MIGRATION ACTION BROTTRHOOO OF ST. LAURENCE Vol. IX Number 3 (1987) 67 BRW’.SV.'ICK STREET FITZROY V iC T O R IT M

Immigration Policy The Language of Multiculturalism Outw ork _ Photos by Irene Nicolaidis Multicultural Education Migration

Action Migration Action is published by the Ecumenical Migration Centre (133 Church Street, Richmond, Victoria, Australia, 3121 — Tel: 428 4948). Migration Action Voi. IX Number 3 (1987) ISSN: 0311-3760

E.M.C. is a non-denominational TABLE OF CONTENTS agency which through its welfare, educational, project and Paradise Regained? After the Cuts and the Backlash community work fosters the by Stephen Castles...... 1 development of Australia as a multicultural society. The Centre The Guidelines for Australian Immigration Policy has been working with immigrants by Jock Collins...... 4 since 1962. Its work is diversified with a strong emphasis on Outwork and Migrant Women: Some Responses developing models of working by Caroline Alcorso...... 10 with non-English speaking Speaking of Cultural Difference background people, community by Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis...... 14 education and community development. Migrant Workers and Workers’ Compensation Within a framework of ensuring by Caroline Alcorso...... 18 equal rights for all in Australian Multicultural Education in Crisis? society, workers at E.M.C. provide by Mary Kalantzis and Bill Cope...... 23 information, a welfare and counselling service, and News from O M A...... 30 community development activities to Greek and Turkish immigrants Around the States...... 32 and Vietnamese refugees. Support is also given to smaller groups World Scene...... 35 such as the Timorese and to many Action...... 37 individuals of diverse backgrounds. Book Reviews...... 40 CHOM1 (Clearing House On Migration Issues) is a unique information centre on migrant, refugee and ethnic issues which provides a base for the Centre’s Editor: Renata Singer community education Design and Layout: Kati Sunner programmes. The library holds over 40,000 documents and 250 It is not the intention of this journal to reflect the opinion of either periodicals which are used by the staff or the committee of the EMC. In many matters this would students, teachers, government be difficult to ascertain nor does the Editor think it desirable. The aim departments, community of the Journal is to be informative and stimulating through its vari­ organisations and others seeking ous articles, suggestions and comments. up-to-date information or SUBSCRIPTION RATES: (per volume of 3 issues) — $20.00 (individuals) undertaking research. — $25.00 (institutions) — $30.00 (abroad) — Single Issue: $4.00

Please issue cheques, money orders, etc to: Ecumenical Migration Centre, 133 Church Street, Richmond, Vic. Australia, 3121. Paradise Regained? After the Cuts and the Backlash

Stephen Castles

Who would have predicted the turn-around which has taken place since the beginning of this year? First Hurford was moved (a change which heralded the end of his ministerial career). His replacement, Mick Young is one of the most influential figures of the ALP, and has already demonstrated a capacity for listening to the views of ethnic communities, as well as a healthy scepticism on the supposed benefits of an expansionary labour migration program. Bill McKinnon has been exiled to New Zealand. Some of the ESL funding has been restored (although partly at the cost of the educational programs for other disadvantaged groups). The SBS-ABC merger has been dropped. Most important of all, the Prime Minister has been bending over backwards to show that he cares: he has announced the establishment of an Office of Multicultural Affairs within the Department of Prime This time a year ago we were still reeling from Minister and Cabinet and an Advisory Council on the impact of the Budget cuts: English as Second Multicultural Affairs, made up of prominent people, Language and Multicultural Education programs largely of migrant origin. had been slashed, the Australian Institute of OMA (which means grandmother in German) and Multicultural Affairs abolished, and the Special ACMA are the acronyms we are going to have to Broadcasting Service was due to be merged with live with for the next few years. Why has this abrupt the ABC. The Department of Immigration and turn-about taken place? Does it represent a real Ethnic Affairs was headed by an insensitive and change or is it just window-dressing, to keep the disinterested minister, Chris Hurford. Both he and "ethnic vote” on-side? the Secretary of the DIEA Bill McKinnon, seemed The reasons for the shift are not hard to more interested in meeting business demands for understand: the Government was taken by surprise expanded labour migration and in deporting Islamic by the strength of the reaction to last year’s leaders than in addressing the pressing problems measures. The protest meetings, demonstrations of the ethnic communities. ALP leaders had publicly and angry reports in the ethnic media had a thumbed their noses at the “ethnic vote”. It looked considerable impact. When bus-loads of protesters as if Blainey and Ruxton were getting their way, came to Canberra, plainclothed observers were albeit with a two year time lag from the outbursts sent out to look for “professional agitators”. Instead of 1984. Australia seemed to be on the way back they found working men and women, many of to its inglorious ethnocentric past. whom had never been on a demonstration before.

This issue of Migration Action has been jointly edited with Stephen Castles, Head of the Centre for Multicultural Studies (C.M.S.) at the University of Wollongong. Since 1977 the C.M.S. has been involved in research on migration and on the situation of ethnic minorities in Australia. Caroline Alcorso, Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis are Research Fellows at the C.M.S. Jock Collins is Lecturer in Economics at Kuring-gai College of Advanced Education in Sydney.

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 1 NSW Premier Barry Unsworth, afraid of losing his department, to assess their impact on multicultural tenuous majority, took the lead in telling Hawke that policies. This could make a reality of the things had gone wrong. Hawke blamed Hurford and Commonwealth Government’s Access and Equity Susan Ryan (retribution was to follow). With an Program, which has so far been an empty vessel. election on the way, something had to be done OMA also has a large staff (about 40) and a sizeable quickly. When Mick Young was appointed he, budget ($3 million this year, over and above rapidly became known as the “ Minister for the personnel costs). The Prime Minister will find it all ethnic vote”, and the ethnic communities were the harder to retreat from promises he has made spared further cuts in the May Economic to ethnic communities around the country, when Statement. But now that the ALP is safely home for the executive organ for their achievement is in his three more years, cynics might assert that own back-yard. multiculturalism can be put on the back-burner for According to Dr. Peter Shergold, who has been the time-being. seconded from the University of New South Wales The reality is more complex. The predominantly to head OMA, the Office has five main tasks. white, male, middle-aged Anglos who make policies 1. To monitor Commonwealth Government in Canberra, both as parliamentarians and services and programs to make sure that they are bureaucrats, may have little real interest in appropriate for a multicultural society. This includes multicultural affairs, but the political shifts of the supervising the working out and implementation of last nine months now have their own dynamic. Access and Equity programs by the 58 Structures have been established and funds voted. Commonwealth departments and agencies, as well The ethnic communities now have an opportunity as improving and unifying the collection of data on of ensuring that these are used constructively, and issues related to ethnicity. not simply squandered on the elaborate production of yet more rhetoric. 2. To work out appropriate policy initiatives in the multicultural area, including budgeting. This role Multicultural or Ethnic? requires a considerable amount of research, most One of the problems that Australians have with of which will be contracted out. their governments is the complexity and the 3. To carry out liaison and consultation with the breathtaking speed of change in bureaucratic community. This will involve the working out of new structures. At the time of writing much is unclear mechanisms of consultation, aimed to reach groups after the sweeping post-election changes. The which normally find it hard to make their voices merging of education into the employment, heard. education and training super-department may bring 4. To develop appropriate forms of community improvements in the linking of learning with labour- information and education. The Office is to take an market access. But the price could be neglect of active role in trying to influence public opinion and the broader role of education, and in particular of attitudes, using the media, the schools, etc. its cultural dimensions. A special problem for people of migrant origin 5. To support ACMA in working out the “ National is the subtle distinction between ethnic and Agenda for a Multicultural Australia”, which was multicultural affairs. The ROMAMPAS Report last announced by the Prime Minister in his inaugural year called for an Office of Ethnic Affairs in the address to ACMA on 9 April 1987. DIEA. Now we have an Office of Multicultural The Australian Institute for Multicultural Affairs Affairs in the Department of Prime Minister and was abolished last year partly as a penny-pinching Cabinet. But what’s the difference? For years the measure, but mainly because the Government Government has been telling us we are all ethnic. found it a political embarrassment. The new OMA Now we are to be re-educated to learn that ethnic is much closer to Government than AIMA ever was. refers to recent migrants, while multicultural This is a two-edged sword: OMA could have the means all Australians. There would have been some power to achieve more, but it could also be more logic in restricting the function of the DIEA to closely controlled, and its activities kept more immigration and immediate settlement programs. secret. The outcome will depend to some extent on But the only rationale of the present arrangement the actions of people within ethnic and community is the bureaucratic logic of jockeying for positions organisations. Giving OMA the cold shoulder will in the hierarchy. drive it into bureaucratic isolation: active but critical co-operation may give it a chance to be relevant The Office of Multicultural Affairs and useful. At the moment OMA seems to have got Nonetheless, OMA has real potential. The its priorities right, at least in the research and policy Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet has a area: the emphasis is on issues of social mobility, central role in the power structure. OMA now vets and on analysing the social and economic benefits all submissions to Cabinet, from whatever of a multicultural society. This is worth supporting.

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The National Agenda to be adequately addressed. In their article Mary Nowhere is the ambivalent potential of the new Kalantzis and Bill Cope look at the debate on “ethnic policy more obvious than with regard to the disadvantage” and advocate a strengthening of proposed National Agenda. In the last fifteen years, equitable multicultural education. multiculturalism has produced an enormous Work and Restructuring amount of hot air: countless strings of principles, High unemployment rates among certain ethnic strategies and policies. Committee after committee groups indicate that they have borne the brunt of has commissioned research and carried out economic change. Some researchers have consultations to arrive at a new series of platitudes, attempted to show that there is no real problem in hardly distinguishable from the previous one. The this area, and that the labour market functions problem has been the implementation of such efficiently and equitably. Such analyses are often universally-acclaimed tenets. The latest set of based on highly-aggregated data, which hide the principles and strategies was set out in the huge variations between different groups. Caroline ROMAMPAS Report last year. There is clearly no Alcorso’s article on the difficulties of injured migrant need for yet another repetition of this exercise. workers shows the grim reality for one What is needed is a clear summary of the main disadvantaged group. In a second contribution issues and priorities in each area, with concrete Caroline Alcorso describes the appalling situation proposals for action. If that is what the Agenda will faced by many migrant women workers. Outwork­ do, then it is to be welcomed. If it turns out to be ers are still often treated as self-employed, which just an excuse for doing nothing for two years, then deprives them of award conditions and legal it should not be stomached. Again, this is where protection. The growth of self-employment is often we can all contribute, both by participating in regarded as upward mobility. In fact it can hide working out the Agenda, and by insisting that the extreme exploitation. time for platitudes has passed. It is up to us to pinpoint the main areas of concern, and to make sure that these are addressed. Immigration Policy The first of these is immigration policy. Under Hurford, the DIEA seemed determined to increase intakes of skilled migrant workers, in the belief that this would automatically stimulate economic growth. This view was based on a misreading of the 1985 Report of the Council for the Economic Development of Australia, and on the vocally expressed interests of some big business figures. The idea was that immigration could be left to market forces, while the cost of settlement programs was cut. Mick Young has already edged away from this policy. At the same time, however, refugee intakes remain low. The necessary reform of appeals procedures has yet to transpire. In his article in this issue of Migration Action, Jock Collins deals with current debates in immigration policy. It will help us understand the issues in the run-up to a planned Green Paper. Education There are several crucial debates in education. One concerns the issue of “ethnic disadvantage”. Recent research findings purport to show that children of non-English speaking background no longer suffer any long-term problems at school. Under Susan Ryan, the Department of Education Multiculturalism and Ideology used this as a rationale for cutting ESL and There is no area where more rhetoric has been multicultural education. Another key question produced than in ethnic affairs and multi­ concerns the implementation of the National culturalism. In their final contribution Bill Cope and Languages Policy, adopted by the Government Mary Kalantzis look at the changing language of earlier this year. Finally, the whole issue of the multiculturalism, and some of the hard realities curriculum needs of a multicultural society has yet behind it.

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 3 The Guidelines For Australian Immigration Policy Jock Collins

Contours of the immigration debate of C.J. Coles Mr Brian Quinn, have called for an In the 1980s public debate has put all aspects immediate doubling of the immigration intake. On of current Australian immigration policy under the other hand there are those such as sociologist scrutiny. There are many questions. Should the Bob Birrell who argue for substantially reduced Australian government continue to increase immigration intakes. immigration intake at a time of persistent In one sense, calls for increased immigration unemployment? Are there limits to migrant intake, indicate the ‘health’ of the post war Australian and if so what are they? What about the immigration experience. In the United Kingdom, by composition of the migrant intake? How adequate comparison, post war immigration has always been is the current balance between the different conceived as a ‘problem’, with the key task categories of migrant intake? Is the current priority immigration control and limitation. The economic given to labour migration and the primacy of case for existing immigration is rarely put, let alone ‘economic’ factors justified? Should migrants in the economic case for increased immigration. In ‘employment’ categories be chosen to fill short run Western Europe, immigration policy has labour shortages, or should the existing concentrated on the ‘problem’ of guestworkers who unemployed, migrant and non-migrant, be retrained remain intransigent in the face of government for these jobs? attempts to encourage their repatriation. This Further issues relate to the appropriate response ‘problem’ mantel has led to a reduction in to migrants once in Australia: Is ‘multiculturalism’ immigration intakes and to efforts to induce existing an appropriate model for migrant settlement, and migrants to leave, with increasingly draconian and if so does the practice of multiculturalism match discriminatory citizenship laws a widespread the rhetoric? Should there be a move away from the occurrence. This has been matched by an migrant specific to the ‘mainstream’? Other escalation of racist conflict and the mobilisation of questions concern the appropriate response by the parliamentary and extra-parliamentary groups government to racism and prejudice in Australia intent on fostering racism and agitating on anti­ and the relations between different ethnic groups immigration issues. and between migrants and non-migrants. What are Nevertheless, there are limits to the Australian the lessons here for future immigration and ethnic immigration intake. The limits are not found in the affairs policy?. ability to recruit migrants, but to ensure successful The immigration debate is not esoteric. Just as settlement once in Australia based on the principle immigration policy to date has fundamentally of social justice for all. influenced post war Australian society, so too will The appropriate size of the Australian future immigration decisions shape the contours of immigration intake is therefore contingent on a Australian society till the end of the twentieth number of factors. One is the state of the labour century and beyond. This article aims to briefly market, since employment is a necessary condition review the immigration debate in order to set out of successful settlement. Another is the adequacy some guidelines for Australian immigration policy1. of government provision of migrant programs and services, for the over-riding requirement is that all migrants have equal opportunity and access in HOW MANY MIGRANTS? Australian society. Moreover the immigration intake In recent years the Federal Labor Government must be such as to not undermine a tendency to has increased the immigration intake (See Table 1). increasing tolerance in community relations: every Chris Hurford, Immigration Minister in the Hawke effort must be made to ensure that the experience Government until 1987, was in favour of an of escalating racism directed to migrants in other incremental increase of annual immigration to a countries is not replicated in Australia. The question plateau of about 150,000 a year by 1987-88. Notable ‘how many migrants?' can therefore be answered political and business leaders, such as the Western thus: ‘as many as possible given the above Australian Labor Premier Brian Burke and the head constraints or limits.’

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Table 1. Immigration intake by eligibility category (%) 1978-86

Year* 78-79 79-80 80-81 81-82 82-83 83-84 84-85 Family Reunion 25.0 22.5 17.6 18.3 28.9 48.6 52.6 53.9 Refugees 19.5 24.5 19.6 18.5 18.3 21.2 19.1 12.8 Other* 55.4 52.9 62.8 63.2 52.8 30.2 28.3 33.4 Total 68749 81271 111190 111700 93177 69805 78087 92330 Year* 85-86 86-87 87-88 Family Reunion 27.9 26.1 27.4 Refugees 12.6 10.4 10.0 Other* 59.5 63.5 62.6 Total 92953 115000 120500 * 1978-9 to 1984-5, % of settler arrivals by region of last residence, errors due to rounding. 1985-6 to 1987-8 relates to visas issued rather than settler arrivals. The total is an overestimate to the extent that not all visas are immediately taken up, though this is counteracted by the exclusion of New Zealanders, who do not need a visa. * including labour shortage, business and other categories applicable at the time. Source: DIEA, Review of Activities (AGPS Canberra) various years, and Frank Stilwell, “ Immigration Policy: Sound Economic Foundations?”, Journal of Australian Political Economy, No. 21 May 1987 p.62.

As Table 1 shows, immigration intakes in the last It is not surprising that business representatives three years have been increased to levels favour immigration rather than retraining as a exceeding those of the last years of the Fraser solution to labour market imbalances. But surely government. This reflects the Hawke Government’s there is government responsibility to the acceptance of the conclusions of the CEDA study, unemployed in Australia, migrant or non-migrant. The Economic Effects of Immigration in After the 1987 election, a ‘super ministry’ combining Australia, that increased immigration in periods of employment, education and training was persistent unemployment is not economic or established under John Dawkins, giving the political suicide. However, while the CEDA study potential for some improvement in this regard. correctly establishes the long run correlation However, after more than a decade of high between immigration and economic growth — and unemployment, the track record for labour market is an important counter to the unsubstantiated programs for migrants does not encourage great arguments of Professor Blainey — it is weaker in optimism. estimating the short run impact. The CEDA economic rationalisation for It is misleading to recommend some sort of immigration has implications for migrant selection. ‘immigration-led’ economic recovery: rather than If economic concerns reign, Australia would only immigration endlessly expanding the economy and take in migrants who immediately fit into the labour the labour market, the economy and the labour market. This would suggest that an increasing market set a limit to immigration. Persistent proportion of English-speaking, skilled migrants be unemployment — a burden disproportionately selected. Family reunion and refugee and special falling on newly arrived non-English speaking humanitarian categories would be greatly migrants, particularly youth and women — and an diminished. The composition of the immigration uncertain economy suggest that caution rather intake of recent years confirms this trend as English than haste rule the day. The failure of labour market speaking skilled migrants are increasingly favoured programs to date to adequately respond to migrant at the expense of NES migrants. As one unemployment brought about by cyclical and commentator recently noted, the ideal immigrant structural economic change underlines the need seems to have changed from WASP (white Anglo- for gradual increases in immigration intake. Saxon Protestant) to SWELL (Skilled white English- Even during the recent economic recovery, the language labour). employment situation of recently arrived migrants improved at a much slower rate than that of other The rationale for Australian immigration is only workers. It would be sheer folly to pursue large partly economic, though a much broader increases in immigration intake when the labour appreciation of ‘economics’ is required than that market has trouble in absorbing existing levels of applied in the CEDA study. It is also partly immigration. Large immediate increases in the size humanitarian, partly political, partly social. These of the dole queues would prove more fertile ground factors are all relevant to a consideration of the for the so-far isolated views of Professor Blainey question of the composition of the immigration and the anti-immigrant far-right. intake.

