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Home , Antonio Grimani, Council of Ten, Duchy of the Archipelago, Francesco Morosini, Holy League (1684), Leonardo Loredan

, A MARITIME REPUBLIC PDF, EPUB, EBOOK

Frederic Chapin Lane | 528 pages | 01 Dec 1973 | JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY PRESS | 9780801814600 | English | Baltimore, MD, United States |

Account Options Sign in. Try the new Google Books. Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features. Try it now. No thanks. Get print book. JHU Press Amazon. Shop for Books on Google Play Browse the world's largest eBookstore and start reading today on the web, tablet, phone, or ereader. Venice, A Maritime Republic. Frederic Chapin Lane. JHU Press , - History - pages. The children's version of the 1 New York Times bestselling classic Seriously, Just Go to Sleep is the G-rated, child-friendly version of the book every parent has been talking about. Of course, kids are well aware of how difficult they can be at bedtime. With Mansbach's new child-appropriate narrative, kids will recognize their tactics, giggle at their own mischievousness, and empathize with their parents' struggles--a perspective most children's books don't capture. Most importantly, it provides a common ground for children and their parents to talk about one of their most stressful daily rituals. This is a fixed-format ebook, which preserves the design and layout of the original print book. User Review - Flag as inappropriate Seamen. Selected pages Title Page. Table of Contents. Contents The Beginnings. A Community Center by Canaletto. Venice about woodcut by Vavassore. Victories BeyondtheSea and in . Illuminated Initial from the Maritime Code of Leonardo by . The Condottiere in front of San Marco. The Sixteenth Century. Capital of the . A Session of the Great Council. Balloting in the Great Council. Glass Blowers and Their Furnace. Artisans at Work. The Gateway of the Arsenal Finance and Income from Power. Great Approaching . Disembarking Pilgrims in the Holy Land. A Light Galley alongside a Carack. The Opposing Fleets at the . Argosies with Portly Sails. Caracks Setting Sail as painted by Carpaccio. A Hospital sketch by Titian. A ShipoftheLine. The Death of the Republic. The Structure of the Government. Strolling Maskers as painted by Longhi. The Completion and Preservation of the City. Advanced Search. Search Menu. Skip Nav Destination Article Navigation. Close mobile search navigation Article Navigation. Volume Article Navigation. Frederic C. Lauro Martines Lauro Martines. University of California. Oxford Academic. Google Scholar. Select Format Select format. Permissions Icon Permissions. Article PDF first page preview. Issue Section:. You do not currently have access to this article. Venice: A Maritime Republic by Frederic C. Lane

Homes of Nobles in Byzantine and Gothic Styles. The Wooden Bridge at Rialto as painted by Carpaccio. The Courtyard of the Ducal Palace as painted by Guardi. The Fifteenth Century. The Condottiere in front of San Marco. The Sixteenth Century. Constantinople Istanbul Capital of the Ottoman Empire. A Session of the Great Council. Balloting in the Great Council. Glass Blowers and Their Furnace. Artisans at Work. The Gateway of the Arsenal Finance and Income from Power. Great Galley Approaching Rhodes. Disembarking Pilgrims in the Holy Land. A Light Galley alongside a Carack. The Opposing Fleets at the Battle of Lepanto. Argosies with Portly Sails. Caracks Setting Sail as painted by Carpaccio. A Hospital sketch by Titian. A ShipoftheLine. The Death of the Republic. The Structure of the Government. Strolling Maskers as painted by Longhi. The Completion and Preservation of the City. Retrieved August 22, Ursus's successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to in the s. He was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more than commonplace among the of the first few centuries of Venetian history, but all were ultimately unsuccessful. During the reign of Deusdedit, Venice became the only remaining Byzantine possession in the north and the changing politic of the Frankish Empire began to change the factional division of Venetia. One faction was decidedly pro-Byzantine. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire. Another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish. Supported mostly by clergy in line with papal sympathies of the time , they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the , Pepin the Short , as the best provider of defense against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard, faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers and interested in maintaining peace with the neighboring and surrounding, but for the sea Lombard kingdom. The successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori the two emperors had recognized Venetian de facto independence, while it remained nominally Byzantine in subservience. During the reign of the Participazio, Venice grew into its modern form. Though Heraclean by birth, Agnello, first doge of the family, was an early immigrant to Rialto and his dogeship was marked by the expansion of Venice towards the sea via the construction of bridges, , bulwarks, fortifications, and stone buildings. The modern Venice, at one with the sea, was being born. Agnello was succeeded by his son Giustiniano, who brought the body of Saint