Ž / Paleowind 11,000 BP Directions Derived from Lake Spits in Northern

Geomorphology 38Ž. 2001 1–18 www.elsevier.nlrlocatergeomorph

Paleowindž/ 11,000 BP directions derived from lake spits in Northern Michigan

Frank Krist Jr. a, Randall J. Schaetzl b,) a Department of Anthropology, Michigan State UniÕersity, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824-1115, USA b Department of Geography, Michigan State UniÕersity, 315 Natural Science Building, East Lansing, MI 48824-1115, USA

Received 3 January 2000; received in revised form 5 June 2000; accepted 16 June 2000

Abstract

We report on the characteristics of several, previously unstudied, late Pleistocene spits in northern lower Michigan. Each spit developed as strong waves eroded a headland or island within the Main andror later stages of glacial Lake Algonquin. Most have ESE to WNW orientations with prominent recurved hooks at their ends. Some are as long as 20 km. Sedimentologically, the spits contain thickŽ. several meters or more sequences of sand and well-rounded gravel. We suggest that summertime winds during the spits’ formationŽ. 11,800 to f10,500 BP were both very strong and dominantly from the E and SE, based on the following data:Ž. 1 their ESE Ž source, or head, of the spit . to WNW orientation, Ž. 2 the presence of steep, wave-cut bluffs on the east sides of the islands and headlands, andŽ. 3 spit locations Ž on the northeastern shore of Michigan’s lower peninsula, coupled with their absence on the northwestern shore, just 100 km away. . Wind direction data provided by these spits agree with paleoclimatic models that suggest that the Laurentide Ice Sheet had developed a strong anticyclonic circulation. The near lack of archeological sites from this time period in the northern lower peninsula, which was surrounded by Lake Algonquin at that time, supports the notion that the climate of northern lower Michigan was inhospitably cold and very windy in the late Pleistocene. q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Glacial geology; Glacial Lake Algonquin; Late Pleistocene; Paleoclimate; Coastal geomorphology; Paleo-Indians; Archeology

1. Introduction currents. Streamlined landforms can provide direc- tionalrvector data on the processes that formed them, Geomorphic and sedimentologic indicators are of- such as drumlins or crevasse fillings that indicate the ten useful in providing vector information about flow direction of glacial iceŽ Borowiecka and Erick- paleoenvironments, particularly regarding winds and son, 1985. . Likewise, dunes are often used to indicate the predominance of regional-scale winds ŽCarver and Brook, 1989; Galloway and Carter, 1993; Arbogast et al., 1997; Zeeberg, 1998. . Ventifacts, ) fluted bedrock, faceted stones and wind-polished Corresponding author. Tel.: q1-517-353-7726; fax: q1-517- 432-1671. rock can provide information about local-scale winds E-mail address: [email protected]Ž. R.J. Schaetzl . ŽHartshorn, 1962; Schlyter, 1995; Christiansen and

Svensson, 1998. . Also, certain subaqueous land- part, formed subaqueously prior to 10,500 years BP, forms and their sediments, such as spits and imbri- but which are now subaerially exposed. Such land- cated gravel in beaches, can be used to infer wave, forms include offshore bars, submerged channels, current, and wind directionŽ e.g., Colton, 1962; Tan- wave beveled till plains, drumlin fields infilled with ner, 1996. . lacustrine clays, and lastly, spits. Spits are the focus In a similar vein, this paper provides information of this study, for they can be used to indicate domi- on paleowind directions based on spits in northern nant wind, wave, and longshore current directions lower Michigan, USA. Here, high lake levels were during their formationŽ. Evans, 1942 . commonplace in the late Pleistocene; many of these The potential import of this type of information is lakes were ice-marginal, with the Laurentide Ice four-fold:Ž. i it can validate or refute paleoclimatic Sheet covering low outlets or damming the lakes on models that have been used to infer wind directions their northern shores. This study focuses on one of within a few hundred kilometers of the Laurentide these proglacial lakes, glacial Lake Algonquin, which ice margin,Ž. ii data on paleowinds can clear up existed in various forms from about 12,500 to 10,400 misconceptions regarding wind directions and cli- BPŽ. Futyma, 1981; Larsen, 1987 . Many landscapes mate characteristics in this region during the late in the Great Lakes region contain landforms that, in Pleistocene,Ž. iii the spits are important economically

