Originalveröffentlichung in: Acta historiae artium Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 49 (2008), S. 294-303

MALGORZATA OMDLANOWSKA*

THE QUESTION OF NATIONAL AND REGIONAL IDENTITY ON THE EXAMPLE OF POLISH AND GERMAN INTERPRETATIONS OF GDANSK ARCHITECTURE IN THE 19th AND 20th CENTURIES

Abstract: The architectural heritage and the mode of its analysis arid interpretation, specially in the perspective of na­ tional and regional question, can and often becomes the issue prone to manipulation. The attempts to define national and regional identity by means of cultural legacy have been accompanying the research into art and also the creation of modem architecture in the spirit of national Historieism already since the 19'1' century. The architecture of Gdansk has for years been the subject of a heated debate'of both German and Polish architects, historians of architecture, and conservators. In the recent years also politicians have joined in the debate, and so have writers. The paper analyses the issue of the relation of architectural forms and rhetorical formulas, namely the combination of architecture and specific contents treated as signs of local identity, as well as changeability and interpretational flexibility of those issues with regard to the needs of political circumstances (idioms versus interpretational variants, stereotypies, research myths, likings versus scholarly idiosyncrasies). Special attention will be paid to the Gdansk architecture of the 2nd half of the 19* century and its contemporary and later in­ terpretations in the perspective of regional and national identification. Keywords: architecture of the 19. and 20. centuries, national identification, Neo-Renaissance, , Gdansk, history of architecture

The architectural heritage and the mode of The major problem concerning Gdansk and its analysis and interpretation, specially in the interesting in the context of the topic of the pres­ perspective of national and regional question, ent Symposium does not only touch on the very is­ can and often becomes the issue prone to manip­ sues of national and local interpretation of the his­ ulation. The attempt's to define national and re­ tory of architecture of the city by art historian, but gional identity by means of cultural legacy have first of all the translation of those interpretations been accompanying the research into art and into arcliitecttrre raised in the city in the 19th and also the creation of modern architecture in the 20' centuries by German architects until 1944 spirit of national Historieism already since the and the Polish ones after 1945, which in conse­ 19th century. The place where the phenomena quence means the translation of those interpreta­ can be observed in a particularly acute way is tions into the processes of restoration, conserva­ Gdansk, a city of extremely complicated identity, tion, and reconstruction of Gdansk monuments. multicultural structure, and a rich architecftiral Architectural heritage of the old Gdansk, this output, the latter having been on a number of oc­ meaning the main sphere of interest of the re­ casions a subject to national interpretations or searchers into medieval and early modem art over-interpretations.1 and the architectural cityscape that it shaped was dominated by buildings raised during the period when Gdansk belonged to the Polish * Malgorzata Omilanowska, Instimte of Art of the Polish crown. Naturally, already during the Teutonic Academy of Sciences - Warsaw, History of Art Dept. Univer­ lh sity of Gdansk; E-mail: malgi [email protected], times: in the 13* and 14 centuries and in the th Fax: +48-22-831-31-49 first half of the 15 century, a number of impor-

