Notes and References

I. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,412. 2. George Gallup and S. F. Rae, The Pulse oj Democracy, 1940,270. 3. B. C. Hennessy, Public Opinion, 1970, 130. 4. J. L. Woodward, 'Public Opinion Polls as an Aid to Democracy', Political Science Quarterry, 61,1946,238. Note alsoJ. C. Ranney, 'Do the Polls Serve Democracy?' Public Opinion Quarterry, 10, 1946,349-60. 5. Leo Bogart, 'No Opinion, Don't Know, and Maybe No Answer', Public Opinion Quarterry, 31, 1967,332. 6. P. A. Palmer, 'The Concept of Public Opinion in Political Theory', in Essays in History and Political Theory in Honor oj Charles H. McIlwain, 1936,231. 7. David Hume, Essays, Vol. I, Essay iv, p. 110. 8. James Bryce, The American Commonwealth, Vol. II, 1914,255. 9. J. Ortega y Gassett, Revolt ojthe Masses, 1932, 126. 10. Hans Speier, 'The Historical Development of Public Opinion', American Journal ojSociology, 55,1950,384. II. Walter Bagehot, Physics and Politics, 1872, 117-18. 12. Walter Bagehot, ibid., 119-20. 13. 'I know of no country in which there is so little independence of mind and real freedom of discussion as in America ... In America the majority raises formidable barriers around the liberty of opinion.' Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. I, 1835,337. 14. William Albig, Modem Public Opinion, 1956,31. 15. Joseph Moseley, Political Elements: or, The Progress ojModem Legislation, 1852, 119. 16. See D. K. Ber10, 'The Context of Communication', in G.]. Hanneman and W. J. McEwen, Communication and Behavior, 1975, 18. 17. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922,248-9. 18. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,48. 19. Peter Golding, The Mass Media, 1974,20. 20. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922,253. 21. William A. Mackinnon, On the Rise, Progress, and Present State ofPublic Opinion in Great Britain and Other Parts of the World, 1828 (Reissued 1971), 15. 22. See F. G. Wilson, A Theory of Public Opinion, 1962,98. 23. Hans Speier, 'The Historical Development of Public Opinion', American Journal ojSociology, 55,1950,376. 24. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961, 14. 25. James Bryce, Modem Democracies, Vol I, 1921, 173. 253 254 Notes and References

26. James Bryce, ibid., 177. 27. F. G. Wilson, 'James Bryce on Public Opinion: Fifty Years Later', Public Opinion Quarterry, 3, 1939,420-35. 28. F. G. Wilson, A Theory qf Public Opinion, 1962, 99. Note also Wilson's comments in an earlier paper: 'One common principle is that public opinion is at times intelligent and well-founded and sometimes it is not.' From 'Public Opinion: Theory for Tomorrow' ,Journal of Politics, 16, 1954, 603. 29. A. D. Monroe, Public Opinion in America, 1975, 6. See also E. L. Bernays, Crystallizing Public Opinion, 1923,61. 30. See F. P. Chisman, Attitude Psychology and the Study qfPublic Opinion, 1976, 18. 31. See F. G. Wilson, A Theory ofPublic Opinion, 1962, for a survey of the literature on this theme. 32. F. A. Allport, 'Toward a Science of Public Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterry, I, 1937, 10. 33. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,8--9. William Albig called this the 'group fallacy' of democracy - Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 6. 34. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,412. 35. F. A. Allport, 'Toward a Science of Public Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterry, 1,1937,8. 36. F. A. Allport, ibid., 8. 37. Walter Lippmann, in The Phantom Public, 1925, for one, warned of the confusions arising from the attempt to ascribe an organic unity to a single public with a single will. See pp. 155-6. 38. Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study qfthe Popular Mind, 1895,40. 39. Gustave Le Bon, ibid., 16. 40. James Bryce, The American Commonwealth, Vol. II, 1914,365. 41. E. S. Bogardus, The Making of Public Opinion, 1951,5. 42. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,46. 43. H. L. Childs, ibid., 357. 44. E. S. Bogardus, The Making qf Public Opinion, 1951, was another good example of this kind of wishful thinking. 45. Graham Wallas, Human Nature in Politics, 1908,21. 46. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 488. 47. James Bryce, Modern Democracies, Vol. 1,1921,167. In dismissing such beliefs as untenable, Bryce here modifies his former optimism. 48. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. I, 1835, 325. 49. Alexis de Tocqueville, ibid., 330-1. Note Mill in the Essay on Liberty, 'If all mankind minus one were of one opinion, and only one person were of contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person, than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind.' (Everyman edition, 1948, 79.) 50. See Mill's review of Democracy in America in Edinburf(h Review, October, 1840, 1-47. 51. Ernest Barker, Political Thought in England, 1848 to 1914, 1928,203. Note also Crane Brinton, The Political Ideas qfthe English Romanticists, 1962. 52. There is an excellent discussion of this point in Carl J. Friedrich, The New Image qfthe Common Man, 1950. 53. B. E. Lippincott, Victorian Critics f!! Democracy, 1938,254. 54. J. Ortega y Gassett, Revolt qf the Masses, 1932, II. Notes and References 255

55. Norman Angell, The Public Mind: Its Disorders, Its Exploitation, 1926, 175. 56. Norman Angell, ibid., 176. 57. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922, 75. 58. Walter Lippmann, ibid., 256. 59. Walter Lippmann, The Phantom Public, 1925, 14. 60. See T. H. Qualter, Graham Wallas and the Great Sociery, 1980, for a fuller analysis of Wall as' concepts of rationality and behaviour. 61. See William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956,29. 62. F. G. Wilson, A Theory of Public Opinion, 1962,8. 63. Walter Lippmann, The Phantom Public, 1925, 144-5. Note also Childs' later comment that publics are 'more competent to determine the ends of public policy than the specific means for attaining those ends'. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,93. 64. A. D. Monroe, Public Opinion in America, 1975,6. 65. R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, Public Opinion, 1964, 13. 66. See Michael Balfour, Propaganda in the War /939-/945, 1979, or Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of l'!formation in World War II, 1979, for useful accounts of the official British attitude to survey research. 67. George Gallup and S. F. Rae, The Pulse of Democracy, 1940,245. 68. George Gallup and S. F. Rae, ibid., 15. 69. See David Riesman and Nathan Glazer, 'The Meaning of Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterb>, 12, 1948,635. 70. George Gallup and S. F. Rae, The Pulse of Democracy, 1940,258. 71. The phrase is from C. W. Smith, Public Opinion in a Democracy, 1942,346. 72. H. D. Lasswell, Democracy Through Public Opinion, 1941, 15. 73. See F. G. Wilson, 'Public Opinion: A Theory for Tomorrow', Journal of Politics, 16, 1954,603. 74. Avery Leiserson, 'Notes on the Theory of Political Opinion Formation', American Political Science Review, 47, 1953, 171. 75. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,7. 76. For a discussion of this point see also Bertrand Russell, Power: A New Social Anab>sis, 1938, 146. 77. A. D. Monroe, Public Opinion in America, 1975,291. 78. James Best, Public Opinion: Micro and Macro, 1973,216. 79. See F. P. Chisman,Attitude Psychology and the Stutly of Public Opinion, 1976, 161. See also Robert Weissberg, Public Opinion and Popular Government, 1976, 7-8. 80. Walter Lippmann, The Public Philosop~, 1955,25. 81. 'The paradox of scientific measurement is that we change phenomena by measuring them,' Leo Bogart, 'No Opinion, Don't Know, and Maybe No Answer', Public Opinion Quarterb>, 31; 1967,335. 82. F. G. Wilson, 'Public Opinion: Theory for Tomorrow,'Journal ofPolitics , 16, 1954,607. 83. See D. W. Minar, 'Public Opinion in the Perspective of Political Theory', Western Political Quarterb> , 13, 1960,31-44, and also H. H. Hyman, 'Toward a Theory of Public Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterb>, 21, 1957,54-60. 256 Notes and Riferences

2 OF PUBLICS AND OPINIONS

I. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961, 182. 2. W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965,27. 3. See, for example,J. N. Rosenau, Public Opinion and Foreign Policy, 1961, 19. 4. Robert Weissberg, Public Opinion and Popular Government, 1976,9-10. 5. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956,5. 6. F. A. Allport, 'Toward a Science of Public Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterry, 1,1937,9. 7. F. P. Chisman, Attitude Psychology and the Study of Public Opinion, 1976, 7. 8. H. D. Lasswell, Democracy Through Public Opinion, 1941,20. 9. E. J. Baur, 'Public Opinion and the Primary Group', American Sociological Review, 25, 1960, 209-10. 10. Kimball Young, 'Comments on the Nature of "Public" and "Public Opinion" ',International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research, 2, 1948, 385. II. R. M. MacIver, Academic Freedom in Our Time, 1955,23. 12. E. J. Baur, 'Public Opinion and the Primary Group', American Sociolo,l!.ical Review, 25, 1960, 209. In a like manner, Robert Nisbet emphasised the necessity of common ends, purposes, and rules of procedure. 'Public Opinion versus Popular Opinion', The Public In/erest, 41, 1975, 168. 13. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,92. 14. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,544-5. 15. E. S. Bogardus, The Making of Public Opinion, 1951,7. 16. A. L. Lowell, Public Opinion in War and Peace, 1923, 12. 17. A. L. Lowell, ibid., 13. Note also William Albig's remarks on the opening page of his Modern Public Opinion, that where there is no debate, there is no opinion. 18. See William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956,4. 19. A. L. Lowell, Public Opinion in War and Peace, 1923, 14. 20. See R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, Public Opinion, 1964,3. 21. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961, 10-11. This is a view held also by, inter alia, Herbert Goldhamer, 'Public Opinion and Personal• ity', American Journal of Sociology, 55, 1950, 346. 22. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,20. 23. William Bauer, 'Public Opinion', Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. 13, 1934,670. 24. Tom Harrisson, 'What is Public Opinion?'~ Political Quarterry, 11, 1940,374. 25. Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, 'The Spiral of Silence: A Theory of Public Opinion',Journal of Communication, 24, 1974,44. 26. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,23. 27. E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, 1973, 18. 28. F. A. Allport, 'Toward a Science of Public Opinion', Public Opinion Quarterry, 1,1937,14. 29. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,207. 30. L. W. Doob, Public Opinion and Propaganda, 1949,40--1. 31. H. D. Lasswell, Democracy Through Public Opinion, 1941, 20. 32. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy, 1961,263. 33. E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, '1973,22. 34. See H. J. Eysenck, The Psychology of Politics, 1954, II. Notes and References 257

35. H.J. Eysenck, ibid., 1954,269--70. 36. G. W. Allport, 'The Composition of Political Attitudes', American Journal oj Sociology, 35, 1929,221. 37. G. D. Wiebe, 'Some Implications of Separating Opinions from Attitudes', Public Opinion Quarterly, 17, 1953, 329. 38. Daniel Katz, 'The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes', Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, 1960, 168. 39. H. J. Eysenck, The Psychology oj Politics, 1954,265. 40. E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, 1973,21. 41. Milton Rokeach, Beliifs, Attitudes, and Values, 1968, 135. 42. T. M. Newcomb, Social Psychology, 1950, 154. 43. Philip Zimbardo and E. B. Ebbesen, Influencing Attitudes and Changing Behavior, 1969,6. 44. Hadley Cantril, Gauging Public Opinion, 1944, 77-82. 45. G. D. Wiebe, 'Some Implications of Separating Opinions from Attitudes', Public Opinion Quarterly, 17, 1953, 333. 46. H. C. Triandis, Attitude and Attitude Change, 1971,25. 47. Ian McLaine, Ministry oj Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of Information in World War 1/, 1979,8. 48. Irving Sarnoff and Daniel Katz, 'The Motivational Bases of Attitude Change', Journal oj Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49, 1954, 116. 49. H.J. Eysenck, The PsychologyoJPolitics, 1954, 14. See also T. W. Adornoetal., The Authoritarian Personality: Studies in Prejudice, 1950, as another key study of the relationships among sets of attitudes. 50. W. J. Crotty, Public Opinion and Politics, 1970, 7. 51. This paperis in S. Koch (ed.) Psychology: A Study oja Science, 1963, 94-172- 52. P. Zimbardo and E. B. Ebbesen, Influencing Attitudes and Changing Behavior, 1969,6. 53. For a fairly typical schematic conception of this classification, see M. J. Rosenberg et al., Attitude Organization and Change, 1960, 3. 54. Milton Rokeach, Beliifs, Attitudes, and Values, 1968, 132. 55. J. J. Best, Public Opinion: Micro and Macro, 1973, 19. The significance of 'dissonance' will be more fully developed in Chapter 4. 56. P. E. Converse, 'The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics', in D. E. Apter (ed) Ideology and Discontent, 1964,230. 57. Milton Rokeach, Beliifs, Attitudes, and Values, 1968, ix. 58. Milton Rokeach, 'The Nature of Attitudes', International Encyclopedia oj the Social Sciences, Vol. I, 1968,455. 59. Bernard Berelson and G. A. Steiner, Human Behavior: An Inventory ojScientific Findings, 1964,558. 60. J. J. Eysenck, The Psychology of Politics, 1954, 112. 61. Angus Campbell et al., The American Voter, 1960, 193. 62. D. E. Trueblood, The Logic ojBelief: An Introduction to the Philosophy ojReligion, 1942,24. 63. Hellmut Lehmann-Haupt, Art Under a Dictatorship, 1954,243. 64. David Krech et al., Individual and Society: A Textbook oJSocial Psychology, 1962, 24. 65. P. E. Converse, 'The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics', in D. E. Apter, 1964,207. 258 Notes and Riferences