Fig. 1. Map of some of the more prominent glacial landforms on northern lower Michigan. After BurgisŽ. 1977 , Farrand and Bell Ž. 1982 , and Schaetzl et al.Ž. 2000 . F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 3 Ž. Ž. Fig. 2. Map showing the possible extent of Main Lake Algonquin in the Great Lakes region. After Eschman and Karrow 1985 , Larsen 1987 , and this study. 4 F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 uin shoreline is 184 Ž. Ž. Ž. Ž. Ž. Fig. 3. a DEM of northern lower Michigan, showing the main Algonquin spits identified in this study. The rebound-adjusted elevation of the Main Algonq m. b Close up of the Owens Island spit. Same shading scale as in a . c Close up of the Ocqueoc spit. Same shading scale as in a . F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 5 . continued Ž. Fig. 3 6 F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 . continued Ž. Fig. 3 F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 7 because they provide important local sources of con- Michigan, Main Lake Algonquin was confluent be- struction aggregate, andŽ. iv it has implications for tween the Michigan, Huron, and Superior basins, and archeological research, since we will argue that strong also covered large parts of theŽ then isostatically easterly winds at this time dramatically affected hu- depressed.Ž upper peninsula Fig. 2; Cowan, 1985 . . man habitation patterns in the region. With this Although the exact dates of the emergence of this background in mind, the purpose of this study is to lake are questionable, due to lack of radiocarbon age identify and characterize several spits from northern control, the Main Algonquin level was clearly estab- lower Michigan and to use their size and orientation lished by 11,500 BP. As the ice margin receded to determine dominant wind directions from the late across the isostatically depressed landscape, succes- Pleistocene in the Great Lakes region. sively lower outlets were uncovered over the next few centuries, forming a series of post-Algonquin lakesŽ Eschman and Karrow, 1985; Hansel et al., 2. Geologic background and the study area 1985. . At about 10,300 BP, the retreating ice margin exposed some very low outlets near North Bay, The terrain of extreme NE lower Michigan, the Ontario, which opened into the St. Lawrence Valley focus of this study, owes most of its characteristics Ž.Hough, 1955; Harrison, 1972; Colman et al., 1994 . to glacigenic and lacustrine processes operative since Consequently, Lake Algonquin drained rapidly to about 13,000 BP. At about that time, the Port Huron more than 120 m below its Main level. readvance of the Laurentide Ice Sheet moved into In NE lower Michigan, the shoreline of Main northern lower Michigan, stopping at the Port Huron Lake Algonquin is a nearly continuous and highly moraineŽ. Blewett and Winters, 1995; Fig. 1 . Fol- conspicuous feature — the AAlgonquin bluffB ŽFig. lowing the recession of the Port Huron ice, a second 3a; Melhorn, 1954. . In places, this bluff has a relief Ž.smaller readvance occurred, initially known as of 35 m. In SE Presque Isle County, the base of this ValderanŽ a.k.a. Greatlakean, but now referred to as bluff is at about 220 m, while in NW Cheboygan the Two Rivers PhaseŽ Black, 1970; Evenson et al., County, it is at 225 m due to differential isostatic 1976; Johnson et al., 1997. . The rapid and vigorous, reboundŽ. Clark et al., 1994 . North and east of this yet short-lived, Greatlakean readvance extended some wave-cut bluff are wave-beveled lake plains of Main distance into the northern half of the Lake Michigan Lake Algonquin and its lower successors. Most of basin, spilling up onto eastern WisconsinŽ. Fig. 1 . the Algonquin surface is veneered in sand of varying The discussion that follows is not intended to be thickness, with organic soilsŽ. mucks accumulating complete and exhaustive but rather to highlight the on the wet sandŽ. Tardy, 1991; Knapp, 1993 . The lakes that may have impacted the study area. Follow- sand probably reflects gradual shoaling during coastal ing the recession of the Greatlakean ice, a series of emergence as lake levels fell. proglacial lakes came into existence within the Huron–Michigan basin. The lakes in these basins occupied high-water planes due to the ice covering 3. Methods some low-lying outlets and because the landmass was isostatically depressedŽ. Clark et al., 1994 . An The Algonquin spits were first studied by inspec- early phase of Lake AlgonquinŽ early Lake Algo- tion of 1:24,000 topographic maps. Field research nquin.Ž may have developed initially between 11,800 consisted of examining gravel and borrow pits in and 11,500 BP.Ž Fig. 2; Karrow et al., 1975; Larsen, each spit, and in some cases, we hand-augered into 1987. . Little is known about this lake because it was the spits. In the laboratory, a digital elevation model very short lived; and evidence for it, either as shore- Ž.DEM of the study area was generated from USGS line features or as sediments, is scant. 7.5 min, 30 m DEM data. In small areas that lacked AMain Lake AlgonquinB was initially identified USGS DEM data, the TOPOGRID command in the from shoreline evidence by SpencerŽ. 1889 and Lev- ArcInfo GIS package was used to produce a DEM erett and TaylorŽ. 1915 . Because the ice margin had, from existing contour and hydrology data. Details of by this time, retreated into the upper peninsula of this modelling procedure are presented in Schaetzl et 8 F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18

Table 1 Locations and characteristics of the major Algonquin spits in northern lower Michigan Spit namea Eastern or SE end Western or NW end Total Other characteristics lengthb Ž. km Lake Augusta Sec. 28, T34N, R7E Sec. 23, T34N, R6E 7.5 Lies on bedrock for some of its extent, gravel within is poorly rounded Ocqueoc Sec. 31, T36N, R4E Sec. 29, T36N, R3E 8.8 Extremely well-rounded and sorted gravel Owens Island Sec. 31, T37N, R2E Sec. 10, T37N, R1W 16.5 Low, sandy Riggsville Island Sec. 8, T37N, R2W Sec. 11, T38N, R4W 19.7 Dominated by sand in its NW reaches Royal Oak Island Sec. 18, T36N, R2W Sec. 3, T36N, R3W 4.9 Connected to islands on each end; may simply be the expression of an ice-contact ridge between two kettles Pellston Island Sec. 25, T37N, R4W Sec. 25, T37N, R4W 0.9 Sandy, little gravel present

a If a spit is not named for the island it extends from, it is safe to assume that it extends from a headland on the Algonquin AmainlandB. b Length along the major axis of the spit: not straight-line distance. Length includes islands AinterceptedB by the spit.

al.Ž. 2000 . However, the procedure centered on cre- and Graceland spits. Sharpe and EdwardsŽ. 1979 ating a DEM of the late Pleistocene landscape, prior reported on a large spit in Ontario that formed within to isostatic rebound-referred to as an Aisostatic re- glacial Lake Algonquin. bound DEMB. To do this, Arebound contoursB were Several large spits were identified in NE lower generated by digitizing lines between known points Michigan from DEMŽ.Ž. topographic data Fig. 3a . of uplift located along the Main Lake Algonquin The spits are up to 19 km long and 3 km wideŽ Table beach ridgeŽ Leverett and Taylor, 1915; Larsen, 1. . The spits mostly lie below the level of Main Lake 1987. . The rebound DEM, generated using the TO- Algonquin, suggesting that some of their accretion POGRID command with the drainage enforcement occurred during the laterŽ. lower stages of the lake. routine turned off, produced a wedge-shaped DEM Local relief on the largest spits approaches 20 m, without stream valleys, representing the amount that although 3 to 8 m is more common. The spits all the landscape has risen during the last 11,200 radio- contain abundant, lineated depressions and ridges carbon years. The rebound DEM was then subtracted Ž.AfingersB , which parallel the long axis of the spit. from the AmodernB DEM, lowering the elevations of Both of these features are characteristic of spits and the latter and creating an isostatic rebound DEM — illustrate the direction of longshore drift along the closely resembling the terrain ca 11,200 BP, when spit axis. Chrzastowski and ThompsonŽ. 1994 used the ice is assumed to have last exited the study area. detailed elevation data on the AfingersB of the Glen- wood and Griffith spits to support the case for slowly falling lake levels during their formation. As 4. Results and discussion is the case for spits near ChicagoŽ Chrzastowski and Thompson, 1994. , the Algonquin spits are all an- 4.1. General characteristics chored either on an island or a headland. The spits are composed of sand and gravel1 de- Spits are common features of many coasts that posits, often with a thin AcapB Ž.-2 m of gravel- have active littoral transport of sand, including the poor sand with interbedded silty zones, like those coasts of the Great Lakes. WillmanŽ. 1971 mapped several major spits near Chicago, which formed when 1 Lake Michigan was at a higher level during the late In this paper we use grain-size terminology of the USDA-Nat- A B Pleistocene. Chrzastowski and ThompsonŽ. 1994 dis- ural Resources Conservation Service, wherein the sand size fraction ranges from 0.05 to 2.0 mm in diameter, and AgravelB cussed in some detail several spits in the Chicago fragments range from 2 to 76 mm in diameterŽ Schoeneberger et region, including the Wilmette, Rose Hill, Toleston, al., 1998. . F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 9