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 5 FROM WHERE? economic consequences of immigration, and does Since 1972 Australian governments have not even pretend to consider non-economic issues. pursued an official policy of non-discriminatory It therefore undervalues the economic contribution selection, so that race, colour and creed are no of family reunion. longer determinants of a migrant’s suitability for For example, without allowing newly arrived settlement in Australia. This significant reform of ethnic groups such as the Vietnamese, Lao or El the ‘White Australia policy’ has had an impact on Salvadorian access to family reunion, many subsequent patterns of immigration, most 'problems’ emerge. The extended family and ethnic noticeable in the increasing Asian intake. The community are important supportive mechanisms government has rightly rejected the ‘Blainey view’ in settlement. Welfare delivery is often community as throwing immigration policy back decades to the based, while many migrants resolve problems of dark ages of assimilation and a ‘British’ Australia. settlement within the — often extended-family. By There are no ethnic quotas. The ‘from where’ cutting off family reunion, many indirect economic question therefore becomes one of resolving the costs merge in the family law courts, mental health priorities of the components of the immigration institutions or the education and welfare sectors. intake: family reunion, refugee and special To the extent that an adequate family reunion humanitarian, business, skilled labour and the program minimises — though does not eliminate employer nomination scheme and the independent — these indirect costs, there is an economic and concessional category — all of which have argument for family reunion. non-racial selection procedures. In recent years there is a clear tendency for refugee and family reunion intakes to decline relative to the other categories geared to the needs of the labour market. This direction in immigration policy seems to be misplaced, and based on an acceptance of a narrow ‘economic’ case for immigration, which also downplays the importance of social and humanitarian considerations. This can be seen by considering each category of intake in turn.

Family reunion The case for a sustained family reunion program is strong. Without the ability to bring family members out to settle in Australia, Australia’s immigration program reverts to a de facto guest worker scheme. The ability of migrants to bring out relatives to strengthen family and community groupings in Australia has in the past laid the basis for a successful immigration program: it took three decades to introduce migrant programs and services! With family and community support the hardship of settlement for many of Australia’s migrants is made more bearable. A similar obligation remains to recent migrants. They must be able to be re-united with their families and to establish viable communities to ease the difficulties of settlement in a strange, distant land. The two main objections to family reunion migration relate to the fact that it increases the The costs argument against family reunion is number of non-English speaking (NES) migrants. stronger. Greater family reunion means a greater This is seen to be economically unsound — since demand for English language programs on arrival it increases the intake of semi- and unskilled NES and subsequently in the schools, communities and migrants — and costly, requiring greater workplaces. The most expensive item on the expenditure on migrant services and programs. On Department of Immigration budget is English closer inspection, however, the economic argument language tuition. The Hawke Government's against family reunion is not so watertight. The conservative economic strategy, leading to reduced CEDA study ignores the ‘social’ or indirect government spending in each successive annual

Page 6 — Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 budget since 1984 — a policy unlikely to change sanctuary for refugees many thousands of miles significantly with a change of government — puts away — for example, for the 89 Soviet Jews who the Department under cost-cutting pressures. were granted entry in July 1987 after representation While it is cheaper to select migrants who have to the Soviet Union by Foreign Minister Bill Hayden the costs of education training and English- — it is blind and numb in its response to pleas from language proficiency borne by other'governments, refugees on our northern doorstep. Political family reunion is a crucial ingredient in a successful opportunism clearly overrides humanitarian immigration program. concerns as the Australian government bows to pressure from the Indonesian Military junta to keep Refugees out. The refugee and special humanitarian intake is also one that shrinks into the background as the Business migration spotlight of direct economic benefit increasingly The business migration program, introduced by illuminates the immigration debate. Refugees are the Fraser government in the late seventies, has likely to be semi- or un-skilled, and are often from attempted to lure well-heeled business people to ‘new’ countries without an established community relocate their fortunes on Australian shores. The network in Australia. Today’s refugees will demand Hawke Government has enthusiastically embraced tomorrow’s family reunion priorities. However, the the business migration program, relaxing its refugee debate highlights the multifaceted nature requirements by introducing a category of of the immigration debate, and the importance of ‘entrepreneurial’ business migrant who is sought humanitarian, social and political considerations. not for capital but for personal business skills, and There are today some 10 million unwanted increasing the target intake under this category. The refugees in temporary camps throughout the world, attraction is clear: large amounts of capital, victims of political intrigue and struggle, mostly business experience and contacts will presumably from the poorest countries on earth. Wealthy increase employment and income in Australia. The biggest problem confronting the government is countries such as Australia have an obligation to contribute to the resettlement of refugees. filling the quota, which has been only half- Humanitarian commitment — like family reunion subscribed, although it should be careful to avoid — brings costs. While Australia had a good track abuse of this category. Perhaps the expected record in responding to the Indo-Chinese 'boat exodus of Hong Kong businessmen before the people’ — taking a larger per capita refugee intake China takeover will boost these ranks, though the than the other major countries — it is today pulling competition will be fierce. away from its contributions to international humanitarianism in the face of domestic Selfish introspection rather than international considerations. humanitarianism seems to be winning the day Selfish introspection rather than international in Australia. humanitarianism seems to be winning the day in Australia. The refugee intake continues to drop in line with cuts in aid to the third world. The projected Labour migration refugee intake for 1987-8 — the lowest for a decade One of the most controversial aspects of — is only 10 percent of the total immigrant intake contemporary immigration policy relates to the and is nearly half of that of the early 1980s. In skilled migration intake and the employer August 1987 Dr David Penman — a former nomination scheme. The trade union movement has chairman of the Australian Institute of Multicultural long questioned the validity of importing skilled Affairs — called for a doubling of Australia’s refugee labour when there are large pools of unemployed intake to bring it back to levels in excess of 20,000 who either have the skills required or could acquire or nearer to one fifth of the total settler intake. those skills with some planning and foresight. The It would be misleading, however, to imply that the Hawke Government has attempted to provide more only problem with Australia’s refugee policy is that accurate labour market information via the it is too stingy. Political considerations also Occupational Shares System. While this is a more determine which refugee group is chosen among systematic approach than that of its conservative the many millions of refugees awaiting predecessor, the criticism that the Government is resettlement. taking the easy, short run solution to labour market We need look no further than to the reluctance imbalances in Australia by bowing to business of the various Australian governments — from pressure remains. Whitlam through Fraser to Hawke — to respond to This critique applies also to the employer the humanitarian pleas of refugees from Timor in nomination scheme, whereby employers who the early 1970s and Irian Jaya today.2 While the convince the government they have tried in vain to Australian government is active in ensuring fill vacancies in Australia are given permission to

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 7 recruit labour overseas. In the past employers, such intake brings with it a need for increasing funds for as BHP, recruited labour from the UK and existing — not to mention new — programs and elsewhere to fill jobs which had disappeared soon services once these migrants are in Australia. after. Moreover, it is not clear how carefully the Scores of studies underline the inadequacy of Department of Immigration monitors the employer existing programs and services for migrants in such nomination scheme to check how seriously the crucial areasas education and the labour market. employers sought local labour. The recent Yet the current trend is to operate on ethnic affairs experience of South African immigration suggests expenditure with a surgeon’s scalpel to meet the that there may be abuses to the employer demands of a conservative economic strategy nomination scheme in order to facilitate the entry which demands cutting expenditure regardless of of South Africans to Australia.3 need. If some academics can demonstrate that As immigration intakes increase despite very there is no migrant disadvantage then so much the large unemployment levels the use of immigration better, since there are going to be cuts in existing to fill labour market shortages will continue to be areas anyway. Other prominent academics have controversial. Clearly there are job vacancies which provided another rationale to justify cutting funds cannot be filled even in time of record to ethnic affairs programs and services. unemployment because of a mismatch in skill and ‘Mainstreaming’ is the new buzz word. location. However government reluctance to Ideally, all institutions would be responsive to the seriously develop labour market retraining needs of migrants and embody appropriate policy programs for migrants and non-migrants to date responses so that migrant specific programs and only increases the cynicism of the labour services were not needed. An aware, responsive movement and the unemployed to the calls of mainstream is certainly the ultimate objective. business and government for increases in However, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that immigration under this category. this argument is a rationale to cut migrant programs The independent and concessional category was and services out without any guarantee that the introduced in July 1986. The government broadened mainstream take up the existing ethnic affairs policy the pool of eligible migrants under this scheme to that has taken many decades to respond, albeit include nephews and nieces and those with no inadequately, to the needs of Australia’s post war family ties in Australia. By extending the family migrants. The immediate task to hand is to defend reunion scheme in this way, the government has and to extend multiculturalism, to demand that the attempted to deflect criticism from the ethnic rhetoric of 'equitable participation' is translated into communities. However, changes to the points a practice that strives for social justice for all system suggests that it will not be NES migrant Australians. Continued structural pluralism — and communities who will benefit most from this policy improved migrant services and programs — is change, with this category increasingly labour required to redress inequality. market driven. Today the maximum points for family sponsorship are 15 out of 70, compared to 28 out of 60 previously, reflecting the increasing emphasis on English language proficiency and labour market skills.

MULTICULTURALISM The ethnic affairs component of immigration policy is subsumed under the debate on multiculturalism. The benchmark of success of any ethnic affairs policy is the extent to which post war migrants — irrespective of country of origin — overcome institutional and attitudinal barriers to have equality of access and outcome at work, home and in the community. The multiculturalism debate has, curiously, been isolated from the immigration debate of how many and from where. The Jupp Report4, designed to guide governments in ethnic affairs policy for the rest of the century, made no attempt to link the RACISM AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS future needs of migrant programs and services with The study of Australian immigration different projections of immigration intake and demonstrates clearly that racism and immigration composition. However, their interdependence is have been inseparably intertwined: in immigration obvious. Any significant increase in immigration policy before and after Federation; in community

Page 8 — Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 relations between migrants themselves; and The government should continue its commitment between migrants and the Australian-born. The to a non-discriminatory selection policy, but discrimination, disadvantage and prejudice that has increase the priority given to refugee and family accompanied Australian settlement for many post reunion intake. It should be prepared to break from war migrants is evidence that racialisation of the past tradition of using refugee policy as an arm migrant settlers is not confined to the past. of foreign policy and respond more to humanitarian Persistent disadvantage causes ethnicity to be need. This means a more responsive reaction to associated with inferiority. Immigration and ethnic refugees from Irian Jaya, even if it angers the affairs policy must in the future be developed in a Indonesian generals, and a greater consideration direction which leads to a reduction of the factors of the plight of African refugees. It also means an which contribute to the racialisation of Australian immediate increase in the refugee special immigration. humanitarian program directed to the victims of This discussion bears directly on the ‘from South Africa’s oppressive apartheid system. where’ question of immigration policy. The While business migration should be encouraged, government should be encouraged to ignore the the skilled migrant intake under the occupational pleas of those who wish to dismantle the policy of shares system and the employer nomination non-discriminatory selection. Contrary to the scheme should be downgraded, with emphasis arguments of Professor Blainey, increasing diversity placed on labour market programs to retrain the of migrant intake does not threaten social stability army of surplus labour already in Australia. This will in Australia. Racism in Australia is more sharply not happen if the government continues to use focussed on Aboriginal Australians than on post­ immigration policy to resolve short run labour war migrants. Immigration policy should market imbalances. Moreover, the employer consciously open up more opportunities for black nomination scheme requires strict monitoring, and migrants to come to Australia via special should be used rarely, if at all. The independent and humanitarian and refugee policies as well as in concessional intake is also an area where the mainstream intakes. Black South Africans should government should monitor according to labour be the first cab off the rank in this regard. market conditions. The current trend to modify the The case for substantially reduced intakes and points system to make it harder for NES migrants the primacy of environmental concerns seems to to enter smacks of 'Blainey through the back door’ be based on a selfish nationalism that is partly and should be revised. ignorant of the direct and indirect economic Ethnic affairs policy should begin with a full consequences of immigration and completely appreciation that Australia clearly has not fulfilled oblivious to Australia’s humanitarian, political and its part of the bargain for many migrants, taking the social responsibilities. ‘Fortress Australia’ is not a labour and consumer dollar the migrants brought forward thinking mentality to take Australian society with them, but only partially responding to the into the twenty first century. Professor Blainey’s difficulties of migrant settlement they experienced. arguments on immigration have been widely Social justice for all must be the benchmark for criticised, and lack solid foundation. On the other ethnic affairs policy. If mainstreaming means a hand, doubling the immigration intake immediately, further retreat on the inadequate provision of as proposed by Messrs Quinn and Bourke — and migrant services and programs then it should be given indirect support from the CEDA study — opposed. Every attempt must also be made to seems equally short-sighted and selfish, apart from guard against conditions which would lead to an the bureaucratic difficulties in implementing such escalation of racial tension and violence in the an immediate increase. community. The key principle to be applied to immigration intake questions is not solely economic, but also NOTES: one of social justice. Immigration policy should be 1. For a fuller development of these arguments, see Jock determined so that Australia’s migrants — past, Collins, Migrant Hands in a Distant Land: Australia’s postwar present and future — have every opportunity for immigration, Pluto Press, forthcoming. equitable participation in Australian society. 2. There are some 10,500 refugees from Irian Jaya in Papua Because of problems of persistent unemployment, New Guinea, see Refugees February 1987, p.15. a trend to cut rather than increase funds for ethnic 3. It is possible that employer nomination schemes have been abused in the case of recent South African immigration. See affairs policy, and an uncertain economy, this Jock Collins. “ Non-racist rules turn out racist after all "Sydney means cautious increases in the total intake. It is Morning Herald, 4/2/86. The Eye No 2 reported rumours that the not good enough to justify migrant disadvantage by same $500,000 was circulated many times to allow South stating that they are better off here than they were Africans to enter as business migrants. at home. Tolerant community relations and the 4. Don't Settle for Less, Report of the Committee for Stage 1 of the Review of Migrant and Multicultural Programs and reduction of disadvantage of existing and future Services, AGPS Canberra 1986. See also Romampas Seminar migrants should not be sacrificed at the altars of Report, Centre for Multicultural Studies, University of private profits and political ambition. Wollongong, 1987.

Migration Action Voi. IX No. 3 —■ Page 9 Outwork and Migrant Women: Some responses

Caroline Alcorso

Migrants and the ‘self-employed’ A major trend evident in migrant employment in Australia in recent years has been the growth of 'self-employment'. Labour force surveys suggest that the ‘self-employed’ have increased by over 50 percent from 1972 to 1984, in a period when the number of wage and salary earners increased by only 14 percent. Some migrant groups, particularly those from Southern Europe, have been involved in this growth. Greek, Italian and Lebanese men and women were, in 1981, more likely to be ‘self-employed’ than the general population. This reverses the trends characteristic of the first two post-WWII decades when migrants in Australia were increasingly ‘proletarian’ — that is, involved in clearly working- class occupations. One reason commonly given for these changes is the decline of the manufacturing industry (previously the major employer of non-English speaking background migrants) and the closing off Photo: Courtesy of the Working Women's Centre. of employment opportunities for newly arriving professionals (like doctors and solicitors), company migrants in this area. Tait and Gibson, in their article directors, small contractors in the construction “ Economic & Ethnic Restructuring: an analysis of industry and outworkers — people doing paid work migrant labour in Sydney” note that Greeks at home. experienced the sharpest decline in manufacturing There is considerable evidence that growth in the jobs during the 1970s; and that they were also the number of ‘self-employed’ in Australia is the result group showing the largest increase between 1961 of increases in some types of self-employment and and 1981 in the proportion of the workforce not others. ‘self-employed’. Changing employment practices Some of us know retrenched workers who have The domestic effects of depressed economic been able to set up a small business using their conditions since the 1970s and developments in the severance pay. But do the new ‘self-employed’ world economy include changes in the type, scale always experience a fresh start and a more and structure of Australian industries. One independent life? In order to answer this question, response by Australian business to falling profit we need to examine the category ‘self-employed’ levels has been documented by researchers: the a bit more closely. introduction of new employment practices (or forms A common image of the self-employed person of employment) in order to reduce labour costs. is the small shop-keeper. However, the category Certain areas of Australian manufacturing such ‘self-employed’ used by the Australian Bureau of as the clothing industry, have been severely Statistics includes a variety of other occupations, affected by the growth of global production systems some of whose incumbents are in a rather different — what has been called the ‘internationalisation labour market position to the Greek or Yugoslav of production’. Large retailers now purchase migrant who owns and runs the corner store. garments for their brand labels internationally — Included in the category are self-employed from wherever they can be made most cheaply.

