Title Teaching in schools Author(s) Teddy Sim Y.H. Source HSSE Online, 3(1), 9-20 Published by Humanities and Social Studies Education (HSSE) Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Singapore

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Teaching Venice in Schools

Teddy Sim Y.H.

National Institute of Education (Singapore)

Introduction of not only the subject of history or social studies, but of one’s role in society. This paper aims to briefly survey advances made in the field of Venice Survey of Venice Studies studies and explore how these can help enhance the teaching of Venice in schools. The field of studies on Venice’s history Focusing on the early modern period, this continues to evolve.ii Even at the turn of essay will discuss issues related to the millennium (at 2000), shifts in the Venetian politics as well as government writing of Venice’s history are already and society. The issues for discussion are obvious in several sub-areas of the field. sub-divided into: 1.) Republicanism and On the general front, the scholarship of the related systems; 2.) Political system and field is “[doing] away with a unilateral corruption as a reason for decline of reading of Venice’s past” (Martin & Venice; and 3.) The wider social / social- Romano, 2000, p. 27). To put it in another political organizations or arrangements as way, historiography is probing beyond the a stabilizing (or destabilizing) force of “myth,” an image of an ideal republic, a Venetian society. The choice and strong maritime empire as well as a clustering of these issues are partly based birthplace of capitalism and economically on the content survey on Venetian studies driven people and society. This meant and partly based on the survey of similar probing beyond the usual reasons issues of concern occurring in advocated for the rise or decline of the contemporary Singapore society.i city-state. Current historiography tends to “highlight fissures, tensions, contradictions This essay makes reference to and is and elements of disorder (in Venice)”; meant to be read hand-in-hand with the there is, to reiterate, “a shift in interest write-up on Venice in the resource from order to disorder, orthodoxy to package produced by Curriculum Planning dissent, from the center of power to the and Development Division of the Ministry broader social context (or periphery)” of Education (CPDD, 2008b). This will (Davidson, 1997, pp. 13-24; Martin & hopefully assist in the content Romano, 2000, pp. 7-8). In contrast, the understanding of the teachers teaching the treatment on Venice in the Social Studies topic in schools. An inquiry and discussion textbook covers the rise and fall of the process in the classroom entailing a fuller city-state and it can be deterministic exploration of an issue (warts and all) can towards human-centered factors and does lead to a better appreciation and conviction not convey enough of the “fissures, disorder or the periphery.”iii

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In terms of participants in a political territories of Venice), the new subjects system, one can move away from the (not citizens) strove in certain places to “mythical” by exploring a version of the yearn for Venetian influence and in others, social reality on the ground. An instructor to be rid of it, in accordance of the benefits teaching the topic has to be reminded that that might reaped in comparison to the MOE materials, not surprisingly, have a previous system of extraction they were value judgment on the “selfish interest” of subjected to (Muir, 2000, pp. 137-67). a participant in a political system. From a more neutral angle, participants in a On the issue of governmental efficacy democracy, whether in positions of power versus checks and balances, Venice or as common folks, embraced the mode of appears to have achieved a certain power governance for a combination of reasons balance and expediency in its political that were self-serving and altruistic. The system. Efficacy in a government and “additional notes” in the teachers’ resource checks and balances in a political system file has stated that the aristocrat republic of have the potential to conflict with each Venice was a rule of limited representation other. This system allowed Venice to from the 8th century (CPDD, 2008b, p. delegate its executive power to a more 112). Durant’s (1968) insightful reflection centralized organ in times of crises and from a long survey of history has revealed subjected decision-making or “legislation” that “from Solon to the Roman conquest of to a more laborious process of going Greece, the conflict of oligarchs and through the councils and senate under democrats was waged with books, plays, more normal circumstances. Lane (1973) orations, votes, ostracism, assassination argues that the hallmark of republicanism and civil war.” The “oligarchs” referred to in Venice, implemented through motley a group of politicians who desired a arrangements, was about how the interests greater concentration of control or power; of domestic power groups were balanced the “democrats” referred to a group of as the system evolved through time.iv At politicians who desired a wider base of the highest level, the inner circle was power sharing as well as checks and comprised of the chiefs of the council of balances (p. 73). Whether desiring for ten, esteemed representatives from the more power or more checks and balance, senate (savii grandi), state inquisitors (with individuals sought to protect their interest their own body of informers and secret to a certain extent. In an article analyzing police) and the doge (and his councilors). the state of republicanism after the Battle The doge made his decision as part of a of Agnadello, the resolve of Venetian team (and members of the “inner group” subjects to uphold the rule of the city-state represented the most dominant families of was severely tested. Agnadello in the War metropolitan Venice). In practice, strong of the League of Cambrai is mentioned in and decisive executive powers were more the textbook as an event of severe setback needed in external affairs in order to react which “tested Venice’s political and effectively to arising crises; diplomatic military capabilities” (CPDD, 2008a, p. courses of action were, hence, often 113). Granted that Venice’s republicanism carried out and informed to the Senate and was not uniformly implemented other councils without debate (Lane, 1973, throughout its empire (especially in its pp. 427-34). terra firma colonies, referring to hinterland