Mark the Evangelist to Venice from and made him the patron saint of Venice. During the reign of the successor of the Participazio, Pietro Tradonico, Venice began to establish its military capability, which would influence many a later crusade and dominate the Adriatic for centuries. Tradonico secured the sea by fighting Slavic and Saracen pirates. Tradonico's reign was long and successful — , but he was succeeded by the Participazio and it appeared that a dynasty may have finally been established. Around , the Republic of Venice sent a fleet of 60 galleys each carrying men to assist the Byzantines in driving the Arabs from Crotone, but it fails. In the High , Venice became extremely wealthy through its control of trade between Europe and the Levant, and began to expand into the and beyond. In , Domenico Selvo personally led a fleet against the Normans, but he was defeated and lost nine great galleys, the largest and most heavily armed ships in the Venetian war fleet. In there was an anti-Western riot in Constantinople , of which the Venetians were the main targets. Many in the Empire had become jealous of Venetian power and influence, and thus, when in the pretender Andronikos I Komnenos marched on Constantinople, Venetian property was seized and the owners imprisoned or banished, an act which humiliated, and angered the Republic. The Venetian fleet was crucial to the transportation of the , but when the crusaders could not pay for the ships, the cunning and manipulative Doge quickly exploited the situation and offered transport to the crusaders if they were to capture the Christian Dalmatian city of Italian: Zara , which had rebelled against the Venetian rule in , placed itself under the dual protection of the Papacy and King Emeric of and had proven too well fortified to retake for Venice alone. After accomplishing this the crusade was again diverted to Constantinople, the capital of the , another rival of Venice in revenge for the massacre of Venetian citizens living in Constantinople. The city was captured and sacked in ; the sack has been described as one of the most profitable and disgraceful sacks of a city in history. The Venetians, who accompanied the crusader fleet, claimed much of the plunder, including the famous four bronze horses which were brought back to adorn Saint Mark's basilica. As a result of the subsequent partition of the Byzantine Empire, Venice gained a great deal of territory in the three-eighths of the Byzantine Empire , including the islands of and . The Aegean islands came to form the Venetian . Throughout the , the republic continued to trade with Muslim partners. In , Pietro Gradenigo sent a fleet of 68 ships to attack a Genoese fleet at Alexandretta, then another fleet of ships were sent to attack the Genoese in Initially defeated, they devastated the Genoese fleet at the Battle of in and retained their prominent position in eastern Mediterranean affairs at the expense of Genoa's declining empire. In the early fifteenth century, the Venetians also began to expand in , as well as along the Dalmatian coast from to Albania , which was acquired from King Ladislas of during the civil war in Hungary. Ladislas was about to lose the conflict and had decided to escape to Naples, but before doing so he agreed to sell his now practically forfeit rights on the Dalmatian cities for a meager sum of , . Venice exploited the situation and quickly installed nobility to govern the area, for example, Count Filippo Stipanov in Zadar. This move by the Venetians was a response to the threatening expansion of Giangaleazzo Visconti, of [[Milan. Control over the north-east main land routes was also a necessity for the safety of the trades. By , Venice had a navy of 3, ships manned by 36, men and taken over most of Venetia, including such important cities as Verona which swore its loyalty in the Devotion of Verona to Venice in and . The situation in had been settled in by a truce with King Sigismund of Hungary but the difficulties of Hungary finally granted to the Republic the consolidation of its Adriatic dominions. Slaves were plentiful in the Italian city-states as late as the 15th century. Between and , some 10, slaves were sold in Venice, almost all of whom were "nubile" young women from Russia, Greece, Bosnia, Georgia, , Bulgaria, and . In February , the island of , previously a crusader state, was annexed to Venice. Trading across North Africa, the Levant and the Middle East, the republic established what have been described as "mini-Venices. Their records and correspondence sheds a great deal of light on all aspects of "Islamic politics, history, economics and art. The Ottoman Empire started sea campaigns as early as , when it waged a seven year war with the Venetian Republic over maritime control of the Aegean Sea and the Adriatic Sea. The wars with Venice resumed in until a favorable peace treaty was signed in In now no longer hampered by the Venetian fleet the Ottomans besieged Rhodes and captured Otranto. By , the population of Venice had risen to about , people. War with the Ottomans resumed from to In the same year the Ottoman moved to attack Lepanto by land, and sent a large fleet to support his offensive by sea. , more a businessman and diplomat than a sailor, was defeated in the sea battle of Zonchio in The Turks once again sacked Friuli. Preferring peace to total war both against the Turks and by