DOCSLIB.ORG

Independent Yields of Kr and Xe Isotopes in the Photofission Of

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Independent Yields of Kr and Xe Isotopes in the Photofission Of Physics of Atomic Nuclei, Vol. 66, No. 7, 2003, pp. 1211–1218. Translatedfrom Yadernaya Fizika, Vol. 66, No. 7, 2003, pp. 1251–1258. Original Russian Text Copyright c 2003 by Gangrsky, Zhemenik, Maslova, Mishinsky, Penionzhkevich, Sz¨oll¨os. NUCLEI Experiment Independent Yields of Kr and Xe Isotopes in the Photofission of Heavy Nuclei Yu.P.Gangrsky*, V.I.Zhemenik,N.Yu.Maslova, G. V. Mishinsky, Yu. E. Penionzhkevich, and O. Szoll¨ os¨ Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, Moscow oblast, 141980 Russia Received July 15, 2002 Abstract—The yields of Kr (A =87–93)andXe(A = 138–143) primary fission fragments produced in 232Th, 238U,and244Pu photofission upon the scission of a target nucleus and neutron emission were measured in an experiment with bremsstrahlung from electrons accelerated to 25 MeV by a microtron, and the results of these measurements are presented. The experimental procedure used involved the transportation of fragments that escaped from the target by a gas flow through a capillary and the condensation of Kr and Xe inert gases in a cryostat at liquid-nitrogen temperature. The fragments of all other elements were retained with a filter at the capillary inlet. The isotopes of Kr and Xe were identified by the γ spectra of their daughter products. The mass-number distributions of the independent yields of Kr and Xe isotopes are obtained and compared with similar data on fission induced by thermal and fast neutrons; the shifts of the fragment charges with respect to the undistorted charge distribution are determined. Prospects for using photofission fragments in studying the structure of highly neutron-rich nuclei are discussed. c 2003 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”. INTRODUCTION At the same time, a wider range of experimental data and new theoretical approaches to describing The distributions of product fragments with re- them are required for obtaining deeper insight into spect to their mass numbers A and charge numbers Z the dynamics of the fission process. Measurement of are among the main properties of the nuclear-fission the isotopic and isobaric distributions of fragments process. The shape of these distributions is controlled originating from reactions induced by γ rays is one by the dynamics of the fission process from the saddle of the promising lines of investigation in this region to the scission point. This intricate process depends of nuclear fission since such reactions possess some on a number of factors, including the relief of the special features: energy surface, the configurations of nuclear shapes γ at the instant of scission, and the nuclear viscosity (1) The interaction of radiation with nuclei is of collective motion. Therefore, measurements of the purely electromagnetic, and its properties are well isotopic and isobaric distributions of fragments (that known; therefore, an adequate calculation of this in- is, those in A at given Z and those in Z at given A, teraction can be performed without resort to addi- respectively) provide important data on the dynamics tional model concepts. of the fission process. The distributions of fragments (2) In the energy range 10–16 MeV, the interac- produced after fissile-nucleus scission and the emis- tion of photons with nuclei is of resonance origin (this sion of neutrons (primary fragments) are the most is the region of a giant dipole resonance); the energy of informative of them. this resonance corresponds to the frequency of proton oscillations with respect to neutrons in a nucleus. However, measurement of such distributions in- volves some difficulties. Each of the techniques used (3) The absence of the binding energy and of the has its limitations and can be applied efficiently only Coulomb barrier allows one to obtain fissile nuclei of to a certain range of fission fragments. Therefore, iso- any (even extremely low) excitation energy immedi- topic and isobaric distributions of primary fragments ately after photon absorption. have received adequate study only for the fission of the (4) Over a wide range of γ-ray energies, the Th, U, and Pu isotopes that is induced by low-energy angular-momentum transfer to the irradiated nucleus neutrons and for the spontaneous fission of 252Cf. undergoes virtually no change—it is as low as 1 in Data on these distributions are compiled in [1, 2]. the dipole absorption of photons. These features