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Environmental governance and new ICTs: the impact of new information and communication technologies on global environmental governance Jérôme Duberry TESI DOCTORAL UPF / 2014 PROFESSOR JOSEP IBAÑEZ DEPARTAMENT DE DRET ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Law Department of the University Pompeu Fabra and in particular my tutor Professor Dr. Josep Ibáñez Muñoz for his academic and personal support, and members of the Secretariat Lluïsa and Adela. I also would like to thank my parents for their encouragement, Max for his valuable comments and faithful support, Angela for her faith in me, my dear local friends Diego and Jessica, my Bloom and Boom dream team, and all those whose presence from close or far made this thesis possible. iii iv Abstract The doctoral dissertation deals with the impact of the use of new information and communication technologies (ICTs) on global environmental governance. The objective of the research is to analyze the influence of these technologies on the legitimacy of global governance tools and on the competences of global non-state actors –as part of global civil society– involved in processes of environmental politics. After defining the context in which new ICTs emerge, the thesis develops two case studies. The first one analyzes the resolution and recommendation process of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). It illustrates that the use of new ICT improves the participation and the creation of consensus around certain values, and shows therefore that the use of new ICTs has a positive impact on the legitimacy of this global governance mechanism. The second case study examines the use of new ICTs by IUCN and demonstrates that it has no substantial impact on the internal capacities of the organization. However, it has a positive yet limited impact on the external competences of IUCN, since it improves the organization’s capacity to communicate only with its traditional audience. v Resumen La tesis doctoral trata el impacto de la generalización de las nuevas tecnologías de la información y de la comunicación (TIC) sobre la gobernanza global del medio ambiente. El objetivo de la investigación es analizar la influencia de estas nuevas tecnologías sobre la legitimidad de los mecanismos de gobernanza global y sobre las capacidades de los actores globales no estatales –como parte de la sociedad civil global– implicados en estos procesos de política medioambiental . Después de definir el contexto en el cual emergen las nuevas TIC, la tesis desarrolla dos casos de estudio. El primero de ellos analiza la evolución del proceso de resoluciones y recomendaciones de la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN) y permite ilustrar que el uso de las nuevas TIC mejora la participación en este proceso y la creación de consenso en torno a determinados valores. Por ello, el uso de las nuevas TIC tiene un impacto positivo sobre la legitimidad de este mecanismo de gobernanza global. El segundo caso analiza el uso de las nuevas TIC por parte de la UICN y demuestra que no tiene un impacto sustancial sobre las capacidades internas de esta organización. Sin embargo, sí cabe reseñar un impacto positivo pero limitado sobre las competencias externas de la UICN, de modo que mejora la capacidad de la organización para comunicar tan sólo con su audiencia tradicional. vi Index page List of tables and figures........................................................... ix List of abbreviations................................................................... xi Introduction................................................................................. 1 Part 1. Emergence of global actors and their use of new ICTs in global governance Chapter 1. Private authorities and cyberspace in global governance.................................................................................. 13 1.1 From an international society of states to a global society of actors............................................................... 14 1.2 Global governance for a global society of actors….. 24 1.3 Private authorities in global governance.................... 38 1.4 The Impact of cyberspace on international relations............................................................................ 45 Chapter 2. Global civil society and new ICTs in global governance……......………………………………………...... 65 2.1 From civil society to the emergence of the non-profit sector............................................................... 67 2.2 The political role of global civil society.................... 77 2.3 The Impact of new ICTs on civil society................... 84 2.4 New ICTs and recent global civil society movements…………………………………................... 93 Part 2. New ICTs and the legitimacy of a global environmental governance mechanism Chapter 3. Emergence of global environmental governance...… 113 3.1 Global environmental challenges.............................. 114 3.2 Civil society response to global environmental challenges........................................................................ 132 3.3 International environmental regime complex............ 141 3.4 General principles of international environmental law.................................................................................... 165 Chapter 4. New ICTs and the legitimacy of IUCN’s global environmental governance mechanism....................................... 177 4.1 Democratic deficit of global governance institutions........................................................................ 178 4.2 Legitimacy and accountability at the international level…..……………………………………………….. 185 4.3 The impact of new ICTs on the legitimacy of IUCN’s resolution and recommendation process…....... 196 Part 3. New ICTs and global environmental actor’s competences Chapter 5. The impact of new ICTs on IUCN’s internal competences................................................................................ 233 5.1 Complex multi-stakeholder participatory governance....................................................................... 234 5.2 Producing and disseminating scientific knowledge........................................................................ 239 5.3 Communications within a decentralized organization..................................................................... 254 5.4 A representative multi-stakeholder membership...................................................................... 262 Chapter 6. The impact of new ICTs on IUCN’s external competences................................................................................ 271 6.1 IUCN’s influence on global environmental governance………………………………………........... 272 6.2 Communications with multiple audiences................. 277 6.3 IUCN’s institutional website..................................... 282 6.4 Internet and social media at 2012 WCC………........ 291 Conclusions................................................................................. 301 Bibliography................................................................................ 311 viii List of tables and figures Table: Evolution of the average number of resolution and recommendation about regions adopted per WCC before and after 2000..................................................................................... 204 Graph 1. All thematic resolutions and recommendations adopted at each IUCN’s GA or WCC between 1972 and 2012.. 210 Graph 2. Resolutions and recommendations adopted at each IUCN’s GA or WCC between 1972 and 2012..…...................... 212 Graph 3. Resolutions and recommendations about human activities adopted at each IUCN’s GA or WCC between 1972 and 2012……………………………………………………….. 215 Graph 4. Resolutions and recommendations about human development adopted at each IUCN’s GA or WCC between 1972 and 2012…………..………............................................... 217 Graph 5. Resolutions and recommendations about global concerns adopted at each IUCN’s GA or WCC between 1972 and 2012....…………..……….......…………..………............... 220 Graph 6. Resolutions and recommendations about nature elements adopted at each IUCN’s GA or WCC between 1972 and 2012....…………..……….......…………..………............... 222 Graph 7. Resolutions and recommendations about governance adopted at each IUCN’s GA or WCC between 1972 and 2012....…………..……….......…………..………...................... 225 Graph 8. Resolutions and recommendations about knowledge adopted at each IUCN’s GA or WCC between 1972 and 2012....…………..……….......…………..………...................... 227 ix x List of abbreviations ARPANET Advanced Research Projects Agency Network ABS Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CEC Commission on Education and Communication (IUCN) CEL World Commission on Environmental Law (IUCN) CEM Commission on Ecosystem Management (IUCN) CEESP Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy (IUCN) CFC Chlorofluorocarbon CI Conservation International CIEL Center for International Environmental Law CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention CMS Convention on Migratory Species COP Conference of the Parties COPUOS Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space COSPAR Committee on Space Research