sea, Venice surrendered the bases of Lepanto, Modon and Coron. Venice's attention was diverted from its usual maritime position by the delicate situation in Romagna, then one of the richest lands in Italy, which was nominally part of the but effectively fractionated in a series of small lordship of difficult control for 's troops. Eager to take some of Venice's lands, all neighboring powers joined in the League of Cambrai in , under the leadership of Julius II. The offensive against the huge army enlisted by Venice was launched from . On May 14, , Venice was crushingly defeated at the battle of Agnadello, in the Ghiara d'Adda, marking one of the most delicate points of the entire Venetian history. French and imperial troops were occupying the , but Venice managed to extricate itself through diplomatic efforts. The Apulian ports were ceded in order to come to terms with , and pope Julius II soon recognized the danger brought by the eventual destruction of Venice then the only Italian power able to face kingdoms like France or empires like the Ottomans. The citizens of the mainland rose to the cry of "Marco, Marco," and recaptured Padua in July , successfully defending it against the besieging imperial troops. Spain and the pope broke off their alliance with France, and Venice regained Brescia and Verona from France also. After seven years of ruinous war, the Serenissima regained its mainland dominions west to the Adda river. Although the defeat had turned into a victory, the events of marked the end of the Venetian expansion. In , the first year of Venetian control of Cyprus, Turks attacked the Karpasia Peninsula, pillaging and taking captives to be sold into slavery. In the Turkish fleet attacked and destroyed Limassol. Fearing the ever-expanding Ottoman Empire, the Venetians had fortified Famagusta, Nicosia, and Kyrenia, but most other cities were easy prey. By , the population of Venice had dropped to about , people. In other words, history changes. Venice has many histories and much has been written about them. Cochrane Baltimore and , : Ch. This is a seminal reading for introducing key concepts: the relationship between history-myth and environment-urbanism of Venice. This quotation--" Venice was born in the water, Venice was born of the water. For Crouzet-Pavan, studying Venice teaches us about the relationship between humanity and the environment. Venice emerged out of the water, but later was threatened with the contrasting conditions of drowning and immurement. In class, we will brainstorm about your ideas. According to Venetian legend, the was the only place in Italy that the ancient Romans had not settled. This post-antique foundation was important to the Venetians because they claimed that they were untainted by a pagan past. However, in the 20th century archaeological evidence shows that there were limited, modest and unstable Roman settlements in the lagoon. This uncertain landscape of brackish water, silt, and reeds was populated by people who moved by boat, engaged in fishing, and exploited the salt flats. Cassiodorus's account inspired later writers to create a lasting image of a free people whose life on the water brought them peace, prosperity, and equality. It was larger and more permanent due to the ongoing invasions by Northern European kingdoms. Fleeing the mainland, these fishermen built fragile huts on stilts above mud flats, populating the marshes, sand bands, mud flats, and salt flats between Adriatic Sea and coastline. It was an amphibious and fluxuating environment, with nothing fixed in time or place. There was no firm shoreline. As marginal plots disappeared, new ones were formed. Other communities formed. In the 9th century, the urban growth of Venice coincided with increased economic growth and political power. Because Venice did not have an illustrious antique foundation like all other major cities in Italy , the Venetians created a different but equally impressive apocryphal tale. It began in the 1st century, Saint Peter had sent his discipline Saint Mark to preach in Aquileia in the northern Adriatic in order to convert the area to Christianity. As Mark was returning to Rome, a storm forced him to seek refuge on an island in . Mark was to be buried there. It was unexpected because trade between the Fatimids in Egypt and Christians was forbidden. Above we see a mosaic from San Marco showing the merchants escaping with his body in a basket. They searched the Venetian ships but were deterred from looking too closely by salted pork that had been placed over the body. They tied Mark's body in a canvas sheet and hoisted up the rigging, where a breeze carried his sweet odor of sanctity across Mediterranean. During the journey St. Mark intervened in a storm and save the ship from ruin! In the body arrived in Venice. Look closely at the mosaic to find Mark's body. He became Venice's new patron saint and allowed the Venetians to assert full independence from Byzantium. Marino Sanudo. Venice was a new Jerusalem and the Venetians would play a role in the process of human Salvation. The veracity of the story and whether the relics were in fact transported are debated, but Christendom quickly believed that that Mark was in Venice. The oldest existing history of the lagoon was written by John the Deacon c. Michael the Archangel and the Angel Gabriel. In Jacobello del Fiore made this painting for a civil