peculiar to reactions induced by γ *e-mail: [email protected] rays allow one to obtain new information about the 1063-7788/03/6607-1211$24.00 c 2003 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica” 1212 GANGRSKY et al. Ar 238U,and244Pu fission induced by γ rays of energy corresponding to a giant dipole resonance and to compare these yields with similar data obtained in neutron-induced fission. The measurements of the Chamber 238 – cumulative yields of these isotopes in Uphoto fis- e γ sion are reported in [9]; preliminary results on the independent yields of Xe fragments in 232Th and 238U fission are given in [10]. Capillary Pump EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The extraction of Kr and Xe isotopes from the bulk of photofission fragments is based on the use of their special chemical properties, which differ significantly Cryostat from the properties of other elements and which re- Fig. 1. Layout of the experimental setup. veal themselves in a number of phenomena, includ- ing the adsorption of their atoms on a filter and the walls of the capillary through which the fragments are nuclear-fission process. For example, experiments transported from the irradiated target to radioactive- that studied the photofission of nuclei furnished a radiation detectors. The point is that Kr and Xe inert gases are efficiently adsorbed only at liquid-nitrogen wide set of data on the structure of the fission barrier ◦ and the shape of the potential surface [3]. The above temperature (−195.8 C), while all other fragments features of γ-ray interaction with nuclei are expected are adsorbed even at room temperature. It is precisely to manifest themselves in the process of fission- this property that is employed in our experimental fragment formation as well. This can be illustrated setup, which comprises a reaction chamber, a cryo- by the results presented in [4], according to which the stat, and Teflon capillaries for a gas flow. The layout γ-ray-energy dependence of the yield of fragments of the setup is displayed in Fig. 1, and a more detailed (115Cd, 117Cd) from symmetric fission has a rather description of it is given elsewhere [11]. unusual character, with a maximum at 6 MeV and a The irradiated targets were placed in the reaction kink at 5.3 MeV. chamber, which had the shape of a cylinder 30 mm in However, data on the isotopic and especially height, its inner diameter being 40 mm. The cylinder isobaric distributions of photofission fragments (first walls had a thickness of 1.5 mm. The inlet and out- of all, on their independent yields) are considerably let holes for a buffer gas were located symmetrically scarcer than data on reactions induced by neutrons opposite each other along a diameter of the reaction and charged particles. We can mention only the chamber. One or two targets placed at the end faces of results of the experiments performed in Ghent (Bel- the cylinder were used in the experiments. The prop- gium) for a limited set of nuclei [5–8]. erties of the targets are presented in Table 1 (these are The objective of this study is to measure the in- the chemical composition, admixtures, dimensions, dependent yields of fragments (these are the isotopes layer thickness, and the substrates). of Kr and Xe inert gases) produced directly in 232Th, An inert gas was supplied from a gas-container to the reaction chamber through a polyethylene capillary 4 mm in diameter. The gas pressure in the chamber Table 1. Properties of the targets used was adjusted by a container valve and measured with a manometer at the chamber inlet. Chemically pure Target 232Th 238U 244Pu He, Ar, and N2 at a pressure of 1 to 2 atm were used as buffer gases. The choice of inert gas and pressure Material Metal U3O8 PuO2 in the chamber was determined by the conditions of Content 100 99.85 96 the experiment (the efficiency of fragment collection, (%) the rate of their transportation, the levels of the γ- radiation background caused by the activation of the Admixtures (%) – 0.15 (235U) 4(240Pu + 242Pu) inert gas owing to microtron bremsstrahlung). Thickness 25 3 0.3 2 The fission fragments were transported, together (mg/cm ) with the buffer gas, from the reaction chamber to the Dimensions (mm) ∅15 ∅20 and 30 10 × 10 cryostat through a Teflon capillary of length 10 m and inner diameter 2 mm by means of evacuation Substrate – Al Ti with a pump. A fibrous filter placed at the capillary PHYSICS OF ATOMIC NUCLEI Vol. 66 No. 7 2003 INDEPENDENT YIELDS OF Kr AND Xe 1213 A = 91 93 140 142 Se 0.37 s ↓ Br 0.64 s Br 0.1 s I 0.86 s I 0.2 s ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Kr 8.6 s Kr 1.3 s Xe 14 s Xe 1.2 s ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Rb 58 s Rb 5.8 s Cs 64 s Cs 1.8 s ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Sr 9.5 h Sr 7.4 min Ba 13 d Ba 11 min ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Y 5.8 d Y 10.5 h La 40 h La 92 min ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Zr stable Zr 1.5 × 106 y Ce stable Ce stable Fig. 2. Examples of the chains of β decays of the fission fragments that include Kr and Xe isotopes. The isotopes for which we measured γ spectraaregiveninboldfacetype. inlet efficiently adsorbed all fission fragments, with the cryostat. Therefore, only Kr and Xe fragments that exception of Kr and Xe.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Moedal Experiment at the LHC. Searching Beyond the Standard
    126 EPJ Web of Conferences , 02024 (2016) DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201612602024 ICNFP 2015 The MoEDAL experiment at the LHC Searching beyond the standard model James L. Pinfold (for the MoEDAL Collaboration)1,a 1 University of Alberta, Physics Department, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 0V1, Canada Abstract. MoEDAL is a pioneering experiment designed to search for highly ionizing avatars of new physics such as magnetic monopoles or massive (pseudo-)stable charged particles. Its groundbreaking physics program defines a number of scenarios that yield potentially revolutionary insights into such foundational questions as: are there extra dimensions or new symmetries; what is the mechanism for the generation of mass; does magnetic charge exist; what is the nature of dark matter; and, how did the big-bang develop. MoEDAL’s purpose is to meet such far-reaching challenges at the frontier of the field. The innovative MoEDAL detector employs unconventional methodologies tuned to the prospect of discovery physics. The largely passive MoEDAL detector, deployed at Point 8 on the LHC ring, has a dual nature. First, it acts like a giant camera, comprised of nuclear track detectors - analyzed offline by ultra fast scanning microscopes - sensitive only to new physics. Second, it is uniquely able to trap the particle messengers of physics beyond the Standard Model for further study. MoEDAL’s radiation environment is monitored by a state-of-the-art real-time TimePix pixel detector array. A new MoEDAL sub-detector to extend MoEDAL’s reach to millicharged, minimally ionizing, particles (MMIPs) is under study Finally we shall describe the next step for MoEDAL called Cosmic MoEDAL, where we define a very large high altitude array to take the search for highly ionizing avatars of new physics to higher masses that are available from the cosmos.
    [Show full text]
  • CHAPTER 12: the Atomic Nucleus
    CHAPTER 12 The Atomic Nucleus ◼ 12.1 Discovery of the Neutron ◼ 12.2 Nuclear Properties ◼ 12.3 The Deuteron ◼ 12.4 Nuclear Forces ◼ 12.5 Nuclear Stability ◼ 12.6 Radioactive Decay ◼ 12.7 Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay ◼ 12.8 Radioactive Nuclides Structure of matter Dark matter and dark energy are the yin and yang of the cosmos. Dark matter produces an attractive force (gravity), while dark energy produces a repulsive force (antigravity). ... Astronomers know dark matter exists because visible matter doesn't have enough gravitational muster to hold galaxies together. Hierarchy of forces ◼ Sta Standard Model tries to unify the forces into one force Ernest Rutherford “Father of the Nucleus” Story so far: Unification Faraday Glashow,Weinberg,Salam Georgi,Glashow Green,Schwarz Witten 1831 1967 1974 1984 1995 Electricity } } } Electromagnetic force } } } Magnetism} } Electro-weak force } } } Weak nuclear force} } Grand unified force } } } 5 Different } Strong nuclear force} } D=10 String } M-theory ? } Theories } Gravitational force} +branes in D=11 Page 6 © Imperial College London Discovery of the Neutron 3) Nuclear magnetic moment: The magnetic moment of an electron is over 1000 times larger than that of a proton. The measured nuclear magnetic moments are on the same order of magnitude as the proton’s, so an electron is not a part of the nucleus. ◼ In 1930 the German physicists Bothe and Becker used a radioactive polonium source that emitted α particles. When these α particles bombarded beryllium, the radiation penetrated several centimeters of lead. The neutrons collide elastically with the protons of the paraffin thereby producing the5.7 MeV protons Discovery of the Neutron ◼ Photons are called gamma rays when they originate from the nucleus.