Fig. 4. Contour maps of four of the Lake Algonquin spits examined in this study. 10 F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 reported by Nolin and GwynŽ. 1997 . They have 3a,c, 4. . This spit is anchored on its SE side by the abundant gravel and sand pits scattered across their Moltke drumlin field. This field is composed of surfaces. The large sizes and highly rounded nature NW–SE trending drumlins formed in gravelly sandy of the cobbles and gravel within suggest that very loam driftŽ. Burgis, 1977; Schaetzl et al., 2000 . At strong, even hurricane-force, winds were common- their highest points, the drumlins stand over 65 m place near the ice margin. On their E or SE ends, above the Algonquin floor. On its eastern edge, the each spit is anchored on a till- or bedrock-defended drumlin field has an abrupt bluff that descends more upland. The till in this area is a gravelly sandy loam, than 25 m to the Algonquin lacustrine plain. The with 10–40% gravel by volumeŽ. Schaetzl, 1998 . smooth, almost linear outline of the eastern face of Most spits trend off to the NW, at approximately the Moltke fieldŽ. Fig. 1 strongly suggests that it is 3208 to 2808 azimuth, with hooks on the end that curl an eroded headland, having been planed by waves around to the W and SW. These orientations, and the approaching from the E and SE. absence of similar features on the northwestern side The Ocqueoc spit trails off from the Moltke field of the peninsula, are suggestive of wind directions to the WNW for about 9 km, and in most places rises from the E and SE during the time of formation. nearly 15 m above the surrounding lake floorŽ Table 1. . Between the spit and the uplands to the south an 4.2. IndiÕidual spits Algonquin bay once existed; this bay today serves as a source of fine sand. Leverett and TaylorŽ 1915, p. 4.2.1. Ocqueoc spit 422. make reference to this bay as lying south of Aa The Ocqueoc spit is named for the town of Oc- great high bar or spit of rather sandy gravelB, and queoc, which lies about 8 km SW of the spitŽ Figs. laterŽ. p. 422 refer to it as the Agreat spitB. Three