and criminal courtroom in the Ducal Palace. It represents Venice's apocryphal history and predestined role in Salvation. At the center is the figure of Justice identified by her sword and scales. This personification a figure who represents a concept, like Justice also represents Venice because she is flanked by St. Mark's lions. She is also the Virgin Mary, who in religious art is depicted with a crown and on a throne. Her identity as the Virgin Mary is confirmed by the figure to the right, the Angel Gabriel, who announced to the Virgin Mary that she was to bear the son of God. This event in Mary's life is called the Annunciation. The lily, a symbol of Mary's purity, is an attribute identifying object of Gabriel. The representation of the Annunciation recalls Venice's apocryphal "birth" on March 25 Feast of the Annunciation, To the left is St. Michael reinforces the role of divine justice in the rule of Venice and Salvation. These figures should inspire the judges who worked in this court to rule justly and make fair decisions, which contribute to Venice's work in guiding people toward salvation. Its characteristics are:. Its identity was different from other Italian city-states because it lacked an ancient history, instead was associated with Byzantium and the Islamic world, and was formed from a singular environment. Which of these formal characteristics can you identify in the painting of Enthroned Justice? Venetian economic and hence political power derived from the sea and to its geographical position between Asia and Europe. The capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, exerted an strong political, economic, and cultural influence on Venice. Doge Orseolo conquered Dalmatia on the east coast of the Adriatic present-day Croatia which transfored the Adriatic into the Venetian gulf. Venice, a Maritime Republic - Frederic Chapin Lane - Google Books

Established in , the sixty-member Senate made decisions relating to finance, foreign policy, and diplomacy. This chamber doubled over the next two hundred years, and into this was folded the Quarantia, which became an oversight agency within the Senate to curb any abuse of power, as well as a court of appeal. There was also a Council of Three, which functioned as another watchdog group to prevent senior officials from abusing their positions. The members of this trio were elected by the Great Council to sixteen-month terms. After , in response to unrest among the trade guilds, the office of Grand Chancellor was created in Venice. Elected by the Great Council, this figure essentially served as head of the civil bureaucracy. In , however, a was created in response to a failed rebellion led by two nobles. The ten members were drawn from the richest, most powerful Venetian families and chosen by the Great Council, and the body was originally charged with monitoring the factions out of which the insurgency had arisen. It gradually began to exert tighter control over the reins of government and grew to include the doge and six councilors. More important, the Council of Ten was immune from any oversight, and it grew increasingly despotic. In later years it was aided by its own secret police force, and by the Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia Most Serene Republic of Venice had become a virtual dictatorship under the Council of Ten. The office of doge was held by a series of noble families, beginning with the Participazios, whose family originally came from the ancient district of Lucania in southern Italy. Following them were the Candiatos and the Orseolos, and members of the Michele clan dominated the office in the s. In the remains of Saint Mark , one of the four authors of the New Testament , were pilfered from Alexandria, Egypt, and brought to Venice. This was done to bolster a homegrown myth, which claimed that the apostle had once taken shelter there some seven centuries earlier. This guaranteed it freedom of transit and a release from paying taxes or duties on trade in Byzantine territories west of the Bosporus, where Constantinople was located. By those once-close ties had devolved into outright warfare, with the successor to the Byzantine Empire , the Ottomans, threatening maritime trade in the Mediterranean; that year a Venetian fleet, bolstered by military help from Pope Pius V — , Genoa, and the Knights of Malta , roundly defeated armed Ottoman galleys in the Gulf of during the battle of Lepanto. Elsewhere in Italy, city-states modeled on it flourished during the Renaissance, including Milan, Siena, and Florence. In seventeenth-century England, Venice was hailed by antimonarchists as the model of a successful republican form of government. Chambers, David S. The Imperial Age of Venice, — New York : Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Martin, John, and Dennis Romano, eds. Baltimore, Md. Norwich, John Julius. A History of Venice. New York : Vintage Books, Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. October 16, Retrieved October 16, from Encyclopedia. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia. History Encyclopedias almanacs transcripts and maps Republic of Venice. Republic of Venice gale. Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments. Learn more about citation styles Citation styles Encyclopedia. More From encyclopedia. City-states were autonomous, self-governing states led by a city. They controlled land outside the walls, from a few square mi… Roman Empire , Type of Government The Roman Empire was governed by an autocracy government by one person centered on the position of the emperor. The Senate, the…. About this article Republic of Venice Updated About encyclopedia. A Divided Italy: Home of the Renaissance. Administration: Offices and Institutions. Roman Republic. Government, Forms of. A Changing Europe. Novgorod Republic. Republic of the Philippines. Republic of the Marshall Islands. Republic of the Congo. Republic of Texas. Republic of South Africa. Again alone, the Venetians were defeated in the Veronese by Alfonso of Calabria, but conquered , in Apulia, by sea. The balance was changed by of Milan, who ultimately sided with Venice: this led to a quick peace, which was signed near Brescia on 7 August In spite of the numerous setbacks suffered in the campaign, Venice obtained the Polesine and Rovigo, and increased its prestige in the Italian peninsula at the expense of Florence especially. Despite the setbacks in the struggle against the Turks, at the end of the 15th century, with , inhabitants, Venice was the second largest city in Europe after Paris and probably the richest in the world. In , the French ambassador, Philippe de Commines , wrote of Venice,. In the same year the Ottoman sultan moved to attack Lepanto by land and sent a large fleet to support the offensive by sea. Antonio Grimani, more a businessman and diplomat than a sailor, was defeated in the sea Battle of Zonchio in The Turks once again sacked Friuli. Preferring peace to total war against the Turks, Venice surrendered the bases of Lepanto, Modon and Coron. Venice became rich on trade, but the guilds in Venice also produced superior silks, brocades, goldsmith jewelry and articles, armour and glass in the form of beads and eyeglasses. The offensive against the huge army enlisted by Venice was launched from France. French and Imperial troops were occupying Veneto, but Venice managed to extricate itself through diplomatic efforts. The Apulian ports were ceded in order to come to terms with Spain, and Pope Julius II soon recognized the danger brought by the eventual destruction of Venice then the only Italian power able to face large states like France or Ottoman Turkey. Spain and the pope broke off their alliance with France, and Venice also regained Brescia and Verona from France. After seven years of ruinous war, the Serenissima regained her mainland dominions up to the Adda. Although the defeat had turned into a victory, the events of marked the end of the Venetian expansion. The Gasparo book De Magistratibus et Republica Venetorum illustrates the unique system of government in Venice and extols its various institutions. In the opinion of Contarini, the Maggior Consiglio was the democratic part, the Senate and the Council of Ten were the oligarchy, while the doge represented monarchy. The combination of these three principles in the Venetian government came as close as possible to perfection in the mechanism of government. At the same time the patrician Marino Sanudo, a politician who had a remarkable career, and a celebrated diarist, was bemoaning the corruption resulting from the great number of poor or impoverished patricians. The struggle for supremacy in Italy between France and Spain was resolved in favour of the latter. Caught between the Imperial-Spanish and Turkish superpowers, the Republic adopted a skilful political strategy of quasi- neutrality in Europe, which turned into a defensive stance against the Ottomans. Andrea Doria, commander of the allied fleets, was defeated at in , and two years later Venice signed a treaty of peace by which the Turks took the Aegean duchy of from the Sanudo family. After Preveza the supremacy of the sea passed to the Ottomans. Difficulties in the rule of the sea brought further changes. Until the oarsmen in the galleys were free sailors enrolled on a wage. They were originally Venetians, but later Dalmatians, Cretans and Greeks joined in large numbers. Because of the difficulty in hiring sufficient crews, Venice had recourse to conscription, chaining the oarsmen to the benches as other navies had already done. Cristoforo da was the first Venetian to command such a galley. By , the population of Venice had dropped to about , people. With the outbreak of another war with the Ottomans in , Venice, Spain and the Pope formed the , which was able to assemble a grand fleet of galleys, of which were Venetian, under the command of , half-brother of Philip II of Spain. The Venetians were commanded by . The Turkish fleet, equal in number to the allied one, had sailed up the Adriatic as far as Lesina, and then returned to Lepanto in the Gulf of Patras for provisions. The Christian fleet had assembled at Messina and encountered the Turkish fleet off Lepanto on 7 October The Christians were victorious, and divided up galleys captured from the Turks. But the Venetians gained no strategic advantage. Philip II was concerned with the balance of power in the eastern Mediterranean and Africa, and was unwilling for the fleet to become involved in the Levant. Famagusta, the last stronghold on the island of Cyprus, had been attacked by the Turks in and had surrendered before Lepanto. The loss of Cyprus was ratified in the peace of In , the population of Venice was about , people, but dropped to , people by Pope