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tant lay and sacral edifices had already been German art was started really early.2 The best ac­ built, yet many of them, e.g. the Town Hall of the complished Gdansk buildings could be found al­ main city in the course of time underwent sub­ ready among the prints of Georg Moller's portfi >li< > stantial alterations or were added extensions sig- published in 1821, whereas the publications nificant for their external reception, such as a from the 1850s, 1860s, and 1870s, mainly by Wil- huge tower added onto the Marian Church. In ef­ helm Liibke, consolidated in the general German fect, only one important symbol of the city, awareness the image of Gdansk architecture of namely the Crane Gate, dating from the Teu­ the Renaissance as one of the better examples of tonic period has, apart from churches, survived German architecture.4 unaltered until the modern times. Views of Polish scholars on the architecture The most attractive, and as the time has of Gdansk (I do not deal here with some detailed shown most important buildings in the perspec­ topographic studies) began to appear at tin; be­ tive of the reception of Gdansk architecture in ginning of the 20 century.'' The researchers later centuries were either created or thoroughly traced in it first of all Netherlandish and Italian altered in the second half of the 15 century, influences, at times literally denying any connec­ throughout the 16'1' century, and in the first half tion that it may have had with German art. It is of the IT1'1 century. The buildings of the Great Ar­ enough to mention in this respect controversies moury, the Green, High, and Golden Gates, the regarding the terminology with reference to the Old Town Hall, and the Court of the Brother­ architecture of the 16 and IT"1' centuries. The hood of St. Ceorge, as well as of the altered Main Germans defined those buildings as raised in the Town Hall and the have become the style of German Renaissance and Baroque. The icons of the city. The character of the city is also Poles, in turn, preferred the term Northern Ren­ shaped by dozens of tenement houses of typical aissance and Mannerism, eagerly emphasizing narrow facades crowned with gables and pre­ the main feature of this architecture, namely its ceded by perrons. The profile of the city domi­ relations with Netherlandish architecture, some­ nated by edifices from High Middle Ages, Renais­ times even excessively promoting the concept of sance, Mannerism, and Baroque was additionally Netherlandism in the context of Gdansk.1' consolidated by a construction stagnation w hich The 18 century brought no essential alter­ lasted through the 18* century and the majority ations in Gdansk's townscape. After 17()8, of the 19th century. Gdansk was encompassed within the boundaries Anyone at least rudimentarily familiar with of Prussia, whereas during the Napoleonic wars the facts from the Polish-German relations finds it suffered enormous devastation, losing for some it absolutely obvious that the artistic legacy of decades to come almost completely any eco­ Gdansk was bound to turn to he almost from the nomic importance, at the same time starling the very beginning of the research into it a sphere of period of stagnation w hich also affected the cre­ controversy and exttemely differentiated inter­ ation of new buildings. It was only once a new pretations between the Polish and German art West Prussian Province had been formed post historians. For the German scholars Gdansk ar­ 1878, namely after the establishment of the Ger­ chitecture constituted an integral part of the Ger­ man Empire, when Gdansk was elevated to the man cultural legacy, yet the Poles regarded the status of the capital of the province, that a new buildings from the period when the city belonged momentum in the development of the city was to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a gained, the economic growth accelerated, and a part of their own tradition, interwoven, whether stimulus formed for the expansion of the city and we want it or not, with various influences result­ enriching it with new public buildings. Histori- ing from a peculiar character of a multi-denomi­ cism of the second half of the 191'1 century deter­ national, multi lingual, and multi-cultural state. mined the choice of a style from the past for The present is not an appropriate opportunity them. The decision was made to follow the Ger­ to discuss in detail the German and Polish state of man No<(-Renaissance, already popular in the ar­ research into the architecture of Gdansk. Let me chitecture of many German towns.' remind, however, that the German research into In 1880-1887, several projects were imple­ Gdansk architecture as seen in the perspective of mented in Gdansk, these being first and fore-

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most the buildings of the Supra-Presidency and the same time the latter also raised two other im­ Western Prussian Public Notary (Oberpixisidial- portant edifices in Gdansk: the und Regierungsgebdude, Fig. 1) designed by the and the building of the Saving Bank (Sparkasse). Berlin architect Karl Friedrieh Endell and of the In professional media in which all the designs Governance of the Western Prussia Provinces were published it was emphasized that the build­ (Landeshaus, Fig. 2) designed by the Berlin ar­ ings stylistically adhered to German Neo-Renais- chitectural company Ende & Bockmann. Around sance; additionally, on a specified wish of the then city's Oberbilrgermeister Eeopold von Winter, as is testified by source texts, a clear reference to the local architectural legacy was enhanced." In view of the research into the architecture of German Neo-Renaissance, which points to its strong national and bourgeois connotations, as well as its relations with the myth of the 3.1 ,9 the choice of this very style KSK iM for the new architecture of Gdansk - the capital mim of an Empire's province may be considered most WSMmM U£m^4 just from the point of view of the city authorities' political ambitions, which was later testified by — Gdansk's career. It allowed to enhance the fact that Gdansk belonged to the Empire, and at the n n* same time signalled its local distinctness, it made mi nn« J reference to the bourgeois tradition of the town nn m i and referred directly to the times of the former r~ S^i ill WMM grandeur of the city whose restoration was the dream of its inhabitants. The second stage of the extension of Gdansk Fig. 2. Gdansk, the Governance of the \\ estern Pnissia took place in the years 1895-1910, after the Provinces (Landeshaus dor Provinz 11 estpreussen), Ende & Bockmann, 1880-1884, repr.: Zentralblatt modern city fortifications had been pulled down. der Bauverwaltung, 1885, nr 1, p. 5. German Neo-Renaissance was already by that