Fig. 5. Sediments within the Ocqueoc spit, NE 1r4, NW 1r4 Sec. 28, T36N, R3E, Presque Isle County, MI. F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 11 large gravel pits within the head of the spit reveal immediate SE of this bluff, on what would have been extremely well rounded, stratified gravel mixed with the windward side of the islandŽ assuming strong SE sandŽ. Fig. 5 similar to a Lake Algonquin spit in or E winds. , are two to three linear bars, each Ontario described by Nolin and GwynŽ. 1997 . Gravel paralleling the bluff line. Gravel pits in these bars size is routinely less than 10 cm in diameter, with 5 Ž.SW 1r4, Sec. 33, T37N, R2W reveal that they are cm being the estimated median size. Thin stringers composed of highly rounded boulders and cobbles of reddish, clayey sediment are interbedded with set amidst a sand and gravel matrix. Many are 15 to gravel. The pits lie more than 7 km from the head- 50 cm in diameter, with an estimated median diame- landŽ. the Moltke field — the presumed source — ter of the larger ones being 25 cm. According to the suggestive of long-distance transport. The sheltered owner, the depth of these gravelly and bouldery AbayB that lies between the spit and the uplands to deposits is 3 to 5 m; and they are underlain by sand. its south contains abundant evidence of low-energy We suggest that only large waves, repeatedly pound- coastal deposition. Sand pits with low amounts of ing the E and SE side of the island, driven by strong small gravelŽ. mostly less than 3 cm in diameter dot Ž.hurricane-force winds, could have produced such this landscape; the stratified sands here exceed 18 m extreme rounding of these large clasts. The boulders in thickness. are much too rounded to represent simply a lag deposit winnowed from local till by wave action. Riggsville Island has two spits. The main spit 4.2.2. Owens Island spit trails off to the NW. It is about 8 to 12 m in height Owens Island was named by BurgisŽ. 1977 for an and almost 20 km in length. It is the longest of the island in glacial Lake Algonquin that lies on the Algonquin spits, and perhaps the narrowestŽ in places, border of Cheboygan and Presque Isle Counties. It is only 300 to 400 m in width; Table 1; Figs. 3a, 4. . a kame that goes by the local name of ABlack Although Riggsville spit begins on Riggsville Island, MountainB. Two smaller, unnamed islands lie within it intercepts two smaller islands along its length, one a kilometer to the NE of Owens Island. Black Moun- in Sec. 25, T38N, R3W, and the other in Sec. 31, tain rises more than 60 m above the Algonquin floor. T38N, R2W. Leverett and TaylorŽ. 1915, p. 423 Local soils data show it to be covered with till- and noted the presence of a spit that Aruns northwest outwash-derived soils similar to those on the Moltke about 2 milesB from the north end of one of these drumlin fieldŽ. Tardy, 1991 . Owens Island has two smaller islands. Secondary, recurved hooks are ob- spits. The main spit trails off to the NW and was first served at several places along the entire south side of noted by Leverett and TaylorŽ. 1915, p. 423 . It is the spit and on its distal endŽ e.g., Sec. 15, T38N, nearly 12 km longŽ. Table 1 ; along this length, it R3W; Figs. 3a, 4. . These hooks, indicative of spits rarely rises more than 10 to 12 m above the lake and common to all the Algonquin spits in this region, floorŽ. Figs. 3a,b, 4 . Along most of its extent, it is negate the possibility that these features are simply composed of gravelly sand. Another, smaller, sec- beach ridges or strandlinesŽ Chrzastowski and ondary spit occurs on the southern side of the island, Thompson, 1994. . Similarly, the recurved hooks trailing off to the W and SWŽ. Fig. 3 . serve to refute Spurr and Zumberge’sŽ. 1956, p. 101 assertion that the feature is built largely of outwash 4.2.3. RiggsÕille Island spit sands and was later planed by Lake Algonquin Ato Riggsville Island is a large, drumlinized upland create a shallow lake bottom dotted with small resid- that rises over 40 m above the Algonquin floor ual islandsB. Interstate highway 75 runs along the Ž.Spurr and Zumberge, 1956; Burgis, 1977; Fig. 1 . spit for nearly 8 km, for on either side of the spit are To its NE and SE are several, smaller islandsŽ Fig. the swamps and flat lowlands of the Algonquin lake 4. . The eastern side of the island contains a conspic- floor. uous bluff 15 to 18 m in height. As the eastern side A second, much smaller and less-developed spit of the Moltke upland, the bluff line here is nearly occurs on the SE corner of Riggsville Island on the linear due to prolonged erosion, is oriented in a opposite end of the erosional bluff that serves as the SSE–NNW direction, and is very abrupt. To the source of the sediments. The major spit begins at the 12 F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 northern end of this erosional bluff and trails off to 4.2.6. Lake Augusta spit the NW, whereas the smaller spit trails off to the In SE Presque Isle County, the Lake Augusta spit SW, from the southern end of the same bluff. The lies immediately N and E of Lake AugustaŽ Figs. 3a, small spit parallels the gravel bars mentioned above. 4; Table 1.Ž. . Leverett and Taylor 1915, p. 421 made As at Owens Island, the smaller spit probably formed reference to this spit as a Agreat gravel bar on a low, when longshore current split into two cells along the broad ridgeB. They go on to point out that Aspits and eastern face of the island; the majority of the current bars of such proportionsŽ. are seldom seenB Žp. 422 . and sediment were swept to the NWŽ implying a as in the Lake Augusta area. The Lake Augusta spit southeasterly component to the wind. , whereas a is marked by several small gravel pits, most of which small segment of the sediment traversed the southern were excavated to bedrock and are now abandoned. edge of the island, forming the spit and the gravel At its northwestern end, the spit contains about 2 to bars. 3 m of rounded and subrounded gravelŽ little of which is as rounded as that in the Ocqueoc spit. and thin, flat fragments of limestone on top of a scoured, 4.2.4. Royal Oak Island spit smooth bedrock surface. It is likely that much of the To the south of the main Riggsville Island is the gravel in the Lake Augusta spit was derived from small Royal Oak IslandŽ. Burgis, 1977 . Royal Oak erosion of bedrockŽ which is within a few meters of IslandŽ. Secs. 18 and 19, T36N, R2W contains a the surface. rather than from erosion of gravelly till. scenic lookout for the I-75 interstate highway that If true, the gravel would not have been transported as runs along its western margin. The island has a small far as the gravel from other spits, which may explain spit that trails off to the northwestŽ. Fig. 3a . This spit why the Lake Augusta spit gravel is not as well is about 4.5 km long, and 12 to 15 m in height rounded as are spit gravel elsewhere. Ž.Table 1 . On its extreme northwestern end it abuts another Algonquin Island: Pellston IslandŽ Spurr and Zumberge, 1956; Burgis, 1977. . No pits exist in the 4.3. Spit formation Royal Oak spit. It is possible that Royal Oak Island spit is not a spit at all but a crevasse filling between Spits tend to form on irregular coasts where sand two large kettles, each of which exists astride the and possibly gravel are dragged downdrift by long- spit. shore drift from a protruding headlandŽ. King, 1959 . Many spits are complex, recurved features caused by 4.2.5. Pellston Island spit wave refraction at their endsŽ Evans, 1942; Ollerhead As with the other islands and uplands in northern and Davidson-Arnott, 1995. . They are often driven lower Michigan, Pellston Island also has a spit on its by intense wave erosion of a headland or island, NW side, although it does not show on local-scale littoral transport of sediments down beach, and con- geomorphic mapsŽ. Pearsall et al., 1995 . The spit, comitant deposition of the sediments as a spit in the located in the Sec. 25, T37N, R4W, is about 1 km W leeward wind shadowŽ Chrzastowski and Thompson, of the SW corner of Douglas Lake. Perhaps because 1994.