    [Show full text]
  • Non-Collider Searches for Stable Massive Particles
    Non-collider searches for stable massive particles S. Burdina, M. Fairbairnb, P. Mermodc,, D. Milsteadd, J. Pinfolde, T. Sloanf, W. Taylorg aDepartment of Physics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZE, UK bDepartment of Physics, King's College London, London WC2R 2LS, UK cParticle Physics department, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland dDepartment of Physics, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden ePhysics Department, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 0V1 fDepartment of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YB, UK gDepartment of Physics and Astronomy, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada M3J 1P3 Abstract The theoretical motivation for exotic stable massive particles (SMPs) and the results of SMP searches at non-collider facilities are reviewed. SMPs are defined such that they would be suffi- ciently long-lived so as to still exist in the cosmos either as Big Bang relics or secondary collision products, and sufficiently massive such that they are typically beyond the reach of any conceiv- able accelerator-based experiment. The discovery of SMPs would address a number of important questions in modern physics, such as the origin and composition of dark matter and the unifi- cation of the fundamental forces. This review outlines the scenarios predicting SMPs and the techniques used at non-collider experiments to look for SMPs in cosmic rays and bound in mat- ter. The limits so far obtained on the fluxes and matter densities of SMPs which possess various detection-relevant properties such as electric and magnetic charge are given. Contents 1 Introduction 4 2 Theory and cosmology of various kinds of SMPs 4 2.1 New particle states (elementary or composite) .
    [Show full text]
  • Lesson 6.3 You Experience Is Related to Your Location on the Globe
    Key Objectives 6.3.1 DESCRIBE trends among elements for 6.3 Periodic Trends atomic size. 6.3.2 EXPLAIN how ions form. 6.3.3 DESCRIBE trends for first ionization energy, ionic size, and electronegativity. CHEMISTRY & YOUY Additional Resources Q: How are trends in the weather similar to trends in the properties of elements? Although the weather changes from day to day. The weather Reading and Study Workbook, Lesson 6.3 you experience is related to your location on the globe. For example, LESSON 6.3 Available Online or on Digital Media: Florida has an average temperature that is higher than Minnesota’s. Similarly, a rain forest receives more rain than a desert. These differ- • Teaching Resources, Lesson 6.3 Review ences are attributable to trends in the weather. In this lesson, you will • Small-Scale Chemistry Laboratory Manual, Lab 9 learn how a property such as atomic size is related to the location of an element in the periodic table. Key Questions Trends in Atomic Size What are the trends among the What are the trends among the elements for atomic size? ? elements for atomic size One way to think about atomic size is to look at the units that form How do ions form? when atoms of the same element are joined to one another. These What are the trends among the units are called molecules. Figure 6.14 shows models of molecules Engage elements for first ionization energy, (molecular models) for seven nonmetals. Because the atoms in each ionic size, and electronegativity? molecule are identical, the distance between the nuclei of these atoms CHEMISTRY YOUYOY U Have students read the can be used to estimate the size of the atoms.
    [Show full text]
  • Search for Supersymmetry Events with Two Same-Sign Leptons
    Search for supersymmetry events with two same-sign leptons Dissertation der Fakult¨atf¨urPhysik der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universit¨atM¨unchen vorgelegt von Christian Kummer geboren in M¨unchen M¨unchen, im Januar 2010 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Dorothee Schaile 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Wolfgang D¨unnweber Tag der m¨undlichen Pr¨ufung: 09.03.2010 meiner Familie Abstract Supersymmetry is a hypothetic symmetry between bosons and fermions, which is broken by an unknown mechanism. So far, there is no experimental evidence for the existence of supersymmetric particles. Some Supersymmetry scenarios are predicted to be within reach of the ATLAS detector at the Large Hadron Col- lider. Final