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On many other important matters (such affliction of the political-administrative as law, finances and coinage, as system with incapable leadership (arising highlighted in the textbook), sessions of from a shrinking pool of nobles, in turn the great council were called and the linked to the Black Death) and the senate could set up their committees and associated corruption contributed to the commissions to investigate issues (much decline of Venice. Discussion of the topic like in the present American senate) in class can take place along the line to (CPDD, 2008a, p. 96). The Venetian probe the information offered by the system was “so successful” that the textbook and resource package further. A Austrian Habsburgs who took over the city few issues can be discussed here: 1.) The in the post Napoleonic period considered degree to which the nobility had turned in at one time whether there was a need to on itself after 14th century. 2.) The nature revive the “old system” (Laven, 2007, p. of corruption. 3.) The history of Venice 217). While there was intention by the from a longer time perspective can have a later generation to restore the earlier more neutral effect on the perception of Venetian system, it should be remembered the city-state’s decline. We will discuss the that the history of the city-state’s survival issue of the inward turning of the nobility was dotted with intense conflicts between first. We can examine this by, for instance, power groups as well as other lapses. A examining the degree to which the position case in hand can be seen in Doge P. of the doge was monopolized by noble Gradenigo’s faction in rivalry against the families. If the thesis of the inward turning faction of (a branch of) Querini family of the nobility can be disproven, the over the issue of the war against the importance of the factor on the decline of over the territory of in 1310. The Venice may be questioned. We can rivalry became intense enough that plots to analyze the list of doge-elects from 900- revolt were conceived against the doge 1200s and 1500-1700s (in Appendix A) to (Lane, 1973, pp. 114-17). The rivalry was assess if there was a monopoly by certain often joined by foreign groups residing in noble families. A survey of the lists (see Venice. A survey of “Catalogo XXVI” in Appendix A) for the above periods shows the Archivo de Simancas (in Spain) reveals that: The number of families (going by the that the Habsburgs collected intelligence names of the doge elected) which fielded a and kept a close tab of happenings in doge was more in the 15-18th century Venice; most notably, the development of period compared to the 10-13th century factions involving nobles in the city so that period; the families which fielded more they could readily intervene in domestic than one doge was correspondingly but not politics where the occasion benefitted surprisingly more in the 15-18th compared, them. again, to the 10-13th century period. From the list, one would have realized that the Students of Venetian studies need to re- average tenure period of the doges had question the extent to which corruption is shortened in the 16-18th centuries. One pegged as a reason for decline of Venice. could argue that the complex process by The “additional notes” pins the increasing which a doge was elected prevented any domination of certain families as “one of concentration of power in the hands of a the causes of Venice’s decline” (CPDD, few families; one can go one step further 2008b, p. 112). In the textbook, the to argue that the limited power and hence,