Ž. . Thorson and Schile 1995 examined spits of its small size, this spit was not noted by earlier formed downwind from drumlin AislandsB in researchers. The spit is quite small and low Ž.f2m, paleo-Lake HitchcockŽ. New England, USA . Like probably because it was sheltered by the large Pell- the Algonquin spits, they had simple morphologies ston and Riggsville Islands several kilometers to the Ž.i.e., no secondary spits and extended primarily in E and N, around Douglas LakeŽ. Table 1 . Pellston one directionŽ. downwind from the islands. Thorson spit trails off to the NNW; it is about a kilometer in and Schile used these spatio-geomorphic data to length. Fieldwork and hand augering on this spit make inferences about paleo-currents and the domi- revealed that the sediments within are estimated to nantly northeasterly winds that drove them. Because be f90% sand, with some gravel. A small borrow the Algonquin spits all developed to the WNW, and pit is located on the spit, and it appears that it was lack compound or complex morphologies, we as- used in the past as a gravel source. sume that winds were dominantly from the same F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 13 quadrantŽ. E, ESE, or SE during the period of their with two small islands to the NW of Riggsville formation. Island, and then trails off at approximately 3108. The spit has several prominent recurves at its distal end. EvansŽ. 1942 noted that recurves develop best when 4.4. Implications for paleoclimate the wind that forms them approaches the shore at an angle of 308 to 458. Such an angleŽ. to the spit axis Currently, winds in the region are predominantly would suggest winds dominantly from azimuths of from the west, with a strong southwesterly compo- 858 to 1008, or ESE. Both lines of evidence point to nent being dominant in summer; northwesterly winds winds dominantly from the eastern sector. can be quite strong in winterŽ Eichenlaub et al., Finally, more supporting evidence comes from a 1990. . Wind directions at Sault Ste. Marie, Michi- sandrgravel spit in the upper peninsula of Michigan, gan, about 100 km to the north of the major Algo- some 50 km due north of the westernmost end of the nquin spits, show a bimodal annual distribution, with Riggsville Island spitŽ. Futyma, 1981 . This spit trails WNW and ESE components being dominant. Farther off to the WNW from the dolomite-cored, Algonquin south, within the central lower peninsula, wind bi- Island named Maple Hill. modality does not occur. Rather, westerly and south- Although our conclusion of strong E and SE westerly winds are common and strong. If modern winds during Lake Algonquin time seems intuitive dunes were to form in this area, they would show a after examining our geomorphicŽ. spit data, it is not strong resultant drift direction to the ENEŽ Arbogast widely known and does conflict with data from other et al., 1997. . parts of the lake. For example, StorckŽ. 1984, p. 287 The Algonquin spits provide excellent data about felt that Ageological studies of beach development direction of longshore transport, which in turn was and orientation and current directions in Lake Algo- dependent upon dominant wind directionŽ Sterr et nquin indicate that, as today, the prevailing winds al., 1998. . In this respect, the spits integrate wind were from the north and westB. Spurr and Zumberge directionality over long periods of time. Dunes, how- Ž.1956 describe SE-facing shores of Lake Algonquin ever, can form quickly, even during one storm event in northern lower Michigan as having been with winds from a direction that is vastly different AshelteredB from the wind. DeaneŽ. 1950 suggested from the regional mean. Spit formation in NE lower that storm winds at this time were predominantly Michigan would have required great energy for from the north, and yet he cites geomorphic evidence coastal erosion and transport, which was probably that would seem to contradict that: strong, SE-facing facilitated byŽ. i an environment of strong winds out bluffs on islands, coupled with spits extending north- of the E or SE quadrant withŽ. ii a long fetch Ž Fig. ward from other Algonquin Islands in Ontario. At 2. . Presumably, Lake Algonquin was frozen in win- another site in Ontario, Nolin and GwynŽ. 1997 ter and spring and thus, the spits provide information report on a small Lake Algonquin spit and offshore only on summertime winds. The streamlined nature bar that may have formed from currents moving and the orientation of headlands in the study area, dominantly to the E–SE, driven by westerly winds. and the intense erosion some of them were subjected Such a finding may appear to contradict ours, but to on their SE sides, also point to exceedingly strong when the fact that their site is in a sheltered, bay-like waves and currents driven by E or SE winds. area on the eastern shore of Lake Algonquin is also More detailed geomorphic data from, for exam- considered, their finding seems reasonable and not ple, Riggsville IslandŽ. Fig. 3a can also be used in contradictory. Currents in a protected lacustrine envi- support of the easterly wind hypothesis. Riggsville ronment like theirs are likely to swirl, refract, and Island has a steep, wave-cut bluff on its east side. reflect based on shoreline configurations and under- The bluff, in places nearly 20 m in height, is quite water promontories, and thus, may not accurately linear in extent and is strongest where it is aligned at reflect regional wind vectors, as would more AopenB azimuths between 3358 and 3608, suggestive of strong sites like ours. In addition, geomorphic data from waves approaching the islandŽ. perpendicularly from slightly later in time but in close proximity to the 658 to 908 Ž.ENE . The main axis of its spit connects Algonquin spitsŽ. Arbogast et al., 1997 suggest that 14 F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 strong westerly and northwesterly winds existed The easterly winds of the glacial anticyclone, shortly after Lake Algonquin drained. Parabolic which was particularly evident in July, were proba- dunes believed to be early Holocene in age in the bly quite strong; the eroded SE coasts of Riggsville Saginaw lowlandsŽ. 150–250 km to the south have Island and the Moltke drumlin field attest to that. limbs that extend to the ESE or SE, suggestive of With the long fetch afforded by Lake Algonquin, strong WNW or NW winds during their early even moderate winds from the E, many of which Holocene developmentŽ. Arbogast et al., 1997 . would have been in association with strong cyclonic Thus, data from our study may help clear uncer- storms passing to the south, could have led to large tainties about, and rapid changes that may have taken wave heights and transported much sand and gravel place within, regional circulations ca 11,000 BP. to the WNW along the coast. Thus, we suggest that Such data should assist in future geomorphic and our spit data do corroborate the COHMAP model paleoclimatic interpretations. Ž.1988 and its glacial anticyclone. Paleoclimate data from some general circulation Related geomorphic studies provide additional modelsŽ. GCMs; COHMAP Members, 1988 suggest Aground truthB that is also in support of the glacial that winds over the Laurentide Ice Sheet circulated anticyclone model. Data on ventifacts and spits in beneath a large, cold, dry, glacial anticyclone New England have been used to support the presence Ž.Manabe and Broccoli, 1985; Kutzbach et al., 1993 . of a strong anticyclonic circulation immediately after The COHMAP model, which shows the presence of the early recession of the Laurentide Ice Sheet a glacially forced anticyclone, goes on to suggest Ž.Thorson and Schile, 1995 . Similarly, evidence from that winds from 18,000 to 9000 BP had a greater the Longmeadow duneŽ. Connecticut suggests that easterly component in the Great Lakes region than gusty anticyclonic winds existed out to 150 km from they do today, since this region would have been at the ice margin. These winds were unimodally from the southern margins of the anticycloneŽ Kutzbach et the NE. Stabilized parabolic dunes in the St. al., 1993.