66. J. J. Best, Public Opinion: Micro and Macro, 1973, 26. 67. See Morris Rosenberg, 'Self-Esteem and Concern with Public Affairs', Public Opinion QuarterV', 26, 1962,201. 68. See C. W. Sherif et al., Attitude and Attitude CluIn,e.e, 1965, 13. 69. See D.J. Bern, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Human Affairs, 1970,7. 70. G. W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, 1954,24-5. 71. J. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967, 14. 72. J. J. Best, Public Opinion: Micro and Macro, 1973, 12. 73. See, for example, Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind, 1960,68. Note also Rokeach's paper, 'The Nature and Meaning of Dogmatism' , Psychologi• cal Review, 61, 1964, 194-204, in which he defined dogmatism as 'a relatively closed cognitive system of beliefs and disbeliefs about reality' organised around a central set of beliefs and providing a framework for a pattern of intolerance. - 195. 74. Colin Cherry, World Communication: Threat or Promise? 1978,3. 75. P. E. Converse, 'The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics', in D. E. Apter, 1964,207. 76. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 12-13. 77. Feliks Gross, European Ideologies, 1948,5. See also W. T. Bluhm, Ideologies and Attitudes, 1974, 1-5. 78. R. E. Lane, Political Ideology, 1962, 19. 79. R. E. Lane, Political Ideology, 1962, 425-6. 80. Georges Sorel, Reflections on Violence, 1914. 81. Quoted by Herman Finer, Mussolini's Italy, 1935,218. 82. B. S. Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968, 14. 83. Innumerable books have dealt with the Nazi racial myth, but two useful sources, specifically from the perspective of propaganda, are J. W. Baird, The Mythical World of Na;;.i War Propaganda, 1939-1945, and R. E. Herzstein, The War That Hitler Won, 1978. 84. See, for example, the model in Dan Nimmo, Political Communication and Public Opinion in America, 1978,264. 85. P. E. Converse, 'The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics', in D. E. Apter, 1964,212-3. 86. P. E. Converse, ibid., 251.

3 THE COMPOSITION OF ATTITUDES

I. See James Bryce, Modern Democracies, Vol. I, 1921, 151. 2. See W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965,30. 3. james Bryce, Modern Democracies, 151. 4. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,29. 5. N. R. Cauthen et al., 'Stereotypes: A Review of the Literature 1926-1968', Journal of Social Psychology, 84, 1971, 103-25. 6. Daniel Katz and K. Braly, 'Racial Stereotypes in One Hundred College Students', Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 1933,280-90. For a fuller discussion of the methodology of much stereotype research see R. A. jones, Self-Fulfilling Prophecies, 1977,53-7. See also j. C. Brigham, 'Ethnic Notes and References 259

Stereotypes', PSychological Bulletin, 76, 1971, 15-38, with its extensive bibliography and literature review. 7. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922, 14. 8. Walter Lippmann, ibid., 15. 9. Walter Lippmann, ibid., 29. 10. W. P. Davison, 'On the Effects of Communication', Public Opinion Quarterg, 23, 1959,349. II. R. H. Thouless, Straight and Crooked Thinking, 1932, 133. 12. For some appropriate illustrations seeJ. C. Brigham, 'Ethnic Stereotypes', Psychological Bulletin, 76, 1971,31. 13. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922, 126. 14. See G. A. Borden et al., Speech Behavior and Human Interaction, 1969, 105. 15. J. A. Fishman, 'An Examination of the Process and Function of Social Stereotyping',Journal oj Social Psychology, 43, 1956,34-5. 16. J. A. Fishman, ibid., 32. 17. See F. La Violette and K. H. Silvert, 'A Theory of Stereotypes', Social Forces, 29, 1951,258. 18. Garnet McDiarmid and David Pratt, Teaching Prejudice, 1971,2. 19. D. T. Campbell, 'Stereotypes and the Perception of Group Differences', American Psychologist, 22, 1967,824. 20. G. W. Allport, The Nature oj Prejudice, 1954, 189-91. 21. D. T. Campbell, 'Stereotypes and the Perception of Group Differences', American Psychologist, 22, 1967,821. 22. G. W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, 1954,200. 23. L. W. Doob, Patriotism and Nationalism: Their Psychological Foundations, 1964, 77. 24. See D. T. Campbell, 'Stereotypes and the Perception of Group Differences', American Psychologist, 22, 1967,825. 25. J. A. Fishman, 'An Examination of the Process and Function of Social Stereotyping' ,Journal oj Social Psychology, 43, 1956, 54. 26. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 76. 27. R. M. Eaton, Symbolism and Truth, 1925,22. 28. S. I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 1978, 20. Note also J. O. Hertzler, A Sociology oj Language, 1965, for much more on the same theme. 29. See C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning oj Meaning, 1923, 103. 30. Note the subtitle, 'Symbol Manipulation as Instrument of Politics', in B. S. Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968, 13. 31. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,29. 32. Karin Dovring, Road oj Propaganda, 1959,45-6. 33. R. H. Abrams, Preachers Present Arms, 1933, xvii. 34. R. H. Abrams, ibid., 50. 35. See A. N. Whitehead, Symbolism: Its Meaning and Effect, 1928, and also G. G. Coulton, Medieval Faith and Symbolism, 1928. 36. Karl Loewenstein, 'The Influence of Symbols on Politics', in R. V. Peel and J. S. Roucek, Introduction to Politics, 1941, 71. 37. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956,87. 38. WilHam Albig, ibid., 76-80, has some nice comments on this theme. 39. S. I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 1978,24. 40. M. L. Defleur and S. Ball-Rokeach, Theories oj Mass Communication, 1975, 260 Notes and References

125. See also Franklin Fearing, 'Human Communication', in L. A. Dexter and D. M. White (eds) People, Sociery, and Mass Communications, 1964,37-67, who also stresses the uniquely human character of symbol use. 41. See S. I. Hayakawa,Language in Thought and Action, 1978,22, and note alsoJ. J. Gumperz, 'The Speech Community', International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. IX, 1968,381-6. 42. J. O. Hertzler, A Sociology of Language, 1965,29. 43. C. E. Osgood, 'Conservative Words and Radical Sentences in the Semantics ofInternational Politics', in Abcarian, Gilbert, and SouleJ. W. (eds) Social Psychology and Political Behavior, 1971, 104. 44. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning, 1923, 10. This is a pioneer work establishing the relationship between the symbols and the things symbolised. 45. Cited by J. W. Baird, The Mythical World of Na;;,i War Propaganda, 1974, 184. 46. See Edrith Fried, 'Techniques of Persuasion', in H. L. Childs and J. R. Whitton, Propaganda by Short Wave, 1942,279. 47. B. F. Skinner, Verbal Behavior, 1957,9. 48. S. I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 1978, 50. Note also Judith Greene, Thinking and Language, 1975, as a valuable reference to the nature and use of language. 49. S. I. Hayakawa, Ibid. 50. Aneurin Bevan, In Place of Fear, 1952, 13. 51. William Albig, Modern Public Opinion, 1956, 105. 52. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning, 1923,24. 53. See j. O. Hertzler, A Sociology of Language, 1965, 270. 54. For some delightful illustrations of the vagaries of human languge, and the general problem of relating names to things, see J. J. Jacobs, Naming Day in Eden, 1958. What language did Adam use when, before there was another human human being on earth, he named every living creature? 55. S. I. Hayakawa, Lan.f!.ua.f!.t in Thou.f!.ht and Action, 1978,33. 56. J. O. Hertzler, A Sociology of Language, 1965, 272. 57. Stuart Chase, in the Foreword to B. L. Whorf, Language, Thought and Rea/iry, 1956, vi. 58. For a critical commentary on the Whorf thesis, see J. W. Carey, 'Harold Adam Innis and Marshal McLuhan', in Phelan, John (ed), Communications Control, 1969,43-77. 59. Dan Nimmo, Political Communication and Public Opinion in America, 1978, 73. 60. Claus Mueller, The Politics of Communication, 1973,33. 61. David Krech et al., Individual and Sociery, 1962,291 and 303. See also Denis Lawton, Social Class, Lan.f!.ual!.e. and Education, 1968. 'Whether it can be said that language is a determiner of perception, cognition and thought might be disputed, but there is little doubt that it exerts a channelling influence on thought processes.' - 157-8. 62. G. A. Borden, SPeech Behavior and Human Interaction, 1969,220. 63. J. O. Hertzler, A Sociology of Language, 1965,41-2. 64. L. W. Doob, Patriotism and Nationalism: Their Psychological Foundations, 1964, 231. 65. Denis Lawton, Social Class, Language, and Education, 1968, 157. This is a most Notes and Riferences 261

useful study of t~e social consequences of a class-structured educational system. 66. See, for example, Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975,69. 67. Claus Mueller, The Politics qfCommunication, 1973, 14. 68. It is worth drawi~g attention to the title ofJ ames Marshall's book, Swords and Symbols: The Technique qf Sovereignty, 1939. 69. R. J. Lifton, Thought Riform and the Psychology qf Totalism, 1969, 430.

4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTITUDE CHANGE

I. J. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967,60. 2. M. B. Smith, 'Attitude Change', International Encyclopedia qfthe Social Sciences, 1968, Vol. 1,458. 3. For an extremely detailed bibliography of experiments in attitude formation and chang-e, see H. C. Triandis, Altitude and Attitude Chan.f!f, 1971. 4. An excellent survey of the field, which does as much as could be expected in one small volume, is R. E. Petty andJ. T. Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches, 1981. 5. Leo Bogart, 'No Opinion, Don't Know, and May be No Answer', Public Opinion Quarterly, 31, 1967,344. 6. H. D. Lasswell, 'The Theory of Political Propaganda', American Political Science Review, 21,1927,630. 7. Aldous Huxley, Brave New World, 1932. 8. J. A. M. Meerloo, The Rape of the Mind: The Psychology qf Thought Control, Menticide and Brainwashing, 1956,47. Note also W. W. Sargant, Battlefor the Mind, 1957, which relates Pavlovian theory to the psychology of brainwash• ing, and R. J. Lifton, Thought Riform and the Psychology of Totalism, 1969. 9. J. A. M. Meerloo, The Rape qf the Mind, 1956, 37-8. Note, too, Serge Chakhotin, The Rape qf the Masses, 1940, which also explains propaganda control in terms of Pavlovian conditioned reflexes. 10. See Judith Greene, Thinking and Language, 1975,31-2. II. R. E. Lane, Political Thinkin.f! and Consciousness, 1969,95. 12. Roberta Sigel, 'Assumptions About the Learning of Political Values', Annals qf the American Academy qf Political and Social Science, 361, 1965, 7. 13. See his Power and Personality, 1948. 14. Erich Fromm, Escape From Freedom, 1941. 15. T. W. Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality: Studies in Prejudice, 1950. 16. E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, 1973. 87. See also F. I. Greenstein, Personality and Politics, 1969. 17. I. L. Janis et al., Personality and Persuasibility, 1962,226. 18. Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind, 1960. Note also C. I. Hovland et al., Communication and Persuasion, 1953, in which it is argued that personality predispositions affect one's readiness to accept or reject new points of view. 19. J. H. De Rivera, The Psychological Dimension cif Foreign Policy, 1968,431. 20. R. E. Lane, Polilical Life: Why People Get Involved in Politics, 1959,99. 21. SeeJ. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967, 11. H.J. Eysenck, The 262 Notes and References