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The effect of this is to pressure producers in to inform such workers of their rights. Recently, the relatively high wage countries, such as Australia, N.S.W. Government has undertaken a survey of to compete with producers in low wage countries women doing paid work at home. The report self- like South Korea and the Philippines. Local employed or employee? is interesting not only for Australian producers therefore try to force down the information it provides about the working wages or take other measures to cut labour costs. conditions of clothing outworkers but also because At the same time, Federal Governments have been it places these workers in the context of the ‘hidden reducing the level of domestic protection in workforce' of outworkers, identifying similarities and Australia which has further intensified import differences within this larger group. competition in the clothing and footwear industries. Clothing outworkers Some sections of the industry have been forced out In N.S.W. unlike in the rest of Australia, clothing of business (or factories have been relocated in outworkers have the protection of State laws which Third World countries) — imports now supply most deem them to be ‘employees’, entitled to the same of Australia’s children’s wear, sportswear and jeans, conditions as factory workers. However, the study, for example. which included 78 clothing outworkers, found that However, in the area of men and women’s in most cases workers were not working under fashion clothing, local production still manages to award conditions. They worked for longer hours and compete with goods produced elsewhere. less money than their factory counterparts and-had According to Tait and Gibson this area has been few opportunities for retraining or career partially protected by the ever-changing nature of enhancement. Many indicated that the work was the fashion industry and the consequent need for harming their health and it seemed that conditions flexibility. But they point out that: in the industry were worsening. The following . . . it has also survived, and indeed expanded, comments were typical: because of its ability to intensify production by It’s slavery. The Vietnamese women are exploiting cheap migrant labour. working for less — maybe 60 cents per dress Several apparently contradictory trends are where I get $2. This makes it hard for our rates evident in the industry. On the one hand, output has to go up. The prices haven’t changed in ten continued to rise during the last fifteen years; on years. the other, there has been a significant drop in The pay we get could be a lot better. Some official employment levels and in the number of garments take from 15 to 30 mins to put clothing factories. Normally, these characteristics together, the money being about $2.40 to $2.80 would be explained by increased productivity due whilst the most I ever did was $3.50 for a to new technology. In the clothing industry, this has garment that took about 45 mins to make. Most not been the case — technical change in recent vary about 10 cents to 20 cents but a lot more years has been minimal. Instead, the greater sewing. Besides, back in 1984 we had to join productivity of some sections of the industry is due the union which did promise us (or rather my to the rapid expansion of domestic outwork, boss did) paid annual and paid sick leave but employing mainly migrant women from non-English I never received any of this. speaking backgrounds. The striking characteristic of the clothing Clothing outwork in N.S.W. outworkers surveyed by the Department of The situation of outworkers and the extent of Industrial Relations is that almost all were from non- outwork have been notoriously difficult to assess English speaking backgrounds and nearly 80 with accuracy. Outworkers who work sporadically, percent said they had poor or no skills in spoken or who are being paid cash-in-hand, don’t show up English. in the national census or other official statistics. Reasons for outwork During 1987, the ABS will conduct its first survey Responsibility for small children and the need to of people working at home which should provide supplement their husband’s earnings were the main more accurate information. Current estimates of reasons women gave for doing clothing outwork. national employment levels range from 5,000 to Their occupation was seen not as the result of a 60,000 (roughly the number of clothing workers positive choice but as an option forced on them employed in factory production) of which N.S.W.’s because no other work was available. Lack of share is probably between 15-20,000. There is proficiency in English was seen as a central cause general agreement among employers and unions of their difficulties in getting other work. that the number has grown dramatically in recent Significantly, many women had worked in the years. clothing industry prior to doing outwork. Several During the 1980s there has been growing had been retrenched from factory work and some community concern about the plight of clothing had been re-employed as outworkers by their outworkers and several community-based initiatives employers following this — a clear indication that

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 11 some employers, at least, were aiming to cut costs women did. None of the women working in by closing down factories and ‘decentralising’ journalism or publishing were from non-English production: that is, by expanding outwork. speaking backgrounds, and while they experienced The survey indicated several substantial areas difficulties in obtaining adequate rates for their work of saving for employers (mostly illegal): and lacked industrial entitlements, their situation * reduced wage-costs by the use of low piece had many positive characteristics and appeared to rates; be prompted partly by the desire for freedom and * non-compliance with award conditions for sick work flexibility. leave, annual and long service leave and By contrast, as noted above, almost all the overtime pay; women doing the worst and most exploitative type * avoidance of the bill for workers’ compensation; of outwork, clothing outwork, were migrant women from non-English speaking backgrounds. Migrant * reduced capital costs since workers have to women were also found among the small group provide their own machines and maintain them; occupied with domestic services such as ironing * use of piece-rates to avoid paying workers during and cleaning. slack production periods. The researchers suggested that because the Responding to the problems facing outworkers clothing outworkers who responded to their survey Clothing Unions have historically been opposed were more likely to be working ‘officially’ and to be to outwork and have favoured factory-based registered than most clothing outworkers, their employment. There is evidence that outwork experiences provided a more favourable picture of undercuts factory production and constitutes a conditions than is typical. Nevertheless, it is clear downward pressure on all wages. However, in light that even these women were badly exploited by of the large number of women employed in this area their employers and suffered working conditions and the absence of adequate public transport, which made their lives a misery. The authors of the childcare facilities and language classes to support report concluded: migrant mothers wishing to work outside the home, unions now approach the problem of outwork by It does not seem adequate that such conditions attempting to regulate it and provide increased should exist in an industry which is the most protection for the workers involved. highly protected in Australia and which has Two types of strategies are usually pursued: produced a significant number of Australia’s richest men . . . The case for increased (i) stronger legislation and award provisions, and industrial protection for outworkers is difficult to better enforcement of legislation by the state; ignore given the extreme conditions the women (ii) measures to increase the power of migrant suffer from . .. women to resist exploitative conditions. The Clothing and Allied Trades Union is the union Clothing outworkers and other outworkers which covers the clothing industry and it is currently Women outworkers in the survey were located involved in a national campaign to protect in more than forty occupations. While the largest outworkers which incorporates both of these group was women making clothing, other sizeable strategies. According to the union’s national groups were: women involved in research, outwork project officer, Sonia Laverty, there have journalism or publishing — related work (24 percent been significant victories in recent months. Firstly, of the sample), family day carers accounting for 16 the union has won a case in the Federal percent and typists and word processor operators Conciliation and Arbitration Commission to equalise (an area predicted to expand) 4 percent. The other the work conditions of outworkers and factory workers were employed in a large variety of workers. The situation formerly prevailing only in occupations from caligraphy to assembly work to N.S.W. now exists across Australia: outworkers are cleaning items, making evening bags and body entitled to the same wages and conditions as other massage. While these are all ‘traditional’ areas of workers in the clothing industry. Whilst previously work for women, the range is larger than is normally individual outworkers were required to register considered in discussions on outwork. themselves in order to work legally, now employers The survey found that all women doing paid work will have to register in accordance with the Federal at home were in an industrially weaker situation award provisions in order to employ outworkers. compared with their counterparts employed under Meanwhile, the union has employed bilingual award conditions in offices and factories. However, officers to inform clothing outworkers of their rights it also found that the segmentation of the traditional and to develop support networks for outworkers. labour market in Australia flowed through to the The campaign began in Victoria last year and in the work women did as outworkers. Differences in first few months of its operation over 35,000 education level, English language proficiency and leaflets, posters and union publications on outwork ethnicity clearly coincided with the type of work the have been distributed, mainly in metropolitan

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Melbourne. In March the union newspaper, have been able to decentralise and deregulate Ragmag, noted that: production, even though the result is often the As a result of this and the Victorian Department extreme exploitation of their workers. of Labour's campaign for distributing information Clearly, legislation by itself is ineffective. Efficient to outworkers, the union has been contacted by enforcement mechanisms are also needed, and over 500 outworkers in just a few months. probably the most effective mechanism is pressure By the end of the six-month campaign over 3,000 from the women involved, supported by their outworkers had been contacted. The union has unions. The efforts of the Clothing Union to provide made special efforts to win claims for outworkers, information, support and assistance to women not only to benefit the individuals involved, but as outworkers so that they can stand up for their rights a way of encouraging outworkers to stand up for more effectively is a start. However union their rights. One of the largest successful claims campaigns can only be fully successful if has been $6,800 for one worker for unpaid annual complemented by the efforts of ethnic leave, public holidays and long service leave. organisations and groups. The Union is eager to Outwork is an employment practice which allows work with community-based organisations to employers to minimise the cost of the labour being disseminate industrial information to migrant performed whilst obtaining maximum flexibility over workers; anyone interested should contact an office what is produced and when. Its growth in Australia of the Clothing and Allied Trades Union in their should be understood as a response by employers State. to the economic recession and to increased competitive pressure in the manufacturing industry This article was based on the work by David Tait and Kathy — itself a product of the ‘internationalisation’ of Gibson which is presented in their unpublished paper. People manufacturing and retailing. It does not represent interested in the paper can contact the CMS. The N.S.W. the increased popularity of ‘self-employment’ as the Department of Industrial Relations report Self-employed or statistics sometimes suggest. employee can be obtained from the Women’s Directorate, N.S.W. DIRE, 1 Oxford Street, Sydney. In a social environment which increases the vulnerability of the most disadvantaged sections of Thanks to Sonia Laverty from the Clothing and Allied Trades the population it is not surprising that employers Union for assistance with this article. CENTRE FOR MULTICULTURAL STUDIES THE UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG Post-graduate degrees in Multicultural Studies The CMS invites applications from suitably qualified persons for studies leading to a Master of Arts or Ph.D in Multicultural Studies. The CMS was established in 1978 to carry out research and teaching on all aspects of Australia’s multicultural society. We seek students interested in our inter-disciplinary approach. Work for higher degrees will be based either entirely on research or on a combination of research and coursework. We can supervise work on the following topics: labour migration, international perspectives on migration and ethnic relations, multicultural education, health in a multicultural society, teacher training, employment apd labour market issues, racism, discrimination, cultural change and national identity. Efforts will be made to integrate students into the research activities of the CMS. The normal requirements for entry is a good honours degree in a relevant subject. However, applicants with pass degrees and appropriate work experience will also be considered. The CMS also offers a Pass Master of Arts course which may be an alternative for applicants without an honours degree. Enquiries and applications should be addressed to: The Centre for Multicultural Studies P.O. BOX 114 WOLLONGONG 2500. TEL. (042) 270-780 Applications normally close on October 31, 1987. Post-graduate scholarships may be available, enquiries should be directed to the University.

Migration Action Voi. IX No. 3 — Page 13 Speaking of Cultural Difference:

The Rise and Uncertain Future of the Language of Multiculturalism

Bill Cope, Mary Kalantzis

By international and historical standards, about Asia that came with fighting the Japanese Australia is a very quiet place. Despite this in World War Two. How could Australia, from the appearance, things of world-historical significance perspective of the immediate post-war years have happened here. Few conquests have been so possibly stage-manage what would turn out to be systematic and brutal as that of Aboriginal society. such an extraordinary immigration program? Here our quiet is deceptively a product of the very The answer to this is that there have been a severity of the conquest and consequently, an series of systematic and very sophisticated sales- active silencing of historical guilt and possible jobs by the federal government, principally the arguments about reparations. The other event of Department of Immigration. This article is a brief world historical importance is Australia’s post-war and schematic discussion of the changing immigration. Again, the quiet of this place deceives. language of cultural difference through which It has been a program of incomparable size immigration has been legitimated in the post-war internationally in the past half-century: a first world period and through which settlement policy has society with low birth rates has doubled its been articulated: from assimilation, to integration, population, to a significant extent through to multiculturalism. Very few commentators would immigration in forty years. No other country has argue that we are not much better off for having accepted so many immigrants in this period relative experienced mass immigration — economically, to the size of the existing population, bar the socially and culturally. What is most remarkable, peculiar historical phenomenon of setting up the however, is that the quiet should have been so state of Israel in Palestine. No other nation-state has successfully maintained. The quiet and apparent been as actively involved in the recruitment of lack of history in Australia masks some significant immigrants. Nowhere have the sources of historical events. Indeed, in the context, the quiet immigrants been so diverse. itself is a remarkable historical event. Yet Australia is still comparatively a quiet place, All this is not to say that we can rest on our at least compared to Belfast or New York, collective laurels. Sophisticated social policy in the Jerusalem or Liverpool. Looking ahead areas of ethnic affairs and non-racism must be hypothetically from 1945 with knowledge of the further developed, especially as the immigration immigration that would take place over the following program continues at levels as high as during the four decades, one could hardly have predicted the long economic boom, and as the sources of quiet. Ninety percent of the population was immigrants become ever more diverse. Our main Australian-born and English-speaking. The Irish- interest in this article is the changing meanings of English divide had been settled, even if it had not multiculturalism since its inception as official policy. been finally resolved. In terms of cultural identity We argue by way of conclusion that the Hawke and aspirations, Australia was an unusually government for several years has failed to develop homogeneous society. An integral part of this the language of multiculturalism to meet changing homogeneity was a persistent culture of racism needs and that, unless it does, the quiet might not manifest most prominently in contempt for the continue. Aborigines and fear of the ‘yellow peril’ to Australia’s north. Racism against immigrants had As late as 1969, Bill Sneddon, Liberal Minister become a virulent element of Australian identity in for Immigration, was to say emphatically, the nineteenth century experience of relations with We must have a single culture. If migration Chinese on the goldfields and ‘coolie’ and ‘Kanaka’ implies multicultural activities within Australian labour. This carried through into the White Australia society, then it was not the type Australia Policy of the twentieth century, and racist ideology wanted. I am quite determined we should have

Page 14 — Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 a mono-culture with everyone living in the same way, understanding each other and sharing the MAP 61 same aspirations. We do not want pluralism.1 A NEW AGENDA FOR MULTICULTURALISM The ideology of assimilation encapsulated in this Stephen Castles quote lasted in official rhetoric until the late 1960s, — $4.00— even if the terminology had shifted cosmetically to ‘integration’ through the 1960s. Assimilation was a CH0MI, 133 Church St., Richmond Vic. 3121 Australia. (03) 428 4948 very contradictory phenomenon. In some quite fundamental ways it was racist, assuming the inherent virtue of changing one’s culture and disappearing into the Australian crowd. Yet, it was bringing one’s own gift of language, culture and a rather benevolent ideology of immigrants traditions to enrich the already diverse fabric benefiting (with hard work) from the culture of of Australian society. Our vision of a double-fronted brick veneers with a Holden in the multicultural society shares with our concept garage. It did not contain the assumptions of of citizenship, a strong emphasis on building traditional biologically-based racism in that it a cohesive and harmonious society which is all presumed that cultural change, 'becoming like us’, the more tolerant and outward-looking because was possible and desirable. However, of the diversity of its origins.4 notwithstanding the rhetoric, the real context was Al Grassby, Minister for Immigration in the Labor a structural racism of socio-economic government from 1972-1974 and subsequently segmentation. At the same time, to compound the Commissioner for Community Relations, is contradictions, the language of assimilation which frequently credited with having made an important assured Australians that cultural differences were contribution to this quite dramatic shift in policy. The not immutable, paved the way for the softening of history of the rise of multiculturalism is often racist popular culture and a quietly successful portrayed as one of progress and development, with mass immigration program.2 Grassby as a founding father, progress through the By the early 1970s, however, assimilation was Fraser period and continuing, though perhaps beginning not to work. Many immigrants were stalled, development in the Hawke years. We argue, obviously staying culturally different. Specialist contrary to these popular assumptions, that the welfare and education needs were emerging as the movement is more one of political conflict and settlement and welfare ‘problem’ became changing policy directions, than smooth progress. statistically bigger. There was a growing feeling that Grassby’s vision was one of welfare reformism. a more sophisticated approach would be needed Fraser’s was an equally brilliant, but fundamentally to stem the tide of return migration, principally to different neo-conservative policy of cultural the ‘economic miracle' in Europe. Finally, there was pluralism which attempted to dismantle Labor’s the emergence of ‘ethnic’ organisations and, welfare reformism. possibly a ‘migrant vote’. The Hawke period has seen a serious loss of direction, as Fraser’s multiculturalism has been Only twelve years after Bill Sneddon’s remarks, dismantled, the result in part, surely, of Labor’s a Prime Minister of the same political persuasion, instinctive suspicion of some aspects of the migrant Malcolm Fraser, was to say: and ethnic welfare policy of the Fraser era. Yet, We cannot demand of people that they apart from the 1986 Review of Multicultural and renounce the heritage they value, and yet Migrant Programs and Services (the Jupp Report) expect them to feel welcome as full members and the National Advisory and Consultative of our society . . . Multiculturalism . . . sees Committee on Multicultural Education’s (NACCME) diversity as a quality to be actively embraced, 1987 policy statement (which both represent a a source of social wealth and rhetorical return to Grassby-esque reformism), dynamism . . . The [Galbally] report [has] there is a potentially dangerous vacuum at the identified multiculturalism as a key concept in moment. Perhaps the new Office for Multicultural formulating government policies and Affairs will begin to reconstruct policy after four recognised that Australia is at a critical stage years of relative political neglect. Only time will tell in the development as a multicultural nation.3 whether it will succeed at doing this. And in a statement supporting changes to the To flesh out these arguments, we will begin with Australian Citizenship Act, the Minister for a statement made by Grassby as Minister for Immigration, Mr. MacPhee said: Immigration in 1973: Acquiring Australian Citizenship should not It is in our national interest to abolish require suppression of one's cultural heritage discrimination. It is in the long-term interest of or identity. Rather, the act of becoming a citizen all Australians — and not only the many who is — symbolically and actually — a process of suffer in varying degrees from discrimination