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lucrativeness of the position of the doge definition of the term in context of the acted as a brake in a system saddled with Medici family (in Florence) which “put in checks and balances although this could power men who rendered particular not be relied on to overcome or solve the services to the private interests of their problem of the diminishing population supporters” (Lane, 1973, p. 258). Research (with declining population of nobility and of the term “corruption” has since hence, a diminishing pool of talents). advanced and the latest studies highlight issues that are not easily reconciled by There is no denying that new more orthodox definitions. In the textbook, membership to the nobility became the affliction of the political-administrative increasingly difficult if not impossible system with a shrinking and incapable (Lane, 1973, pp. 252, 430-31). If the leadership and the associated corruption Venetian nobility failed, it was not for contributed to the decline of Venice. want of trying. Near to two dozen plagues Laslett (2005), in writing about early took place from the 14th to 16th centuries modern England, stated that linkage to with breakouts stretching into the 17th lineage and inherited privileges (as well as (1630-31; Lane, 1973, p. 430). The wealth) might be a better guarantee to Venetian nobility did try to incorporate power than being literate. One should be new entrants, from within the city careful to assert that power being restricted (merchant families) and from the terra to a few equates to corruption. The early firma, into its ranks although the result of modern world is one where the patronage the endeavor was not enough to stem the system permeated the network of human declining trend of demography. Perhaps relations. Gifts-giving, for instance, is the Venetian leadership should have likely to be part of the cultural norms in embarked on a path of mass immigration certain time periods or certain into its ranks and wider community in geographical regions (even in modern day order to succeed; for here, even contexts) (Guo, 2001; Scott, 1972). Cross Machiavelli (a contemporary of the early referring the discussion on republicanism modern ) advocated a “more easy and related systems suggests that rival access to citizenship by foreigners as a factions were likely to sponsor their own way to expand and renew the population” candidates to office positions within the (Machiavelli, 2003). A more balanced framework of the political system (even if perspective should therefore be given to these were not of the best caliber) rather the cause of plagues, pandemic than recommend a candidate from the occurrences and nature’s input in the opposing faction. The successful rhythm of human and state existence. appointment of a sympathizer office holder represented an extension of the patronage The phenomenon of corruption in the network and influence of the faction in early modern period needs to be seen and question. contextualized against the norms and practices of the historical period. This will From a holistic point of view, one have an impact on whether corruption should merge the other interacting should be seen as a key factor in Venice’s exogenous factors, such as economic and decline. Lane’s Venice: Maritime Republic environmental explanations, to come to a (1973) invokes Machiavelli and traditional more non-human centered and balanced

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perspective of Venice’s decline. The the students’ text (CPDD, 2008a, pp. 88 analysis of the other factors is beyond the and 107). How the different self-help limited scope of this essay, but other issues groups functioned in a highly capitalistic of Venice’s diplomacy and military as well society in Venice such that everybody as the city-state’s economy in relation to could come together to “live its environment also contributed to its harmoniously” can be studied more closely decline and fall. to provide “lessons” for the contemporary Singaporean society. Lane (1973) credited Looking at a longer time frame of the (perhaps a little too optimistically) that evolution of the political or democratic Venice had “no need for troops in the city system of Venice can lead to a different [because] the common people [had never] perspective. For a start, the context of the tried to overthrow the rule of the nobles” long haul of military history is instructive (p. 271). If the bureaucracy and the that, against , few or no councils/senate was the activity ground of protagonist would be able to avert a the high class and the nobility, the guilds collapse in 1797 (in the case of Venice). catered to the power jostling in the middle Second, the post collapse period saw the and lower classes of Venetian society. The Austrian Habsburgs (who took over the interest of the guilds might be represented northern Italian states) adopted “efficient” in the meetings of the council raised by a Napoleonic administrative practices but concerned or lobbying councilman. The considered at one point or other (discussed guild of course helped fulfill an above) to revive the old Venetian political administrative function for the government system. If the rise of Napoleon heralds the of Venice – it collected taxes from beginning of modern period (19th century), practitioners of the craft that body of guild the lack of resistance on the part of the sought to represent (which raised the Venetian nobility towards the invasion and interest of these bodies in the meeting of occupation of Napoleon indicates a the Grand Council). Guilds served as an relatively peaceful period of transition into outlet and at the same time, a remedy to modernity; rather than a shift into decline the fissures of the Venetian society (Laven, 2007). because in the early modern period, they were, other than the immediate family and Finally, I discuss the input of various closer friends, an important avenue by socio-political groups and institutions on which a person might resort to in bailing the well-being or lack of well-being of the himself out in crisis (Lane, 1973, p. 318). city-state of Venice focusing on guilds, The ethnic (minority) groups residing in scuole grandi, carnivals and pugni as well Venice, for instance, Jews, Greeks, as minority groups and their self-help Armenians and Germans, were also institutions. In a lesson on nation building expected to take care of themselves. The and governance discussed in the textbook, Jews were divided into the first waves the social cohesion of a diverse society which came, who were more respected, like Venice depended in no small part on and the later southeastern Jewish the guilds. The guilds, however, could be immigrants from Europe, which evoked given a little more discussion beyond the more adverse reaction and discrimination. descriptions on the “early life” in the city Although discriminated by the larger and experience of a carpenter described in population of Venice for a variety of