Psycholo.1!,Y ofPolitics, 1954, and T. F. Petti~rew, 'Personality and Sociocultural Factors in Inter~roup Attitudes',.Journal ofCotiflict Resolution, 2,1958,29-42; both also ar~ued that cultural norms and the social back~round were more important determinants of behaviour than personality. 22. A. D. Monroe, Public Opinion in America, 1975,58. 23. Note Herbert McClosky, 'Conservatism and Personality', American Political Science Review, 52, 1958, 27-45. 24. E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, 1973,52. 25. R. E. Petty and J. T. Cacioppo, Attitudes and Persuasion, 1981, 93. 26. J. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967,60-1. 27. L. J. Martin, 'Effectiveness of International Propaganda', Annals of the American Acade"!J' of Political and Social Science, 398, 1971, 69. 28. W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965,40. 29. David Butler and D. Stokes, Political Change in Britain, 1969,265. 30. W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965, 43. 31. In M. B. Smith et al., Opinions and Personaliry, 1956, 275, these are referred to as reality demands, social demands, and inner psychological demands. 32. C. I. Hovland et al., Experiments on Mass Communication, 1949. 33. SeeJ. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967,59. 34. C. I. Hovland et al., Communication and Persuasion, 1953, 10. 35. See P. E. Converse, 'Information Flow and the Stability of Partisan Attitudes', Public Opinion Quarterly, 26, 1962,578. 36. Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, 1959.3. 37. J. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967,91. 38. Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, 1959,3. 39. See, in particular, the severaJ works of.1. W. Brehm and A. R. Cohen. 40. M. J. Rosenberg et al., Attitude Organization and Change. 1960,22. 41. Leo Bogart, 'No Opinion, Don't Know, and Maybe No Answer', Public Opinion Quarterly, 31, 1967, 344, discusses the implications ofsirnultaneously held contradictory opinions for the analysis of survey research findings. 42. W.J. McGuire, 'A Syllogistic Analysis of Cognitive Relationships', in M.J. Rosenberg et al., Attitude Organization and Change, 1960, 65. 43. SeeJ. W. Brehm, 'A Dissonance Analysis of Attitude-Discrepant Behavior', in M. J. Rosenberg et al., Attitude Organization and Change, 1960, 164. 44. G. A. Borden et al., SPeech Behavior and Human Interaction, 1969, 47-8. 45. See M.J. McGuire, 'A Syllogistic Analysis of Cognitive Relationships', 66. 46. See, for example, B. R. Berelson et al., Voting: A Study oJOpinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign, 1954, or Joseph Trenaman and Denis McQuail, Television and the Political Image, 1961. 47. Stuart Chase, The Tyranny oj Words, 1938, 3. 48. For a useful summary of this proposition and the generalisations drawn from it, see D. F. Roberts, 'TI}e' Nature of Communication Effects', in Wilbur Schramm and D. F. Roberts, The Process and Effects oj Mass Communication, 1971,369-71. 49. See T. E. Patterson, The Mass Media Election, 1980,90. 50. T. E. Patterson, ibid., 91. 51. Colin Seymour-Ure, The Press, Politics and the Public, 1968,302. 52. See J. H. De Rivera, The Psychological Dimension oj Foreign Policy, 1968, 431. 53. Tom Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 1978. Notes and Riferences 263

54. David Krech et al., Individual and Society, 1962, 41. 55. See E. P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication, 1973,66-75.

5 THE SOCIOLOGY OF ATTITUDE CHANGE

I. B. C. Hennessy, Public Opinion, 1965, 159. 2. See]. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Change, 1967, II. 3. There is a useful summary of the major methodological differences between the laboratory experiment and the survey research, and their consequences, in A. R. Cohen, Attitude Change and Social Influence, 1964, 130-1. 4. M. L. Defteur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communication, 1975,238-50. 5. Erich Fromm, Escape From Freedom, 1941,22. 6. Erich Fromm, ibid., 12. 7. Erich Fromm, ibid., 13-14. 8. Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities, 1938. 9. As a seminal work on this theme see G. A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture, 1965. Note also W. T. Bluhm, Ideologies mid Attitudes, 1974. 10. B. C. Hennessy, Public Opinion, 1965, 191. II. B. E. Collins (ed.), Public and Private Conformity, 1973, 16. 12. Erich Fromm, Escapefrom Freedom, 1941,201. 13. See C. I. Hovland et al., Communication and Persuasion, 1953, 137. 14. I. L.Janis, Victims of Groupthink, 1972,63. 15. Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, 'Public Opinion and the Classical Tradition: A Re-evaluation', Public Opinion Quarterly, 43, 1979, 148. 16. H. C. Kelman, 'Process of Opinion Change', Public Opinion Quarterly, 25, 1961,63. 17. R. S. Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968,24. 18. Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd, 1895. 19. Note also from this period, Wilfred Trotter, Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War, 1916. 20. I. L.Janis, Victims of Groupthink, 1972,9. 21. I. L.Janis, ibid., 13. 22. W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965, 179. 23. See Albert Bandura, Principles of Behavior Modification, 1969,3-4. 24. See R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, Public Opinion, 1964,94-5. 25. Some useful general texts, not elsewhere cited in this chapter, include: R. E. Dawson et al., Political Sociali<;ation: An Analytic Study, 1977; M. K. Jennings and R. G. Niemi, The Political Character of Adolescence, 1974: P. A. Beck et al., Political Sociali;:;ation Across Generations, 1975; andJ ack Dennis (ed.), Sociali;:;a• tion to Politics: A Reader, 1973. 26. F. I. Greenstein, 'Political Socialization' ,International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 14, 1968, 551. 27. K. P. Langton, Political Sociali;:;ation, 1969, 5. 28. Roberta Sigel, 'Assumptions About the Learning of Political Values', Annals of the American Acadenry of Political and Social Science, 361, 1965, I. 29. Adapted from R. D. Hess, 'The Acquisition of Feelings of Political Efficacy 264 Notes and Riferences

in Pre-Adults', in Gilbert Abcarian and J. W. Soule (eds), Social Psychology and Political Behavior, 1971, 61. 30. Claus Mueller, The Politics oj Communication, 1973, II. 31. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,32. 32. D. A. Saunders, 'Social Ideas in McGuffey Readers', Public Opinion Quarterry, 5,1941,579. 33. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,34. 34. Robert Weissber/{, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizenship, 1974,3. 35. See R. D. Hess, 'The Acquisition of Feelings of Political Efficacy in Pre-Adults', 59-60. 36. R. D. Hess, ibid., 63. 37. See James Best, Public Opinion: Micro and Macro: 1973,48. 38. J. C. Davies, 'Political Socialization: From Womb to Childhood', in Stanley A. Renshon (ed.), Handbook oj Political Socialization, 1977, 171. 39. Robert Weissberg, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizen- ship, 1974,6. 40. Robert Weissber/{, ibid., xiii. 41. J. C. Davies, 'Political Socialization: From Womb to Childhood', 170. 42. D. D. Searing et al., 'The Structuring Principle: Political Socialization and Belief Systems', American Political Science Review, 67, 1973, 415-32. See also David Marsh, 'Political Socialization: The Implicit Assumptions Ques• tioned', British Journal oj Political Science, I, 1971, 454-65. 43. R. G. Niemi et al., The Politics of Future Citizens, 1974, 4. 44. R. G. Niemiet al., ibid., I. D. C. and S. Schwartz, in New Directions in Political Socialization, 1975, also argued for more studies of groups other than the WASP middle classes, with more focus on older people, and alternative socialisation agencies. 45. D. C. and S. Schwartz, in New Directions in Political Socialization, 1975, 6. 46. R. E. Lane, 'Fathers and Sons: Foundations of Political Belief, American Sociological Review, 24, 1959,502-11. 47. R. W. Connell, 'Political Socialization in the American Family: the Evidence Re-examined', Public Opinion Quarterry, 36, 1972, 323-33. 48. P. H. Odegard, 'Propaganda and Dictatorship', in G. S. Ford (ed.), Dictatorship in the Modern World, 1939, 246-7. 49. A. E. and P. E. Freedman, The Psychology oj Political Control, 1975, 110. 50. See R. D. Altick, The English Common Reader, 1957,85. 51. Robert Weissberg, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizen• ship, 1974, 1~6 .. 52. R. D. Hess andJ. V. Torney, The Development of Political Attitudes in Children, 1967,242. 53. L. W. Doob, Patriotism and Nationalism, 1964,6. 54. Edgar Litt, 'Civic Education, Community Norms, and Political Indoctrina• tion', American Sociological Review, 28, 1963,69-75. 55. R. D. Hess andJ. V. Torney, The Development oj Political Attitudes in Children, 1967, 114. 56. See P. A. Beck, 'The Role of Agents in Political Socialization', in S. A. Renshon (ed.) Handbook of Political Socialization, 1977, 128. 57. J. D. Halloran, Attitude Formation and Chan.l!e, 1967,41. Note also I. D. Steiner, Notes and References 265

'Primary Group Influences on Public Opinion', American Sociological Review, 19, 1954, 26(}-7. 58. See, for example, C. I. Hovland et al., Communication and Persuasion, 1953. R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, Public Opinion, 1964, 35--6, provide a summary of variables that might increase or diminish the capacity of a group to achieve conformity among its members. 59. See R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, Public Opinion, 1964,34. 60. R. E. Lane and D. O. Sears, ibid., 40. 61. See D. F. Roberts, 'The Nature of Communication Effects', in Wilbur Schramm and D. F. Roberts, The Process and Effects of Mass Communication, 1975,380. 62. D. C. Barnlund, 'A Transactional Model of Communications', in K. K. Sereno and C. D. Mortensen, Foundations of Communication Theory, 1970,87. 63. B. H. Bagdikian, The Information Machines, 1971, 19. 64. This literature, published for the most part as selected studies in the academic journals, is so extensive, and so varied in approach, methodology, content, and significance, that selective citation here would be invidious. 65. S. H. Chaffee et al., 'Mass Communication and Political Socialization', Journalism Quarterly, 47, 1970,647-59. 66. G. W. Goldie, Facing the Nation, 1977, 12. 67. M. L. Defleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communication, 1975, II. 68. Karin Dovring, Road of Propaganda, 1959, 134. 69. See, for example, Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy, 1971,229.

6 PROPAGANDA: WHAT IT IS

I. See George Orwell and Reginald Reynolds, British Pamphleteers, Vol. I. 1948. 2. W. T. Brande, I Propaganda', in Dictionary ofScience, Literature and Art, 1842. 3. Graham Wallas, Human Nature in Politics, 1908,201. 4. They were not as sensitive about being labelled propagandists when, after the war, they began writing memoirs and academic texts. 5. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965,52. 6. G. N. Gordon, Persuasion, 1971,529. 7. Abridged and adapted from A. M. and E. B. Lee, The Fine Art ofPropaganda, 1939,23-4. 8. Dan Nimmo, Political Communication and Public Opinion in America, 1978, 119. 9. H. L. Childs, in the Foreword to a special issue of Public Opinion Quarterly devoted to the Office of War Information. 7, 1943,3. 10. See L. W. Doob, Propaganda: Its Psychology and Technique, 1935,306-7. II. H. D. Lasswell, in the Foreword to G. G. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, 1938, v. 12. For more on this theme see G. S. Viereck, Spreading Germs of Hate, 1930. 13. H. D. Lasswell, ibid., vii. 14. See, for example, the historical accounts going back to the Roman Empire, the Papacy, the Reformation, and the English Civil War in Oliver 266 Notes and Riferences

Thomson, Mass Persuasion in History, 1977, as well as the studies of propaganda in the French Revolution inJ. B. Whitton and Arthur Larson, Propaganda, 1964, and E. A. Beller, Propaganda in Germany in the Thirty Years War, 1940. 15. H. D. Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in the World War, 1926. 16. David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd, 1950. 17. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965, 148-9. 18. F. E. Lumley, The Propaganda Menace, 1933, 21-44, listed more than 50 attempts at definition. For a further brief survey of these early efforts, see T. H. Qualter, Propaganda and Psychological Warfare, 1962,6-26. 19. See S. I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 1978, 183. 20. Michael Choukas, Propaganda Comes of Age, 1965,257. 21. James Bryce, Modern Democracies, Vol. II, 1921,505. 22. See A. P. Ponsonby, Falsehood in Wartime, 1928, for a fascinating account of some of the more outrageous lies told by all belligerents, and their great ingenuity in misleading even when all their statements were factually true. 23. Darrell Huff, How to Lie With Statistics, 1954. 24. The two most carefully documented and balanced accounts of First World War propaganda are H. D. Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in the World War, 1926, and G. G. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, 1938. 25. Daniel Lerner, Sykewar: The Psychological Warfare Campaign Against Germany, D-Day to VE-Day, 1949,26. 26. See the examples in M. F. Herz, 'Some Psychological Lessons From Leaflet Propaganda in World War II', Public Opinion Quarterly, 12: 1949. 27. E. R. Murrow, Director of the USIA, cited by T. C. Sorensen, The Word War, 1968,4. Note also Charles Roetter, Psychological Warfare, 1974, 18-20, in which he discusses the credibility of various 'black' broadcasting stations directed at German soldiers in Europe. 28. R. H. S. Crossman, 'Supplementary Essay', in Daniel Lerner and R. H. S. Crossman, Psychological Warfare Against Germany, 2nd edit. 1971,344. 29. See Leo Bogart, Premises for Propaganda, 1976, xviii. R. W. Chandler, War if Ideas: The US Propaganda Campaign in Vietnam, 1981, also demonstrated that US propaganda in Vietnam regularly violated the principle that strict adherence to the truth makes the most effective propaganda. - p. 215. 30. Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale, 1979, 26. 31. F. E. Lumley, The Propaganda Menace, 1933,44. 32. F. E. Lumley, ibid., 21. 33. See H. D. Lasswell et al., Propaganda and Promotional Activities, 1935,3, and also, H. D. Lasswell and Dorothy Blumenstock, World Revolutionary Propaganda, 1939, 10. 34. H. D. Lasswell, 'A Theory of Political Propaganda', American Political Science Review, 21, 1927,627-31. 35. See the illustrations in R. R. Fagan, Cuba: The Political Content of Adult Education, 1964, 63-71. That this is not an activity exclusive to Communist regimes can be seen from the American examples of arithmetic lessons stressing the concepts ofcapitalism in Ellis Freeman, Social Psychology, 1936, 254-5. Noles and Riferences 267