Ž. . Other models e.g., Rind, 1987 are less Lawrence lowland were used by FilionŽ. 1987 to conclusive regarding surface winds in the Great Lakes suggest that NE winds were strong in that area at region when compared to winds at present, or sug- about 10,000 BP. Filion suggested that these winds gest that wind shifts varied markedly, depending on were part of the glacial anticyclone. DavidŽ. 1981 season. The coarse resolution and large scale of all reported on eolian depositional and erosional fea- such models, when taken in conjunction with subtle tures in Saskatchewan that had formed from uni- disagreements regarding late Pleistocene surface wind formly SE paleowinds. These features formed be- directions in the Great Lakes region, point to the tween 10,000 and 8800 BP, when the ice margin was need for studies such as ours, in which dominant nearby, possibly acting as a forcing agent for strong wind directions at a specific time and place can be SE winds descending off the ice sheet; modern winds used as a form of ground truth. are dominantly from the NW. Near Edinburg, North Strong winds during the time of Lake Algonquin Dakota, a spit approximately 10 km in length ex- were probably created as cold, stable, dry air formed tends NNW from a moraine that was a nearshore on the ice sheet and descended anticyclonically at island within glacial Lake Aggasiz. This spit lies less the margins of the glacierŽ Kutzbach and Wright, than 2 km to the east of the Herman Beach on the 1985. . Most models agree that in conjunction with west side of Lake Aggasiz. Its presence strongly glacially derived anticyclonic flow, a westerly flow- suggests that longshore drift in NE North Dakota at ing, polar jet stream paralleled the ice margin and about 11,000 BP was south to north. The North was as strong or stronger than todayŽ COHMAP Dakota data corroborate the implied paleowind data Members, 1988. . Thus, sharp temperature and pres- from DavidŽ. 1981 in Saskatchewan. In New Eng- sure gradients within this jet streamrstorm track area land, Thorson and SchileŽ. 1995 believed that spits Žbetween the core of the ice sheetwx in Labrador and developed on proglacial Lake Hitchcock, where they the then-deglaciated Ohio Valley. would have led to extend to the SW from drumlin islands, provide good frequent and intense cyclonic storms and their asso- evidence for wind-driven littoral currents in the lake ciated wind fields. during ice-free conditions. Directional data from F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 15 files on Paleo period Ontario. Data are based archeological sites in Michigan, sites in Michigan are more numerous than are sites in Ontario. Fig. 6. Distribution of known Paleo-Indian archeological sites on uplands and nearshore sites during the time of Main Lake Algonquin for Michigan and on a survey of the literature and knowledge of unpublished archeological surveys. Due to our ability to directly access the Michigan Bureau of History 16 F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 these spits were used to support the theory that have played in the seasonal movements of many late Astrong summer winds driven by the glacial anticy- Pleistocene hunterrgatherer groups, archeological clone were responsible for creating the spitsB Žp. reconnaissance surveys undertaken on similar phys- 755. . iographic features in eastern and northeastern lower By 9000 BP, the anticyclone was quite weak Michigan have failed to yield a single site conclu- Ž.COHMAP Members, 1988 and present only over sively belonging to the Paleo-Indian periodŽ Lovis, eastern North America, suggesting that westerly 1976; Smith, 1985; Fig. 6. . The only Paleo-Indian winds may have begun to increasingly dominate the period site in southern Michigan along an Algonquin regional circulation. However, by this time, glacial strandline, Samels Field, is in the northwestern lower Lake Algonquin had drained to a much lower phase, peninsulaŽ. Fig. 6 . Hunterrgatherers residing at the and its spits were subaerially exposed. Data from Samels Field site would have been less impacted by dunes in central lower Michigan support the interpre- cold, strong easterly winds and heavy lake-effect tation that early Holocene winds were predominantly snowsŽ which would have accumulated on the east- from the westŽ. Arbogast et al., 1977 . ern side of the peninsula. than would their counter- parts nearer the NE shore. Whereas early humans would normally have sought to occupy coastal zones Ž.e.g., Schwartz and Grabert, 1973 , these locational 4.5. Archeological data and paleoclimate data suggest that intense winds, large waves, and heavy lake-enhanced snows, aided by a fetch of Archeological reconnaissance surveys undertaken nearly 400 km, would have generated nearly intoler- along the Lake Algonquin shoreline in Ontario have able conditions along many of the bays and inlets of uncovered numerous Paleo-Indian period sites late Pleistocene NE lower Michigan. Conversely, Ž.Stewart, 1984; Storck, 1984; Fig. 6 . Some of these along the eastern Ž.windward shores of Lake Algo- sites are probably the result of seasonal band aggre- nquin, in Ontario, where archeological sites are nu- gations from which communal hunting activities were merousŽ. Fig. 6 , climatically ameliorated conditions undertakenŽ. Deller and Ellis, 1988 . As Algonquin may have facilitated late Pleistocene hunterrgatherer waters receded, former coastal zones still played a settlement systems. vital role in Paleo-Indian settlement systems by al- lowing access to newly exposed lake beds which would have contained a variety of plant communities and possibly large numbers of deer, moose, and elk 5. Conclusions Ž.Storck, 1984 . Paleo-Indian sites associated with Lake Algonquin in central Ontario are usually adja- Large spits, found primarily on the NE side of the cent to lagoons, bays, and small inletsŽ Deller, 1979; southern peninsula of Michigan, were formed within Storck, 1982; Deller and Ellis, 1988; Fig. 6. . These glacial Lake Algonquin and apparently partially grew physiographic features provided access to a wide during its laterŽ. falling stages. They provide impor- range of resources, while enabling hunterrgatherers tant Aground truthB in support of paleoclimatic mod- to intercept herbivores such as caribou. Barren ground els. These models suggest that the Laurentide Ice caribou Ž.Rangifer tarandus , probably a significant Sheet developed a strong glacial anticyclone during food source of northern Paleo-Indian groups, may its retreat. The spits contain large, rounded gravel, have actually preferred to migrate along shorelines in usually derived from erosion of gravelly drift up- large herdsŽ. Storck, 1984 . lands that served as both sediment sources and head- Evidence in support of strong winds amidst a land AanchorsB. Archeological evidence also sup- harsh climate at 11,000–10,000 BP comes from the ports the hypothesis that winds were strong and Õirtual lack of Paleo-Indian periodŽ. 11,200 BP conditions severe during the late Pleistocene in this archeological sites associated with glacial Lake Al- ice-marginal setting, since few Paleo-Indian age sites gonquin shoreline in northern lower MichiganŽ Fig. have been found on the leeŽ. western side of Lake 6. . Despite the important role Lake Algonquin must Algonquin in northern Michigan. F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18 17