Paul V held that these provisions were contrary to canon law and demanded that they should be repealed. When this was refused, he placed Venice under an interdict. The interdict was lifted after a year, when France intervened and proposed a formula of compromise. Venice was satisfied with reaffirming the principle that no citizen was superior to the normal processes of law. The Uzkoks Italian Uscocchi were Christian refugees from Bosnia and Turkish Dalmatia who had been enlisted by the Austrian Habsburg to defend their borders after the peace between Venice and the Ottomans following the Battle of Lepanto. They settled in Segna and lived as pirates in the Adriatic, causing concern in Venice that they would complicate relations with the Sublime Porte. When Venice acted against these Uscocchi in , she found herself at odds on land with their protector, the archduke of Austria. The military operations on the eastern frontier were not decisive, but among the terms of the peace of the Habsburgs undertook to solve the problem of the Uzkoks, whom they moved inland. In , whether on his own initiative, or supported by his king, the Spanish viceroy of Naples attempted to break Venetian dominance by sending a naval squadron to the Adriatic. His expedition met with mixed success, and he retired from the Adriatic. Rumours of sedition and conspiracy were meanwhile circulating in Venice, and there were disturbances between mercenaries of different nationalities enrolled for the war of Gradisca. The Spanish ambassador, the Marquis of Bedmar, was wise to the plot, if not the author of it. Informed of this by a Huguenot captain, the Ten acted promptly. Tension with Spain increased in , when Antonio Foscarini, a senator and ambassador to England, was accused of acting for foreign powers during his time as ambassador and of spying for Spain after his return. He was tried, acquitted of the first charge, found guilty of the second and hanged from a gallows between the columns of the Piazzetta in A few months later the Ten discovered that he had been the innocent victim of a plot. He was rehabilitated, and the news circulated around all the chancelleries of Europe. In Venice was involved in Italian politics for the first time in more than a century. This changed the balance of power in , which had until now been controlled by the Spanish through Milan. In the ensuing war, Venice was allied with France against the Habsburgs and Savoy. The Venetian army was defeated in an attempt to come to the aid of Mantua, which was under by German troops, and Mantua itself was savagely sacked. War brought plague in In 16 months 50, people died in Venice, one third of the population. The first stone of the church of Santa Maria della Salute in the city was laid as a thanks offering for the end of the plague. In , while the Venetian fleet was cruising off Crete, a corsair fleet from Barbary consisting of 16 galleys from Algiers and Tunis entered the Adriatic. When the fleet returned, the corsairs repaired to the Turkish stronghold of Valona. The Venetian commander Marino Cappello attacked the corsairs, bombarded the forts and captured their galleys, freeing 3, prisoners. The sultan reacted to the bombardment of his fortress by arresting the Venetian bailo ambassador in Constantinople, Alvise Contarini. War was momentarily averted and the matter settled by diplomacy; however, six years later the Ottoman attack against Candia, the main Cretan port, left no easy terms to resort to. War also moved to the mainland in the middle of , when the Turks attacked the frontiers of Dalmatia. In the latter the Venetians were able to save their coastal positions because of their command of the sea, but on 22 August, the Cretan stronghold of Khania was forced to capitulate. The siege failed, and in the succeeding year the Venetians recovered several fortresses inland, such as Clissa. In Crete, however, the situation was more serious. Throughout all the war the Venetian strategy was to blockade the in order to surprise the Turkish fleet on its way to supply the troops on Crete. There were some signal successes, including two victories in the Dardanelles in and , but they failed to alter the strategic situation. The next year there was a three-day-long sea-battle 17—19 July , in which the captain Lazzaro Mocenigo was killed by a falling mast, and turning into a crushing defeat. With the end of the war between France and Spain in , Venice received more aid from the Christian states than the small contingents which she had received in the first years. In an expedition to retake Khania failed, and in another attempt to lift the with joint action on land with the French contingent and by sea under Mocenigo also turned out to be a failure. The French returned home, and only 3, fit men were left in the fortress of Candia. Captain negotiated its surrender on 6 September The island of Crete was ceded, except for some small Venetian bases, while Venice retained the islands of and Cerigo, and its conquests in Dalmatia. In , soon after the Turkish defeat in the siege of , Venice entered an alliance, the Holy League, with Austria against the Ottomans; Russia was later included. At the beginning of the —99 Francesco Morosini occupied the island of Levkas and set out to recapture the Greek ports. In September, during the attack on , a Venetian cannon blew up the . Venetian possessions were greatly