36. E. H. Carr, Prnpa.eanda ill InlffnatiOlwl Politic.f, 1939, 5. 37. L. W. Doob, Propaganda: Its Psychology and Technique, 1935. This is briefly summarised and discussed in T. H. Qualter, Propaganda and Psychological Warfare, 1962, 11-16. 38. L. W. Doob, Public Opinion and Propaganda, 1949,237-40. 39. See R. E. Summers (ed),America's Weapons of Psychological Warfare, 1951,39. 40. A survey of these several other classifications can be found in C. H. Wooddy, 'Propaganda and Education', Annals of the American Acade"!)' of Political and Social Science, 179, 1935,227-39. 41. See E. L. Bemays, Crystallizing Public Opinion, 1923,212. 42. See Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War, 1939-1945, 1979,422. 43. F. G. Wilson, A Theory of Public Opinion, 1962, 160. 44. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965, 19. 45. See L. W. Doob, Propaganda: Its Psychology and Technique, 1935,80. 46. See T. H. Qualter, Propaganda and Psychological Warfare, 1962,27. 47. The International Communication Agency replaced the United States Information Agency in 1978. 48. L. M. Fraser, Propaganda, 1957, I. Howard Becker made the same point that propaganda is the attempt to impose one's will 'on anyone not ordinarily disposed to acquiesce peaceably to that will'. Howard Becker, 'The Nature and Consequences of Black Propaganda'. American Sociological Review, 14, 1949,221. 49. F. G. Wilson, A Theory of Public Opinion, 1962, 159. 50. B. S. Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968,34. 51. H. D. Lasswell, 'The Theory of Political Propaganda', American Political Science Review, 21, 1927,627. 52. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965. 53. Jacques Ellul, ibid., 62. 54. Jacques Ellul, ibid., 67. 55. B. S. Murty, Propaganda and World Public Order, 1968,26. 56. D. L. Altheide andJ. M.Johnson, Bureaucratic Propaganda, 1980, 18. 57. D. L. Altheide andJ. M.Johnson, ibid., 230. 58. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965, 68. 59. E. R. Black, Politics and the News, 1982, 15. 60. T. E. Patterson, The Mass Media Election, 1980, vii. 61. Jacques Ellul, Propa.eanda, 1965, 119. 62. Jacques Ellul, ibid., 126. 63. Jacques Ellul, ibid., 132. 64. David Hennessy, 'The Communication of Conservative Policy, 1957-59', Political QuarterlY, 32, 1961, 239. 65. Paraphrased and adapted from Oliver Thomson, Mass Persuasion in History, 1977,11-12. 66. H. D. Lasswell, 'Propaganda and Mass Insecurity', in A. H. Stanton and S. E. Perry (eds), Personality and Political Crisis, 1951, 20. 67. Karin Dovring, Road ofPropaganda, 1959, 56£[, has some useful material on the techniques and purposes of content analysis. Note also T. F. Carney, Content AnalYsis, 1972. 68. See Michael Gurevitch and J. G. Blumler, 'Linkages Between the Mass 268 Notes and References

Media and Politics: A Model for the Analysis of Political Communications Systems', in James Curran et al., Mass Communications and Socielj', 1970, 270-1. 69. J. T. Klapper and Leo Lowenthal, 'The Contributions of Opinion Research to the Eval uation of Psychological Warfare', Public Opinion Quarterly, 15, 1951,656. 70. P. F. Lazarsfeld and R. K. Merton, 'Mass Communication, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action', in Lyman Bryson (ed.), The Communication of Ideas, 1964,95-6. 71. Sir Campbell Stuart, The Secrets of Crewe House, 1920, and George Creel, How We Advertised America, 1920. Note alsoJ. R. Mock and Cedric Larson, Words That Won the War, 1939, andJohn Hargrave, Words Win Wars, 1940. 72. J. D. Squires, British Propaganda at Home and in the United Statesfrom 1914 to 1917, 1935,82. 73. See the several references in Ladislas Farago, German Psychological Warfare: Survey and Bibliography, 1942. 74. Note, as more recent examples of this genre, H. I. Schiller, The Mind Managers, 1973, and Michael Choukas, Propaganda Comes of Age, 1965. 75. Leo Bogart, Premises for Propaganda, 1976, xx. 76. C. G. Cruikshank, The Fourth Arm, 1977, 175. 77. G. G. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, 1938, I 89ff, describes Allied efforts in the First World War to measure the impact of their propaganda on German civilian morale, through reports from agents in Germany. The results, however, were entirely impressionist and generally unduly optimistic. 78. L. J. Martin, 'Effectiveness of International Propaganda', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 398, 1971, Abstract. 79. See Denis McQuail, 'The Influence and Effects of Mass Media', in James Curran et al., Mass Communication in Socielj', 1977,82. 80. Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy, 1971, 198. 81. L.J. Martin, 'Effectiveness of International Propaganda', 70. 82. C. I. Hovland et al., Experiments on Mass Communication, 1949. 83. C. I. Hovland et al., ibid., 64-5. 84. See B. L. Smith, 'Propaganda', International Encyclopedia of the Social Science.!, 1968, vol. XII, 579-89, for a description of some of the techniques available for testing propaganda effects. 85. G. G. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918, 1938,41-2. 86. G. G. Bruntz, ibid. 203. 87. J. D. Squires, British Propaganda at Home and in the United States from 1914 to 1917, 1935, 45. See also a German interpretation of this period in G. S. Viereck, Spreading Germs of Hate, 1930. 88. T. S. Matthews, The Sugar Pill: An Essay on Newspapers, 1957, 166. 89. E. R. Black, Politics and the News: The Political Function of the Mass Media, 1982,3-4. 90. Edwin Diamond, The Tin Kazoo, 1975,8. 91. John Pearson and Graham Turner, The Persuasion Industry, 1965,326. 92. R. W. Chandler, War of Ideas: The US Propaganda Campaign in Vietnam, 1981, 147. Notes and Riferences 269

93. R. W. Chandler, ibid., 1981. 94. Charles Roetter, Psychological Waifare, 1974, 185. 95. See the several references on this theme in L. P. Lochner (ed.), The Goebbels Diaries 1942-43, 1948. 96. J. G. Blumler, 'Mass Media Roles and Reactions in the February Election', in H. R. Penniman (ed.), Britain at the Pol/s, 1975, 157. 97. Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War 1939-1945, 1979,424. 98. David Hennessy, 'The Communication of Conservative Policy, 1957-59', 255. 99. Michael Balfour, Propa.f!anda in lVar 1939-1945, 1979,437. 100. See the fascinating account on the reporting of wars from the eighteenth century until our own times in J. J. Mathews, Reporting the Wars, 1957. 101. Charles Roetter, P.rycholof!icallVaifare, 1974, 15. 102. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965, 20-4. See also Leo Bogart, Premises for Propaganda, 1976,226, for other comment on the same theme. 103. See]. D. Squires, British Propaganda at Home and in the United Statesfrom 1914 to 1917, 1935. There are a number of other accounts of British propaganda organisation in the First World War all ofwhich tell much the same story of intrigue and empire building. Note, especially, Campbell Stuart, The Secrets qf Crewe House, 1920; C. G. Cruikshank, The Fourth Arm, 1977; and The Times, History of the War, 1919, chap. 44 in Vol. 21, 'British Propaganda in Enemy Countries'. 104. C. G. Cruikshank, The Fourth Arm, 1977,45. 105. See J. B. Black, Organising the Propaganda Instrument: The British Experience, 1975, for a detailed account of these rivalries and their consequences. Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War 1939-1945, and Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale, 1979, are also rich sources of information on these in ternal divisons. 106. SeeJ. B. Black, Organising the Propaganda Instrument, 1975,50. 107. Charles Roetter, Psychological Waifare, 1974,39. 108. Z. A. B. Zeman, Nazi Propaganda, 1964, 171. 109. See R. E. Herzstein, The War That Hitler Won, 1978, 94. 110. J. W. Baird, The Mythical World qf Nazi War Propaganda, 1939-1945, 1974, 34-5. III. See Daniel Lerner, Sykewar, 1949, for a fuller development of this theme. 112. R. H. S. Crossman, 'Psychological Warfare', Journal qf the Royal United Service Institution, 98, 1953, 355. 113. See Leo Bogart, Premises for Propaganda, 1976, xvii. This is one of several books with detailed historical accounts of the troubles besetting the USIA. Other important sources include: R. E. Elder, The Information Machine, 1968; R. I. Rubin, The Objectives qf the U.S. Information Agenry, 1968; W. P. Dizard, The Strategy of Truth, 1971;]. W. Henderson, The United States Iriformation Agenry, 1969; and T. C. Sorensen, The Word War, 1968. 114. See W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965,228. 115. A. M. Winkler, The Politics qf Propaganda, 1978,53-4. 116. See T. C. Sorensen, The lVord /Var, 1968. 117. ]. B. Black, Organising the Propaganda Instrument, 1975, 17. 118. ]. B. Black, ibid., 71. 270 Notes and Riferences

7 RESTRICTING INFORMATION

I. G. E. G. Catlin, 'Propaganda as a Function of Democratic Government', in H. L. Childs (ed.), Propaganda and Dictatorship, 1936, 127. 2. N. M. Hunnings, Film Censors and the Law, 1967,383. 3. See F. E. Rourke, Secrecy and Publicity, 1961,227. 4. See John Phelan (ed.), Communications Control, 1969, xiii. 5. G. N. Gordon, Persuasion: The Theory and Practice of Manipulative Communica- tion, 1971,502. 6. E. F. Williams, Press, Parliament, and People, 1946,66. 7. E. F. Williams, ibid. 8. See Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale, 1979, 189, and for detailed accounts of the imposition ofcensorship in the First World War, see G. G. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse ofthe German Empire in 1918, 1938. See also Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War 1939-1945, 1979, for details from the Second World War. 9. James Curran and Jean Seaton, Power Without Responsibility, 1981,87. 10. E. F. Williams, Press, Parliament and People, 1946,24. II. Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty, 1975, 75. 12. G. D. Hollander, Soviet Political Indoctrination, 1972, 191-6. 13. J. A. Barron, Freedom of the Pressfor Whom? 1973,321. 14. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society, 1969,229. 15. Ralph Miliband, ibid., 238. 16. H. I. Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire, 1969, 19. 17. Tom Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 1978, has some good copy on the patronising attitudes of the governing classes. 18. Ian McLaine, Ministry ofMorale, 1979, has much to say on this theme, and on the efforts, only partly successful, to counteract this class prejudice. 19. R. L, Rosnow and G. A. Fine, Rumor and Gossip, 1976, 130. 20. R. V. Altick, The English Common Reader, 1957,64. see also T. H. Qualter, Graham Wallas and the Great Society, 1980,54-9. 21. R. D. Altick, The English Common Reader, 1957, 74 and 76. 22. E. F. Williams, Press, Parliament and People, 1946,64. 23. See B. C. Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy, 1963, for a useful discussion of the conflicting claims of government secrecy and public information in the areas offoreign policy and diplomacy. 24. David Williams, Not in the Public Interest, 1965, 215. The central theme of Williams' book is a strong criticism of the excessive secrecy of British Government. 25. See Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty, 1975,80--1. 26. Jonathan Aitken, OfJiciallySecret, 1971,2. 27. On the whole question of executive secrecy in the United Kingdom, one should see, in addition to the sources already cited, David Leigh, Frontiers of Secrecy, 1980, a well-documented, if somewhat polemical record of the most extreme and indefensible instances ofgovernment secrecy, and Peter Hedley and Cyril Aynsley, The D-Notice Affair, 1967. 28. A. C. Breckenridge, The Executive Privilege, 1974, I. 29. A. M. Cox, The Myths of National Security, 1975, I. For further accounts of the growth ofgovernment secrecy in the United States, see Norman Dorsen and Notes and References 271