Migration Action Voi. IX No. 3 — Page 15 — that we eradicate those things which divide was a clear, determined and extremely cost- us as people and strengthen and build upon effective element in the neo-conservative pruning those things which unite us . . . and reconstruction of the welfare state. It was I have spoken on other occasions of ‘the family based on real cutbacks in government funding, in of the nation’. I shall go on speaking of ‘the fact, it produced a reduction in overall government family of the nation’ until the message implicit expenditure as its recommendation (which was in that phrase is fully grasped and until it accepted) that tax rebates for overseas dependants becomes the guiding principle for us all. be abolished, more than paid for the programs it It is not a cliche, but a fundamental objective. set in motion. Unless we achieve unity of purpose, unless we Galbally multiculturalism involved shifting are joined — all 13,000,000 of us — in common migrant services from the general rhetoric of social purpose, how can we succeed as a nation? welfare to marginal ‘ethnic specific’ services. This It is not only a question of ensuring equal in part involved constructing ‘ethnic’ communities economic opportunity for migrants, but also of as self-help welfare agencies and giving them providing whatever assistance is necessary to minimal financial support. ‘Ethnic Schools’ and place them on an equal footing with ‘Grants-in-Aid’ were typical of this approach. In all government agencies it is possible to trace a shift Australian-born. in terminology and policy from the Labor years to The only question that should ever be asked in the Liberal-National years of the late 1970s. In the law is whether a person is a citizen or not. case of the Commonwealth Schools Commission, There can be, in future, no first and second- for example, one can see the distinctive move from class citizens . . . a paradigm of disadvantage in the Labor years in It is also a question of enabling them — indeed, which disadvantaged students (including ‘migrant’ encouraging them — to contribute to the social students) were considered to be in need of initiation and cultural life of Australia. It is not merely a to core culture’. In the later Liberal-National years question of helping them to share what we this became a much less interventionist celebration already have, but of encouraging them to add of ethnic differences and ‘lifestyles'. to it, helping them to enrich our national life and The shift in the language for reading cultural to contribute towards the creation of a new and difference and formulating settlement and welfare distinctive Australia.5 policy was from a unified 'family of the nation’ to Grassby’s language is not of difference, pluralism multiculturalism; from disadvantage to difference; and cultural diversity. It is of a unified ‘family of the from concern with general socio-economic issues nation’, rid of forms of social injustice such as those in which migrants were included (a Laborist view suffered by many immigrants. In fact, Grassby very of reform) to the paradigm of cultural difference in rarely used the term ‘multicultural’ as Minister for which cultural dissonance is the main problem; Immigration. The fundamental welfare orientation from a social theory of class as the primary social of Labor was to ‘disadvantage’ and lines of socio­ division to a social theory of multiple social economic division. Indeed, ‘migrants’ (a word to divisions, none of which have priority. Ethnic groups lose favour in the era of Fraser/Galbally in the new multiculturalism were implicitly viewed, multiculturalism) were to be understood as a subset not as class-divided, but as homogeneous. of the general class of those disadvantaged socio­ ‘Leaders’ of ethnic groups could thus be viewed as economically and discriminated against. ‘representative’, and, at the same time, potentially Symptomatic of this policy stance was the break­ vocal pressure groups could be incorporated into up of the Department of Immigration into the the spirit of the state and given some responsibility various ‘mainstream’ departments of labour, for their own ‘community’s’ welfare provision. welfare, education, and so on. The problems of Hawke came to power in 1983, and for three migrants were considered, at root, to be general years Galbally multicultural programs were left matters of social welfare and social justice. intact. New, reformist programs with traditional Losing the elections of 1972 and 1974, certain Labor underpinnings were developed beside these. members of the Liberal Party began to consider that So, for example, whilst the Multicultural Education a decisive ‘migrant vote’ could be possibly Program that was a result of the Galbally report was mobilised. Fraser, Mackellar and MacPhee were maintained, the Commonwealth Department of particularly important in re-orienting Liberal policy. Education set up the Participation and Equity Their efforts eventually came to fruition in the Program, very much concerned with general conservative government of the late 1970s. The disadvantage, which happened to include Jandmark in this process was the Galbally report disadvantage suffered by non-English speaking of 1978 which became the basis of multicultural immigrants. The specifically multicultural programs policy until the mid-1980s. Galbally multiculturalism, continued, but without any overt commitment to in sharp contrast to Grassby’s ‘family of the nation’, them being displayed by the government.

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Then, in 1986, things happened co-incidentally. situation emerged: the welfare reformism of Labor Budget cuts undid many of the Galbally programs, in the early seventies and the neo-conservative and the Jupp report was released. On the funding cultural pluralism of the Fraser period. Since the front, the Australian Institute for Multicultural return of Labor in 1983 there has been a shift back Affairs, long suspected for its conservative origins, to welfare reformist rhetoric, without the was closed. The budget ended the Multicultural emergence of new concrete programs. Education Program and cut back funding for For the first time, it seems that a vacuum is English as a Second Language teaching. And, as developing in the area of cultural policy. This is an ‘economy’ measure, it was proposed that SBS particularly short-sighted, as immigration continues television and radio be merged with the ABC. apace, as ethnic groups organise increasingly Although some of these cuts were last-minute and around the issue of their rights, as socio-economic ill-considered, they showed a symptomatic difficulties appear to be getting more serious, and underlying suspicion of things multicultural. This, as the whole question of Australian Identity is as it transpired, proved to be political ineptitude. uncertain and polarised around the attempted Persistent protest led to the partial restoration of nationalism of the Bicentennial. ESL funding and reversing the decision to merge One hopes that the Federal Government can SBS with the ABC. It also led to the setting up of become actively involved in concrete programs to the Office for Multicultural Affairs in the Prime reconstruct an equitable multiculturalism out of the Minister’s Department. limitations of the old cultural pluralism. In particular, The Jupp report of 1986 represented a rhetorical if the quiet is to be maintained in Australia, equity return to Laborism, very much in the spirit of must be seen to be achieved for all social groups Grassby’s welfare reformism. The term and government must actively involve itself in anti­ ‘multiculturalism’ is used very infrequently, and, racist, community, welfare and education when it is, it is less for its ideological cogency than programs. as a mere description of a certain type of government program. The report’s catch cry is 1. The Australian, 26 July, 1969. ‘equitable participation’, far removed from the 2. The historical remarks in this paper are based on arguments Galbally model of cultural dissonance. In a similar elaborated in a forthcoming book by Stephen Castles, Bill Cope, Mary Kalantzis and Michael Morrissey on nationalism, racism spirit, the 1987 report by NACCME, chaired by and Australian identity to be published by Pluto Press in 1988. Laksiri Jayasuriya, self-consciously removes itself 3. FRASER, J. M., Multiculturalism: Australia's Unique Achieve­ from the former cultural pluralist approaches to ment: Inaugural Address to the Australian Institute of Multicultural ethnicity in education and stresses social equity. Affairs, Melbourne, 30 November, 1981. 4. MacPHEE, I. M. Australian Citizenship: Ministerial Statement, This, however, is seemingly not the time for a 6 May, 1982. return to welfare reformism. That would simply cost 5. Official statement by Mr. A. J. Grassby, 11 October, 1973, too much. So, at the moment, we have a gap Australian Foreign Affairs Record. between the rhetoric of policy and inaction at the level of practical programs. ‘Mainstreaming’ is the only substantive new policy concept to have been used in the past few years. But frequently this has only meant cutting ‘ethnic specific’ services in the hope that mainstream institutions will assume a multicultural stance merely by following the requirements of official policy and by exercising a considerable degree of goodwill, but without funding to support concrete initiatives. The relative social quiet of the past four decades, despite the extraordinary level and diversity of immigration, has been achieved to a significant degree through the shifting cultural policies of the Federal Government. During the phase of economic growth assimilation was a viable settlement strategy. By the mid 1970s the sheer numbers of immigrants, the rates of return migrations, the obvious specific welfare and education needs of the immigrants and the rise of ethnic organisations, seemed to challenge the quiet. Two very different political responses to this

Migration Action Voi. IX No. 3 — Page 17 Lynda Broad Compensation: Workers’ aoie Alcorso Caroline Reality and Ideologies irn Wres and Workers Migrant years. In N.S.W. the context has been the the been has workers’ context about the N.S.W. In debate years. public extensive force in July 1987). During the debate, much much debate, the During 1987). July in force recent in proceeding been has compensation government’s intention to reform the workers’ workers’ into came the legislation (new reform system to compensation intention government’s emphasis was placed on the need to reduce the the reduce to need the on placed was emphasis ae 8 Mgain cin o. X o 3 No. IX Vol. Action Migration — 18 Page claimed that benefits to workers were generous; too were to workers benefits that claimed employers.to compensation of workers’ costs huge claims or successful common law cases were too too were cases law common successful or claims frequently government and the insurers Employers, okr fo rtrig o h wrfre Indeed, workforce. the to returning from workers settlements pay-outs‘generous’ such that Itasserted was great. lump-sum the that particular in this view has virtually become part of agreed agreed of part become virtually has view this injured discourage they that and compensation on, remain goon, or to to over-eager make workers redeemed of case the in workers by received common-sense on the issue. The Government's Government's The issue. the on common-sense xml, ttd ihu eiec, that: evidence, without stated example, ‘Green Paper’ on compensation reform, for for reform, compensation on Paper’ ‘Green In N.S.W., as in Victoria and South Australia, an Australia, South and N.S.W.,InVictoria in as uain f lis te norgmn of encouragement the claims, of the of duration extension the to led has compensation lis n a ak f norgmn of encouragement of lack a and claims lump-sum on emphasis increasing "The compensation scheme, options for reform” reform” for options scheme, compensation exaggerated and fraudulent claims, lesser rehabilitation” (NSW Government “Workers’ “Workers’ Government (NSW rehabilitation” 96 p.19).1986, were identified by sections of the legal and medical medical andlegal of the bysections identified were irn wres n wres compensation workers’ and workers Migrant workers to ‘malingering’ and psychosomatic- reported and psychosomatic- expressed publicly often and were views ‘malingering’ to workers Migrants workers. migrant targetted compensation opiain o bc ad te ijre. Such injuries. other and back of complications Australian than prone more being as professions in the media. Victorian R.S.L. Bruce PresidentVictorian Statemedia. in the Ruxton recently repeated the common stereotype: stereotype: common the repeated recently Ruxton those involved in welfare pointed to the specific specific the to pointed welfare in involved those discrimination by professionals in the compensation in compensation by professionals the discrimination problems faced by migrants, including including 1981 N.S.W.Commission’s the of Reform Law article time An migrants, claims. new not by were These system. faced problems appearing in a Croatian language newspaper at the newspaper language in a Croatian appearing tta tm. h wrote: She time. that at nur, o eape peetd h ve o an of workers Yugoslav view injured the with working presented interpreter example, for inquiry, One strand of the general debate of workers’ workers’ of debate general the of strand One On the other hand, the ethnic communities and communities ethnic the hand, other the On the tribunals in Melbourne and just ask the the ask just and Melbourne in tribunals the Compensation Act backwards and forwards forwards and backwards Act Compensation and compensation workers’ . . .about bosses in on going what’s at look to got only “You’ve oAsrla (al eerp 2/7/1987). Telegraph (Daily Australia” to for Act the work to able .are .. They Australia to come they before it know they Ibelieve and Workers’ the know English speak even can’t payments that are incredible, yet offer nothing offer yet incredible, are that payments . People . . who death to worked being it’s how

"... I soon realised that a certain level of experience that was more likely to result in poverty maltreatment was the ‘norm’ among specialists and depression than affluence and a life of ease. at large — maltreatment in this context being In fact, we argue that the popular assumptions and condescension, impatience, rough physical stereotypes should be seen as ideologies — that examinations. It seems to me is, selective images of the world, which, though that . . . specialists have taken it upon based partially in reality, serve to obscure the total themselves to treat each migrant patient as picture and justify sectional interests — in this fraudulent until proven genuine .... Time and case, the interests of the insurance companies and time again patients have said to me that they the employers. find the whole experience of workers’ Sources of information compensation claims so humiliating and time- The debate about workers’ compensation has consuming, and that if they were healthy they frequently been characterised by opinion based on would not put themselves through such an anecdotes rather than hard evidence. We unpleasant process ... It seems that what’s attempted to combine large-scale quantitative operating is the supposition that lack of research methods and small-scale in-depth education suggests inferiority as a human­ qualitative research to overcome this problem. We being” (Novo Doba, 1981). used the following sources of information: New research * The 1981 ABS survey of handicapped persons. The Centre for Multicultural Studies at the * Hospital records from all NSW public and private University of Wollongong recently completed a hospitals in 1984. research project which investigated the experiences of non-English speaking migrants in * Accident and redemption records from BHP the N.S.W. workers’ compensation system. The Steel, Port Kembla. research was commissioned by the Social Welfare * Records of compensation cases dealt with by the Research Centre at the University of N.S.W. and Building Workers’ Industrial Union and finalised forms part of a project examining the relationship in 1984. between compensation and the social security * Records of cases handled by the Ethnic Affairs system. Unit of the N.S.W. State Compensation Board. The objectives of the CMS project were: In-depth interviews were carried out with two * to establish whether or not systematic groups of people: differences exist in the compensation * legal and medical professionals with experience experiences of migrant and Anglo-Australian in the workers’ compensation field, trade union workers in N.S.W.; officers and community-based workers; * to identify the nature of such differences where * injured overseas and Australian-born they exist; compensation claimants. * to explain the reasons for such differences. Findings A subsidiary aim of the project was to identify Many of the key informants interviewed in the possible problems related to access to, or use of, course of this project were convinced that migrant compensation and rehabilitation services by workers made more claims for workers’ migrants. However, the approach we adopted was compensation than Australian-born and other not simply a ‘problem-based’ one. Rather, we English background workers. Legal professionals, wanted to build up a sociological picture of the in particular, believed that this was the case, but type of experiences an injured migrant worker has were sometimes unclear about whether migrants in the compensation system and to examine the were over-presented among total claimants or just social relations in which s/he becomes involved. We among those with contested claims (that is, among wanted to understand people’s experiences in the the group which insurance companies fight in system from their point of view as well as to court). examine its objective outcomes and its effects on Both the ABS Handicapped Persons Survey and peoples’ lives. the N.S.W. hospital records provided answers to The purpose of the study was not to adjudicate these questions. The former clearly indicated that on the existence or extent of the notorious while the relative proportions of migrants and ‘Mediterranean back' and ‘Lebanese wrist’. English speaking background workers in Australia’s Nevertheless our research did provide evidence handicapped population were almost identical, the that challenges these popular views. We found that, causes of the handicapping conditions suffered by for migrant workers from non-English speaking migrants differed significantly from those of the backgrounds in N.S.W.,.claiming compensation and non-migrant population. Firstly, migrants from being reliant on the workers’ compensation system certain countries (Italy, Greece and Yugoslavia) was an extremely unpleasant and difficult were substantially more likely to have become

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 19 handicapped as the result of an accident than claimants than Australian-born workers because those born in Australia, the UK or Ireland. Secondly, more of the former than the latter make claims. The of those whose handicap had been caused by an act of claiming compensation is considered accident, proportionately many more migrants than independently of the event of the worker being English background people suffered accidents at injured; indeed, it is believed that migrants make work. For non-English speaking migrants from Italy, claims where no injury, or no serious injury, has Greece and Yugoslavia, work accidents were by far occurred at all. Some argue that ‘ethnic networks’ the main cause of their handicaps; for Australian- orchestrate so-called compensation ‘rackets’. born people, road accidents and sickness were Another variation is the view of several of the more important. In all, 10.6 percent of the community-based workers we interviewed: that is, Australian-born group said that a work accident or for ‘cultural’ reasons, such as a lower tolerance to working conditions caused their condition. pain, migrants go off work and make claims for However, three times this proportion of Italians (31.6 compensation in situations where English percent) were handicapped as a result of work- background workers would bravely keep working. related injury or disease. It may be true that there are isolated cases of The information about workers’ compensation workers exaggerating the symptoms of an injury so claimants provided by the N.S.W. hospital records as to extend the compensated period away from pointed in the same direction. They showed that work, although we encountered few among either migrants from certain non-English speaking our key informants or compensation claimants who countries were significantly over-represented had any direct experience of this. However, it among compensation-claiming in-patients seems extremely unlikely that such distortions compared to their proportion in the workforce. could account for the evidence of disproportionate There was a much greater number of such patients work-related injury we found in our study. Firstly, from Southern Europe, Eastern Europe and the the hospital records suggest that it is only certain Middle East than would be expected from their groups of migrants who are over-represented and numbers in the workforce. In particular, Turks, the differences between men and women from Lebanese and Yugoslavs were greatly over­ these countries are striking. If the ideologies were represented: while Turks accounted for 2 percent accurate, they would imply that the propensity to of persons admitted to hospitals under workers’ claim fraudulently was somehow distributed compensation cover, they made up only 0.2 percent unequally across humanity on the basis not only of the employed N.S.W. labour force in 1984. People of birthplace but sex. Secondly, it seems born in Australia, other English-speaking countries, improbable that medical staff in the public and Northern Europe and Asia, on the other hand, were private hospitals where the information about all under-represented among hospitalised patients is recorded could be misled by fraudulent compensation victims. While Australian-born patients on such a large scale; particularly since people made up 75.2 percent of the N.S.W. many doctors are hardly known for their sympathy employed workforce in 1984, they accounted for to injured workers. Thirdly, it is equally improbable only 63.8 percent of the hospitalised compensation that the ABS’s survey of handicapped persons (a in-patients. Non-English speaking immigrants survey not focussing directly on compensation) accounted for 22.4% of compensation in-patients should have produced evidence precisely but only 14.8% of the employed labour force. confirming the hospital data if both were based on Significant differences in the type of injuries deceit. suffered by migrant and non-migrant workers — A more fruitful source of explanation for the many more Middle Eastern and Southern European greater incidence of claims among certain groups workers were admitted as a result of a back injury of migrant workers can be found when the than were other groups. Differences between the connection between an injury and the sexes were also marked: non-English speaking compensation claim is not denied but considered background women were more likely to appear in as part of the explanation. We think that there are hospitals as workers’ compensation victims than two good explanations for the high incidence of any other section of the population. cases among migrant workers: Explanations (i) The fact that many non-English background These findings suggest that the popular beliefs migrants work in dangerous industries and that more ‘migrants’ claim compensation and that occupations. certain groups have more back injuries have at (ii) Migrants’ vulnerability to accidents as a result least some basis in reality. However, we argue that of their relatively powerless position in the the falseness of the stereotypes lies in the type of workplace and in society generally. explanation that they give, rather than in the descriptions of reality they offer. Popular opinion (i) Migrant workers in the labour force asserts that more migrants are compensation Recent work by the ABS has allowed a

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■ comparison of N.S.W. workers’ compensation around half of male migrants were employed in the statistics and employment statistics to be category ‘tradesmen, production/process workers calculated for the first time. The ABS found that: and labourers’ compared to 37.2% of Australian- “ During the period 1982-83 and 1984-85 the born workers. A recent national report notes: mining industry had the highest incidence of “the occupational category 'tradesmen, employment injuries. Coal mining and almost five production/process workers and labourers’ is, by times the average for all workers . . . Other high a significant margin, the group which accounts risk industries were: 'other mining’; construction; for the most accidents (approximately 62 percent manufacture of transport equipment; food, of the national total). No other occupational beverages and tobacco; and fabricated metal group is close in the number of accidents and products. Industries with the lowest risk during diseases, cost of claims or total time lost” the period were: community services; public administration and defence; and finance, (Advisory Committee on Prices and Incomes property and business services ..." (Australian 1986:16).