increased in Dalmatia too, although the attempt to regain Negropont in was a failure. The favoured Austria and Russia more than Venice, which failed to regain its bases in the Mediterranean taken by the Turks in the previous two centuries, in spite of its conquests. New conflict was brewing over the question of the Spanish Succession. Both France and the Habsburg empire, attempted now to gain an active ally in Venice, despatching envoys with authority there in The Venetian government preferred to remain neutral rather than accept hypothetical advantages offered by interested parties. The Republic remained faithful to this policy of neutrality to the end, caught in unavoidable decline but living out its life in a luxury famous throughout Europe. The Turks took the islands of Tinos and , crossed the isthmus and took Corinth. Daniele Dolfin, commander of the Venetian fleet, thought it better to save the fleet than risk it for the . When he eventually arrived on the scene, Nauplia, Modon, Corone and Malvasia had fallen. Lefkas in the Ionian islands, and the bases of and Suda on Crete which still remained in Venetian hands, were abandoned. In the meantime, the Turks had suffered a grave defeat by the Austrians at Petrovaradin on 3 August New Venetian naval efforts in the Aegean and the Dardanelles in and , however, met with little success. This was the last war of the Republic with Turkey. Even the cities of the eastern mainland up to Verona got their supplies from Genoa and Leghorn. The presence of pirates from the coast of Maghreb worsened the situation. The idea was to remove the monopoly of power enjoyed by the small number of rich patricians to the advantage of the very large number of poor ones. The Inquisitors took the arbitrary step of confining Pisani in the castle of San Felice in Verona, and Contarini in the fortress of Cattaro. We are despoiled of our substance, and not a shadow of our ancient merchants is to be found among our citizens or our subjects. Capital is lacking, not in the nation, but in commerce. It is used to support effeminacy, excessive extravagance, idle spectacles, pretentious amusements and vice, instead of supporting and increasing industry which is the mother of good morals, virtue, and of essential national trade. The last Venetian naval venture occurred in When diplomatic efforts to reach an agreement failed, the government was forced to take military action. By the year , the once great Venetian merchant fleet had declined to a mere merchantmen. In January Lodovico Manin, from a recently ennobled mainland family, was elected doge. The expenses of the election had grown throughout the 18th century, and now reached their highest ever. By , the Republic of Venice could no longer defend itself. Though the Republic still possessed a fleet of 13 ships of the line, only a handful were ready for sea, [40] and the army consisted of only a few brigades of mainly Dalmatian mercenaries. In spring Piedmont fell and the Austrians were beaten from Montenotte to Lodi. The army under crossed the frontiers of neutral Venice in pursuit of the enemy. By the end of the year the French troops were occupying the Venetian state up to the Adige; Vicenza, Cadore and Friuli were held by the Austrians. With the campaigns of the next year, Napoleon aimed for Austrian possessions across the Alps. In the preliminaries to the Peace of Leoben, the terms of which remained secret, the Austrians were to take the Venetian possessions as the price of peace 18 April Nevertheless, the peace envisaged the continued survival of the Venetian state, although confined to the city and the lagoon, perhaps with compensation at the expense of the Papal States. In the meanwhile Brescia and Bergamo revolted against Venice, and anti-French movements were rising elsewhere. Napoleon threatened Venice with war on 9 April.

- Venice, a Maritime Republic by Frederic Chapin Lane

The title was bestowed for life, but doges held office not because of the grace of divine right —as did emperors and , and by extension the princes and other elites who ruled territories allied with the Roman, Byzantine, and Carolingian empires—but by trust of the popolo people. This word was being used in official documents when Venice emerged as a strong maritime power, reflecting the belief that the powers of office were at least theoretically shared. In an unpopular doge was murdered by the popolo after he had acted against the advice of his closest councilors. Thereafter, a sapientes council of wise men became the nominating committee for the doges. To prevent further rash acts, doges were barred from leaving the city, and all their mail was read by a censor acting on behalf of the popolo. The sapientes and other bodies coalesced into the collegio , which carried out administrative duties related to government. Political power became the province of the Great Council, the eventual successor to the Byzantine-era tribunes, and it elected the doge and other officials from among its members. By the council included 1, men who were drawn from a tightly controlled list of noble families; after this list was firmly shut to new membership. This serrata closing of the list in effect made Venice a formal oligarchy. The Great Council elected the doges by means of an elaborate nomination and reduction process designed to thwart favoritism or factional alliances, and chose the Quarantia