states with two isolated leptons (muons and electrons), that have same signs of charge, are suitable for the discovery of supersymmetric cascade decays. There are numerous supersymmetric processes that can yield final states with two same-sign or more leptons. Typically, these processes tend to have long cas- cade decay chains, producing high-energetic jets. Charged leptons are produced from decaying charginos and neutralinos in the cascades. If the R-parity is con- served and the lightest supersymmetric particle is a neutralino, supersymmetric processes lead to a large amount of missing energy in the detector. The most important Standard Model background for the same-sign dilepton channel is the semileptonic decay of top-antitop-pairs. One lepton originates from the leptonic decay of the W boson, the other lepton originates from one of the b quarks. Here, the neutrinos are responsible for the missing energy. The Standard Model background can be strongly reduced by applying cuts on the transverse momenta of jets, on the missing energy and on the lepton isolation.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 8. the Atomic Nucleus
    Chapter 8. The Atomic Nucleus Notes: • Most of the material in this chapter is taken from Thornton and Rex, Chapters 12 and 13. 8.1 Nuclear Properties Atomic nuclei are composed of protons and neutrons, which are referred to as nucleons. Although both types of particles are not fundamental or elementary, they can still be considered as basic constituents for the purpose of understanding the atomic nucleus. Protons and neutrons have many characteristics in common. For example, their masses are very similar with 1.0072765 u (938.272 MeV) for the proton and 1.0086649 u (939.566 MeV) for the neutron. The symbol ‘u’ stands for the atomic mass unit defined has one twelfth of the mass of the main isotope of carbon (i.e., 12 C ), which is known to contain six protons and six neutrons in its nucleus. We thus have that 1 u = 1.66054 ×10−27 kg (8.1) = 931.49 MeV/c2 . Protons and neutrons also both have the same intrinsic spin, but different magnetic moments (see below). Their main difference, however, pertains to their electrical charges: the proton, as we know, has a charge of +e , while the neutron has none, as its name implies. Atomic nuclei are designated using the symbol A Z XN , (8.2) with Z, N and A the number of protons (atomic element number), the number of neutrons, and the atomic mass number ( A = Z + N ), respectively, while X is the chemical element symbol. It is often the case that Z and N are omitted, when there is no chance of confusion.
    [Show full text]
  • Numerical Evaluation of Feynman Loop Integrals by Reduction to Tree Graphs
    Numerical Evaluation of Feynman Loop Integrals by Reduction to Tree Graphs Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades des Departments Physik der Universit¨atHamburg vorgelegt von Tobias Kleinschmidt aus Duisburg Hamburg 2007 Gutachter des Dissertation: Prof. Dr. W. Kilian Prof. Dr. J. Bartels Gutachter der Disputation: Prof. Dr. W. Kilian Prof. Dr. G. Sigl Datum der Disputation: 18. 12. 2007 Vorsitzender des Pr¨ufungsausschusses: Dr. H. D. R¨uter Vorsitzender des Promotionsausschusses: Prof. Dr. G. Huber Dekan der Fakult¨atMIN: Prof. Dr. A. Fr¨uhwald Abstract We present a method for the numerical evaluation of loop integrals, based on the Feynman Tree Theorem. This states that loop graphs can be expressed as a sum of tree graphs with additional external on-shell particles. The original loop integral is replaced by a phase space integration over the additional particles. In cross section calculations and for event generation, this phase space can be sampled simultaneously with the phase space of the original external particles. Since very sophisticated matrix element generators for tree graph amplitudes exist and phase space integrations are generically well understood, this method is suited for a future implementation in a fully automated Monte Carlo event generator. A scheme for renormalization and regularization is presented. We show the construction of subtraction graphs which cancel ultraviolet divergences and present a method to cancel internal on-shell singularities. Real emission graphs can be naturally included in the phase space integral of the additional on-shell particles to cancel infrared divergences. As a proof of concept, we apply this method to NLO Bhabha scattering in QED.