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reasons, the Jews maintained numerous involved personages from influential charitable organizations and schemes in classes who mobilized resources and the confined areas of their dwelling fighters/workers from an array of lower (ghettos) in the city to help with the classes) helped groups acquire honor or povertized and newly-arrived members of settle differences they could not resolve in the community. Government intervention more civilized settings (Davis, 1994, pp. sometimes came in the form of for 47-88, 165-72). In the 18th century, the instance, taxing the richer Jews to provide lower classes increasingly turned to the for the new Jewish immigrants in the carnival of the ragata (boat rowing races). slums. Although the social institutions and groups have been discussed as a stabilizing force The other organization which helped to in Venetian society, the same institutions absorb and allay the tensions of society have the potential to be destabilizing. was the scuole grandi (a lay, Catholic- Instances of this can be seen in the council sponsored organization promoting charity). of ten being “particularly nervous” that The early modern period in Europe was pugnis might disrupt the state’s business or one in which many stresses of the Jews feeling liberated during the globalization (for example, depletion of Napoleonic invasion in 1797 after a long diminishing resources, displacement of period of being discriminated (Davis, 1994, industries) being felt across Europe were p. 143, Lane, 1973, pp. 299-304). . most intimately felt by inhabitants in small and trading states like Venice. In a survey Conclusion around the first half of 17th century, 16% of the population was found to be “hospital The coverage in the textbook is on the poor” in Venice (Jutte, 1994, p. 128). whole a balanced one touching on There was a range of confraternities, Venice’s rise, peak and fall in a numbering about 500 in the 18th century. chronological fashion and provides static These were state within a state – the discussions of the individual factors richest foundations even financed military accounting for these milestones in the expeditions. Although trying to portray a history of the city. The field of Venetian secular image, these organizations had a studies is seeing new impulses which view religious bent – to promote pious living the developments of the city-state beyond they forbade blasphemy, adultery and its “mythical image”; one that embraces gambling. In addition, they looked after “fissures, disorder or the periphery.” It is the members’ material welfare – from important for readers to critically providing dowry or loans, to free lodging reconsider the issues pertaining to and medical treatment (Jutte, 1994, p. 125). republicanism in Venice and its empire, Beyond the above institutions, regularly the Venetian political system and organized events and activities in the city corruption as an explanation of the decline such as the carnivals and pugni (lasted till of the Venetian empire, and the role of end of 17th / beginning of 18th century) social system and groups as a stabilizing lent a further hand as a cushion to external force in the prolongation or decline of the forces affecting the society. Along the city-state. The term and issue of corruption “informal” channel, the institution of the for example, if understood in its historical pugni (fights that took place on the bridges context and in the context of pandemics,

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reduces the importance of it as a factor in lessons of history. New York: Simon & the discussion of the decline of Venice. Schuster. Overall, a benefit to the study of Venice is that it can allow, if facilitated aptly, a Guo X.Z. (2001). Dimensions of guanxi in deeper exploration of political systems. Chinese elite politics. The Chinese Journal, This, in addition to learning from 46, 69-90. complementary subjects and experiential programs on modern topics, can permit a Jutte R. (1994). Poverty and deviance in more intimate understanding of how socio- early modern Europe. Cambridge: political systems operated in the past and Cambridge University Press. present; and in the process, hopefully enable the molding of a learned individual Laven D. (2002). Venice and Venetia concerned enough to understand and under the Habsburgs 1815-35. Oxford: partake in his/her environment in the new Oxford University Press. millennium. (See Appendix B for a summary of teaching ideas based on this Lane F. (1973). Venice: A maritime article.) republic. London: John Hopkins University Press. References Laslett P. (2000). The world we have lost: Curriculum Planning & Development Further explored. Oxon: Routledge. Division (CPDD) (2008a). Upper secondary social studies, secondary 4 and Martin J., & Romano D. (Eds.) (2000). 5. Singapore: EPB. Venice reconsidered: History and civilization of an Italian city-state 1297- (2008b). Upper secondary social 1797. Baltimore: John Hopkins University studies, teacher’s resource file. Singapore: Press. EPB. Muir E. (2000). Was there republicanism Campbell D.E. (2008). “How an open in Renaissance republics? Venice after classroom climate fosters political Agnadello. J. Martin and D. Romano engagement among adolescents”, Political (Eds.), Venice reconsidered, Baltimore: Behaviour, 30, 437-54. John Hopkins University Press, 137-67.