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Danzig's did Renaissance buildings should be success of the style spread over to tenement sought". In 1899, the designs were given a pos­ houses and villas, hotels, department stores, itive opinion by the Akadetnie der Bauwesen, bank headquarters, and many others. In major yet on the Emperor's order: "auf AUerhochste public buildings only some few cases of refer­ Anordnung", the initially designed forms appar­ ences to a different style can be observed, each ently referring to Dutch Renaissance were re­ time this style being Neo-Gothic with additional placed by ^Alt-Danzinger Bcuuveise" forms, clear reference to Gdansk buildings. closer in character." The final implementation The new architecture of Gdansk In 1880- designs authored by Albert Carsten were, in fact, 1910 was equally German and Gdansk in its srvl- enriched with a much greater number of gables istics, it allowed for both national and local iden­ than liggert and Tlnir had assumed (Fig. 4). tification, which was clearly read by the then In the last years of the 191'1 century and the German inhabitants of the city. This did not. first decade of the 20 century some dozen Neo- however, remain equally obvious for the Poles as Renaissance public buildings were raised in much as the local identification w as clear alsi i I'c >r Gdansk, this including the police headquarters, them, the relations with the national German the edifice of the Insurance (Lunclesrer.siche- style were no longer so. This is testified not only rungsanstalt, Fig. 5), the Reich's Bank, the Town by the writings of the period, starting from the re­ Archives and the Court (Land- und Amtsgerichts- ports on the expeditions of Polish architects to gebaude, Fig. 6), as well as an impressive Rail­ Gdansk,'"2 to the guide texts on the other ex­ way Station, with a tower quoting almost literary treme," but also the episodic as it might be, but the tower of the Town I lall. What is more, the meaningful at the same time use of the "Old

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Gdansk" sty le in the exhibition pavilion of the ture, while promoting conservative solutions. Okocim Brewery built in Lvov by the Cracow ar­ Meanwhile, the Gdansk milieu willingly accepted chitect Tomas Pryliriski in 1894 (Fig. 7). The use the influence of Heimatschlttzbewegurtg, which of tbe "'Old Gdansk forms" was in the eyes of the was soon to be seen in the architecture of villa commissioning entity meant to emphasize the quarters, first of all in Langfuhr and the estates in long tradition of beer brewing in Okocim, as a the style of "garden-cities'1, such as e.g. the com­ matter of fact located in the south of Poland, in plex of a clerks' cooperative in Neuschottland. the then Galicia. The focus on the past and the values of old The dominance of German Neo-Gothic in architecture yielded even before the outbreak of Gdansk architecture was in a way consolidated World War I the first attempts to restore the orig­ by establishing a strong centre of research into inal homogeneous character to the old quarter of the old architecture of the city which was created the city. In practice, this meant the rejection ol at the Architecture Department at Gdansk Tech­ the buildings from the first half of the 19'1' cen­ nical University in 1904. The architects who tury, yet at the same time the first voices of criti­ formed it became a conservative opposition ver­ cism of late Historicism could be heard. In 1910, sus any attempts to build differently, in a more on the initiative of the private real-estate's own­ modern manner, in compliance with German ers a competition was held to alter two houses and European Avant-garde trends in architec­ adjacent to the Baroque so-called Schluter