Stephen Gillers, None oj Your Business, 1974, and M. H. Halperin and D. N. Hoffman, Top Secret, 1977. 30. Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty, 1975, has several examples of these tactics, in several wars. 31. See Sean Kelly, Access Denied: The Politics of Press Censorship, 1978, 10-20. 32. See Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale, 1979,48. 33. See Erik Barnouw, Tube of Plenty, 1975, and Bernard Rubin, Media, Politics and Democracy, 1977. 34. H. A. Innis, The Bias oj Communication, 1951, 48. 35. See, for example, S. S. Baker, The Permissible Lie, 1969, v, with its description of the efforts by Reader's Digest to ban the book. 36. Lord Windelsham, Broadcasting in a Free Society, 1980, 58. 37. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968,79. 38. Robert MacNeil, ibid., 79-80. 39. Lord Windelsham, Broadcasting in a Free Society, 1980, 58. 40. J. A. Barron, Freedom ojthe Pressfor Whom? 1973, 13-20. 41. Anthony Smith, Television and Political Life, 1979,37. 41. There is a wealth of literature here, much of it narrowly sectarian in character. Among the more balanced treatments I would suggest I. H. Carmen, Movies, Censorship and the Law, 1966. 43. C. J. Brown et al., The Media and the People, 1978, 152. Brown includes here some first-class summaries of other early voices in the libertarian tradition (pp. 150-67). 44. John Phelan, Communications Control, 1969, xii. 45. Graham Wallas, in a letter 27 Oct. 1916, cited by T. H. Qualter, Graham Wallas and the Great Society, 1980, 154. 46. R. D. Altick, The English Common Reader, 1957,327. 47. G. W. Allport and Leo Postman, The Psychology of Rumor, 1948 ix. This may be treated as definitive work on rumour. 48. R. H. Knapp, 'A Psychology of Rumor', Public Opinion Quarterly, 8, 1944,22. 49. See Tamotsu Shibutani, Improvised News, 1966. 50. G. W. Allport and Leo Postman, The Psychology oj Rumor, 1948, I. 51. G. W. Allport and Leo Postman, ibid., 75. 52. C. G. Cruikshank, The Fourth Arm, 1977, 108. 53. For some early sources which first explored the gatekeeper concept, see D. M. White, 'The "Gatekeeper": A Case Study in the Seiection of News', Journalism Quarterly, 27, 1950, 383-90, and R. E. Carter, 'Newspaper "Gatekeepers" and the Sources of News', Public Opinion Quarterly, 22, 1958, 133-44. 54 Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 186. 55. J. K. Buckalew, 'The Local Radio News Editor as Gatekeeper',Journalism Quarterly, 18, 1974,211. 56. Lewis Donohew, 'Newspaper Gatekeepers and Forces in the News Chan• nel', Public Opinion Quarterly, 31, 1967,61-8. 57. Walter Gieber, 'News is What Newspapermen Make It', in L. A. Dexter and D. M. White (eds), People, Society, and Mass Communications, 1964, 173. 58. J. K. Buckalew, 'The Local Radio News Editor as Gatekeeper', 212. 59. See E.J. Epstein, Newsfrom Nowhere, 1973, 142. 60. B. H. Bagdikian, The Information Machines, 1971, 16-17. 272 Notes and References

61. See G. A. Donohue et al., 'Gatekeeping: Mass Media Systems and Information Control', in F. G. Kline and P. J. Tichenor (eds), Current Perspectives in Mass Communication Research, 1972,51. 62. E. R. Black, Politics and the News, 1982,202. 63. Anthony Piepe et al., Television and the Working Class, 1975, 16. 64. David Murphy, The Silent Watchdog, 1976, II. 65. David Murphy, ibid., 136-7. 66. See B. C. Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy, 1963,271. 67. B. C. Cohen, ibid., 13. A number of other writers have made the same comment in virtually identical words. 68. Political and Economic Planning, Report on the British Press, 1938,33. 69. Glasgow University Media Group, More Bad News, 1980,399-400. 70. Theodore White, The Making of the President 1972,1973,247. 71. D. L. Shaw and M. E. McCombs, The Emergence of American Political Issues, 1977, II. 72. M. L. Defleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mars Communication, 1975,269. 73. Tom Burns, 'The Organization of Public Opinion', in James Curran et al., Mass Communication and Sociery, 1977, 66. 74. P. F. Lazarsfeld and R. K. Merton, 'Mass Communication, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action', in Lyman Bryson (ed.), The Communication of Ideas, 1964, 107. 75. Tom Burns, 'The Organization of Public Opinion', 66. 76. T. E. Patterson, and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye, 1976, 75. 77. See C.J. Brownet al., The Media and the People, 1978, and D. H. Weaver,etal., 'Watergate and the Media: A Case Study of Agenda-Setting', American Political Quarterg, 3, 1975, 458-72. 78. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye, 1976, 176. See also M. E. McCombs and D. L. Shaw, 'The Agenda-setting Function of the Mass Media', Public Opinion Quarterg, 36, 1972. 79. A. H. Birchet al., 'The Popular Press in the British General Election of 1955', Political Studies, 4, 1956,298. See also James Curran and Jean Seaton, op. cit., for a more up-to-date commentary. 80. Bad News, 1976, and More Bad News, 1980. 81. Glasgow University Media Group, More Bad News, 1980,401.

8 EXTENSIONS OF PROPAGANDA

I. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,55. 2. H. D. Lasswell, ibid., 56. 3. P. M. Linebarger, Psychological Waifare, 1948,25. 4. Ladislas Farago, German Psychological Waifare, 1942, 117. 5. P. M. Linebarger, Psychological Waifare, 1948,25. 6. W. E. Daugherty, A Psychological Waifare Casebook, 1958,2. 7. Ladislas Farago, German Psychological Waifare, 1942. 8. See Hans Speier, 'Psychological Warfare Reconsidered', in his Social Order and the Risks of War, 1952,443-4. Notes and Riferences 273

9. W. E. Daugherty, A Psychological Warfare Casebook, 1958,275. 10. See, for example, R. H. Bruce Lockhart, 'Political Warfare', Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, 95, 1950, 193-206, and Daniel Lerner, Sykewar, 1949,17-25. II. P. M. Linebarger, Psychological Warfare, 1942,49-50. 12. Ladislas Farago, German Psychological Warfare, 1942;J. W. Baird, The Mythical World of Nazi War Propaganda, 1974; Z. A. B. Zeman, Nazi Propaganda, 1964. 13. Typical are L. J. Margolin, Paper Bullets, 1946, and Ronald Seth, The Truth Benders, 1969. 14. R. H. Bruce Lockhart, 'Political Warfare', 198. 15. R. H. S. Crossman, 'Psychological Warfare' ,Journal ofthe Royal United Service Institution, 97, 1952,329. 16. Hans Speier, 'Psychological Warfare Reconsidered', 441. 17. A. P. Ponsonby, Falsehood in Wartime, 1928, 102. Ponsonby recounts a number of other deliberately contrived atrocity stories. Note also J. M. Read, Atrociry Propaganda, 1914-1919, 1941. 18. See Charles Roetter, Psychological Warfare, 1974, 93, for an account of the coincidence of well-meaning exposures of fake atrocities in World War I with the beginnings of real atrocities under Hitler. 19. See R. H. Abrams,Preachers Present Arms, 1933, in which he describes how the 'forces of righteousness' had made Americans 'drunk with hate.' (p. 429). It is a depressing account of mob passion and prejudice. 20. R. W. Chandler, War of Ideas, 1981,3-4.. 21. R. W. Chandler, ibid., 216. 22. See R. T. Holt and R. W. Van De Velde, Strate.f!.ic Psycholo.f!.ical Operations and American Foreign Policy, 1960, 237. 23. See, for example, W. A. Hachten, MufJIed Drums: The News Media in Africa, 1971, or Rosemary Righter, Whose News? 1978. 24. Giancarlo Buzzi, Advertising, 1968, 121. 25. See Milton Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values, 1968, 183. 26. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, 193-4. 27. Richard Rose, Irifluencing Voters, 1967, 174-5. 28. Dan Nimmo, Political Communication and Public Opinion in America, 1978, 110. 29. Joe McGinniss, Selling the President 1968, 1969,44. 30. Joe McGinniss, ibid., 82. 31. See G. W. Goldie, Facing the Nation, 1977,316. 32. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, 194. 33. See, as a fascinating illustration of this point, Joseph Grego, A History of Parliamentary Elections and Electioneeringfrom the Stuarts to Queen Victoria, 1892. 34. Richard Rose, Influencing Voters, 1967, 15. 35. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure (eds), The Unseeing Eye, 1976,95. 36. R. A. Bauer and S. A. Greyser, Advertising in America, 1968, Chap. vii. 37. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye, 1976, 113. 38. See Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968,21. 39. See Michael Tracey, The Production of Political Television, 1977, 247, for a summary of the impact of 'show business' values on the production of television news and public affairs programmes. 40. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, 38. 41. H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,264. 274 Notes and Riferences

42. G. N. Gordon, Persuasion, 1971, 131. 43. B. H. Bagdikian, The Information Machines, 1971,296. 44. See L. I. Pearlin, and M. Rosenberg, 'Propaganda Techniques in Institu• tional Advertising', Public Opinion Quarterry, 16, 1952,5-26. 45. L. I. Pearlin and M. Rosenberg, ibid., 15-18. 46. There are numerous accounts of this. See, for example, Allen Potter, Organi<.ed Groups in British National Politics, 1961, 16-20, or A. A. Rogow, The Labour Government and British Industry, 1945-51, 1955, chap 7. 47. Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, 13. 48. See John Westergaard, 'Power, Class and the Media', inJames Curran et al., Mass Communication and Society, 1977,95-115. 49. See Michael Tracey, The Production of Political Television, 1977, 240. 50. D. J. Boorstin, 'The Rhetoric of Democracy' , in Robert Atwan et al., American Mass Media, 1978,42. 51. Joe McGinniss, Selling the President, 1968, 30. 52. A. R. Saldich, Electronic Democracy, 1979,55. 53. See Giancarlo Buzzi, Advertising, 1968, for more on this theme. 54. See Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy, 1971, for comments on the impact of advertising on English working-class values. 55. See Anthony Piepe, Television and the Working Class, 1975,25-46. 56. SeeJ ames Curran andJ ean Seaton, Power Without Responsibility, 1981, 222-6. 57. See H. L. Childs, Public Opinion, 1965,265. 58. SeeJohn Pearson and Graham Turner, The Persuasion Industry, 1965,306-7. 59. John Pearson and Graham Turner, ibid., 325. 60. James Curran and Jean Seaton, Power Without Responsibility, 1981, 228.

9 COMMUNICATION AND THE MEDIA

I. C. H. Cooley, Social Organi<.ation, 1909,61. 2. See Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 35ff, for a summary of several sociological/psychological theories. 3. For an excellent, detailed treatment of the complexities of the human communication process, see G. A. Borden et at., Speech Behavior and Human Interaction, 1969. 4. G. N. Gordon, Persuasion, 1971, 7-8. 5. See the useful models offered by George Gerbner, 'Toward a General Model of Communication', Audio-Visual Communication Review, 4, 1956, 171-99; F. E. X. Dance, Human Communication Theory, 1967; C. E. Shannon and W. Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication, 1970; and D. C. Barnlund, 'A Transactional Model of Communication', in K. K. Sereno and C. D. Mortensen, Foundations of Communication Theory, 1970. 6. Most notably, Understanding Media, 1964. 7. See Edward Sapir, Selected Writings in Language, Culture, and Personality, 1949, and B. L. Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality, 1956. 8. See]. W. Carey, 'Harold Adams Innis and Marshall McLuhan', inJohn Phelan (ed.), Communications Control, 1969,54-8. 9. Marshall McLuhan, Understandin.f!. Media, 1964,24. Notes and Riferences 275