High-risk Industry Percentage of Birthplace Group Employed

A ustralia Main English Other speaking countries C ountries Mining 2.3% 2.9% 2.3% Manufacturing 17.7% 22.6% 30.5% Construction 9.2% 12.6% 12.6%

TOTAL 29.2% 38.1% 45.4% (unpublished ABS data, May 1986)

Bureau of Statistics Employment injuries (ii) The vulnerability of migrant workers: N.S.W. 1987). language or power? National data show the distribution of migrant For many migrant workers we interviewed, the employment for Australia. At May 1986, male foregoing discussion was taken for granted. They migrants were significantly concentrated in thought it was obvious that migrants in Australia did manufacturing, wholesale and retail and the the worst (hardest and most dangerous) jobs, that construction industries — of which manufacturing ‘Australians’ did the easy jobs and that this was a and construction, at least, were high risk areas of major reason why migrants suffered more work- employment. For example, male migrants made up related injuries. Some of the legal professionals and more than 25 percent of the metal products sub- community-based workers also commented on this sector within manufacturing while accounting for point and, like the migrant compensation claimants, only 14.8 percent of the total male workforce. stressed that migrants worked longer hours than Migrants were under-represented in agriculture, Australians, sometimes at two jobs, and that this mining and community services. Except for mining made them more prone to occupational injury and these are exactly the areas which have low rates disease. of occupational injury; and mining, though a highly Flowever, another issue was raised by many dangerous areas, employed few people (2.3 percent migrants as well as some trade union officials: the of the workforce). The following figures show clearly greater vulnerability of migrants to unjust treatment the concentration of male migrants in relatively at work and to being pressured to do unsafe tasks. dangerous areas of employment: The distinguishing feature of migrant workers’ j situation was seen as being the fact that they had The same was true of migrant women. More than less power than Australian and other English- one-quarter (26.6%) of non-English background background workers. People saw the problems of female migrants were employed in manufacturing migrants as being partly a result of the fact that they whereas this sector accounted for only 11.0% of could not ‘stand up for their rights’ to the same total female employment and 8.3% of the extent as other workers. One of the reasons for this employment of Australian-born women. Their was their limited English. But another equally concentration in one of the most dangerous are of important reason that claimants described was manufacturing (food, beverages and tobacco) was their general vulnerability as migrant workers: marked — they made up 26.0% of the total specifically, their heavy financial committments, employment in that sector although they accounted their poor labour market position and being the for only 12.5% of the female workforce at that time. victims of discrimination by employers and others Within industries, migrants were particularly in the community. Lack of knowledge of the ‘system’ concentrated in certain occupations. In 1986, in Australia and ignorance of their rights were also

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 21 seen as factors which disadvantaged migrants by insurance companies and insurance company comparison with other workers. Several migrant doctors. Although the ideologies make reference to women also felt that they were more vulnerable aspects of reality (such as the fact that the than ‘Australian’ women to threats of sexual incidence of compensation claims is higher among intimidation from their bosses and that this fact was non-English speaking background migrant workers exploited by employers to ‘keep them in line’. than those from Anglo-Australian backgrounds) they Many migrant workers, particularly women, do this selectively and in such a manner as to commented that they had been doing work that they obscure a more adequate understanding of social had known was dangerous; and that other workers processes. For these reasons, such ideologies had refused to do; but which they had found it function in favour of certain parties in the difficult to resist. The remarks of a Turkish woman, compensation process: employers and insurance reflecting on her own experiences with hindsight, companies, both of which have a direct interest in are worth repeating: minimising workers’ compensation costs and in “ I couldn’t question anything — Australian minimising their responsibility for the work-related women wouldn’t do the job I was doing; they’d injuries suffered by their employees. never accept it. They take advantage of people Compensation systems have recently been who don’t know their rights and can't fight”. ‘reformed’ in N.S.W. and S.A. and a new system has It is important to stress issues of power in been operating in Victoria since 1985. The type of system affects the experiences of those involved in discussing industrial injury and compensation since frequently the main emphasis is placed simply on it and we believe that the changes made in N.S.W. language barriers. Our research did not find that have been largely for the worse from the point of language, in itself, was perceived to be a major view of migrant workers. cause of migrants’ problems in relation to either However, it is also clear that the historic conflicts industrial injury or compensation. Rather, language over compensation between workers, on the one difficulties were seen as one of a number of factors hand, and employers and insurers, on the other, are which placed migrant workers in a particularly not caused by the type of system in place. Rather, vulnerable situation at work. Their relative lack of all systems reflect and reproduce conflict which is power means that they are at greater risk of inherent in the employer-employee relationship in industrial injury and can make it harder for migrants western industrial economies. We believe that to to claim compensation when they should. As our ameliorate the plight of migrant workers with regard survey indicated, the possibility of being sacked is to workers’ compensation more than legal or a very real one for migrant workers who do make administrative changes to the workers’ a compensation claim. compensation system are required. Measures are needed firstly, to improve significantly the safety of Conclusion work in Australia, and secondly, to redress the For both the Anglo-Australian and the migrant unequal power relations migrant workers are locked claimants in our survey obtaining compensation into in our society. often involved a protracted struggle against A start would be the establishment of powerful adversaries. Being on compensation independent sources of information and advice for typically meant a drastic reduction in living non-English speakers so that injured migrants need standards and a greatly inferior quality of life. not rely on the dubious services of private agents However, our research showed that these features or the expensive advice of a solicitor when they were more extreme in the case of migrant workers. need assistance with their claim. However, another In addition, migrants appeared to face additional equally important task for all those with an interest problems not faced by other workers due to their in compensation is to combat the myths about treatment by professionals and insurers when they migrants and compensation so that workers from attempted to re-enter the workforce after having non-English speaking backgrounds who claim been a compensation claimant. compensation in the future can pursue their One finding which is important to note is the legitimate rights in a less antagonistic environment. negative effect which stereotypes of and hostility towards ‘the migrant compensation claimant’ have on injured migrant workers. Feelings of shame, guilt and victimisation discourage injured workers from claiming compensation at the correct time and from pursuing their legitimate entitlements, and add to A detailed account of all our findings cannot be given here. For the stress and anxiety associated with a those interested, our report will be published in late October by the Social Welfare Research Centre; a copy can be ordered by compensation case. Further, public ideologies are contacting Ms. Heidi Freeman, Publications Officer on often reflected in the harsh treatment migrants (02) 697-5150 or writing to the Social Welfare Research Centre, experience at the hands of both employers, University of New South Wales, P.O. Box 1, Kensington, 2033.

Page 22 — Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 Multicultural Education in Crisis?

The Needs of Non-English Speaking Background Students

Mary Kalantzis, Bill Cope

New arguments against multicultural education multicultural education we have witnessed over the A vacuum in multicultural education policy and past decade involves a misallocation of financial practice has developed in the past year. Fiscal cuts resources. This happens to fit very well with the have resulted in a dismantling of many initiatives actual fiscal cuts. Indeed, there is some evidence in the area: the scrapping of the Multicultural that the arguments of these new educational critics Education Program, the end of the National have directly influenced policy decisions in the last Advisory and Co-ordinating Committee on year. Multicultural Education, cuts to the Participation The main proponents of the view that ethnic and Equity program, cuts in the ESL funding, educational disadvantage is a myth are Birrell, reductions in in-service training programs, to cite Bullivant, Williams and Mistilis. Birrell argues that just a few significant examples. As yet, it is unclear multicultural education is a misallocation of whether this vacuum will be filled in any significant resources and the result of the political pressure way by new programs that might emerge from the of ethnic lobby groups. He marshalls statistics National Languages Policy. which purport to show that NESB students are doing as well, indeed, frequently better in Into this vacuum a number of new educational educational terms than their English speaking critics have moved, challenging what they perceive background (ESB) counterparts. His conclusion is to be the flawed assumptions of programs that the working-class are those in most attempting to right educational disadvantage for educational need, and that for NESB groups non-English speaking background (NESB) students. educational access comes with assimilation rather The root of their arguments is that there is no than a multiculturalism founded on cultural particular ethnic disadvantage and that the sort of maintenance, identity and self-esteem.1

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 23 Bullivant, arguing from the results of his situation. His results do not at all mean that ethnographic survey of six Melbourne schools, generalisations about ‘ethnicity’ can be made. An finds evidence on the one hand of over­ interesting example of this problem of uneven achievement by NESB students attributable to the distribution is Barbara Horvarth’s disaggregation of ‘migrant drive’ and the ‘ethnic work ethic’, and, on NSW Department of Education statistics which, the other hand of ‘AngloAustralians becoming the purportedly, showed no average NESB 'new self-deprived’.2 Williams uses limited statistics disadvantage measured in class placement in to argue that NESB groups are over-represented in streamed schools (Horvarth 1986). post-compulsory education because they show In fact, re-working the same statistics, she greater preference for education.3 showed that, although some NESB groups (such as Finally using census statistics, Mistilis shows that those of Greek background) seemed to be second-generation NESB groups perform better performing better than average, others were than third and subsequent generation Australian- performing significantly worse (for example those born students in gaining tertiary educational of Aboriginal, Maltese and Lebanese background). qualifications.4 We have analysed the arguments of Similarly, Hugo’s recent analysis of the 1981 these new educational critics in detail elsewhere.5 census statistics shows overall intergenerational Our purpose in this paper is to challenge the overall mobility for migrants, comparing first and second thrust of their generalisations. There is still a geneation educational qualifications. Nevertheless, serious problem of educational disadvantage for although second generation immigrants of Asian the vast majority of NESB students and a dire need (14.0%) and Polish (13.3%) background have for a revitalised multicultural education. almost twice the probability of second generation THE EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF NESB Australian born (7.8%) of having an educational STUDENTS qualification of diploma or better, the figures are only 2.3% for those of Maltese background and There is nothing unexpected or original in what 5.3% for those of Italian background (Hugo 1987). the new educational critics are saying: that there is considerable intergenerational mobility for NESB Recent research by the Inner London Education children through education. This is predictable in Authority shows a similar uneven distribution in the context of the migration process and the long which to, varying degrees, African, Asian, Indian, post-war boom. Moreover, many progressivist Greek, Pakistani and South East Asian background educational programs centring on cultural identity groups perform better than average in end-of- are indeed problematic. But there is a sophisticated school examinations than their English background debate on this subject going on within the ranks of peers. On the other hand, Turkish, Caribbean and those who support multicultural education. And particularly Bangladeshi pupils performed worse. socio-economic positioning is a very important It is critical, however, that this phenomenon of determinant of educational success. This, we know, uneven distribution is not put down to cultural is a truism. The message, however, of the new pathology, but to the complex overlay of class critics that there is no longer a role for multicultural (homeland and immigrant) and ethnicity, in which, education is very dangerous, even if it is a handy in all probability, class is the more critical variable, rationale for funding cutbacks. We will now discuss albeit frequently expressed through cultural-ethnic contrary evidence. This clearly shows that forty identity and aspirations. years of mass immigration have produced an 2. We simply do not have adequate statistics educational situation, fraught with problems and to generalise about NESB as an complexity. enabling/disabling factor. Considerable 1. Educational advantage/disadvantage is evidence suggests, however, that NESB is a distributed unevenly between ethnic groups. factor which frequently leads to educational Uneven distributions of performance are disadvantage. confused by Williams, Bullivant and Birrell as Notwithstanding the serious difficulty of uneven indicative of ‘ethnicity’ as a factor which predicates distribution, for every statistic and every claim that education success. This over-simplifies and distorts NESB students in aggregate are doing well, and a complex situation. that there is therefore no special ‘ethnic’ problem Whilst some NESB groups appear to be doing in education, there are counter-claims and counter­ well in terms of educational performance and statistics. Indeed, even some aggregated NESB intergenerational mobility, and on average NESB figures often show the opposite to what the new students on some measures can be shown to be educational critics claim to be the case. So, for doing as well or better than their ESB counterparts, example, the NSW Department of Education class other groups are doing very poorly. A sample based placement study shows that far fewer NESB on some major well established ethnic groups (such students make it into selective high schools. To take as Williams’) can seriously misrepresent the just two examples of a phenomenon which this

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survey showed to be true of all Sydney selective schools, the selective Fort Street High School has BB16 40.5% of its students of NESB, whilst the ETHNIC MINORITY YOUNG contiguous general high schools average 63.8%. The selective Sydney Boys High has 22.8% and PEOPLE: A BIBLIOGRAPHY Sydney Girls High 16.9%, whilst contiguous general Compiled and edited by high schools have a staggering 64.3% of NESB. Not only does this say a lot about the effects of the Kati Sunner school system on NESB students. It also throws into — $5.00— serious question the impact on NESB students of the ‘aptitude’ tests which determine placement in selective schools. Our problem now is not to pit Available from statistics against statistics. The truth is that we do CHOMI not have adequate statistics on school achievement 133 CHURCH ST. (not retention rates, which are very problematic, as RICHMOND, VIC. 3121 AUSTRALIA we will argue below) to be able to make valid generalisations. Until researchers have access to (03) 428 4948 results comparable across the educational system (such as School Certificate moderator spreads economic restructuring. With inadequate English, correlated with census data or HSC results they have inadequate access to meagre training disaggregated by ethnicity), we can only conclude resources. from some fragmentary evidence that a few NESB 4. NESB students’ mobility patterns in students are doing well and a lot are doing badly. education are in part the long-term result of the post-war boom. These do not necessarily 3. Intergenerational mobility through continue through the recession period of the education does not compensate for first seventies and eighties. generation disadvantage. In the seventies and eighties, evidence shows Even if there is some intergenerational mobility that the trend to NESB upward mobility is being through education in some cases, the picture for reversed. The immigrant families of the fifties and the first generation is almost universally bleak. sixties did achieve considerable economic and Birrell, for example, is willing to admit this, but social mobility. The relative success of some of argues that second generation success their children at school attests to this. But, in the compensates for first generation disadvantage. economic circumstances of the late seventies and Despite Birreil's resignation, the education system eighties, there is no certainty that the same mobility could make an impact on all these categories to will occur for more recent immigrants, even in the bring them towards the figures for second long-term. Not only are there economic indicators generation Australian-born, even adult migrants for which point to this, but this might well be a factor whom English learning and higher education are which could go some of the way to explain the no less important needs than they are for the rest uneven distribution of levels of educational of the population. The first generation, it should also achievement among NESB groups. be remembered, includes those who migrated as Recent curriculum changes seem only to be babies and those who entered the Australian school compounding this situation. The demise of system mid-stream, as well as adults. Against the comprehensive curriculum, to be replaced by Australian-born figure of 7.9%, 2.8% of first diversified, 'relevant' curriculum, means that a new generation people from the Middle East have an streaming is emerging which now condemns even educational qualification of diploma or better, 1.4% the few who might have succeeded in schools in of Greeks, 1.6% of Yugoslavs and 1.5% of Maltese, poor socio-economic circumstances to the ‘Veggie to give just a few examples (Hugo 1987). English’ and macrame curriculum. The educational The situation is even worse when we consider mobility of the fifties, sixties and early seventies that many of these would be overseas qualifications was in part made possible by comprehensive not adequately recognised in Australia or not up­ curriculum. Diversified curriculum, on the other dated to meet the requirements of Australian hand, reflects the ‘holding job’ schools now have conditions. No amount of second generation in economic circumstances which, for those at the mobility can compensate for this first generation bottom of the ladder, are unlikely to improve in the experience. foreseeable future. Parents' intuitive reaction to the Added to this, first generation immigrants are the social function of progressivist curriculum is surely group with the fastest growing unemployment as based on some element of truth. A national poll traditional areas of unskilled work and secondary conducted for the Australian Teachers’ Federation industry are most seriously affected by the current showed that