as well as a Senate from among its members. Established in , the sixty-member Senate made decisions relating to finance, foreign policy, and diplomacy. This chamber doubled over the next two hundred years, and into this was folded the Quarantia, which became an oversight agency within the Senate to curb any abuse of power, as well as a court of appeal. There was also a Council of Three, which functioned as another watchdog group to prevent senior officials from abusing their positions. The members of this trio were elected by the Great Council to sixteen-month terms. After , in response to unrest among the trade guilds, the office of Grand Chancellor was created in Venice. Elected by the Great Council, this figure essentially served as head of the civil bureaucracy. In , however, a Council of Ten was created in response to a failed rebellion led by two nobles. The ten members were drawn from the richest, most powerful Venetian families and chosen by the Great Council, and the body was originally charged with monitoring the factions out of which the insurgency had arisen. It gradually began to exert tighter control over the reins of government and grew to include the doge and six councilors. More important, the Council of Ten was immune from any oversight, and it grew increasingly despotic. In later years it was aided by its own secret police force, and by the Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia Most Serene Republic of Venice had become a virtual dictatorship under the Council of Ten. The office of doge was held by a series of noble families, beginning with the Participazios, whose family originally came from the ancient district of Lucania in southern Italy. Following them were the Candiatos and the Orseolos, and members of the Michele clan dominated the office in the s. In the remains of Saint Mark , one of the four authors of the New Testament , were pilfered from Alexandria, Egypt, and brought to Venice. This was done to bolster a homegrown myth, which claimed that the apostle had once taken shelter there some seven centuries earlier. This guaranteed it freedom of transit and a release from paying taxes or duties on trade in Byzantine territories west of the Bosporus, where Constantinople was located. By those once-close ties had devolved into outright warfare, with the successor to the Byzantine Empire , the Ottomans, threatening maritime trade in the Mediterranean; that year a Venetian fleet, bolstered by military help from Pope Pius V — , Genoa, and the Knights of Malta , roundly defeated armed Ottoman galleys in the Gulf of Patras during the battle of Lepanto. Elsewhere in Italy, city-states modeled on it flourished during the Renaissance, including Milan, Siena, and Florence. In seventeenth-century England, Venice was hailed by antimonarchists as the model of a successful republican form of government. Chambers, David S. The Imperial Age of Venice, — New York : Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Martin, John, and Dennis Romano, eds. Baltimore, Md. Norwich, John Julius. Victories BeyondtheSea and in Romania. Illuminated Initial from the Maritime Code of Doge by Giovanni Bellini. Doge Andrea Gritti by Titian The World Map of Fra Mauro. Pepper Prices at Venice Negotiating with the Mamluks. The Shifts in Other Trades. Travel Posters from Marco Polo The Constitutional Pyramid. Shipyard Workers. The Pizzigani Nautical Chart of SailPlans of Round Ships. A Cargo List and Double Entry Piccolo Grosso and Zecchino. Craftsmen and Seamen. The Climax of the Struggle with Genoa. Homes of Nobles in Byzantine and Gothic Styles. The Wooden Bridge at Rialto as painted by Carpaccio. The Courtyard of the Ducal Palace as painted by Guardi. The Fifteenth Century. Homes of Nobles in Byzantine and Gothic Styles. The Wooden Bridge at Rialto as painted by Carpaccio. The Courtyard of the Ducal Palace as painted by Guardi. The Fifteenth Century. The Condottiere in front of San Marco. The Sixteenth Century. Constantinople Istanbul Capital of the Ottoman Empire. A Session of the Great Council. Balloting in the Great Council. Glass Blowers and Their Furnace. Artisans at Work. The Gateway of the Arsenal Finance and Income from Power. Great Galley Approaching Rhodes. Disembarking Pilgrims in the Holy Land. A Light Galley alongside a Carack. The Opposing Fleets at the Battle of Lepanto. Argosies with Portly Sails. Caracks Setting Sail as painted by Carpaccio. A Hospital sketch by Titian. A ShipoftheLine. The Death of the Republic. The Structure of the Government. Strolling Maskers as painted by Longhi. The Completion and Preservation of the City. https://static.s123-cdn-static.com/uploads/4641971/normal_601ff253decaf.pdf https://uploads.strikinglycdn.com/files/287c1fa2-cba4-4521-8de8-5f9805e1bed7/die-postmortale-organtransplantation-eine-gemeinschaftliche- aufgabe-nach-11-abs-1-s-1-transplan-458.pdf https://static.s123-cdn-static.com/uploads/4639421/normal_602062c88001c.pdf https://files8.webydo.com/9585915/UploadedFiles/45428AE1-F8B5-0319-CC01-9D9FDF5B110E.pdf https://uploads.strikinglycdn.com/files/3cf77ff7-1847-45d2-8828-16604d4c2ed5/der-tropenpflanzer-1898-vol-2-zeitschrift-fur-tropische- landwirtschaft-organ-des-kolonial-wirt-348.pdf https://uploads.strikinglycdn.com/files/656df6c3-644a-4116-a727-3a2af9dbe030/juridisches-hulfsbuch-fur-partheyen-und-geschaftsmanner-und- das-ganze-eines-sollizitators-458.pdf