10. L. W. Pye, Communications and Political Development, 1963,58. 11. For a devastating attack on McLuhanism on these lines see S. W. Finkelstein, Sense and Non.feme in McLuhan, 1968. And note also the opening pages of A. R. Saldich, Electronic Democracy, 1979. 12. Joyce Hertzler, A Sociology of Language, 1965,476. 13. Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975,93. Note also George Gerbner, 'Mass Media and Human Communication Theory', in F. E. X. Dance, Human Communication Theory, 1967,42-3. 14. P. J. Tichenor et al., Communiry Conflict and the Press, 1980, 222. 15. H. A. Innis, Empire and Communications, 1950, and The Bias oj Communication, 1951. 16. H. A. Innis, Empire and Communications, 1950, 7. 17. H. A. Innis, The Bias of Communication, 1951,59. 18. E. R. Black, Politics and the News, 1982, 89. 19. Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 135-6. 20. George Gerbner, 'Toward a General Model of Communication', 45. 21. Richard Maisel, 'The Decline of the Mass Media', in Robert Atwan et al., American Mass Media, 1978,27. 22. Loosely adapted from Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 193-5. 23. See Richard Bunce, TelevisiOTI in the Corporate Interl'st, 1976, for more on 'an authoritarian information structure and communication flow'. 24. Caroline Heller, Broadcasting and Accountabiliry, 1978, 13. 25. Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 194. 26. Anthony Piepe et al., Television and the Working Class, 1975, 166. 27. See F . .J. Cook, 'Radio Right: Hate Cluhs of the Air', Nation, 198, 1964, 523-7, for an account of the vast sums of money spent on radio and television propaganda by the ultra-wealthy, far right extremist groups in the United States. . 28. See M. L. Defteur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories,!! Mass Communication, 1975,9. 29. See H. A. Innis, The Bias oj Communication, 1951,4. 30. Oliver Thomson, Mass Persuasion in History, 1977,41. 31. See Michael Novak, 'Television Shapes the Soul' in D. Cater and R. Adler, Television as a Social Force, 1975, 15. 32. See Colin Cherry, World Communication, 1978,45-6. 33. See E. R. Black, Politics and tke News, 1982, 8. 34. See Hans Speier, 'The Rise of Public Opinion', in H. D. Lasswell et al., Propaganda and Communication in World History, Vol. II, 1980, 155. 35. Richard Altick, The English Common Reader, 1957,89. 36. B. H. Bagdikian, The Information Machines, 1970,4. Also note Harold Perkin, The Age of the Railway, 1970, and the hundreds of related works. 37. B. H. Bagdikian, The Information Machines, 6. 38. H. A . .Innis, The Bias of Communication" 1951, 53. 39. Bernard Rubin, Political Television, 1967,2. 40. J. G. Blumler and John Madge, Citi<.enship and Television, 1967,46. 41. See A. R. Saldich, Electronic Democracy, 1979,29. 42. Colin Cherry, lVorld (:ommunication, 1978, 10. 43. M. L. Defteur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories oj Mass Communication, 1951,159. 276 Notes and References

44. See Colin Cherry, World Communication, 119-20. 45. For an early consideration of this point seeJ. T. Klapper, 'What We Know About the Effects of Mass Communication', Public Opinion QuarterlY, 21, 1957,453-74. -Hl. G. A. Borden, SPeech Behavior and Human Interaction, 1969, 206. 47. SeeJ. H. De Rivera, The Psychological Dimension of Foreign Policy, 1968,49. 48. Denis McQuail, Communication, 1975, 163. 49. See Bertrand Russell, Power: A New Social AnalYsis, 1938, for an excellent treatment of this theme. 50. See H. I. Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire, 1969, 32-3. 51. J. A. Barron, Freedom of the Pressfor Whom? 1973,5. 52. Michael Novak, 'Television Shapes the Soul', 1975, 15. 53. Dan Nimmo, Political Communication and Public Opinion in America, 1978, 188. Note also E. J. Epstein, Newsfrom Nowhere, 1973, 272. 54. See Robert MacNeil, The People Machine, 1968, 19. 55. Tom Burns, 'The Organization of Public Opinion', in James Curran, et al., Mass Communication and Sociery, 1977,50. 56. P. J. Tichenor, Communiry, Conflict and the Press, 1980, 217. 57. C.]. Brown, The Media and the People, 1978,38. See also H. I. Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire, 51-9. 58. C. J. Brown, The Media and the People, 38. 59. Richard Bunce, Television in the Corporate Interest, 1976, 138. Note also Denys Thompson, Discrimination and Popular Culture, 1973, 15. 60. J. P. Robinson, 'Mass Communication and Information Diffusion', in F. G. Kline and P. J. Tichenor (eds), Current Perspectives in Mass Communication Research, 1972, 87. 61. See T. H. Qualter, 'Politics 'and Broadcasting: Case Studies of Political Interference in National Broadcasting Systems', Canadian Journal oj Economics and Political Science, 28, 1962,225-34. 62. See Anthony Smith, Television and Political Life, 1979, 29, and Michael Tracey, The Production oj Political Television, 1977,231. 63. See Anthony Smith, Television and Political Life, for a detailed description of the largely informal linkages, practices, processes, and understandings which govern the relationships of the broadcasting authorities, parliament and the government, and the public. 64. Michael Tracey, The Production oj Political Television, 1977,245. 65. Glasgow University Media Group, More Bad News, 1980,3. 66. A. R. Saldich, Electronic Democracy, 1979, 66. 67. See Phillip Knightley, The First Casualry, 1975,413. 68. See G. W. Goldie, Facing the Nation, 1977,328-9. 69. M. L. Defleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communicatioll, 1975,260. 70. J. G. Blumler and Denis McQuail, Television in Politics, 1968, 286. 71. R. E. Lane, Political Life, 1959,288. 72. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Umeeing Eye, 1976,22. 73 . .J. D. Halloran, The RjJec/J rifMasJ Communication, 1968,13. H. P. F. Lazarsfeld and R. K. Merton, 'Mass Communication, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action', in Lyman Bryson, The Communication ofIdeas, 1964, 101-6. Notes and Riferences 277

75. W. P. Davison, International Political Communication, 1965,46. 76. See Anthony Smith, Television and Political Life, 1979, 3. 77. Michael Tracey, The Production of Political Television, 1977, 241. 78. P. F. Lazarsfeld and R. K. Merton, 'Mass Communication, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action', 106. R. E. Lane, Political Life, 288, also refers to narcotising dysfunction, but suggests that it may sometimes be a preliminary to action. 79. H. A. Innis, Empire and Communication, 1950, 10. 80. Colin Cherry, World Communication, 1978, 47. 81. See the excellent summary of this topic in Colin Seymour-Ure, The Press, Politics, and the Public, 1968, 301-17. 82. See, for example, Bernard Berelson, 'What Missing the Newspaper Means', in P. F. Lazarsfeld, Communication Research, 1948-9, 1949, 111-29. 83. Adapted and condensed from T. H. Qualter, Propaganda and Psychological Warfare, 1962,86-9. 84. Cited by Forsyth Hardy, Grierson on Documentary, 1946, 13. 85. L. C. Rosten, Hollywood, 1941,359. For a summary listing, from several sources, of the cliches and stereotypes of American movies, see William Albig, Modem Public Opinion, 1956, 512-4. 86. Quoted by Roger Manvell, Film, 1946, 172-3. 87. See T. H. Qualter, Propaganda and Psychological Warfare, 1962,93-8. 88. See Julian Hale, Radio Power, 1975, ix-xi. 89. L. J. Martin, International Propaganda, 1958, 7. 90. Julian Hale, Radio Power, xii. 91. Hadley Cantril and G. W. Allport, The Psychology ofRadio, 1935,20. There is much in this book on the supposed democratisation of radio. 92. Llewellyn White and R. D. Leigh, Peoples SPeaking to Peoples, 1946, 13. 93. See, for example, Harold Ettlinger, The Axis on the Air, 1943, and any of the many histories of broadcasting, perhaps most usefully, Asa Briggs, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom, 4 volumes, 1961-1979. 94. Note P. F. Lazarsfeld, 'The Effects of Rad io on Public Opinion', in Douglas Waples, Print, Radio, and Film in a Democracy, 1942,66. 95. M. L. Defleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communication, 1975,96. 96. R. M. Batscha, Foreign Affairs News and the BroadcastJournalist, 1975,219. 97. T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye, 1976,85. 98. R. M. Batscha, Foreign Affairs, News and the BroadcastJournalist, 216. See also Jerry Mander's amusing, and sometimes perceptive, polemic against television, with its list of 33 miscellaneous 'inherent biases', mostly stemming from the stereotyped, visual, action-oriented conventions of television programming. Jerry Mander, Four Argumentsfor the Elimination of Television, 1978, 323-8. 99. G. W. Goldie, Facing the Nation, 1977, 19. 100. See, for example, T. E. Patterson and R. D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye, 1976. 101. E.]. Epstein, Newsfrom Nowhere, 1973,242. 102. Adapted from David Littlejohn, 'Communicating Ideas by Television', in D. Cater and R. Adler, Television as a Social Force, 1975,68-9. 103. J. S. Mill, Essay on Liberty, 130. 278 Notes and Riferences

10 THE FUTURE OF LIBERAL DEMOCRACY

1. See Giovanni Sartori, Democratic Theory, 1965,9. 2. For an expansion of these alternative versions see C. B. Macpherson, The Real World of Democracy, 1965. 3. See H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936,84. 4. Note the excellent description of the character of liberalism in H.J. Laski, The Rise of European Liberalism, 1936, and especially the summary,;on p. II. 5. For a fuller development of the relationships of conservatism, liberalism, and socialism in various contexts, see Louis Hartz, The Liberal Tradition in America, 1955, and The Foundin.f! of New Societie.r, 1964. Gad Horowitz, 'Conservatism, Liberalism, and Socialism in Canada: an Interpretation', Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, 32, 1966, 143-71, applied these concepts specifically to the Canadian setting. 6. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, 1776, Bk. I, chap. i. 7. See Kenneth Minogue, The Liberal Mind, 1963,22. 8. C. B. Macpherson, The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy, 1977,44-76. 9. C. B. Macpherson, ibid., 77-92. 10. C. B. Macpherson, ibid., 77. 11. See, as typical of this approach, B. R. Berelson et al., Voting, 1954. 12. See H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936, 168. Most of the first studies of propaganda and the media focused on their supposed enormous power to manipulate. 13. E. H. Carr, The New Society, 1951, 109. See also his Propaganda in International Politics, 1939,6-7. 14. See R. A. Dahl, A Priface to Democratic Theory, 1956, for an analysis of this model, not only as a description of how the American political system works, but as ajustification ofit as a successful system, making a reasonable job of what is expected of it. B. R. Berelson et al., Voting, 1954, also concluded that as the American system had not degenerated into either dictatorship or civil war, the model must have some merit. 15. B. C. Hennessy, Public Opinion, 1965, 109 and 116. See also B. R. Berelson et al., Voting, 307-8. 16. B. R. Berelson, et al., ibid., 322. 17. R. E. Lane, Political Ideology, 1962,86. 18. George Gerbner, 'Mass Media and Human Communication Theory', in F. E. X. Dance (ed.), Human Communication Theory, 1967,54. 19. Robert Weissberg, Public Opinion and Popular Government, 1976,47. 20. See]. W. Prothro and C. M. Grigg, 'Fundamental Principles ofDemoeracy: Bases of Agreement and Disagreement' ,Journal of Politics, 22, 1960, 293. 21. B. R. Berelsonetal., Voting, 314. 22. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922,312. 23. Lewis Lipsitz, 'On Political Belief: The Grievances of the Poor', in A. R. Wilcox (ed.), Public Opinion and Political Attitudes, 1974,273. 24. G. A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture, 1965,340. 25. See Leo Bogart, 'No Opinion, Don't Know, and Maybe No Answer', Public Opinion Quarterly, 31, 1967,333. 26. Giovanni Sartori, Democratic Theory, 1965,455. 27. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda, 1965, 138. Noles and References 279

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Abrams, R. H., 61, 259, 273 Baird,J. W., 174,258,260,269,273 Adorno, T. W., 77-8,257,261 Baker, S. S., 271 advertising, 22,72,126.130-1,150,167, balance theory, 86 178--91,206,246 Balfour, Michael, 139,255,267,269-70 censorship in, 155-6 Ball-Rokeach, Sandra, 259, 263, 265, 272, compared with propaganda, 178--83 275-7 effects of, 135, 183-91 BanduJ'a, A. S., 263 ideological, 184-6 Barker, Ernest, 34, 254 political, 179-83, 200, 221 Barnlund, D.C., 265, 274 psychology of, 87, I 711-80 Barnouw, Erik, 271 agenda-setting, 163-8,211,238--9,247,250 Barrow,J, A., 270-1, 276 Aitken, Jonathan, 270 Batscha, R. M., 277 Albig, William, 5,16-(,7,31,48,248, Bauer, R. A., 183,273 253-6,258--60,277,279 Bauer, William, 37, 256 alienation, 233-4 Baur, E. J" 32, 256 Allport, F. A., 11-12,37,254,256 Beck, P. A., 263-4 Allport, G. W., 39, 58, 257':"9, 271, 277 Becker, Howard, 267 Almond, G. A., 234, 26,3; 278 beliefs, 42, 44-7, 49-50, 82-4, 98, 211 Altheide, D. L., 125, 2P7 Beller, E. A., 266 Altick, R. D., !58, 201. 264, 270-1,275 Bem,J. D.• 258 Angell, Norman, 19--:iW, 255 Bentbam • .Jeremy, I. 8, 249 apathy, 233 Berelson, B. R., 44,233,257,262,277-8 Aristotle, II Berlo, D. K., 253 art - modern, 45-6 Bernays, E. L., 254, 267 association theory, 75 Best, James, 27, 43, 255, 257-8, 264 attitudes, 38ff, 82, 116-17, 211 Bettin/1:haus, E. P., 37, 256-7, 261-3 acquired, 42, 53-4, 73-4,91-4 Bevan, Aneurin, 65-6, 260 classified, 42-5 Birch, A. H., 167,272 defined, 39-42 Black, E. R., 267-8, 272, 275 formation and change, 41-2, 73fT, 123, Black,./. B., 269 132,204,211,246-7 Bluhm, W. T., 258, 263 function, 41, 46-7, 123 Blumenstock, Dorothy, 266 habitual, 53, 73, 137 Blumler,J.-G, 137,267,269,275-6,279 inconsistent, 43, 50, 83 Bogardus, E. S., 13, 16-17,33,254,256 psychological theories, 73-87 Bogart, Leo, 253, 255,261-2,266, 168--9, sociological theories, 88--106 278 stability, 41,44,47-8,52,82-3, 137-8 Boorstin, D . .I., 186-7,274 systems, 41-5, 83 Borden, G. A., 68, 83-4, 204, 259-60, 262, attitudinal complex, 41, 43-4, 46, 48, 71, 274,276 87, 88--9, 123, 179-80 brainwashing, 128, 261 Aynsley, Cyril, 270 Braly, K., 53, 258 Brande, W. T., 107-8,265 Bagdikian, B. H., 161,265,271,274-5 Breckcnrid!(,c, A. C., 153-4,270 Bagehot, Walter, 4-5, 253 Brehm, J. W., 262