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 25 • Private schools rated better than public schools. which in any way correspond to the school retention • Most people would send their children to private rates for these particular groups. schools if they could afford to. To take one particular example, Marrickville High • Two-thirds of those polled said government School, a very high NESB density, low socio­ primary schools were not meeting their needs economic context school in Sydney’s inner west, because there was not enough teaching of has 74% of students going on to senior school fundamental skills. against a national average of 49%. The principal explains that ‘migrant families generally want a lot It is particularly clear that NESB parents in high of their children, and they see education as a key NESB low socio-economic circumstances perceive to these things’. Yet this school has one of the curriculum diversification to be a handicap to their poorest results in New South Wales measured by children. They frequently go to extraordinary HSC results and university entrance. lengths to finance their children through a private school education. Retention, moreover, is not simply a function either of school success or aspirations. Retention 5. High rates of school retention for NESB is more a function of levels of youth unemployment students do not necessarily imply school than any new success on the part of the education success. system. All the evidence points to the fact the NESB Despite these distortions produced by using parents have high aspirations for their children. This school retention rates as evidence of NESB is a phenomenon integral to the migration process success, these rates are dramatically variable in itself. But the subsequent high retention rates in ways that happen to coincide with the class and post-compulsory education do not necessarily ethnic context of a school. The ‘survival ratio’ of imply school success. So, 7.8% of the second Year 9 to Year 12 entry is 13% at Francis Greenway generation Australian-born have achieved an High, 14% at Mount Druitt High and 15% at educational qualification of diploma or better, and Shavery High. On the other hand, the ratio is 97% 3.4% of those over 15-years of age are still at at Randwick Boys High and 93% at Mosman High school. But for second generation people of Greek None of these are selective schools. For the background a comparable 7.2% hold these quali­ schools with poor survival ratios, it happens that fications, even though 24.3% are still at school. For NESB and working class demographic context Italians, the figures are 5.3% and 15.4% respect­ substantially overlap. ively (Hugo 1987). Even taking demographic spread into account, we are simply not seeing final results 6. Those students of NESB who succeed, do so against longer odds. Success for NESB students often reflects parental pressure and a high degree of motivation, against longer odds than ESB students. The Campbell Review of ESL paints a depressing picture, especially for NESB students, even those Australian-born, as they enter the senior school. They have to fight against their supposed IQs, and those who ‘self-select’ academic success through dogged determination more often than not do so across the maths/science nexus, being somewhat less hampered in these subjects by their language difficulties. Of course, commentators like Birrell and Bullivant recognise this, but simply consider success against longer odds to be a virtue. Not only is this rather callous, but it ignores those who, unjustly, do not manage to succeed. 7. Racism is still a serious problem in schools. NESB students face racism in their school experience, both structural racism in the ‘coincidence’ of high NESB population density, socio-economic context and alternative school curriculum, and high levels of attitudinal racism, albeit frequently in subtle forms which produce ghettoisation. One student sums it all up, in a report

Page 26 — Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 by Henry and Edwards: ‘A lot of people are going To concretise the situation for the 70% of ESB through hell because of their background'. (Henry and second generation NESB people with no post­ & Edwards 1986.) school educational qualifications, the reasons for On the other hand, the perceived motivation and this in each case are very different. Certain aspects relative success of a few NESB students, against of ESB working-class culture, education and long odds, produces an apartheid of sentiment in structural context, portend limited education. The schools, with longer-established ESB students reasons for limited education for NESB students are expressing bitter resentment and NESB students very different: language learning context, racism, expressing a degree of cultural contempt for their the particular non-commensurability of family ESB peers. The seriousness of this situation in a culture and the culture of educational success, and society that has relied so heavily on mass so on. This is not to deny that the powerful common immigration, cannot be over-estimated. Racism is factor of social class is at play both for ESB and not simply a problem of 'migrant disadvantage’. NESB groups. But, critically, for NESB groups, Moreover, a spaghetti and polka multiculturalism, issues of ethnicity and class compound in complex aiming to produce ‘inter-cultural understanding’, is and specific ways. Conclusions based on university not only counter-productive in constructing cultural entrance which find ‘Greek’ educational success, stereotypes, but misrepresents students’ for example, aggregate a group which is signifi­ fundamental concerns with bread and butter issues cantly class-divided. Nor, can such ‘findings’ be of education and employment. Racism is not a taken to imply that we can forget about the special gratuitous slandering of cultural phenomena. It is needs of the vast majority of school students of a bitter misapprehension of deeper lines of social Greek background. No simple generalisations can division. be made from comparative, aggregated results. A complex variety of factors compound educational 8. Generalisation about the performance of disadvantage. ethnic groups ignores the fact that they themselves are deeply divided socio­ 9. Gender further complicates the ethnicity- economically and by school performance. Even class relationship. if one small stratum appears to be succeeding, There is a great deal of evidence of sexism in the majority is not. education. This is an especially acute problem both for many NESB girls and their male peers, Even if we accept the statistics that some NESB particularly given the ambiguity of non-sexist groups are doing well in education relative to the education policy and the ethnic cultural ESB population, this generalisation refers only to maintenance strategies that have been an aspect a very small minority of each group. So what if of multiculturalism. 7.2% of second generation people of Greek background compares favourably with the 7.8% of Many cultures, including the dominant culture, their ESB counterparts, or the 5.3% of second integrally include sexism. In terms of academic generation people of Italian background? What performance, there is also considerable evidence about the remaining 90s %? that the aspiration-performance gap for NESB girls is particularly great. Parity of performance does not mean there is no project for multicultural education. Indeed the 10. In the middle range of education — dismal non-performance, either in absolute terms technical and trades qualifications — NESB or relative to aspirations, is a cause for great students are under-represented. At the same concern. We should note that by western world time NESB youth unemployment is high. standards, Australia’s educational performance is TAFE participation of NESB students has been very poor. It ranks lowest amongst OECD countries shown to be poor. On the other hand, in what is in public expenditure on education: 5.8% of GDP surely a corollary to this, for some NESB groups compared to Sweden’s 9.1%, for example. This is very high rates of unemployment are in evidence. even significantly lower than the USA’s public So, even though a larger than average minority of expenditure with its extensive private university and Asians are gaining higher education qualifications, school system. When we put together the facts that 16.9% are unemployed (twice the national Australia is simply being left behind in the high-tech average), including 40.6% of Vietnamese. As well stakes and that Australia has had the largest as uneven distribution between ethnic groups, we immigration program of any country (bar the are clearly seeing here an uneven distribution peculiar case of Israel) in the post-war period within groups. This situation is probably even worse relative to its population base point, the situation than the unemployment statistics reveal, given the is nothing short of disastrous. The old reserve army particular problem of hidden unemployment in of unskilled immigrant' labour is no longer some NESB groups. This unemployment situation necessary. We could have an economic and social also explains, to a significant degree, high NESB calamity on our hands within a few years. school retention rates.

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 27 11. Refugees have specific needs that improve their cultural awareness, may be of far requires special servicing. less survival value in the final analysis than Australia supports an on-going refugee program. mathematics, skills in using computers and The long-term experience of some immigrants, accountancy. those families who came during the economic We strongly oppose Birrell's and Bullivant’s boom and who happened to succeed, should not implication that no multicultural education is be projected upon the refugees arriving in the mid­ needed. Rather, multicultural education needs to eighties. Their special educational needs are great, be strengthened to include a more powerful equity and the task is urgent if Australia is going to gain component. As their ‘no-program’ perspective fits from their arrival, rather than simply import a well with their ‘no problem’ analysis of the situation problem. of NESB students, so our perspective of equitable multiculturalism is founded on an analysis of the REVITALISING MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION serious, complex and on-going educational needs This paper has attempted to present a case for of both NESB and ESB students. the need for a rejuvenated multicultural education, Suffice to say, the old, pluralist multiculturalism, against the partial evidence (in both senses) of the resting heavily on the presentation of different new educational critics. We have also alluded to cultural identities, does not necessarily solve the some of the problems of progressivist and problem. Indeed, it often creates many more multicultural curriculum. It is to this question — of problems than it solves. Our concern is that a two­ analysing multicultural education practice to date pronged multiculturalism emerges from the and forging concrete ways forward, that we now wreckage of the failure of progressivist, ‘diversified’, briefly turn. culturally ‘relevant’ curriculum, weakened further, Both Birrell and Bullivant include critical beyond its own inherent limitations, by fiscal commentary on multicultural education. Birrell cutbacks. This multiculturalism should: questions the psychological assumption that i) aim at social equity through' multicultural fostering ethnic identity and cultural maintenance curriculum strategies, and through education produces increased school ii) tackle the pressing problem of racism directly. achievement. He points, on the contrary, to the success of Chinese, Japanese and Jewish students We contend that multicultural education needs in the American education system, despite the to move beyond a simple pluralist model which is explicit assimilationist or Americanising’ values very vulnerable to attack in the current political and that have dominated the U.S. school system. The economic context. Whilst appreciating a great deal link of cultural identity and self-esteem to of validity in many of the propositions of pluralist educational achievement is, indeed, unproved. In multiculturalism and respecting its historic fact, self-esteem might well be more a contribution in the general development of consequence of achievement in mainstream social multiculturalism in education in Australia, we want and educational terms. Moreoever, Birrell’s to argue for an equitable multiculturalism. fundamental concern with social access rather Educators have a duty to build upon the positive than cultural maintenance as a priority of the achievements of pluralist multiculturalism in order school system, is not misplaced. But his explicit to make multiculturalism a stronger and more advocacy for assimilation necessarily would involve demonstrably effective and efficient process in a revival of racist assumptions about schools. It is time to move on. Indeed there are superiority/inferiority and the alienation of culturally positive indications that we are moving on. ‘different’ students, which excludes in reality whilst In the area of language learning, for example, the assimilating in appearance. Multiculturalism and move to equitable multiculturalism would, in the social equity are not mutually exclusive goals as spirit of the National Languages Policy, involve a Birrell implies. move away from short-term, poorly funded Similarly, Bullivant notes the ineffectiveness of programs with narrow rationales. Rather than multicultural education in some of the schools he limited programs which aim no more than to raise surveyed, despite evidence of racism. He students’ self-esteem as a gesture to the comments: ‘community’, the teaching of languages other than a curriculum that is unduly weighted with a English would have to have serious long-term selection of the expressive aspects from the cognitive and socio-economic rationales, as cultural stock, and stresses life styles may not important in so-called ‘community’ language provide young people with sufficient instrumental teaching as traditional ‘foreign’ language teaching. survival knowledge to compete for life chances In the socio-cultural field, multicultural education when they leave school .... Equipping children would be more than a celebration of the colourful with a surfeit, say, of ethnic community differences of spaghetti and polka. Rather, it would languages, history and music in an attempt to examine fundamental issues of cultural interaction,

Page 28 — Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 of NESB students in the education system is far from satisfactory. Too few succeed; too many of those that do do so at great cost and the entire enterprise conceals significant, predictable and serious inequities. The intellectually and culturally enriching potential of a cultural pluralism which promotes equitable access must be strengthened rather than abandoned. • Many thanks to Jo Lo Bianco, Stephen Castles and Michael Morrissey for their comments on this paper. A fuller version of this paper is available from the Centre for Multicultural Studies, University of Wollongong.

REFERENCES 1. BIRRELL, R., The Educational Achievement of Non-English Speaking Background Students and the Politics of the Community Languages Movement’, Mimeo. Centre for Economic Policy Research Conference: The Economics of Migration, 1987. 2. BULLIVANT, Brian, ’Are Anglo-Australian Students Becoming the New Self-Deprived in Comparison with Ethnics?: New Evidence Challenges Conventional Wisdom’, Mimeo. Australian Association for Research in Education Annual Conference, Melbourne, November, 1986. 3. WILLIAMS, Trevor, Participation in Education. Research Monograph No. 30, Australian Council for Education Research, Hawthorn, Victoria, 1987. 4. MISTILIS, Nina, ‘Destroying Myths: Second Generation Australians' Educational Achievements', Mimeo. Centre for Migrant and Intercultural Studies, Work in Progress Seminar, 30th rights, equity and cultural becoming for all June, 1986. 5. See KALANTZIS, Mary and COPE, Bill, 'Why We Need Australian students. Multicultural Education: A Review of the Ethnic Disadvantage’ Renewing equity as a priority for multiculturalism Debate, Occasional Paper, Centre for Multicultural Studies, would not necessarily mean diversified 'culturally University of Wollongong, 1987. appropriate' multiculturalism in which the ‘ethnics’ in poor socio-economic circumstances were given frequently trivial forms of multicultural education and the middle class continued to receive traditional academic curriculum. Equitable multiculturalism would require both the mainstreaming of multiculturalism through all traditional curriculum areas and differential educational strategies to singular social ends: participation and access for all students. By focusing attention on some of the failures and the inappropriateness of simplistic pluralistic multiculturalism as it has often been applied to education, the new critics of multicultural education make some worthwhile points. But the bases of the arguments they build are inadequate for the strong conclusions they reach. The positions they advocate do not follow logically from their data. Questions need to be asked about their purposes — or at least the real consequences of their arguments. To argue, in effect, for a return to a primarily assimilative curriculum, as they do, simply neglects the fact that different educational strategies are required for different groups of students. These different' strategies are required to ensure equitable social access. Despite the arguments of these educational critics the situation

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 29 News from OMA

The National Agenda for a develop a set of medium-term strategies which will Multicultural Australia translate the concept of multiculturalism into reality. The community will be closely involved in the The Agenda will be action-oriented; will outline development of the National Agenda for a policies and practices needed to attain multicultural Multicultural Australia, the Director of the Office of objectives; suggest ways of promoting equity and Multicultural Affairs (OMA), Dr Peter Shergold said access in both public and private sectors; and recently. identify means of effectively educating the community about multiculturalism”, Mr Vaughan “The Office of Multicultural Affairs, the Advisory said. Council on Multicultural Affairs (ACMA) and the When he opened the new Parliament in Regional Co-ordinators and Group Facilitators OMA September and set out the Government’s program is in the process of appointing will all provide for the next three years, the Governor-General said conduits for community consultation and feedback that the National Agenda for a Multicultural on the National Agenda.” Australia would give “definition, direction and drive” According to Peter Vaughan, Assistant Secretary to the Government’s policy of multiculturalism. Sir at OMA, the planning stages for the development Ninian Stephen singled-out the Access and Equity of the National Agenda are almost complete. strategy, also being handled by OMA, as a “Expressions of interest in preparing discussion particular priority. papers associated with the National Agenda have Along with the National Agenda, the Office of recently been called for in the national media. Multicultural Affairs is involved in a wide range of Those papers will cover specific policy issues activities including: including employment, language needs, education, • advising the Government on the development health, social welfare, arts, culture and media, and implementation of the policy of community relations and law”, Mr Vaughan said. multiculturalism; “We are looking at commissioning major • promoting understanding of the policy of research into people’s understanding and attitudes multiculturalism; towards multiculturalism. This research will also cover priorities and needs of particular groups. • functioning as a channel of communication between Government and the community; The research will help shape the Agenda but more importantly, we are looking to our community • assisting in ensuring that all Commonwealth consultations for major input. Government services and programs are fairly available to all Australians (access and equity); We intend to consult with a wide range of and ‘mainstream’ and ethnic bodies, as well as at the ‘grass roots’ level. Formal consultations will begin • undertaking related consultation, co-ordination in full early next year.” and research activities. The idea of a National Agenda — which had The Advisory Council on Multicultural Affairs been mentioned in the Australian Institute of (ACMA) Multicultural Affair’s (AIMA) final “ Future The work of OMA is supported by ACMA — an Directions” report — was first embraced by the independent body consisting of 22 members. It is Government when the Prime Minister put the chaired by Justice Sir James Gobbo, and its Deputy suggestion to the inaugural meeting of ACMA in Chairman is Mr George Wojak. April this year. ACMA undertook to work in This full ACMA body has met twice since being conjunction with the Office to develop the National established in March and a third meeting is Agenda. scheduled for late October. However, three working The Office of Multicultural Affairs, established parties which meet more frequently have been set within the Department of the Prime Minister and up. These working groups are: education, Cabinet in Canberra, expects that a draft National employment and youth training; social welfare, Agenda will be available for further public community services and health; and arts, culture discussion later in 1988 and that the final version and the media. will be completed within less than two years. Through ACMA and its working groups, the “ I must stress that the Agenda is not about Government and OMA receive advice on areas of preparing another shopping list. The Agenda will importance in the development of multicultural

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policy and practice and particularly on the National Agenda. NEW ACMA members have been very active in setting up local consultations for OMA and in speaking at CHOMI conferences, seminars and workshops to alert REPRINTS people to the work of the Government and gain feedback from them. OMA Assistant Secretary, Ms Vasiliki Nihas, under whose responsibility the Secretariat for R500 60c ACMA falls, said the Council provides a valuable resource to OMA. ETHNICALLY SEGREGATED RETIREMENT ACCOMMODATION: “ACMA is close to the public and its members AN OVERVIEW OF THE MIGRANT have networks of contacts into which OMA can tap to the benefit of all. It is an independent body which AGED AND A REPORT OF is doing much to stimulate discussion about RESEARCH IN TWO ETHNICALLY multiculturalism in the community. The feedback SPECIFIC VILLAGES we get from this is valuable to OMA, for the more Varoe Legge information we gain the better”, Ms Nihas said. Group Facilitators R501 90c "The appointment of Group Facilitators THE EMERGENT NATURE OF throughout Australia will also help OMA tap into ETHNICITY: DILEMMAS IN specific areas of concern and will enable people ASSESSMENT whose first language is not English to be involved Donald E. Gelfand and Donald V. in the consultations. Recently OMA called on Fandetti bilingual people, through the national media, to register their interest in working as Group Facilitators for OMA as the need arose. We expect R502 $2.10 to have people available throughout Australia to RETURN MIGRATION FROM undertake consultations in community languages AUSTRALIA: A CASE STUDY as required”, added Ms Nihas. Oleh Lukomskyj and Peter Richards Regional Co-ordinators “The Office is also in the process of advertising R503 50c for Regional Co-ordinators who will provide OMA with a presence in each State. Regional Co­ AUSTRALIA’S REFUGEE POLICY: ordinators will provide information rapidly to OMA THE RHETORIC AND THE REALITY on community responses to Government policies; Delia Rickard will liaise with State Multicultural and Ethnic Affairs Commissions; will evaluate and monitor community R504 60c funding proposals; and will work with the regional offices of Federal Government departments on COMMUNITY LANGUAGES: making delivery of services accessible and TARGET MISSED AGAIN equitable”. Ms Nihas emphasized that OMA was interested R505 50c in maintaining a close liaison with the general community as well as people working in the area FINAL ADDRESS TO NACCME of multicultural affairs. Should any person wish to Laksiri Jayasuria hear more on the work of OMA, or receive information, Ms Nihas can be contacted at the Office of Multicultural Affairs, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Canberra ACT 2600. Available from: CHOMI As from the next issue Migration Action will contain a lift out 133 Church St. supplement of news and views from OMA. Richmond, Vic. Australia 3121 (03) 428 4948

