 2004, pp. 3 tablished tradition of iconographic views. Tourist photographs preserved 5. this "frozen view of ancient monuments" at a timewhen modern views of 111. Crang 1997. A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 443

were more Greek the city becoming common, particularly among photog based inAthens.112 raphers and foreign photographers of their The visual message of these images comprises all the stages also their life: not only their production, but dissemination, consumption, unlike other studies of and presentation.113 The analysis presented here, is not centered on a antiquities and 19th-century photography, particular a monument or site or the oeuvre of particular well-known photographer,114 a collection. but is a cultural biography of photographic had found their into the By the 20th century, Stebbings images way to a document at the academic sphere. According handwritten preserved at the to Institute of Archaeology Oxford, Stebbing gave images John At that time Linton Myres sometime around the year 1900.115 Myres, was later to become the firstWykeham Professor inAncient History, just career at Christ Oxford. beginning his academic Church, Unfortunately, between the two men.116 nothing further is known of the relationship a for his work in to set By 1900, Myres had gained reputation helping and up and organize several collections of images slide-lending libraries, Hellenic Association of theTeacher s particularly those of the (a subgroup Guild of Great Britain and Ireland)117 and the Society for the Promo own tion ofHellenic Studies (hereafter theHellenic Society).118Myres's at recorded in his com photographic collection Oxford, negative register, a of some prised carefully chosen mixture images: personal photographs, some donations of some exchanged with fellow academics, from images were and still others from like Stebbings; others taken from publications, commercial sets.119 a number of Sometime afterMyres received Stebbings collection, were set. 1 the breakdown of the images removed from the Table shows in the Stebbing images by site and format. Numbers brackets represent note in archive at the Institute of original tally of images from the Myres's count. The far column Archaeology if they differ from the present right between the represents the number of negatives missing, the difference current count. account of this collec original count and the The original tion indicates that it contained 316 negatives (227 film and 89 glass) and to As Table 1 19 prints, bringing the total number of images 335. indicates, were from the time they originally accessioned intoMyres's collection, Rome to a many images, mainly from themajor sites ofAthens and and

L. as 112.Xanthakis 2004, p. 223. Institute of Archaeology J. Myres 118.Myres is cited theHellenic Archive the 113. Schwartz and Ryan 2003, (uncatalogued). Society'skeeper of photographic 116. No between ca. 1897 to 1904 pp. 1-18. correspondence collections from could be found 114. As mentioned above, subjects Myres and Stebbing (Hellenic Society 1904, p. lxxxi).Also, in the Archive in the Bodleian in his annual address as of of other studies of 19th-century Myres president include the cultural nor could of photography Library, any Stebbing's the society,Myres (1937b) reviewed be located. It is the Hellenic role in illustrat biographyof theTheseion (Papado privatepapers likely Society's were affili ancient poulos 2005) and theworks of the thatStebbing andMyres ing classical texts, monuments, the Teacher's Guild of art in photographersBonfils and Stillman ated through and works of from its beginnings (Szegedy-Maszak 2001,2005). Great Britain and Ireland, rather than the 1890s.A fullertext of his address or 115. The document, which is in throughOxford theHellenic Soci can be found inhis archive in the nor of which was not listed as neither Stebbings Myres's hand ety, Stebbing Bodleian Library (Myres 1937a). contents a member. writing, describes the of Steb 119.Harlan 2005,2007. wooden box. It resides in the 117. 1911-1913. bing's Myres 444 DEBORAH HARLAN

TABLE 1. PAST AND PRESENT INVENTORIES OF THE T. R. R. STEBBING COLLECTION BY SITE AND MEDIUM

Site Film Negatives GlassNegatives ContactPrints Total Missing

Argos 4 4 0 Athens 39 [47] 12 [17] 51 [64] 13 Athens Museum 9 9 0

Constantinople 40 11 [12] 51 [52] 1 Corfu 17 17 0 Corinth 1 10 11 0 Eleusis 11 [12] 11 [12] 1 Ephesus 14 [15] 14 [15] 1 Epidauros 6 6 0 Mycenae 1 12 13 0 Nauplia 11 [1] 1 12 [13] 1 Olympia 1 13 14 0 Patras 6 6 0 Rome 48 [64] 18 [19] 66 [83] 17 Smyrna 5 [11] 5 [11] 6 Tiryns 5 5 0 Total 194 [227] 83 [89] 18 [19] 295 [335] 40

names are as in in Spellings of site given they appear the collection. Numbers brackets represent the original negative count ca. a 1900, from handwritten document in the J. L. Myres Archive of the Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University.