309 310 Index

Bril{l{s, Asa, 277 Choukas, Michael, 113, 266, 268 Bril{ham,.J. C., 258-9 Christianity, 61, 118 Brinton, Crane, 254 Churchill, Winston, 147 British Board of Film Censors, 218 cOl{nition, 44-5, 53, 81-3, 87 British Broadcastinl{ Corporation, 141, .ref al.ro dissonance theory 157,167,186,207,209-10,220,222-3, Cohen, A. R., 262-3 243 Cohen, B. C., 270, 272 British Council, 141 Cold War, 118, 142, 170-1, 174,219,252 Brown, C . .J., 271-2, 276 Collins, B. E., 263 Bruce Lockhart, R H., 273 communication Bruntz, G. G., 134,265-6,268,270 democratisation, 199-200, 202-3 Bryce, .lames, 2, 9-10,13,53,113,248, effect, 77, 79-80, 102, 131,205 253-4,258,266 media, .ffe media Buckalew,J. K., 161,271 persuasive, 79-81,91, 110, 112-13, 132, Bunce, Richard, 275-6 205,211 Burke, Edmund, 24 process, 15,68,79,81,162-3,192-4, Burns, Tom, 272, 276 198-205,241-2 Butler, David, 262 symbols, 61, 197 Buzzi, Giancarlo, 273-4 systems, 197-8, 211 technolop:y, 25, 193, 19&-202 Cacioppo,J. T., 261-2 theory, 192-205 Campbell, Angus, 'l5, 257 transport, 201-2 Campbell, D. T., 42, 58, 259 conditioned reflex, 75-6, 86, 89-90 Canada, 57, 61, 200, 205, 221, 226 conformity, 3, 91-6, 98,101-2,125-6,145, Cantril, Hadley, 40, 257, 277 149-50, 166, 186,224,236,238-40, capitalism, 7-8,107,149-50,155-6,184-6, 244,248-9 206-9,212,226,228-9,238,241-3, Connell, R. W., 99, 264 245 conservatism, 226-8 Carey,J. W., 260, 274 consistency, 82-4 Carmen, I. H., 271 consumerism, 187-9,227-8,244,248-51 Carney, T. F., 267 content analysis, 129, 267 Carr, E. H., 231, 267, 278 Converse, P. E., 43, 46, 48, 50-I, 257-8, Carter, R. E., 271 262 catharsis, 128, 236, 238 Cook, F . .J., 275 Catlin, G. E. G., 270 Cooley, C. H., 274 Cauthen, N. R, 53, 258 Coulton, G. G., 259 censorship, 103, 145-58,217, 24&-7 Cox, A. M., 154,270 corporate, 149-50, 155-6 Creel, Georp:e, 130, 268 in democracies, 146, 151-2, 158,237 Crossman, R. H. S., 114, 142,266,269,273 elitist phenomenon, 150-1 Crotty, W . .J., 41,257 forms, 154-6 crowds, 12,32,92 moral issues, 157-8 Cruikshank, C. G., 131, 160,268-9,271 necessity, 145-7, 152, 157,239 Cuba, 266 propaganda and, 148-9 culture: social/political, 22, 32, 48, 53, totalitarian, 149, 154 68-9,90-3,96,125-6,178,197-8,212 wartime, 114, 14&-9, 154 Curran, .lames, 189,270,272,274,279 Chaffee, S. H., 265 cybernetics, 83-4, 193 Chakhotin, Serp:e, 261 Chandler, R. W., 136, 177,266,268-9,273 Dahl, R A., 278 Chase, Stuart, 260, 262 Dance, F. E. X., 274 Cherry, Colin, 47, 258, 275-7 Dau!(herty, W. E., 171, 173-4, 272-3 Childs, H. L., 14-17,33,37,254-6,265, Davies, J. C., 98, 264 273-4 Davison, W. P., 30, 256, 258-9, 262-3, 269, Chisman, F. P., 32, 254-6 277,279 Index 311

Dawson, R. Eo, 263 elites and c1itism, II, 17-19,25,37,61, 123, Delleur, M. L., 89, 259, 263, 265, 272, 150--1, 179, 198-9, 202-:i, 212, 215, 275-7 224, 229-30, 238 democracy, Ellul,Jacques, 109, 112, 121, 124-7, 140, concept, 1-2, 12-22,25, 145, 151-2, 235, 26:}-7, 269, 278 165-6,181,184,187,225-6,228-34, Epstein, E.J., 271, 276-7 239,241,247-8 Ettlinl(er, Harold, 277 critics, 15, 17-21,26-7,92, 1611,225, executive privileJ{e, 153-4 237-8 ~:ysenck, H.J., 39, 41, 44, 256-7, 261-2 future, 20, 26, 250--2 institutions, 6, 21-2,27,209,226,228, Fagan, R. R., 266 230,247 Farago, Ladislas, 171, 174, 268, 272-3 lel(itimisinl( role, Jff lel(itimacy fascism, 22, 49, 131 liberal democratic ideolol(Y, 5-6,9--13, Fearing, Franklin, 260 24,33,35-6,76, 100, 105-6, 112, Festinger, Leon, 81-2, 262 116,118,126,144,146,168,225-31, Fine, G. A., 270 235, 239--40, 246, 249 Finer, Herman, 258 media effect, 200--1, 203, 209, 211, Finkelstein, S. W., 275 219--20,240--3 Fishman,J. A., 259 models, 229--34, 247 Fraser, L. M., 267 process, 9, 22, 33-4,126-7,152,179, free will, 75-6, 91 241-2,247,249 Freedman, A. E. and P. Eo, 264 Soviet, 225 freedom of expression, 145-6, 157, 166, Third World, 225 236-40 democratic socialism, 226 Freeman, Ellis, 266 Dennis, Jack, 263 Freud, SiJ{mund, 76, 89 Department of PropaJ{anda in Enemy Fried, Edrith, 260 Countries, 108 Friedman, Milton, 228 De Rivera,J. H., 261-2,276 Friedrich, C . .1.,254 De Tocqueville, Alexis, 5, 7, 18,224,237, Fromm, Erich, 77, 89--90, 249, 261, 263, 253-4 279 Diamond, Edwin, 135, 268 dispositions, 39--40, 78, 94 Gallup, GeorJ{e, 2, 24-5, 253, 255 dissent, 32, 236-9 gatekeepers, 160--3, 168 dissonance theory, 43, 81-7, 103, 138, 180 generalisation, Jff simplification Dizard, W. P., 269 Gerbner, George, 274-5, 278 Donohew, Lewis, 271 Germany, 21, 50, 65,75, 130-1, 134, 140, Donohue, G. A., 272 I 70, 173, 177, 220, 240 Doob, L. W., 38,100--1,118,121,256, Gieber, Walter, 271 259--60,264-5,267 Gillers, Stephen, 271 Dorsen, Norman, 270 Glasgow University Media Group, 168, Dovring, Karin, 61, 259, 265, 267 272, 276 Glazer, Nathanial, 255 Eaton, R. M., 259 Goebbels,Joseph, 65, 92,112,131,140--2, Ebbesen, E. B., 40, 42,257 149, 173, 177 education, 14, 17, 19--20,57, 70, 75,97-8, Goldhamer, Herbert, 256, 279 116-21,151,201 Goldie, G. W., 104,265,273,276-7 democratic concepts of, 116-21 Golding, Peter, 253 propal(anda,Sff propaganda - education Gordon, G. N., 265, 270, 274 system supportive, 97,100--1,117-19, Greene, Judith, 260--1 235 Greenstein, F. 1.,94,261,263 ego defence, 46-7, 80 GreJ{o, Joseph, 273 Elder, R. E., 269 Gregory XV, Pope, 107-8, 121 elections and electorate, 14-15, 181-3 Greyser, S. A., 183,273 312 Index