Cochrane E., & Kirshner J. (1975). Machiavelli N. (1984). Discourses. “Deconstructing Lane’s Venice”, Journal London: Penguin. of Modern History, 47(2), 321-34. (2003). The Prince. London: Davis R. (1994). The war of the fists: Penguin. Popular culture and public violence in late Renaissance Venice. Oxford: Oxford Scott J. (1972). Patron-client politics and University Press. political change in Southeast Asia. American Political Science Review, 66(1), Durant W., & Durant A. (1968). The 91-113.

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i Although not explicitly pointed out in the ii Many works suggested from the reading textbook, Singapore shares many shared list, including J. Morris’ work, are similar features with Venice. Surmising supposed to be considered as works of quickly on the possible traits, one can find “popular authors.” The magnum opus and that both city-states: rely to a great extent comprehensive English work of F. Lane’s on trade; are communication nodal points “Venice: Maritime republic” is categorized in their regions and eras (Venice in the as a “general history” of Venice. This is eastern Mediterranean Sea, Singapore at contrasted with “works on specific sub- one end of the Straits of Melaka in fields”, a dichotomy used by specialists / Southeast Asia); are cultural centers, or reviewers in academic journals. Works in aspiring to be one (Venice was relatively general histories need to present balanced open which attracted talents and ideas views on an array of issues studied in during the Renaissance, right down to the Venetian history; something not easily Baroque period; Singapore aspires to achieved considering that even Lane’s become a ‘Renaissance city’ and has put work receives its fair share of critical up concrete plans for the materialization of reviews. A common criticism leveled on this); face demographic or environmental works on the general history of Venice is challenges (dwindling population and that these specialists, perhaps not rising water level) in their periods; and are surprisingly, are not able to do justice to influential commercially. Venice was areas outside their researches. described as a commerce empire which controlled a network of trade stations and iii The city-settlement’s rise to prominence string of hinterlands; a first world city- is traced to the period between the ninth state operates in a different manner at the and fifteenth centuries and attributed to dawn of the 21st century, a Senior several reasons namely, leadership, a Minister in Singapore has defined the reforming (adaptive?) government, trade island-state’s network in terms of the developments (undertaken by the city- market it can reach tagged with the state), developments in the industries, and number of flight hours it would take to innovative practices (and ideas). The city- reach there. Despite whatever similarities state at its peak and empire is described in one might find, one suspects that the terms of the extent of its territories and inclusion of the topic in social studies must prowess, the vibrant society make-up, come at the insistence of the “highest level economic prosperity and cultural of authority.” In a related video, Mr Lee achievements. Venice was deemed to have Kuan Yew recounted the process of faced serious challenges and gone on “a transforming Singapore into the “Venice gradual decline” between the fifteenth and of the East.” Mr George Yeo, the one-time eighteenth centuries. The factors slated for Minister of Foreign Affairs, had evoked decline are: foreign threats from the the idea of comparing Singapore with mainland European states as well as from Venice as early as 1988, and as recently as the ; maritime and trade 2012, continued to espouse the idea in an competition from certain rising European interview with “The Globalist.” states (like the Dutch and English); internal political challenges arising from

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incapable leadership and corruption; and social challenge as a result of the ruling class becoming ‘soft’ and complacent. Saddled with the burdens aforementioned, the final fall is dated when Napoleon invaded the city. iv The main organs of the Venetian government included: 1. the 3 councils, 2. the senate, 3. the Doge, 4. bureaucrats (governors, commanders, and holders of minor offices) as well as 5. state or judicial attorneys. The councils were classified into the great council, as well as the councils of ten and forty. Members from the latter two (and the senate) were drawn from the former.