Acknowledgements Ste. Marie, Ontario. In: Karrow, P.F., Calkin, P.E.Ž. Eds. , Quaternary Evolution of the Great Lakes. Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec. Pap. 30, pp. 33–37. We thank Kevin Kincare for pointing out the spit David, P.P., 1981. Stabilized dune ridges in Northern in southern Lake Agassiz, and the fall semester GEO Saskatchewan. Can. J. Earth Sci. 18, 286–310. Deane, R.E., 1950. Pleistocene Geology of the Lake Simcoe 809 class at Michigan State University for comments District, Ontario. Geol. Surv. Can. Mem. 256, 108 pp. and reviews. Gary Weissmann provided insight into Deller, D.B., 1979. Paleo-Indian reconnaissance in the counties of the sedimentology and paleoclimatic implications of Lambton and Middlesex Ontario. Ont. Archaeol. 32, 3–20. these spits. Beth Weisenborn drew some of the Deller, D.B., Ellis, C.J., 1988. Early Paleo-Indian complexes in maps. southwestern Ontario. In: Laub, R.S.Ž. Ed. , Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Paleoecology and Archaeology of the Eastern Great Lakes. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci. 33, pp. 251–263. Eichenlaub, V.L., Harman, J.R., Nurnberger, F.V., Stolle, H.J. et al., 1990. The Climatic Atlas of Michigan. Univ. Notre Dame References Press, Notre Dame, IN, 165 pp. Eschman, D.F., Karrow, P.F., 1985. Huron Basin glacial lakes: a review. In: Karrow, P.F., Calkin, P.E.Ž. Eds. , Quaternary Arbogast, A.F., Scull, P., Schaetzl, R.J., Harrison, J., Jameson, Evolution of the Great Lakes. Geol. Soc. Can. Spec. Pap. 30, T.P., Crozier, S., 1997. Concurrent stabilization of some inte- pp. 79–93. rior dune fields in Michigan. Phys. Geogr. 18, 63–79. Evans, O.F., 1942. The origin of spits, bars, and related structures. Black, R.F., 1970. Glacial geology of Two Creeks forest bed, J. Geol. 50, 846–865. Valderan type locality, and northern Kettle Moraine State Evenson, E.B., Farrand, W.R., Eschman, D.F., Mickelson, D.M., Forest. Wis. Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv., Inf. Circ. 13, 40 pp. Maher, L.J., 1976. Greatlakean substage: a replacement for Blewett, W.L., Winters, H.A., 1995. The importance of glacioflu- Valderan substage in the Lake Michigan Basin. Quat. Res. 6, vial features within Michigan’s Port Huron moraine. Ann. 411–424. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 85, 306–319. Farrand, W.R., Bell, D.L., 1982. Quaternary geologyŽ. map of Borowiecka, B.Z., Erickson, R.H., 1985. Wisconsin drumlin field Southern Michigan with surface water drainage divides. and its origin. Zeitschrift fur Geom. 29, 417–438. 1:500,000 scale. Dept. of Natural Resources, Geol. Survey Burgis, W.A., 1977. Late-Wisconsinan history of northeastern Division, Lansing, MI. lower Michigan. PhD diss., Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Filion, L., 1987. Holocene development of parabolic dunes in the 396 pp. Central St. Lawrence Lowland, Quebec. Quat. Res. 28, 196– Carver, R.E., Brook, G.A., 1989. Late Pleistocene paleowind 209. directions, Atlantic Coastal Plain, U.S.A. Palaeogeogr., Futyma, R.P., 1981. The northern limits of glacial Lake Algo- Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 74, 205–216. nquin in Upper Michigan. Quat. Res. 15, 291–310. Christiansen, H.H., Svensson, H., 1998. Windpolished boulders as Galloway, J.P., Carter, L.D., 1993. Paleowind directions for Late indicators of a Late Weichselian wind regime in Denmark in Holocene dunes on the western Arctic coastal plain, Northern relation to neighbouring areas. Permafrost Periglac. Proc. 9, Alaska. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 2107, 27–30. 1–21. Hansel, A.K., Mickelson, D.M., Schneider, A.F., Larsen, C.E., Chrzastowski, M.J., Thompson, T.A., 1994. Late-Wisconsinan 1985. Late Wisconsinan and Early Holocene history of the and Holocene geologic history of the Illinois–Indiana coast of Lake Michigan Basin. In: Karrow, P.F., Calkin, P.E.Ž. Eds. , Lake Michigan. J. Great Lakes Res. 20, 9–26. Quaternary Evolution of the Great Lakes. Geol. Assoc. Can. Clark, J.A., Hendriks, M., Timmermans, T.J., Struck, C., Hil- Spec. Pap. 30, pp. 39–53. verda, K.J., 1994. Glacial isostatic deformation of the Great Harrison, J.E., 1972. Quaternary Geology of the North Bay–Mat- Lakes region. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 106, 19–31. tawa Region. Geol. Surv. Can. Pap. 71-26, 36 pp. COHMAP Members, 1988. Climatic changes of the last 18,000 Hartshorn, J.H., 1962. Late-glacial eolian activity in Mas- years: observations and model simulations. Science 241, sachusetts. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 68, 194. 1043–1052. Hough, J.L., 1955. Lake Chippewa, a low stage of Lake Michigan Colman, S.M., Forester, R.M., Reynolds, R.L., Sweetkind, D.S., indicated by bottom sediments. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 73, King, J.W., Gangemi, P., Jones, G.A., Keigwin, L.D., Foster, 613–619. D.S., 1994. Lake-level history of Lake Michigan for the past Johnson, W.H., Hansel, A.K., Bettis III, E.A., Karrow, P.F., 12,000 years: the record from deep lacustrine sediments. J. Larson, G.J., Lowell, T.V., Schneider, A.F., 1997. Late Qua- Great Lakes Res. 20, 73–92. ternary temporal and event classifications, Great Lakes Re- Colton, R.B., 1962. Lacustrine features in north-central Connecti- gion, North America. Quat. Res. 47, 1–12. cut. Geol. Soc. Am., Spec. Pap. 68, 155. Karrow, P.F., Anderson, T.W., Clarke, A.H., Delorme, L.D., Cowan, W.R., 1985. Deglacial Great Lakes shorelines at Sault Sreenivasa, M.R., 1975. Stratigraphy, paleontology, and age of 18 F. Krist, R.J. SchaetzlrGeomorphology 38() 2001 1–18