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House in Jopengasse (today's Piwna Street). The tury, by reducing the number of aggressive ad­ winning design was authored by Carl Anion vertising, but first of all by altering houses that Meckel and it assumed the stylistic adjustment of "did not match'1 the historical architecture in the the buildings to be altered both to the above- spirit of the architecture of the old Gdansk.1'' It mentioned houses and buildings along the w hole was first of all buildings from the 19,h and the be­ street. In effect, a pastiche on Baroque architec­ ginning of the 20'1' century that fell victim to ture was achieved: formally, very close to the those alterations, for their Neo-Renaissance Schliiter House, yet featuring shapes that those forms characteristic of late Historicism not houses most probably had nev er had (Fig. 8a-b). longer matched the concept of the true Old hi the intervvar-period, during the existence Gdansk architecture of the generation deciding of the Free Citv of Danzig, architects affiliated on the new shape of the centre of Gdansk in the with the Architecture Department of the Techni­ 1930s. The accomplished result proved to create cal University continued to have a decisive voice a verv homogeneous whole, specially as any re­ on the shape of Gdansk architecture. They effec­ mains reminding of the fact that the city had tively hampered any attempts to raise any Avant- once belonged to Poland and which had sur­ garde designs in the historical city centre, which vived the Prussian times were as a matter of fact Martin Kiesslinc. holding the office of Gdansk's eliminated (Fig. 10). city architect in 1927-1929 verified personally The year 19+3 resulted in an almost com­ (Fig. 9). He had succeeded to have two schools plete annihilation of the historical centre of raised according to his designs m some other dis­ Gdansk, whereas in the aftermath of the decision tricts of Gdansk, yet the idea to introduce any of the great powers the city was to be on the terri­ modern urban solutions in the strict centre < »f the tory of the Polish People's Republic. Its former city was strongly criticised, mainly by Otto Kloep- inhabitants who had not managed to evacuate pel and these projects, in fact, remained unac­ before the war front arrived, were displaced, complished.1 their homes to be populated by the Poles, mainly After the National Socialist Party had won coming from the eastern territories of Poland in­ power in 1933, in Gdansk a broad campaign to corporated into the Soviet I nidii. V new stage in restore the monumental centre of the city was the history of the city started in which political started. Within 6 years a great effort was put to and social needs related mainly to the need to restore the old aspect to the city by removing tame space and gain new identification moti­ shop windc >ws pierced at the turn of the 19'' cen­ vated the decision to rebuild the destroyed city