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 31 Around the States

Philippines’ women were being kept as slaves by jealous husbands who fed them dog food and inflicted savage beatings. Former mental institution patients in Oueensland are marrying Philippines’ women who are being subjected to atrocities — some of which drive them to suicide. Because it is part of the Philippines world view that a woman serves her husband and divorce is frowned upon, these brides find themselves trapped. It was recommended that Australian men wanting to marry Filipinas should be screened by the government. The Church’s role in the area was not indicated. Anti-racist move by Government On 27 August 1987 The Courier Mail reported a surprise move by the Oueensland Government, with a Minister calling for measures to combat racism. The Minister, Mr Muntz, agreed that racism and resentment of Asians was becoming mildly evident in the community. He said that this disturbing trend was out of place in the late 1980s. “There’s no place for old prejudices in today’s world,” he said. Australians will have to watch their manners if they want to attract Japanese tourists, according to the Oueensland Tourism Minister, Mr Muntz. “ More than five million Japanese travel overseas Filipina ‘Slave’ Brides each year and more and more they are looking to On Friday, August 7,1987 the Brisbane Daily Sun us because of our attractions, safety and value,” he created the front-page banner headline: “Slave said. Tourism research showed the number of Brides, Priest Tells”. The sub-head read: “Old Japanese tourists visiting Oueensland would women are driven to suicide.” The newspaper report increase from 55,000 last year to 494,000 by the was drawing attention to an investigation year 2000. Each Japanese tourist spent about $130 commissioned by the Catholic Church into a day in Queensland — more than twice the marriages between Philippines women and amount an American tourist spent. “We must show Oueensland men. This investigation into the them what we have and attract them here. If marriage stability of Australian men and Philippines Australians don’t make them welcome, we are the women was initiated because most of the women real losers. It takes no effort to be polite and in question are Catholic. courteous. We can’t afford to pass it up because There are an estimated 5,000 Philippines’ brides of some outdated prejudices,” Mr Muntz said. in Brisbane. The ‘typical’ Australian man who No doubt cynics will chide the Minister for his marries a Filipina is quite lonely and shy. While the concern for the profits of multinational tourist report indicates that the vast majority of marriages operators, while opportunists will try to sell anti­ between Australians and Filipinas are successful, racist policies to the Queensland Government by a small, though significant percentage, are clouded appealing to its self-interests. by heartbreak and ruin. It was found that Australian men seek Philippines brides because their sexist Moonlighting world view leads them to prefer subservient Big time criminals are keeping the Queensland women, women willing to tolerate almost anything, police force active. Just the other day there was even a beating. The report found that some a raid on condom vending machines at two

Page 32 — Migration Action Voi. IX No. 3 Brisbane universities. The performance of a comedian given to telling rude jokes has been A.C.T. closely watched. A stripper has been arrested for %%YONEY revealing all. Meanwhile the Fitzgerald Inquiry has been distracted by questions about police corruption, illegal gambling, prostitution and drug &CAH I b e s r a trafficking — all of which the Government tells us only occurs south of the border. Of course, crime has nothing to do with the ‘ethnic’ contribution of Australia’s cultural development. Tell that to Ned Kelly. With names like Antonio The annual general meeting of the Ethnic Bellino, Geraldo Conte and Vittorio Conte being Communites’ Council of the ACT was held in splashed around by the media (see for example The August. It was addressed by two notables, Ron Courier Mail 27 August, 1987), multiculturalists are Brown and Peter Shergold. ECC status was thus having a hard time combating the Mafia affirmed by two significant Government stereotypes associated with Italo-Australians. The departments. However never was it more apparent problem it seems is that they play ‘ethnic’ games. that the interests of power elites and the needs of When the ABC’s Four Corners team was filming ordinary people are rarely the same. The outside Mr Antonio Bellino’s Roxy nightclub in government accepts and affirms the rights of the Brisbane, he told his doorman to break the camera. ECCs to represent ethnic interests, but co-option Mr Bellino said he was ‘not very happy’ about the rarely protects the interests of both parties, and the Vietnamese club which occupied a room adjoining Canberra ECC is now well and truly co-opted. the Roxy and was accessible from his office The audience, mostly male and 45+, was treated through an unlocked fire door. He said the people to a succession of reports which said more about were not nice and could be violent. ‘I wasn’t very how important the various office holders were than happy about that (the ABC filming the Roxy) about how much had changed for migrants in the because I didn’t want any more publicity, especially nation’s capital. The ECC is now nine years old and being next door to the Roxy there, and if they went the executive positions have been held by the same up there, I don’t think these cameramen would group of people for almost that long. The greatest enjoy what they were going to do to them,’ he said. amount of pre-AGM lobbying was done by the existing members of the executive who wanted to be rid of one person they did not like. This was done. A Black History All this would be fine, were the people who see Catholics in Brisbane are being urged to work themselves as ethnic leaders able to accurately and pray together to help Aborigines gain land reflect and then act on community needs. rights. The Archbishop of Brisbane, the Most Unfortunately they do not reflect community needs Reverend Francis Rush recently said: “As a nation and worse, prevent others, with very serious concerns, from being heard. we must accept that white settlement did cause Aboriginal dispossession which resulted in needs Why this is tolerated by ethnic communities and being created and aspirations being thwarted. In so the community at large, presents some interesting far as such needs and aspirations can be met insights into the working of the Canberra without occasioning injustice to other citizens they community. ought to be. This national responsibility must be To have leadership that can be patronised by the discharged through enlightened laws and policies”. power-holders such as Canberra bureaucrats and Sunday the 20th of September, 1987 was ‘Aboriginal politicians at large, suits everybody well. It does and Islander Sunday’ for Catholics in Brisbane, with nothing to unsettle prejudice, allows people to feel the theme ‘White Australia has a Black history: Now good about being able to help unfortunates and our future in Black and White’. This raises a serious does nothing to threaten existing power blocs. The question for post-1947 immigrants and their current executive has only one spokesperson, who organisations. How are they going to support the gets ready access to the press. He speaks without Aboriginal struggles for social justice? What clearance from his executive on many issues and alliances are the Ethnic Communities’ Councils and remains unchallenged. For those who are not ethno-specific organisations going to build with “ethnics” it is difficult to challenge an ethnic leader Aboriginal associations in the pursuit of social as a counter accusation of prejudice is so quickly justice? made, or hinted at. For most non-ethnics the issues are rarely of as great personal significance. For ETHNIC VOICE instance, as to whether a child has sufficient ESL

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 33 support, or whether family reunion allows cousins 46; Philippines 63; Malaysia 56; Poland 28; France to migrate, has little effect on their lives. 15 and Fiji 21. For fellow ethnics, the accusation that any At the same time, the population is ageing and criticism of another ethnic is destructive because language problems are resurfacing for many. For it works against the general ‘ethnic’ cause is a others the problems of their children are a fierce powerful silencer. So silence becomes a worry and for the children themselves the no man’s begrudging form of compliance. land that is the transition from adolescence to I suppose the positive side of the argument is adulthood has to be manoeuvred with very little that at least government is consulting, and a assistance. regularised process for consultation has been The problems are universal but in the Canberra established. This must be better than the situation context all the more disturbing because the city is that existed in the late 70s. All the sadder then so small and the solutions are so tantalizingly when it does not work. possible. Many a learned scholar, wit and thinker has If nothing else though, the process of being made pronouncements about power and its effects consulted has put pressure on ECCs to be on individuals. The consequences of this at the organised. Our ECC whoever it represents is that. local level are none the less heartbreaking. There Money has been granted for bicentennial activities is no reason why our ethnic leaders should be any and for the second FECCA biennial congress which less vulnerable than other mortals. Somehow, is to be held late in ’88 in Canberra. perhaps naively though, one hopes that the So while the rest of Australia is facing the tragic experience of migration is such that the immediate question of who the real Australians are, of whose needs and concern of newcomers would be well land we are all using and the complex understood and that no-one who had experienced consequences of making honest amends, the ECC the same bewilderment would forget the urgency is busy. of the needs. Canberra is a beautiful city, the visitors will flock The stream of new ones to Canberra is a steady in uninterruptedly all of 1988 and perhaps amongst one. The needs of the Chilean and Vietnamese the chaotic busyness of conferences and communities are the most urgent but as rough celebrations, the needs of non-English speakers in figures from 1986/87 show there is a very our courts, hospitals, schools and workplaces may widespread group of settlers to deal with. They be at least observed, if not acted on. include — Sri Lanka 77; India 30; Korea 20; Laos LINGUA FRANCA

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Page 34 — Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 /

World Scene

Refugees aid Canadian push to Canada backs close immigration down on refugee door controls

In 1914, the Japanese steamship, Ironically, that majority of Canadians Stung by criticism from the United Komagata Maru, entered the port of who oppose more immigration are mostly Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Vancouver with a human cargo — 376 of immigrant stock. the Canadian Government has promised Sikhs trying to escape India’s poverty and Less that half the country’s population to amend a severe new immigration racial politics. is white and Anglo-Saxon with English as control bill introduced in an emergency After two months, the Government sent a first language. About one quarter are of sitting of Parliament last week. gunboats to chase the Komagata Maru French origin, and another quarter are Mr Jean-Pierre Hocke, head of the out of Canada. It returned to Calcutta. immigrants. Geneva-based UN agency, warned that legitimate refugees could face death or Three quarters of a century later, that Professor Morton Weinfeld, chairman imprisonment because of the Canadian is the treatment many Canadians — of the sociology department at Montreal's Government’s legislation. possibly most — would have endorsed for McGill University wants Canada to “open the tramp steamer Amalie, which landed the gates" because “economically, The Government introduced the 173 Sikhs illegally on a fog-shrouded Nova immigrants are a bargain. Proportionally, draconian bill at the height of the public Scotia beach two weeks ago. those who arrived in the 1970s had more backlash against 174 Sikhs who arrived university degrees and more jobs than in Canada by freighter from Holland last Between the Komagata Maru and the month. Amalie, not much seems to have changed native-born Canadians”. When 153 Tamils The Prime Minister, Mr Brian Mulroney, in Canadian attitudes. The people who arrived in Canada by lifeboat a year ago who with his Conservative Party is running carried placards in 1987 saying, “ Go the Government welcomed them, last in the polls, recalled Parliament from Home, Trash," could well have had provoking a public outcry that resulted in its summer recess in the belief that the grandfathers rioting against Sikh the current hard-line attitude toward the anti-migrant bill would win him kudos. immigration in Vancouver in 1914. Sikhs. All the Tamils are employed, many in menial jobs. And some have even The Government based its new As in 1914, the 1987 Canadian become employers. legislation on secret opinion polls which Government handled the Sikh boat people showed public anger at phoney refugee A report by the Canadian Ethnocultural case badly, the Government kept the Sikhs claimants. But the growing outcry from Council three months ago said that locked in an army gymnasium, in violation Canadian refugee aid groups, clergy and Canada should triple its intake of of their rights under Canada's Constitution now the UN theatens to rob him of his immigrants to 250,000 a year. A — while it tried to judge the swing of ambition by changing the public mood. public opinion. parliamentary committee made a similar recommendation, but suggested that The bill would allow the Canadian After two weeks of legal pressure, the Canada take only the most skilled and the auhtorities to: turn back ships carrying Government started releasing the boat wealthiest. suspected illegal immigrants; impose people on bonds put up by the 10-year jail terms and $A540,000 fines for 200,000-strong Sikh community, pending The Government’s official quota is those aiding illegal immigrants; detain and hearings on their claims to be refugees. 125,000, but it will not be met because the deport illegal immigrants or people requirements are too rigid. Immigration Part of the public's reaction to the Sikhs without documents, and break into any experts say the ideal candidate would be was undoubtedly racist, but even before place where refugees may be without a an orphaned 14-year-old entrepreneur with they arrive, a Gallup poll found that search warrant. independent income. Canadians were hostile to more Mr Hocke reminded the Mulroney immigrants. A new immigration law, which would Government that Canada has signed two A total of 83 per cent of Canadians say cut down the number of people coming UN agreements not to return would-be that the present level of immigration is into Canada as refugees and establish refugees to countries where their freedom high enough or too high. Only 13 percent higher standards for immigrants is likely or lives may be in jeopardy. He warned of Canadians believe immigration should to be passed before the end of the year. that part of the bill that would allow be increased. The Government had feared pro­ Canada to turn back a ship without first immigrant groups would lobby against it. screening its passengers violates both Successive governments, fearing voter Now that it’s been able to measure the agreements. backlash, have shied away from big hostility towards the Sikh boat people, it Many clergy who help refugees reach increases in immigration quotas. In 1985, is likely to push that legislation forward Canada took 84,000 people, the lowest Canada say they are prepared to go to jail aggressively, hoping to win over the 83 per rather than end their efforts". number in 10 years, but 48,000 Canadians cent of Canadians who want no increased left the country, most to the United States, Almost 25,000 people arriving in immigration. leaving a net increase of 36,000 new Canada last year claimed to be refugees. residents. The Age 25/7/87 The Age 18/8/87

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 35 In a letter to the Home Secretary, Mr Fleeing the tilling A purpose that is Soley writes: “ I have never liked the primary purpose rule, but there seems to A new wave of Vietnamese boat people primarily racist me something appallingly wrong with a is pouring into Hong Kong, this time system that, due to the nature of the rule fleeing the hard life they found after It has become common-place to say and the delays in this case, has presented resettling in Southern China. that Britain’s immigration laws are racist. this couple with a decision between termination and economic poverty and The influx of about 6,000 Vietnamese White people have less difficulty settling uncertainty about their future." from China during the past seven weeks in the country than do Asians or blacks. has been reminiscent of the first seven This is due less to the rules themselves The Age 20/8/87 months of 1979, when about 66,000 than to the flexibility they give to officials refugees arrived in this tiny British colony to decide whether marriages are genuine. from Vietnam aboard dilapidated fishing Two recent cases illustrate the problem. Back-door junks and freighters. Mrs Renubaken Lakhani gained Both waves involved hundreds of temporary admission to Britain last year, repatriation people entering Hong Kong waters each claiming she had a fiance in India, to Liberal-controlled Tower Hamlets is not day, typically bringing only a handful of whom she had to return. Instead, she met the only council that will welcome possessions. and married Mr Lakhani from Leicester. Tuesday’s high court judgment that local But there is a difference. She became pregnant, and was authorities have no obligation to house Hong Kong and the rest of the world threated with deportation once the child homeless families who recently emigrated accepted the 1979 boat people as was born. Now she is holed up in a Hindu to Britain. In addition to a whole clutch of refugees escaping persecution from the temple in Leicester, seeking sanctuary Tory authorities, there will be a number of communist Government that had won the from immigration officers. Labour councils secretly rejoicing that at Vietnam war just four years earlier. Many The British Home Office says she last there is some limit on their previously of them were sent to new homes overseas should have gone back to India to seek open-ended duty to provide accommoda­ by the end of 1980. entry clearance before she married. tion for homeless families. But Hong Kong authorities say the Despite a 5000-signature petition from In the face of a growing housing latest arrivals are refugees who had Asians in Leicester, the Home Secretary, shortage, most local councils are now already received asylum from Peking and Mr Douglas Hurd, has not used his operating tough controls on who among should be sent back to China as soon as discretion to allow her to stay. If she is sent the homeless is eligible for assistance. possible. back to India, she can apply to return, but Indeed, at least one London Labour Hong Kong officials seem perturbed there is no guarantee that she will be authority has itself refused accommoda­ that the recent mass influx has lasted so accepted. tion to families on the grounds that they long, even though Chinese officials insist Meanwhile, she will be separated from made themselves “ intentionally home­ they are taking "proper measures" to her husband, and the baby will have to live less” by giving up housing overseas. stem the flow. with only one parent. It is easy to sympathise with authorities Authorities are also anxious to quickly which, barred from building new homes, Her problem is the “primary purpose" send back the refugees to discourage are still expected to meet the (much rule. If say, a woman wants to marry her other Vietnamese from fleeing. higher) cost of putting up the homeless fiance who lives in England, immigration in bed and breakfast hotels; Tower China granted asylum to about 280,000 officers in her own country have to decide Hamlets alone faces a bill for 18 million ethnic Chinese who fled northern Vietnam whether the primary purpose of the pounds this year. But back-door in the late 1970s, when relations between marriage is secure settlement in Britain. the two communist neighbors plummeted. repatriation is no way to deal with such Many were resettled on state farms in the If they judge that it is, she will not be difficulties. And it is worth bearing in mind, southern provinces of Guangxi and allowed to enter. Co-habitating is not as Lord Justice Lloyd remarked making Guangdong. evidence enough, nor even having Tuesday’s judgment, that the new ruling children. Racism may not be intended, but applies to people who move from Rumors of an amnesty and easy the assumption that people from poor Liverpool as well. The message for those resettlement in the West triggered the countries are more likely to want to settle who get on their bike in search of work massive exodus of recent weeks, Hong in Britain may lead to indirect is as clear as the message to the families Kong authorities believe, but refugees who discrimination. of British citizens living overseas. And it spoke to reporters stressed they were is one that will have an economic cost, fleeing the poverty of their Chinese Mr Donald McIntosh, a Jamaican, has as well as a human one. villages, where some claimed they earned run up against the same problem. He only 30 yuan (SA11.30) monthly. came to Britain for a holiday, met and Hong Kong authorities have scrambled married a British citizen, and applied to to cope with the inundation, but feel they stay in Britain. are fighting what could become a losing After months of delay, uncertainty and battle. They are frantically seeking to meet indecision from the Home Office, Mrs authorities in southern China to work out McIntosh became pregnant. a solution. Only after the intervention of her MP, Mr The Herald 20/8/87 Clive Soley, did the Home Office decide that the primary purpose of Mr McIntosh’s marriage was to settle in Britain, and that he would therefore have to return to Jamaica. He will appeal against the decision but, meanwhile, Mrs McIntosh has terminated her pregnancy. As her husband is not allowed to work, the couple felt they could not afford to bring up a baby.