were lesser degree from Smyrna, removed from Stebbings wooden box of some as to negatives. Though there is question where Stebbings missing or were images went, whether any of the remaining images reproduced, it some a no is reasonable to assume that became part of teaching collection, doubt in lantern slide format.They became part of the visual economy of the time, enmeshed in an academic network that compiled and exchanged images, which, in turn, gave authority to the images.120 own some InMyres's register of negatives, of the firstentries pertain to Athens, including scenes of churches such as the "Old Metropolitan" (the so-called Little Metropolis), the "New Metropolitan" (theMetro Numerous entries in the politan Cathedral), and the Kapnikarea. register on also list themonuments theAcropolis and in theAgora. It is possible, not some culled from though verifiable, that of these images may have been collection had been Stebbings collection. By 1939, Myres's photographic itwas combined with other deposited in theAshmolean Museum, where scholars' collections to form the basis of the early teaching slide collection at of the entire for archaeology Oxford University.121 A typed catalogue was at collection produced this time. Most of the entries for images ofAthens inMyres's register have tick marks in the column that indicates whether a lantern slide copy was made a in for theOxford slide teaching collection. Also, few of the entries Myres's toHellenic Association numbers. register contain cross-references catalogue and views on lantern Examples of similarities between Stebbings images are slides in theOxford teaching collection theKaryatid porch (Figs. 16,17), and theTheater of theTemple of Athena Nike (Figs. 18, 19), Dionysos 120. Edwards 2001, p. 27. A at 121. Harlan (Figs. 20, 21) inAthens, and Grave Circle (Figs. 22, 23) Mycenae. 2005,2007. A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 445

Figure 16. Lantern slide ofAthens, Karyatid porch of theErechtheion. J.L. Myres negative 2923. Oxford slide catalogue XB 209 (recatalogued asX 723A). Hellenic Association xxiii.25. Photo courtesy Faculty of Classics, Oxford University

Figure 17.Athens, Karyatid porch of theErechtheion. T. R. R. Stebbing Photo the Institute of negative. courtesy Archaeology, Oxford University

some s The lantern slides often contain multiple labels, with Myres nega some tive numbers, with Hellenic Association catalogue numbers, and all with Oxford collection catalogue numbers. s The Hellenic Association lending library of slides comprised images a com donated by interested teachers and academics and deposited with mercial publisher. The associations "Slides Illustrating Greek History" were often used in combination with the standard texts for schools.122They were or made available for hire purchase to teachers through lantern slide firms in London. After 1911, the large commercial firm of Newton and Company had the concession formarketing theHellenic Association slides. an 122. Field 1894;Oman 1901,1905; A notice in their two-volume catalogue for 1912 explained the need for Gardner 1902. smove expanded catalogue, coinciding with the firm to larger premises to 446 DEBORAH HARLAN

Figure 18. Lantern slide ofAthens, Temple ofAthena Nike on the Acropolis. Labeled "Temple of Wingless Victory." Oxford slide X 504. Photo courtesy Faculty of Classics, Oxford University

Figure 19.Athens, Temple ofAthena Nike on theAcropolis. T. R. R. Stub bing negative.Mary Ann Stebbing on seated Steps. Photo courtesy the Insti tute ofArchaeology, Oxford University

accommodate the huge demand for slides.123The catalogue offered slide sets as as sets or of artworks well illustratingmoral tales, taleswith sacred religious themes, and other literature.The firm also produced educational as and scientific series, including slides featuring countries of theworld well as theHellenic Association slide set. It is unknown whether the associa

tion's negatives were returned toMyres in the 1940s when the firmwent out as contract of business, Myres's had stipulated.124 It is equally possible were were that if the negatives returned, they subsequently interfiledwith either own collection or the Oxford without Myres's negative collection, 123. Newton Cata and Company documentation. vol. vi-vii. logue, 2, pp. Cross-references in the first of theOxford slide teach typed catalogue 124.Myres 1911-1913, fols. 151 ing collection indicate that copies of many of these images, including the 152. A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 447

Figure 20. Lantern slide ofAthens, priest's chair in theTheater ofDio nysos. Labeled "Chair of thePriest ofDionysius, [Clawed lion's feet?]." Oxford slideX 791. Hellenic Association xxxiii.13 (Newton and Co. label in upper leftcorner). Photo courtesy Faculty of Classics, Oxford University