[da I Hit. Art.. Tom. -rt Jims 302 CIHA NA TIONAL - POST-NATIONAL centre. The works that had survived from the tions, volute gables, bay windows and Renais­ times of Prussia where then cursed and only sance turetts, can be seen, e.g. in the buildings those edifices which for utilitarian reasons could raised in the 1990s along the southern street be used without any greater financial input sur­ front of Stqgiewna Street (former Milclikannen- vived. Instead, the old architecture from the gasse), where in synthetic plasters the facades of times of the Polish-Lithuania Commonwealth houses from the times of the Griinderzeit were was worth restoring, mainly due to the fact that recreated not extremely faithfully. The seducing in the course of the debate the opinion on its Pol- picturesque quality of those buildings effectively ishness prevailed.1' In the course of the recon- overcomes in many Polish beholders historical, struetion all the city "icons" were faithfully re­ and until recently negative, connotations. Para­ stored: the City Gates, churches, Town Halls, doxically, this possibility of local identification Artus Court, and the Court of St. George, yet the with the architerture of the German times turned residential architecture was rebuilt in order to out to be so attractive, as it provides an opportu­ satisfy the needs of an already new working es­ nity to create yet another Gdansk myth on the tate, hiding behind the 'Gdansk'1 gabled narrow city's tolerance, openness, multiethnic character, facades ordinary apartment blocks grouped meaning features desirable for the united Eu­ around internal courtyards, once very densely rope of the 21st century. built up.'8 On the very occasion an attempt to AcUially, the analysing of Gdansk architec­ "Polemize" or rather "de-Germanize" the recon­ tural legacy in the national categories of the Pol­ structed buildings was made to consciously ma­ ish or German qualities has created a number of nipulate iconographic motifs of the facade deco­ myths, fabricating this or that myth for the pur­ ration, specially along the stately route along pose of current political needs. Over the last two Dluga and Dlugi Targ Sneets.lQ The complex of centuries authors writing about Gdansk architec­ the reconstructed old centre of the city was to be­ ture have developed a whole range of strategies come the symbol of Poland's eternal presence on of appropriation supported by a strong aware­ the Baltic (Fig. t la-b). ness of a multi-century-lasting Polish-German An amazing newest chapter in the history of national conflict. And the easiest way out always the reception of Gdansk architecture and search­ turned out to be the reference to the local dimen­ ing for the places of local identification began in sion of things, the mythology of an always free the 1990s. Apparently, among the circles of and independent Gdansk, overwhelmed by that quite an influential group of Gdansk intellectuals genius loci which allowed it to maintain cultural a concept was born to reconstruct the works of continuity despite a complicated political history. Neo-Renaissance architecture from the Wilhelm The Renaissance arcliitecture of Gdansk, in­ times, as the latter was regarded to be an excel­ terpreted by scholars, architects, and the 19th-cen- lent example of the Gdansk genius loci and a tury Prussian residents of Gdansk served as signpost for modern architects searching for a grounds for creating the architecture of Histori- new expression for Gdansk architecture.20 Para­ cism in its national style, yet of local connotarion. doxically, in the eyes of some contemporary which apparently 100 years later has been re­ Gdansk residents die German architecture, the garded by the Poles living in the city as a manifes­ Criinderzeit, turned out to be an attractive alter­ tation of the'genius loci and has been raised to the native to some contemporary designs. The result status of a two-aspect model: of local identificatic m of a such-conceived policy of cherishing the local and an over-national tolerance at the same time. genius loci and revealed in the brick-stone eleva­

NOTES

1 Let me just remind yon the very- basic historical facts 13()P>. in 1361 Gdansk was incorporated into the activity of the which have given the shape to the city. The settlement Hanseatic League. In 1-H>(>. after the 13-years' War Gdansk recorded lor the first time in 997 developed as the capital of a separated from the Teutonic state and incorporated into the Slav Pomeranian Duchy, and around mid-13 century it was Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth gaining, however, an ex­ given town privileges. Captured by the Teutonic Order in ceptional and very privileged position. After the second 179.3