Grierson, John, 216-17 intellectualism, 16, 19,21 GriJ.!J.!, C. M., 278 interest J.!roups, 33-4 Gross, Fcliks, 48, 258 International Communication AJ.!ency, groupthink, 92-3 122,267 Gumperz, J. J., 260 isolation, 92, 112 Gurevitch, Michael, 267 Jacobs, N . .1.,260 habit, 3, 41, 52-3, 75, 90, 125 Janis, I. L., 78, 92, 261, 263 Hachten, W. A., 273 JenninJ.!s, M. K., 263 Hale, Julian, 277 Johnson,J. M., 125,267 Halloran,J. D., 81-2, 258, 261-4, 276 Jones, R. A., 258 Halperin, M. H., 271 Katz, Daniel, 39, 41, 53, 257-8 Hardy, Forsyth, 277 Kelly, Sean, 271 Hargrave, John, 268 Kelman, H. C., 92, 263 Harrisson, Tom, 37, 86, 256, 262, 270 Key, V. 0., 6, 9, 11,26,30,33,36,253, Hartz, Louis, 278 255-6 Hayakawa, S. I., 65-6, 259--60, 266 Klapper,J. T., 268, 276 Hayek, F. A., 228 Knapp, R. H., 271 Heldey, Peter, 270 Knightley, Phillip, 148,270-1,276 Heller, Caroline, 198,275 Krech, David, 48, 68, 257, 260, 262 Henderson,.J. W., 269 Hennessy, B. C., 231, 263, 278 Lane, R. E., 23, 49, 77-8, 99, 232, 255-6, Hennessy, David, 138,267,269 258,261,263-5,276-8 Hertzler,J. 0., 64, 68,259--60,275 Langton, K. P., 94, 263 Herz, M. F., 266 languaJ.!e,64-72, 124, 193 Herzstein, R. E., 258, 269 connotation and denotation, 71-2 Hess, R. D., 100--1,263-4 control throuJ.!h, 70--2 Hitler, Adolf, 21,46,75,142,177,219 meaninJ.!. Sff meaninJ.! Hoffman, D. N., 271 socioloJ.!y of, 67-71, 95 HOJ.!J.!art, Richard, 131, 265, 268, 274 symbolism, 64-6 Hollander, G. D., 148, 270 word magic, 66-7 Holt, R. T., 273 Larson, Arthur, 266 Horowitz, Gad, 278 Larson, Cedric, 268 Hovland, C.I., 79--81, 132,261-3,265,268 Laski, H. J., 278 Huff, Darrell, 113, 266 Lasswell, H. D., 24-5, 32, 38, 53, 75, 77, 95, human nature, 16, 89--90, 203 111,116-17,124,128,169,236-7, Hume, David, 2, 253 255-6,258-9,261,264-7,272,278-9 Hunnings, N. M., 145,270 latency, 38 Huxley, Aldous, 76, 126,248,261,279 La Violette, F., 257 Hyman, H. H., 255 Lawton, Dennis, 260 Lazarsfeld,P.F., 130,212,268,272,276-7 ideology, 45, 48-9, 53, 232, 235-6 learning theory, 79--81,86,97-8 image-makinJ.!, 15,54,212 Le Bon, Gustave, 12,92,254,263 Independent BroadcastinJ.! Authority, 157, Lee, A. M. and E. B., 109--10,265 210 legitimacy, 3, 17,32,48,93,98,125,127, Index of Prohibited Books, 157 148, 205, 225 information, 14,21,25,30-1,50-1,79--82, Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut, 257 139--40,160-2,194,213,234,243,246 Leigh, David, 270 control,53, 125, 148, 150-2, 154-5, 161, Leigh, R. D., 277 205 Leiserson, Avery, 26, 255 Innis, H. A., 195-6,211,213,271,275,277 Lerner, Daniel, 174, 266, 269, 273, 279 Institute for Defence Analysis, 136 liberalism, 226-30, 247 Institute for Propaganda Analysis, 109--10, Jee also democracy, liberal democratic 129 ideoloJ.!y Index 313 libertarians, 145, 157-8,239-40 audiences, 15, 104, 164-5, 199,204,219, Lifton, R. j., 261 223 Linebarger, P. M., 171, 174, 272-3 commercial, 150, 155-6, 165, 167, 183-6, linguistic determinism, 67-8, 194 189-90,206,218,220,240,242-3, Lippincott, B. E., 19,254 245 Lippmann, Walter, 6, 20-2, 28,53-5,233, effect and power, 85, 103-5, 135, 163-4, 253-5,259,278 166-8, 190-1, 194-7,200-24, Lipsitz, Lewis, 278 241-4, 251 literacy, 6-7, 151,201,203,219 film, 80, 104,133,216--18,241 Litt, Edgar, 101,264 local, 160-2 Littlejohn, David, 277 mass, 102-3, 195-200,203,211-12,224, Lochner, L. P., 269 240 Locke, John, 119 medium as message, 193-7 Loewenstt'in, Karl, 259 organisation and control, 14-15, 149-50, logical consistency, 84 155-6, 161-2, 198,202,205-10, Lowell, A. L., 34-5, 256 213-14,222,238,240,243 Lowenthal, Leo, 268 print, 57, 85,103,131-2,135,153-4, Lumley, F. E., 115,266 160-4,177,183,186,205-7,213-16, 218,241,243 radio and television, 15, 103-4,'131, 135, McCarthy,joseph, 13,50-1,142,236 155-7, 160-1, 165-6, 183-4, 194, McClosky, Herbert, 262 198-202,206,209-15,218-24, McClure, R. D., 183,272-3,276-7,279 240-2, 244 McCombs, M. E., 272 role and function, 14-15, 54, 103-5, 124, McDiarmid, Garnet, 57, 259 155-6,163-4,167,186,195-6,203, McGinnis,Joe, 181,273-4 206-7,210,212-13,215,220,240-7 McGuffey Readers, 95 social values, 104-5, 186--9 McGuire, M.j., 262 socialisation role, 103-5 Machiavelli, Niccolo, 251 socially determined, 195-7,201-2,204, Maciver, Robert, 32, 256 208-9, 211, 223 Mackinnon, W. A., 8, 246, 253, 279 superficiality, 104-5,203,211,244 McLaine, Ian, 114,255,257,266,269-71 system supporting, 85, 161-2, 165-7, McLuhan, Marshall, 194-7,274 199,206-11,218,239-40,244, MacNeill, Robert, 155,271,273-4,276,279 249-50 Macpherson, C. B., 229, 278 technology, 197-202,213 McQuail, Denis, 197,261-2,268,271, totalitarian, 208, 243, 274-6, 279 Meerloo,J. A. M., 76, 261 Madge, john, 275, 279 memory, 86, 213 Maisel, Richard, 275 Merton, R. K., 212, 268, 272, 276-7 majorities, 5-7, 18,21 Michels, Robert, 25 Mander, jerry, 277 Miliband, Ralph, 270, 279 Manvell, Roger, 277 MiII,.J. S., 18,224,229,254,277 Margolin, L..J., 273 Milton, John, 157 Marsh, David, 264 Minar, D. W., 255 Marshall, James, 261 Ministry for People's Enlightenment and Martin, L.j., 79,131,219,262,268,277 Propaganda, 112, 141-2 masses, 5, 7-8,11-12,17,19,21-2,31-2, Minogue, Kenneth, 278 61,92, 123,224 Mock,.J. R., 268 Mathews,J . .J.,269 Monroe, A. D., 10-11,23,254-5,262 Matthews, T. S., 134,268 morale, 41,136,171,175 meaning, 60, 64-6, 71 Moseley, Joseph,S, 253 media Mueller, Claus, 67-8, 238-9, 260-1, 264, access to, 200, 203 279 American, Set United States - media Mumford, Lewis, 90, 263 314 Index

Murphy, David, 162-3,272 Political and Economic Plannin/l:, 163-4, Murrow, E. R., 266 272 Murty, B. S., 92,123-5,258,260,263,267, political warfare, .

propal/:andists, 60, 86, 91, 93, III, 113, RoNter, Charles, 140, 174,266,269,273 117-18, 122-4, 133, 135, 138 ROl/:ow, A. A., 274 Prothro, j. W., 278 Rokeach, Milton, 40, 42-4,78,257-8,261, psycholol/:ical warfare, 108, 114, 128, 136, 273 170-8 Roosevelt, F. D., 164 effectiveness, 172-5, 177-8 Rose, Richard, 273 orl/:anisation, 172-4, 177 Rosenau,j. N., 256 psycholol/:y, methods and theories, 22, Rosenberl/:, M. j., 82-3, 257-8, 262, 274 25,39,73-89, 121, 133 Rosnow, R. L., 270 public, 9,26,30-34 Rosten, L. C., 277 see also opinion, public opinion Rourke, F. E., 270 public interest, 31 Rousseau,j.j.,8, 12, 119 public opinion Rubin, Bernard, 271, 275, 279 authority, 1,8, 10, 12, 18,21,26-9, 187 Rubin, R. I., 269 defined, 1,8-16,20-1,31,38,246 rumour, 158-60 democratic concept, 1-3,9, 12-13, 17, Russell, Bertrand, 158, 255, 276, 279 25, 28-9, 33 emerl/:ence of, 4-7 Sacra Conl/:rel/:atio de Propal/:anda Fide, informed/rational, 1,8-11,13-15,20-1, 107 25,31,35--7,112-13,116,126,168, Saldich, A. R., 240, 274-6, 279 181,231 Sapir, Edward, 194,274 manipulators, 22-5, 38, 42, 86, 240 Sarl/:ant, W. W., 261 orl/:anic unity, 11-12, 18 Sarnoff, IrvinI/:, 41, 257 power and influence, 1-5,7,9,17,21-8, Sartori, Giovanni, 278 33, 127, 132,232,237,241,250-2 Saunders, D. A., 264 research and analysis, 23-4, 30, 33, 37-8 Schiller, H. I., 150,245,268,270,276,279 role, 1-3,5--7,13,17,22-6,51,127,232 Schwartz, D. C. and Sandra, 98-9, 264 stratified, 7-8, 50-I Searinl/:, D. D., 98, 264 public opinion pollinl/:, 2, 23-4, 28-9, 40 Sears, D.O., 23, 255--6, 263, 265 Pye, L. W., 275 Seaton, jean, 189,270,272,274,279 secrecy in I/:overnment, 146-7, 151-4, Qualter, T. H., 255, 266-7, 270-1, 276-7 246-7, 250 selective perception, 45--6, 54, 85, 102, 199, race, 50, 57, 103, 161 204-5, 246 Radio Free Europe, 220 sentiments, 39 Rae, S. F., 253, 255 Seth, Ronald, 273 Ranney,j. C., 253 Seymour-Ure, Colin, 85, 262, 277 rationalism, 6, 8, 228 Shannon, C. E., 274 rational politics, 1,8-9, 11-16, 19--22,46, Shaw, D. L., 272 57,76,107,112,151-2,168,182, Sherif, C. W., 258 190-1,231,246,251 Shibutani, Tamotsu, 271 Read, j. M., 273 Sil/:e1, Roberta, 94, 261, 263 reality, subjective, 47, 54-6, 85, 90, 95,103, Silvert, K. H., 259 125, 136-7, 148, 159--60, 194,210-11 simplification, 54-6 reality testin/(, 47-8, 59, 80, 92, 236 Sinclair, Upton, 46 referenda, 2, 127 Skinner, B. F., 65, 260 reinforcement, 62,75,79, 100-1, 133, 137, Smith, Adam, 227, 278 211,218 Smith, Anthony, 271, 276-7 Reynolds, Rel/:inald, 265 Smith, B. L., 268 Richards, I. A., 259--60 Smith, C. W., 255 Riesman, David, 112,255,266 Smith, M. B., 261-2 Righter, Rosemary, 273 social class, 7-8,17-19,23,69--70,95, Roberts, D. F., 262, 265 100-1, 106, 149--51, 168, 187-9, 198, Robinson,j. P., 276 201,203,229--30 316 Index

Social Darwinism, 228-9 Thatcher, Marp:aret, 153 social norms, 78, 101, 105-6,212 Thompson, Denys, 276 social sciences, 7, 16,22,25 Thomson, Oliver, 128,265-7,275 socialisation, 25, 53,78,91-106, 125, 128, Thouless, R. H., 259 193,207,235-6,246 Tichenor, P. J., 275-6 ap:encies, 98-105, 117-18 Torney,J. V., 100-1,264 childhood, 97-8, 117-18 Tracey, Michael, 273-4, 276--7 class, 95, 101 tradition, 52-3, 90 definition, 94 Treleaven, Harry, 181 effectiveness, 91-106 Trenaman, Joseph, 262 process and theories, 15, 94-9 Triandis, H. C., 257, 261 studies, 94, 96--8, 102, 104,263 Trotter, Wilfred, 263 system maintaininp:, 94-8, 106 Trueblood, D. E., 257 ,fie also education truth, 109, 113-15, 120-1,210 Society for the Suppression of Vice, 158 Turner, Graham, 135, 189,268,274 sociolop:y, methods and theories, 73-4, 88-9 United Kinp:dom Sorel, Georp:es, 49, 258 media, 85, 135, 153,156--7,162, 168, 186, Sorensen, T. C., 143-4,266,269 201,207,209-10,212,222 South Africa, 103, 217 Ministry of Information, 114 Speier, Hans, 4,9, 253, 272-3, 275 official secrecy, 152-3 Spencer, Herbert, 228-9 political parties, 135, 167, 182 Squires,J. D., 134, 141,268-9 social class, 23, 70,106,131-2,147,150, Steiner, G. A., 44, 264-5 162, 167,201 Steiner, I. D., 257 United States stereotypes, 53-9, 73, 87, 92, 96, 217, army, 80 222-3, 246 democracy,S, 9-10, 33, 36, 49, 142, classification, 55-6 154-5, 230 fictions, 54 education, 98, 100, 116 function, 54-5, 58-9 electoral politics, 4, 23, 33, 166--7, 181 process, 54-8 forei~n policy, 142-3 stability, 57-9 Justice Department, 158 stimulus-response theory, 75-6, 86, 203-4 media, 103, 150, 156, 161-2, 167, 183-6, Stokes, D., 262 205,207,217,220-1,223,245-6 Stuart, Campbell, 130, 268-9 official secrecy, 153-4 Summers, R. E., 267 patriotism, 61, 100 survey research, 73, 88-9, 129-30 political extremism, 142-3,220-1,275 symbols and symbolism, 59-64, 92, 119, public opinion in, 13,23,26,33,36 127 socialisation, 95-6, 98-100 conventional, 60,64,71 United States Information Ap:ency, 112, defined, 60 142-3, 176, 267 forms, 61-3 urban-industrial society, 93, 105, 124-5, function, 63-4 195 map:ic,63 USSR, 21,33, 76, III, 117, 140, 148, 173-5, manipulation, 60, 62, 66,71-2,86, 220, 240, 251 123-4, 169 Ustinov, Peter, 279 national, 61-2, III, 127 persistence of, 66 values, 44, 46--7, 83, 90, 94, 103-5 reference, 60, 63-4, 71 Vance, James, 61 verbal, Sfe lanp:uap:e Van de Velde, R. W., 273 Verba, Sidney, 234, 263, 278 Talleyrand, C. M. de, 3 Viereck, G. S., 265, 268 Tate & Lyle Ltd, 186 Vietnam, 13,67, 114, 125, 136, 176--7,210, terrorism, 169-70 266 Index 317

Voice of America, 175 Wiebe, G. D., 39, 257 voting behaviour, 212, 230 Wilensky, H. L., 245, 279 Williams, David, 153, 270 Wallas, Graham, 16,20--1,108,158,231, Williams, E. F., 148,270 254,265,271 Wilson, F. G., 10,253-5,267 Watergate, 26, 166,207 Windelsham, Lord, 271, 279 Weaver, D. H. 272 Winkler, A. M., 269 Weaver, W., 274 Wooddy, C. H., 267 Weissberg, Robert, 31, 98, 255, 264, 278 Woodward,J. L., 2, 253 Westergaard, John, 274 word magic, .ret language - word magic White, D. M., 271 writing, 202, 213-14 White, Llewellyn, 277 White, Theodore, 164,272 Young, Kimball, 32, 256 Whitehead, A. N., 259 Whitton,.J. B., 266 Zeman, Z. A. 8., 174, 269, 273 Whorf,8. L., 67, 194,260,274 Zimbardo, Philip, 40, 42, 257