Figure 21. Athens, Theater ofDio nysos.T. R. R. Stebbing negative. Mary Ann Stebbing seated behind the chair. Photo the priest's courtesy Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University

were Karyatid porch (Fig. 16) and Grave Circle A atMycenae (Fig. 22), sent to to also the Hellenic Society. The Hellenic Society is said have a formed the first lending collection of slides operated by learned society as as in Great Britain, early 1891.125The first catalogue and borrowing not regulations, compiled byMyres, did appear until 1897, published in the proceedings of theHellenic Society in theJournalfor Hellenic Studies.126 The Hellenic Society maintained and expanded this loan collection of lantern slides with donations by theirmembers, many ofwhom?though not all?were prominent academics and educators. At the end of the first 125.Myres 1937a. Hellenic slide in 1897 and of the first in 1900, 126.Hellenic Society 1897. Society catalogue supplement for theHellenic Association slide collection are also listed.127It 127.Hellenic Society 1897, p. lxxviii; catalogues some were Hellenic Society 1900, pp. lxiii-lxiv. is highly likely that members of theHellenic Association also 448 DEBORAH HARLAN

Figure 22. Lantern slide ofMycenae, Grave Circle A. Labeled "Graves in theCircle." J.L. Myres negative 2068. Oxford slideXK 30 (recatalogued as XKh). Hellenic Association xxi.26 (Newton and Co. label in upper left corner of slide). Photo courtesy the Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University

Figure 23.Mycenae, Grave Circle A. T. R. R. Stebbing negative. Photo courtesy the Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University

can members of theHellenic Society, and it be demonstrated thatmany were s name images shared between the two collections. Although Stebbing did not appear in the published lists of members of theHellenic Society, a it is possible that, throughMyres, selection of his images may have been included in their collection. to to own The Hellenic Society tended market their slide collection their or as membership that of allied institutions, such theClassical Association, was which formed in 1903 to encourage the study of the classics in schools.128 In conjunction with the activities of theClassical Association, theHellenic was as a Society collection employed propaganda tool to combat what many saw as the of the erosion of the belief in the of the beginnings "supremacy" 128. Turner 2005, p. 164. xxv. classics in schools and universities.129The Hellenic Society's lantern slide 129. MacMillan 1929, p. A VICTORIAN GENTLEMAN IN GREECE 449

loan collection flourished from the last decade of the 19th century until the were new mm 1970s, when many of the images reproduced for the 35 slide collection. Similarly, theOxford University slide collection migrated to the new, smaller 35 mm format at around the same time. Many of the images in the old archaeology lantern slide teaching collec are ones tion atOxford University traditional views not unlike the created by Stebbing. The Hellenic Society and Hellenic Association collections even more are conventional, possibly because their intended audiences were more generalized.130 These images reinforced the established tradi tion of representation framed byWestern notions of classical antiquity. The academics who selected the images for the collections were restrictive scenes or or were "gatekeepers" who decided what monuments artifacts or of value, and thereforewhat images were to be included, excluded. The chosen images,with their encoded message of antiquity, attained credibility as and authority representations of the past, and thus had the power to influence viewers both inside and outside the academy.

CONCLUSION

an Stebbing took his photographs in ideological environment of shared political, religious, class, and educational values. Like somany of his class, a Stebbing had traditional education embedded in the classics. Though he had been ordained in the church, he was a liberal thinker, a scientist with an empirical view of theworld. Victorian popular culture of his time also reflected specific attitudes toward the ancient world. On an excursion for to eastern pleasure the Mediterranean, Stebbing recorded, with an illu sion of objectivity, observations of theworld he saw.Those observations, were seen a however, subjective constructions of the past through Victorian gentleman's eyes. The snapshots from Stebbings travels continued their "social life" as were artifactswhen they assimilated into larger image collections. It can be some were assumed that of his images duplicated in lantern slide format, and in this were to a format they exposed wider audience. These images and oth ers like them became pedagogical "tools of the trade," actively disseminated, consumed, and presented, some for 50 years or more after their creation. With their to embedded meanings, they served influence the perceptions 130. Harlan 2008. of new generations of classicists, historians, and archaeologists. 45? DEBORAH HARLAN

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Deborah Harlan

University of Sheffield

department of archaeology

northgate house

west street

sheffield si 4ET

[email protected]