    [Show full text]
  • Lectures on Conformal Field Theory Arxiv:1511.04074V2 [Hep-Th] 19
    Prepared for submission to JHEP Lectures on Conformal Field Theory Joshua D. Quallsa aDepartment of Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: These lectures notes are based on courses given at National Taiwan University, National Chiao-Tung University, and National Tsing Hua University in the spring term of 2015. Although the course was offered primarily for graduate students, these lecture notes have been prepared for a more general audience. They are intended as an introduction to conformal field theories in various dimensions working toward current research topics in conformal field theory. We assume the reader to be familiar with quantum field theory. Familiarity with string theory is not a prerequisite for this lectures, although it can only help. These notes include over 80 homework problems and over 45 longer exercises for students. arXiv:1511.04074v2 [hep-th] 19 May 2016 Contents 1 Lecture 1: Introduction and Motivation2 1.1 Introduction and outline2 1.2 Conformal invariance: What?5 1.3 Examples of classical conformal invariance7 1.4 Conformal invariance: Why?8 1.4.1 CFTs in critical phenomena8 1.4.2 Renormalization group 12 1.5 A preview for future courses 16 1.6 Conformal quantum mechanics 17 2 Lecture 2: CFT in d ≥ 3 22 2.1 Conformal transformations for d ≥ 3 22 2.2 Infinitesimal conformal transformations for d ≥ 3 24 2.3 Special conformal transformations and conformal algebra 26 2.4 Conformal group 28 2.5 Representations of the conformal group 29 2.6 Constraints of Conformal
    [Show full text]
  • Infrared Divergences
    2012 Matthew Schwartz III-6: Infrared divergences 1 Introduction We have shown that the 1, 2 and 3 point functions in QED are UV finite at one loop. We were able to introduce 4 counterterms ( δm , δ1 , δ2 , δ3) which canceled all the infinities. Now let us move on to four point functions, such as Ω T ψ( x ) ψ¯ ( x ) ψ( x ) ψ¯ ( x ) Ω (1) h | { 1 2 3 4 }| i This could represent, for example, Møller scattering ( e − e − e − e − ) or Bhabha scattering → ( e+ e − e+ e − ). We will take it to be e+ e − µ+ µ− for simplicity, since at tree-level this process only has→ an s-channel diagram. Looking→ at these 4-point functions at one-loop will help us understand how to combine previous loop calculations and counterterms into new observables, and will also illustrate a new feature: cancellation of infrared divergences. Although important results and calculational techniques are introduced in this lecture, it can be skipped without much loss of continuity with the rest of the text. Recall that in the on-shell subtraction scheme we found δ1 and δ2 depended on a fictitious photon mass m γ. This mass was introduced to make the loops finite and is an example of an infrared regulator. As we will see, the dependence on IR regulators, like m γ, drops out not in differences between the Green’s functions at different scales, as with UV regulators, but in the sum of different types of Green’s functions contributing to the same observable at the same scale.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction to Renormalization
    Introduction to Renormalization A lecture given by Prof. Wayne Repko Notes: Michael Flossdorf April 4th 2007 Contents 1 Introduction 1 2 RenormalizationoftheQEDLagrangian 2 3 One Loop Correction to the Fermion Propagator 3 4 Dimensional Regularization 6 4.1 SuperficialDegreeofDivergence. 6 4.2 TheProcedureofDimensionalRegularization . .. 8 4.3 AUsefulGeneralIntegral. 9 4.4 Dirac Matrices in n Dimensions .................. 11 4.5 Dimensional Regularization of Σ2 ................. 11 5 Renormalization 12 5.1 Summary ofLastSection and OutlineoftheNextSteps . .. 12 5.2 MomentumSubtractionSchemes. 13 5.3 BacktoRenormalizationinQED. 14 5.4 Leading Order Expression of Σ2 for Small ǫ ............ 17 6 Outline of the Following Procedure 19 7 The Vertex Correction 19 8 Vacuum Polarization 22 CONTENTS 2 9 The Beta Function of QED 25 Appendix 27 References 30 1 INTRODUCTION 1 First Part of the Lecture 1 Introduction Starting with the Lagrangian of any Quantum Field Theory, we have seen in some of the previous lectures how to obtain the Feynman rules, which sufficiently de- scribe how to do pertubation theory in that particular theory. But beyond tree level, the naive calculation of diagrams involving loops will often yield infinity, since the integrals have to be performed over the whole momentum space. Renormal- ization Theory deals with the systematic isolation and removing of these infinities from physical observables. The first important insight is, that it is not the fields or the coupling constants which represent measurable quantities. Measured are cross sections, decay width, etc.. As long as we make sure that this observables are finite in the end and can be unambiguously derived from the Lagrangian, we are free to introduce new quantities, called renormalized quantities for every, so called, bare quantity.