Lake Algonquin sediments in southwestern Ontario, Canada. Schlyter, P., 1995. Ventifacts as palaeo-wind indicators in south- Quat. Res. 5, 49–87. ern Scandinavia. Permafrost Periglac. Proc. 6, 207–219. King, C.A.M., 1959. Beaches and Coasts. Edward Arnold, Lon- Schoeneberger, P.J., Wysocki, D.A., Benham, E.C., Broderson, don, p. 403. W.D., 1998. Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils. Knapp, B.D., 1993. Soil Survey of Presque Isle County, Michi- Natural Resources Conservation Service, USDA, National Soil gan. USDA Soil Conservation Service. US Govt. Printing Survey Center, Lincoln, NE. Office, Washington, DC. Schwartz, M.L., Grabert, G.F., 1973. Coastal processes and pre- Kutzbach, J.E., Guetter, P.J., Behling, P.J., Selin, R., 1993. Simu- historic maritime cultures. In: Coates, D.R.Ž. Ed. , Coastal lated climatic changes: results of the COHMAP climate-model Geomorphology. Proc. 3rd Annual Geomorphology Sympo- experiments. In: Wright, H.E.Ž. Ed. , Global Climates Since the sium, Binghamton, NY. pp. 303–320. Last Glacial Maximum. Univ. Minn. Press, Minneapolis, pp. Sharpe, D.R., Edwards, W.A.D., 1979. Quaternary geology of the 24–93. Chesley–Tiverton area, Southern Ontario. Ont. Geol. Surv. Kutzbach, J.E., Wright Jr., H.E. et al., 1985. Simulation of the Prelim. Map aP.2314, 1:50:000. climate of 18,000 years BP: results for the North Ameri- Smith, K.P., 1985. Report of the 1985 Presque Isle Reconnais- canrNorth AtlanticrEuropean sector and comparison with sance Survey, Presque Isle and Alpena Counties, Michigan. geologic record of North America. Quat. Sci. Rev. 4, 147–187. Division of the Great Lakes, Univ. Michigan, Museum of Larsen, C.E., 1987. Geological history of Glacial Lake Algonquin Anthropology, Ann Arbor. and the Upper Great Lakes. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 1801, 36 Spencer, J.W., 1889. Notes on the origin and history of the Great pp. Lakes of North America. Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 37, Leverett, F., Taylor, F.B., 1915. The Pleistocene of Indiana and 197–199. Michigan and the history of the Great Lakes. U.S. Geol. Surv. Spurr, S.H., Zumberge, J.H., 1956. Late Pleistocene features of Mon. 53, 529 pp. Cheboygan and Emmet Counties. Mich. Am. J. Sci. 254, Lovis, W.A., 1976. Quarter sections and forests: an example of 96–109. probability sampling in the Northeastern woodlands. Am. An- Sterr, H., Schwarzer, K., Kliewe, H., 1998. Holocene evolution tiq. 41, 364–372. and morphodynamics of the German Baltic Sea coast — Manabe, S., Broccoli, A.J., 1985. The influence of continental ice recent research advances. In: Kelletat, D.H.Ž. Ed. , German sheets on the climate of an ice age. J. Geophys. Res. 90, Geographical Coastal Research — The Last Decade. Inst. 2167–2190. Scientific Cooperation, FRG, Comm. of FRG for the Intl. Melhorn, W.N., 1954. Valders glaciation of the southern penin- Geogr. Union, pp. 107–134. sula of Michigan. PhD diss.Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Stewart, J.A., 1984. The Zander site Paleo-Indian occupation of 177 pp. the southern Holland Marsh region of Ontario. Ont. Archaeol. Nolin, A., Gwyn, Q.H.J., 1997. The Late Quaternary geology of 42, 45–79. the Fischer Site. In: Storck, P.L.Ž. Ed. , The Fisher Site. Storck, P.L., 1982. Paleo-Indian settlement patterns associated Archaeological, Geological, and Paleobotanical Studies at an with the strandline of Glacial Lake Algonquin in southcentral Early Paleo-Indian Site in Southern Ontario, Canada 30. Univ. Ontario. Can. J. Archaeol. 6, 1–31. Michigan, Ann Arbor, Memoirs Museum Anthro, pp. 191–222. Storck, P.L., 1984. Glacial Lake Algonquin and early Palaeo-In- Ollerhead, J., Davidson-Arnott, R.G.D., 1995. Buctouche Spit, dian settlement patterns in Southcentral Ontario. Archaeol. New Brunswick, Canada. Can. Geogr. 39, 274–282. East. N. Am. 12, 286–298. Pearsall, D.R., Barnes, B.V., Zogg, G.R., Lapin, M., Ring, R.R., Tanner, L.H., 1996. Gravel imbrication on the deflating back- 1995. Map showing major and minor landforms of UMBS. shores of beaches on Prince Edward Island. Can. Sediment. Landscape Ecosystems of the University of Michigan Biologi- Geol. 101, 145–148. cal Station, School Nat. Res. and Environ. Univ. of Michigan, Tardy, S.W., 1991. Soil Survey of Cheboygan County, Michigan, Ann Arbor, p. 66. USDA Soil Cons Serv., US Govt. Printing Office, Washing- Rind, D., 1987. Components of the ice age circulation. J. Geo- ton, DC. phys. Res. 92, 4241–4281. Thorson, R.M., Schile, C.A., 1995. Deglacial eolian regimes in Schaetzl, R.J., 1998. Lithologic discontinuities in some soils on New England. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 107, 751–761. drumlins: theory, detection, and application. Soil Sci. 163, Willman, H.B., 1971. Summary of the Geology of the Chicago 570–590. Area. Ill. State Geol. Surv., Circ. 460, 77 pp. Schaetzl, R.J., Krist, F., Rindfleisch, P., Liebens, J., Williams, T., Zeeberg, J., 1998. The European sand belt in eastern Europe and 2000. Post-glacial landscape evolution of Northeastern Lower comparison of Late Glacial dune orientation with GCM simu- Michigan, interpreted from geomorphology, soils and sedi- lation results. Boreas 27, 127–139. ments. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 90, 443–466.