Page 36 — Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 Action

who have applied to take its courses, Ethnic group according to a centre spokesman, Mr Migrants saved Larry Wakeland. seeks licence Mr Wakeland said the Adult Migrant us from ‘early Education Service (AM£S) was in a crisis An ethnic broadcasting group said because of program cuts last February decline’ yesterday it expected to be on air in and a lack of funding. Melbourne late this year. The influx of non-British migrants after The Ethnic Public Broadcasting Assoc­ Teachers and students have been World War II saved white Australia from iation said it was confident it would win staging a round-the-clock protest at “an early absolute decline" in its popula­ a licence after the Federal Government Sydney's Chifley Square since Sunday tion, according to a study commissioned called for ethnic public radio licence over the shortage of immigrant education by the Australian Bicentennial Authority applicants yesterday. programs. (ABA). The association said it had had a For Mrs Betty Siu and Mr Zhi Qiang, A professor of economics at the Aus­ detailed application lodged in Canberra both recent immigrants from China, the tralian National University, Professor Noel since August last year. only education they will get in English is Butlin, compiled the study as an econo­ Its president, Mr George Zangalis, said nearly at an end. But they are nowhere mic history of Australia for the ABA’s 1988 the EPBA already had transmission facil­ near fluent. Bicentennial Diary, to be published by ities, studios and offices in Victoria St, Because the pressure from immigrants Brisbane-based Sunshine Diaries Pty Ltd. Fitzroy. for English lessons is so great, their Professor Butlin writes that the It would also have access to a $170,000 teachers say, they are only able to offer economy in 1946 was “ par excellence, grant given to the Ethnic Communities students about half as much tuition as dinkum Aussie" with a population that Council by the Victorian 150th Anniversary they need. “was 90 per cent Australian-born, almost Board for the establishment of a radio all of whom had British or Irish parentage”. station. Between 1985-86 and 1986-87, the number of immigrants entering Australia "During much of the period after 1945, The Victorian Opposition spokesman went up by more than a quarter — from migration came once more to challenge for ethnic affairs, Mr Pescott, said the 90,000 to 115,000. But funding allocated net natural increase as a contributor to population increase. This was partly due Federal Government was trying to win to teach them English did not increase in back ethnic voters estranged by cuts to real terms. to the scale of immigration," he says. SBS and other ethnic services. “ But it was also due to the continuing Mr Zangalis, also the deputy chairman The centre was only able to give those decline in birth rates as women entered who got in 20 weeks’ tuition, half of what of the Ethnic Communities Council, said the workforce. ethnic communities in Victoria had com­ was generally required to become pro­ ficient. “ Indeed, well before the end of this plained for several years because they did period, the continued ability of the Aus­ not have a full time ethnic station. Mr Qiang, a student at Blackfriars who tralian white population to go on growing The ECC represented 86 ethnic com­ used to be a factory worker, said he could depended on immigration. Without it, munities who would all be pleased by the not find a job because his English was not Australians faced an early absolute call for applications. good enough. He cannot read the news­ decline in their numbers." paper, nor understand the television. The Ethnic Affairs Minister, Mr Young, The study found that in 1947 the said applications had to be lodged by July “ If you want job you must speak composition of the overseas-born popu­ 31. English. If you live in Australia you must lation was 73.1 per cent British, compared speak English. I don't understand why I with 37.7 per cent in 1981. He said the call for applicants followed can't keep studying here. a recommendation by the Connor Report Only 4.1 per cent came from Asia and (committee of review on the SBS) that "I just want a part-time course, not Africa in 1947 compared with 14.6 per money.” licences be extended in Melbourne. cent in 1981. Mrs Siu, who also cannot get a job The Sun 25.6.87 because her English is not good enough, The Australian 23.7.87 said she was “very shy” to speak English. Immigrants "People here are friendly but it's difficult to talk to them. I need more [English]. But queue for they tell me there is no class for me because there are so many people English courses waiting.” A spokesman for the Minister assisting Federal Government funding and the Minister for Immigration and Ethnic staffing cuts have been blamed for huge Affairs, Mr Holding, said the Hawke Gov­ waiting lists for immigrants wanting to take ernment had increased spending in the English courses at Sydney’s largest area by about a third since it came to immigration centre. power. W estbridge Migrant Centre, at He said a further $2.25 million had Villawood in Sydney's west, has been able been allocated for the next financial year. to take only half of the 800 immigrants Sydney Morning Herald 2.7.87

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 37 WA workers get paid time off to learn English

Non-English speaking migrants in Western Australia will have time off work without loss of pay to attend English classes, after a decision by the West Australian Industrial Relations Commis­ sion. The decision by the commission that employer-paid English classes were an industrial right of workers has been hailed as a breakthrough for the trade union movement by the Secretary of the Aus­ tralian Council of Trade Unions, Bill Kelty. The case had set a precedent which would be used in future campaigns on the issue, he said. The Commission was represented by Commissioner Salmon who arbitrated on a claim by the Federated Miscellaneous Workers' Union of Australia (Hospital, Service and Miscellaneous) W.A. Branch, to vary the award of the Government Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Employees to cover paid leave for English tuition. The claim was opposed by the Metropolitan Water Authority of W.A. on the grounds that English tuition was not an industrial matter since it advantaged "The best interests of the community the worker socially. Anti-racism have to be considered and you can't have the courts bogged down with a series of Commissioner Salmon ruled that the frivolous complaints. employer had a statutory obligation action to be towards certain employees under equal “Class action would narrow it down.” employment opportunities policy, and that considered Mr Hill did not rule out a possible any leave of absence was an industrial amendment to the Criminal Code. matter if it was authorised for a purpose Legislation making it an offence to Earlier this year the Multicultural and which added to the working efficiency of incite racial hatred or violence will be Ethnic Affairs Commission of WA made a the employee taking the leave. considered by the State Government. submission to the Government about the Commissioner Salmon refuted the The Minister for Police, Mr Hill, who is also the Minister for Multicultural and need to consider legislation making it an MWA’s claim that being obliged to pay for offence to incite racial hatred. workers' tuition in English would be a Ethnic Affairs, said yesterday that he had disincentive to employ migrants, since it asked the Police Commissioner, Mr Brian It has also written to the Equal would disadvantage the Authority against Bull, to carefully look at the question. Opportunity Commission of WA and the private contractors. He said he would also be asking the Crown Law Department. Attorney General, Mr Berinson, to exa­ He quoted the report of the Ethnic The acting director of the Multicultural mine the proposed legislation in the light Liaison Officer with the ACTU, Alan of what seemed to be a growing problem. and Ethnic Affairs Commission, Hanifa Matheson, who said that investigations by Dean-Oswald, said yesterday that the the Department of Immigration, the The move comes after a proliferation commission had received many com­ National Labor Consultative Council and in recent weeks of anti-Asian posters and plaints about the posters. the ACTU had found no evidence to sup­ slogans plastered on bins and bus shelters port the suggestion that language classes in and around Perth. However, none of the complaints had adversely affected migrant workers’ Professionally produced, the posters come from Asians. employment opportunities. proclaim "Asians out or racial war” and She was not sure whether such legis­ “ 700,000 unemployed, 700,000 Asians, To the Authority’s request that the lation should be an extension of the migrant workers pay half the cost of why more?” criminal code or whether it should be tuition, on the grounds that they would Mr Hill said he would also discuss handled through the Equal Opportunity share the benefit socially, Commissioner group actions in relation to defamation Commission. Salmon said that although the granting of with Mr Berinson. leave on full pay may not be appropriate "I would very much like to be in a In Victoria, people who were subject to in every other case, in this instance the position to recommend group action for racial harassment in the work place or long-term benefits to the employer would defamation where the posters are who were the subject of jokes and innuen­ do to their detriment could claim either be greater than immediate costs. concerned," he said. financial recompense or an apology. Women at Work Vol. 7, No. 2 “However, there are wider June-August 1987 ramifications. The West Australian 5.8.87

Page 38 — Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 Professor Plans for Young announces praises ethnic SBS-ABC merger immigration enclaves revived review

The ethnic enclave, in which migrants The Federal Government is again The first big review of Australia's of the same ethnic origins cluster considering amalgamating the ABC and immigration policy for 10 years will start together, can be very helpful to people the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS), soon. The Immigration and Ethnic Affairs trying to adjust to life in a new country, only four months after the Prime Minister, Minister, Mr Young, said yesterday that he according to a visiting American professor Mr Hawke, placated ethnic communities hoped to name the members of the review of psychiatry. before the election by saying the merger committee and their terms of reference The ethnic enclave can serve as a plans had been scrapped. next week. “ relatively prejudice-free reception centre The Minister for Transport and Mr Young told the Indo-China Refugee and staging area’’ for the movement of Communications, Senator Evans, said Association in Adelaide that it was migrants into the larger society, Professor yesterday that SBS television was imperative the Government worked harder Eugene Brody, an international authority “coming to a fork in its future", and he to have an effective family migration on migrants and mental health, said wanted to open up debate again on program direct from Vietnam, Laos, and yesterday. whether it should be merged with the eventually Kampuchea. ABC. Professor Brody said that a bicultural Indications were that the Vietnamese He told a communications conference identity was more able to develop when Government would allow migration to in Sydney organised by the Australian the migrant had a secure base in his or continue, although at an uncertain level. Broadcasting Tribunal (ABT) that the SBS her cultural group. “The enclave is a was attracting ratings figures of only 1.2 At the Returned Services League protective environment for many prople,” per cent, and “that obviously makes you national congress at Surfers Paradise he said. “ It allows them to get their act start wondering what are we going to do”. yesterday, the national president, Sir together before broaching the larger William Keys, and the Victorian branch “There is probably something there that society. It can re-acquaint the migrant with president, Mr Bruce Ruxton, clashed we have to recognise as a problem," his own cultural heritage — religious, heatedly over a proposal for a referendum Senator Evans said. national, racial, tribal — and supply group on colored migration. cohesion, which can protect against the He identified two possible future The proposal, by the RSL's WA branch, traumatic impact of life’s crises.” directions for the SBS: it could be merged was defeated. with the ABC to become the national Professor Brody is the secretary- broadcaster’s second channel, or it could Delegates voted to maintain the RSL’s general of the World Federation for Mental become a special interests' community standing immigration policy, based on an Health and emeritus professor at the channel similar to Channel 4 in Britain. individual’s ability to integrate and University of Maryland's school of contribute to Australian society. medicine. He even canvassed the possibility of turning the station into a commercial Mr Ruxton said Australians would lose Of particular importance to members concern, although he emphasised this their identity forever if colored migration of ethnic enclaves were "bridging per­ was not curtailed. sons” — migrants who had one foot in the was only a suggestion “and just one possibility we are exploring". Sir William said the proposal was enclave and one in the wider community, unacceptable and would be disastrous for Professor Brody said. The World Federa­ His comments will anger ethnic Australia’s relations with foreign countries. tion for Mental Health committee was communities that believed the looking for money to study the factors that multicultural broadcaster had been saved “The league does not want to be influence the stability of ethnic enclaves. associated with extremist views, he said. The decision came after co-ordinated The Age, 4.9.1987 There was a popular misconception national protests against the merger plan. that migrants were more prone to mental Labor Party backbenchers with large disorders than native-born people, Pro­ numbers of migrants in their electorates fessor Brody said. However, it could well had also warned Mr Hawke that the be that those who were prepared to go to financial savings of a merger — estimated CHO M f a new country in search of a better life and by the Government to be $2 million this better opportunities for their children had financial year — would be outweighed by MAIL ORDER good mental health, he said. “ It does the political backlash against the ALP appear, however, that for individuals who among ethnic communities. CATALOGUE are already vulnerable, or for those in whom mental illness is already present He said ethnic radio was “essentially 1987/8 but latent, the stress of losing old supports going along like a train and operating very can precipitate disturbance. satisfactorily.” “ If you are poor, if you are illiterate, if But SBS television, despite having — $3.00— you look different, you are in effect disen­ “ bucket loads” of competence and professionalism, was not generating a franchised. If you can’t speak the lan­ guage, if you are using very simple, significant audience and this was a childlike phrases to communicate, you are problem that needed to be considered. in a position of dependency." Senator Evans indicated that he did not CHOMI As a rule, the longer the new arrivals want to rush into a decision about the 133 Church St. future of the SBS, particularly because the were settled and integrated into the host Richmond Vic. community, the less likely the chance broadcaster was not a "gigantic" call on overt clinical illness would develop, Pro­ public funds and the Government did not Australia 3121 fessor Brody said. want to make a mistake when it finally (03) 428 4948 made its decision. The Age 25.8.87 The Australian 1.9.87

Migration Action Vol. IX No. 3 — Page 39 Book Reviews reader. Although I recognise the import­ bashing up anyone who they don't like the Chosen — The ance of chronicling information about look of. They see Saret and are about to significant personalities and organisations bash him and his precious photo when Jews in Australia I was left wishing that there was more Alex says “ Oh no, I know him". “ Hi Alex” discussion of issues and less listing of says Saret meekly, and ‘Beast’ the leader by Hilary Rubinstein facts. That aside, it is useful to have a of the gang says in a snooty voice mean­ Allen & Unwin, Sydney 1987 chronological history of the Australian ing get lost — "OK Alex, we’ll leave him RRP: $34.95 (HB), $19.95 (PB). Jewish community presented in a read­ to you” and walks away. The rest of the able and manageable format. gang follows him and once they’ve gone Hilary Rubinstein traces the develop- Alex walks with Saret to pick up his sister. menfof the Australian Jewish community RUTH MUSHIN On the way they meet some cops and through an account of migration patterns, Saret runs away with Alex close behind. the development of community institutions When they finally reach the restaurant and organisations, and relationships with In Between they are over an hour late which is not like the general community. Her discussion is Saret, and Kanya (his sister) is not there. illustrated with examples of individuals of by Maureen McCarthy Saret is worried but Alex says she note, from notorious bushrangers to more McPhee Cribble/Penguin, probably would have walked home so they respectable figures like businessmen, Ringwood Victoria, 1987. go home and when his sister is not there lawyers, artists and Governors’ General. The 4 novels are $5.95 each. Saret is very worried. They hear a sound Dr. Rubinstein presents the Jewish downstairs and they rush out to see Kanya community in Australia today as a com­ FATIMA staggering to the steps. They put her into munity which is vibrant and rich in bed and it is obvious she has been raped. religious, educational, welfare, political Fatima is the first book in the series, Alex says that they should call a doctor and cultural organisations. Her account it is about a Turkish-born girl who lives in but Saret says no. Later Angie and Fatima of its history, however, reveals that this has a Turkish family in Australia. She wants to come over and Kanya coughs up blood. not always been so. Beginning with the be like an Australian but her father is Angie gets an ambulance and they all go Jewish convicts of the First Fleet, she strongly against it. Her family expects her to the hospital. When Saret is questioned traces the development of the Anglicised to finish school, go back to Turkey, marry they find he is an illegal immigrant and nineteenth century community, through a boy who is an old family friend and live they want to deport him, but on the way successive waves of post-pogrom, pre happily ever after as a housewife. Saret escapes from the car and Alex hides World War II and post-war migration, However Fatima feels differently. She him in an old run-down factory. This story through to the present day. Her picture of wants a career and not just one working continues in “Angie”. the nineteenth century Jewish community in a factory. But it seems she may have is one where Jewishness was defined to when news comes that her father could ANGIE lose his job. If this happens Fatima would strictly in religious terms, and in other In this book Angie gets pregnant. Alex have to stop school altogether. respects, its members mostly saw them­ is the father and is really pleased but selves as pillars of the wider community. When a form is sent home from school Angie is not, at least she doesn’t think so. Ironically their conscientious assimilation asking for parents’ permission to take a She is very confused and doesn’t know into that wider community almost doomed sex education class she knows her father what to think or do. Meanwhile Saret and them to disappearance, a trend which was won’t approve so her friend Angie forges Alex try to get into the detention centre reversed by the influx of Eastern European her father’s signature and although she is disguised as translators but it doesn't work Jews whose “differentness" they at first a little reluctant she still takes the class. and they have to run away. saw as a threat. Fatima also has her own views on Angie and her mother are Christians The Eastern European, and Central things like politics and is not the kind of and so she can’t have an abortion but she European Jews who followed, stimulated person whom you would expect to just get makes an appointment to see the abortion the growth of a network of religious con­ married and settle down with a boy she doctor and in the end gets an abortion. gregations, day schools, welfare, political doesn’t even know. This story continues Angie's Mum, Bet, is angry but realises and cultural organisations. In the process, during the next books. that she'll still love Angie no matter what. they helped to redefine Jewish identity in Alex is angry with Angie too, but Angie much broader terms than the narrow, drops him for not using a condom. He still religious definition of the earlier Anglicised SARET likes Angie though and all is found out in community. Saret and his sister were all they had the last book “Alex”. We are left with a picture of a commun­ when they first came to Australia as illegal This book may interest people involved ity which is committed to maintaining its immigrants from Cambodia. Saret works in the pro-life movement. identity whilst still participating actively in hard in a factory and comes home late at the general community. Although this night. On his way home he picks up his ALEX seems like an ideal position for a minority sister from her job at a restaurant. Saret This is the last book and it concludes group in Australian society, the Jewish sometimes helps on a small community everything so I won’t tell you what community is not without its problems, newspaper and here he meets Alex. Alex happens because I think you may want to and we are also left with the question of hangs around the building to see Angie read it yourselves. The whole series was whether the current level of energy and who is often there with Fatima. Alex great and it really shows what immigrants, commitment can be maintained in the offered to do a round with him and they legal or illegal, and Australians' lives are face of intermarriage, a low birthrate and made friends. One night Saret went to like. It is so true and down to earth that little prospect of significantly increased collect his framed copy of his Mum and it makes you wonder if the life you live is migration. Dad’s wedding photo. On the way back he real. The book was written for school stud­ meets Alex in the car with some "cool" ents, but is also aimed at the general friends of his who are just driving around MARION SINGER

Page 40 — Migration Action Voi. IX No. 3 /

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