    [Show full text]
  • Mitochondrial Respiratory States and Rates
    MitoFit Preprint Arch (2019) doi:10.26124/mitofit:190001 Posted online 2019-02-12 Open Access Freely available online Mitochondrial respiratory states and rates Gnaiger E, Aasander Frostner E, Abdul Karim N, Abumrad NA, Acuna-Castroviejo D, Adiele RC, Ahn B, Ali SS, Alton L, Alves MG, Amati F, Amoedo ND, Andreadou I, Aragó M, Aragones J, Aral C, Arandarčikaitė O, Armand AS, Arnould T, Avram VF, Bailey DM, Bajpeyi S, Bajzikova M, Bakker BM, Barlow J, Bastos Sant'Anna Silva AC, Batterson P, Battino M, Bazil J, Beard DA, Bednarczyk P, Bello F, Ben-Shachar D, Bergdahl A, Berge RK, Bergmeister L, Bernardi P, Berridge MV, Bettinazzi S, Bishop D, Blier PU, Blindheim DF, Boardman NT, Boetker HE, Borchard S, Boros M, Børsheim E, Borutaite V, Botella J, Bouillaud F, Bouitbir J, Boushel RC, Bovard J, Breton S, Brown DA, Brown GC, Brown RA, Brozinick JT, Buettner GR, Burtscher J, Calabria E, Calbet JA, Calzia E, Cannon DT, Cano Sanchez M, Canto AC, Cardoso LHD, Carvalho E, Casado Pinna M, Cassar S, Cassina AM, Castelo MP, Castro L, Cavalcanti-de-Albuquerque JP, Cervinkova Z, Chabi B, Chakrabarti L, Chakrabarti S, Chaurasia B, Chen Q, Chicco AJ, Chinopoulos C, Chowdhury SK, Cizmarova B, Clementi E, Coen PM, Cohen BH, Coker RH, Collin A, Crisóstomo L, Dahdah N, Dalgaard LT, Dambrova M, Danhelovska T, Darveau CA, Das AM, Dash RK, Davidova E, Davis MS, De Goede P, De Palma C, Dembinska-Kiec A, Detraux D, Devaux Y, Di Marcello M, Dias TR, Distefano G, Doermann N, Doerrier C, Dong L, Donnelly C, Drahota Z, Duarte FV, Dubouchaud H, Duchen MR, Dumas JF,
    [Show full text]
  • Search for Magnetic Monopoles with the Moedal Forward Trapping Detector in 13 Tev Proton-Proton Collisions at the LHC
    week ending PRL 118, 061801 (2017) PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 10 FEBRUARY 2017 Search for Magnetic Monopoles with the MoEDAL Forward Trapping Detector in 13 TeV Proton-Proton Collisions at the LHC B. Acharya,1,2 J. Alexandre,1 S. Baines,3 P. Benes,4 B. Bergmann,4 J. Bernabéu,5 H. Branzas,6 M. Campbell,7 L. Caramete,6 S. Cecchini,8 M. de Montigny,9 A. De Roeck,7 J. R. Ellis,1,10 M. Fairbairn,1 D. Felea,6 J. Flores,11 M. Frank,12 D. Frekers,13 C. Garcia,5 A. M. Hirt,14 J. Janecek,4 M. Kalliokoski,15 A. Katre,16 D.-W. Kim,17 K. Kinoshita,18 A. Korzenev,16 D. H. Lacarrère,7 S. C. Lee,17 C. Leroy,19 A. Lionti,16 J. Mamuzic,5 A. Margiotta,20 N. Mauri,8 N. E. Mavromatos,1 P. Mermod,16,* V. A. Mitsou,5 R. Orava,21 B. Parker,22 L. Pasqualini,20 L. Patrizii,8 G. E. Păvălaş,6 J. L. Pinfold,9 V. Popa,6 M. Pozzato,8 S. Pospisil,4 A. Rajantie,23 R. Ruiz de Austri,5 Z. Sahnoun,8,24 M. Sakellariadou,1 S. Sarkar,1 G. Semenoff,25 A. Shaa,26 G. Sirri,8 K. Sliwa,27 R. Soluk,9 M. Spurio,20 Y. N. Srivastava,28 M. Suk,4 J. Swain,28 M. Tenti,29 V. Togo,8 J. A. Tuszyński,9 V. Vento,5 O. Vives,5 Z. Vykydal,4 T. Whyntie,22,30 A. Widom,28 G. Willems,13 J. H. Yoon,31 and I.
    [Show full text]