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Appendix A: List of Doge-appointees

10-13th centuries 15-18th centuries

10th century 15th century Orso II Participazio (912–932) (1413–1423) Pietro II Candiano (932–939) (1423–1457) Pietro Participazio (939–942) Pasquale Malipiero (1457–1462) Pietro III Candiano (942–959) (1462–1471) Pietro IV Candiano (959–976) Nicolo Tron (1471–1473) Pietro I Orseolo (976–978) Nicolo Marcello (1473–1474) Vitale Candiano (978–979) Pietro Mocenigo (1474–1476) Tribuno Memmo (979–991) Andrea Vendramin (1476–1478) Pietro II Orseolo (991–1009) Giovanni Mocenigo (1478–1485) Marco Barbarigo (1485–1486) 11th century (1486–1501) Otto Orseolo (1009–1026) Pietro Barbolano (1026–1032) 16th century Domenico Flabanico (1032–1043) (1501–1521) Domenico (1043–1071) (1521–1523) Domenico Selvo (1071–1084) (1523–1538) Vitale Faliero (1084–1096) Pietro Lando (1538–1545) Vitale I Michiel (1096–1102) Francesco Donato (1545–1553) Marcantonio Trivisan (1553–1554) 12th century (1554–1556) Ordelafo Faliero (1102–1117) Lorenzo Priuli (1556–1559) Domenico Michele (1117–1130) Girolamo Priuli (1559–1567) Pietro Polani (1130–1148) (1567–1570) Domenico Morosini (1148–1156) Alvise I Mocenigo (1570–1577) Vital II Michele (1156–1172) (1577–1578) (1172–1178) Nicolò da Ponte (1578–1585) Orio Mastropiero (1178–1192) Pasqual Cicogna (1585–1595) (1192–1205) (1595–1606)

13th century 17th century (1205–1229) (1606–1612) Jacopo Tiepolo (1229–1249) Marcantonio Memmo (1612–1615) Marino Morosini (1249–1252) Giovanni Bembo (1615–1618) Reniero Zeno (1252–1268) Nicolò Donato (1618–1618) (1268–1275) Antonio Priuli (1618–1623) Jacopo Contarini (1275–1280) Francesco Contarini (1623–1624) Giovanni Dandolo (1280–1289) Giovanni I Cornaro (1624–1630) Pietro Gradenigo (1289–1311) Nicolò Contarini (1630–1631) Francesco Erizzo (1631–1646) Francesco Molin (1646–1655) Carlo Contarini (1655–1656) Francesco Cornaro (1656–1656) Bertuccio Valiero (1656–1658)

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10-13th centuries 15-18th centuries

Giovanni Pesaro (1658–1659) Domenico II Contarini (1659–1674) Nicolò Sagredo (1674–1676) Alvise Contarini (1676–1683) Marcantonio Giustinian (1683–1688) (1688–1694) Silvestro Valiero (1694–1700) Alvise II Mocenigo (1700–1709)

18th century Giovanni II Cornaro (1709–1722) Sebastiano Mocenigo (1722–1732) Carlo Ruzzini (1732–1735) Alvise Pisani (1735–1741) Pietro Grimani (1741–1752) Francesco Loredan (1752–1762) Marco Foscarini (1762–1763) Alvise Giovanni Mocenigo (1763–1779) (1779–1789) (1789–1797)

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Appendix B: Teaching ideas from the article – A summary

General historiography of the field of history of Venice

probing beyond the “myth”, an image of an ideal republic… shifting to emphasize disorder rather than order, dissent rather than orthodoxy, the broader social context or periphery rather than the center

1) Discussing 2) Discussing 3) Discussing the republicanism and politics and wider social political related political corruption as a reason institutions as a systems* for decline stabilizing or destabilizing force in Venetian society

A. Motives of A. The extent to The other social citizens and subjects which the decline of political groups and B. Rise of Venetian political institutions in political system was a result Venetian society group/faction and of the “inward deserving of efficacy of political turning” of the discussion: A. guilds, system nobles. B. scuole grandi, C. B. The extent to carnival and pugni, which corruption and D. various could be minority ethnic distinguished from groups as their own the relations network. self-help groups. C. Ways the decline of Venice could be seen differently. *The three threads of discussion represent the three objectives of discussion in this article.

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