icta Hist. l/t, Tom. 49, Jims M. 0M1LANOWSKA, GDANSK ARCHITKCTL RK

partition (if Poland. Cdansk was inei>r]minted into Prussia, Lewicki. Jakub: Reeepcja architektury gdariskiej w and in 1920 in compliance with the Versaille Treaty it gained srodowisku Iwowskirn na przelomie XIX i XX wieku (Recep­ the status of a Free City under the protectorate of the League tion of Gdansk Architecture in the Lvov Circles at the Turn of of Nations. the 19* Century), in: Studia nod archileklitrq Gdariska i I'o- " I do not mention here earlier publications of topographic- morza, (Studies in the Architecture of Gdansk and Pomera- descriptive character prepared mainly among the Gdansk circle. nia), ed. Andrzej Crzvbkowski. \\ arszawa 2004. pp. 215-22(> Moller, Georg: Beitragp. zur Kenntniss der deutschen (here p. 223). liiiiikuti.il des Mittekdters enthaltend eine Reihe eon llerken Krtiszyriski. Tadeusz: Przewodnik po Gdarisku t okolicy aits (li'm Slen bis zurn I6len Jahrhundert (Denkmaler der (A (hiirie to Gdansk and its Environs), ^ arszawa 1914, p. 1 1. deutschen Baukunst, Bd.l), Darmstandt 1821. H Lewicki 2004 (see note 12). p. 220. 4 I.ill ike, V? llhehn, (leschichle der deutschen Renaissance ''' Pusback, Birte: Sladt als lleimut. Die Danzinger Denk- (Gegchichter der Baukunst, Bd 5), Stuttgart 1873. malpflege zwischen 1933 and 1939, Koln 2006, pp. 203-209. kniszviiski. Tadeusz: Staiy Gdansk i histoiya /ego szlukt '^Pusback 2000 (see note 15), pp. 192-203. (The Old Gdansk and die History of its Art). Wieliczka 1913. 1 Friedrich. Jacek: Diskussion fiber den \\ iederaufbau von 11 Friedrich. Jacek: Netherlandism of Early Modern Gdansk Danzig in den Jahren 1945-1948. Marc Balacum 1999, Ost- Art in the Eyes of Polish Researchers before 1945 in: Nether­ see-Akademie Liibeck- I i avemiinde [2000]. pp. 24-34. landish Artists in Gdansk in die Time of I land I redeman de Friedrich, Jacek: Glowne zalozenia odbndowv histo- t ries. Material from the Conference organized by Museum of ncznegi i (Idaiiska (Main Assumptii ins of the ReconstrUCti in c if the History of the Git) of Gdansk and Weserrenaissance-Mu- Historical Gdansk), in: Kunstgeschichte mid Denkmalpflege. seum Schlofi Brake Lemgo, Gdaiisk-Lemgo 2006, pp. 23-29. IV, Tagung des Arbeitskreises deutscher und polnischer Kunst- Ornilanowska, Malgorzata: Architektura Gdariska hit historiker und Denkmalpfleger. Toruh 2.-6. Oktober 1997. ed. 1871-1') 14 (Architecture of Gdansk of 1871-1914): Q lansk (>r Wozniak Michal, Toruri 2002. pp. 213-222: idem: Koutiimital (rather) German? In: Mecenal a artvslwzne oblicze nnasl. Ma­ mid Innovation beim \\ lederanfbati Danzigs. in: Architekttir ternity IA I Ogolnopolskiej sesji Sloiiru~\szeniu I listoryhow Szr and Stadtebau tin Siidlichen Ostseerauin zicischen 193b und tttki (Artistic Patronage cersns the Artistic Facet of a Toicn. Ma­ 1980, ed. B. Lichtnau, Berlin 2002. pp. 169-174 terials o/ the Symposium of the Association of Art Historians). Friedrich, Jacek: Wystruj dekoracyjny Drogj Krolewskiej Krakow 2006, ed. Darius Nowicki, Krakow 2008. pp. 169-184. w Gdarisku w latach 1953-1955 (Decoration Elements of tin1 " Pospieszny, Kaziniierz: Neorenaissance-.Vrehitektur in Royal Route in Gdansk in 1953-1955), Gdanskie Studia Mu- Danzig (Gdansk) in: Renaiisance der Renaissance, ed. Georg zealne (Gdansk Museum Studies). <> (1995) [2000], pp. 111- Ulrich Grofimann, (Schriften des Weserrenaissance-Museums 133. SclilolA Brake, 8). 1995. pp. 133-142. Friedrich, Jacek: Problem "gdariskosci w architekto Menneckes. Ball: Die Renaissance der deutschen Renais­ nicznych upodobaniaeh wspolezesnvch gdaiiszczan (The Issue sance. Petersbertr 200") of the "Cdansk Character in the Architectural Predilections of 111 • (lontemporary Gdansk Residents), in: Gust gdariski. Material/ Der Plan emer aeuen Technischen Hochschule in z sympozjum 23-2-t pazdziernika 2002 (Gdansk 'Taste. Materi­ Danzig. Zentralhlatl der Bauuerwaltung, 19 (1899), p. 124. als from the Conference October 23-2-t. 2002). ed. Bronislaw " Die Neubauten fur die Technischen Hochschule m Dejna and Jakuli Szczepariski, Cdaiisk 2004, pp. 82-98. Danzig. Zentralblatt der Bauuerwaltung, 22 (1902), p. 454.

Icto Hist. iri.. Turn. 49, 2008