davis political review our campus, our conversation. dpr ISSUE NO. 2

WAR & DISARMAMENT masthead

Editor in Chief Ayesha Ishtiaq

Managing Editor Akhila Kandaswamy

EDITORIAL BOARD State National International State Editor Senior National Editor Senior International Editor Eli Elster Manasa Gogineni Brandon Jetter

Associate State Editor Associate National Editor Associate International Editor Devapriya Roy Ali Janku Armin Nouri Sydney Hack

PUBLIC RELATIONS CREATIVE TEAM COPY EDITORS AND BUSINESS Creative Director Chief Copy Editor Jullianne Nubla Jennifer Lind Angelo Zhao Graphic Designers Copy Editors Cozette Ellis Anna Gorski Erika Ortega Dylan Chicorel Meredith Bradley Navreet Hundal Viraj Rijal masthead

Staff Writers Ali Janku Eli Elster Alma Rodriguez Jenean Docter Ana Cristina Garrido Joseph Harrington Andrew Wooler Kymberley Chu Ankita Bhat Lei Otsuka Antione Menager Manasa Gogineni Armin Nouri Mariah Nibert Brandon Jetter Mark Godges Brandon Dimapasoc Max Rothschild Chloe Craig Michael Wheeler Claire Adams Mora Ognian Dalton Barthauer Naidelyn Buenrostro Dan Daskal Nayzak Wali-Ali Dennis Liang Priyal Thakral Devapriya Roy Rose Wang Diedra Bradley Ryan Mickle Don Congjuico Serena Uppal Dylan Chicorel Shelby Salyer CONTENTS | SPRING 2020 davis political review

6 The American Dream Reality Naidelyn Buenrostro

12 Disciples of all Nations Dalton Barthauer

18 Forever Wars Brandon Jetter

24 A Doctrine of Genocide Ayesha Ishtiaq

34 The Issue of Hong Kong: Youth Political Activism & Political Oppression Kym Chu

38 Bolsonaro: A New Normal Anna Gorski

44 Lei Otsuka

50 Cultural Destruction: A Wartime Phenomena Devapriya Roy

54 A War on Existence: Gun Violence and the NRA Shelby Salyer

4 davis political review Letter from the Editor

For scholars, thinkers and intellectuals,

the events we have experienced in our lives - stories we have thought about and pondered upon day and night. When I joined Davis Political Review three years ago, I had a place where my thoughts found a way to become words. Since then, Davis Political Review has challenged itself in every manner of speaking. Our team has worked tirelessly to bring our best possible self to the rest of the Davis student community and remade ourselves into what you can see today.

This year marks the second year of the Davis Political Review Annual Publication. In many what we achieved previously. We hope to get rid of redundancies, and to not become set in one simple mold. Instead, we want to bring something new, something exciting and some- thing everyone wants to read about.

When I chose the theme of this year’s publication - War and Disarmament, I was aware of the many layers that come attached to such a topic. As many point out, the youth cannot help but exude a certain idealism. I wanted to deliberately pursue this idealism because I team responded with great enthusiasm, and so these wonderful thinkers and writers, cre- ative designers and perceptive editors worked together to bring this theme to life.

In this publication, we have hoped to enlighten our readership in newer and profound ways to think about war. Every story here is capable of opening new doors to your thoughts and - gotten, to enhance our abilities to follow trends and create a vision of the world in a greater way. Our writers have demonstrated a wonderful ability to think out of the ordinary, to follow the dots in this world of constant headlines and stay true to their opinions.

When you read ahead, keep your mind open to their stories. Davis Political Review prides itself in the ability of allowing each voice to go forward without hindrances. We believe that our writers are capable of molding their intuitions, their ideas and their passions into some- of thought.

Davis Political Review remains a proud emissary of individuality and observation, layered with factual observance of the world around us. We hope this second issue of the Annual Publication can cater to your thirst about wars within and without.

Thank you, Ayesha Ishtiaq

davis political review 5 Greater Teacher Poverty Low-income Opportunity Mentorship EDUCATIONAL JUSTICE Communities

Economic Advantages Segregated Schools

Access to Resources Lack of Support

Well Funded High Cost Schools College Tuition THE AMERICAN

DREAM REALITYNaidelyn Buenrostro “ ducation is the civilway rightsup.” Educationissue of bedded in their minds. At a young age, United States is the leading country Eisour a time.right, but it is evident that the students dream that they can and will in providing all individuals with equal system recognizes it as a privilege. be someone they aspire to be but as opportunities in order to succeed. This The education system has been per- students get older, that dream slow- message has been the blueprint and ceived as being the leader in pro- ly begins to fade away. The American the foundation for everyone to follow. viding a path towards upward social Dream was founded on the principle It has projected the notion that indi- mobility, giving the impression that that opportunity in a society that pro- viduals do not need to come from a students of all backgrounds are able motes upward social mobility through certain background to attain success. to achieve their dreams. Students hard work is not only an attainable The belief that all individuals are equal from various backgrounds attend success, but also a freedom. Leaders and can attain success at the same school with the American Dream em- repeatedly convey the idea that the rate is simply false. Students that at-

6 davis political review Greater Teacher Poverty Low-income Opportunity Mentorship EDUCATIONAL public schools that were “only for JUSTICE Communities whites” in California because she was Economic Advantages case was taken up to the U.S. District Segregated Schools The school district later challenged the ruling and took it to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit; the Access to U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Resources Lack of Support U.S. District Court. A few months later, Governor Earl Warren signed a bill to end school segregation,, makingbut this Cali did- not end segregation. It would be - regate public schools. Following the Well Funded High Cost later that segregation would end. Schools College Tuition Yearsyears after Mendez v. Westminster, it setset precedentthe stage forfor Brown v. Board. This Design by Meredith Bradley case was brought to the U.S. Supreme Court to challenge and end segrega- tend underfunded and underserved cessful after. tion nationally.;; the case argued by schools are expected to achieve the civil rights champion, Thurgood Marshall. same success as students who at- The vast majority of Black, Latinx, A historical event that comes to mind tend extremely well-funded and well- and Native students face the Amer- “ - served schools. Black, Latinx, and Na- ican Reality. The American Reality: ism“ in the United States was the 1954 the false narratives and discrimina- landmark decision in Brown v. Board the policies and practices put in place tory policies, carried through insen- of Education of Topeka. In Brown v. that create a continuing cycle, which sible generations, which implement Board, the United States Supreme difficult to break. inequality and provide a lack of re- Court ruled in a 9-0, unanimous de- sources for underrepresented gr- mi- cision that “separate but equal” leg- Students do not put much thought norities,oups , thus creating barriers to at- islation is a violation of the Equal about the school they attend when tain success and reach upward social Naidelyn Buenrostro Protection Clause of the Fourteenth - mobility. Amendment. Thus, this Supreme ences, they see no inequality. That Court decision led to the desegre- begins to change as students get Systemic racism in education has led gation of schools, allowing students older and realize their reality, leading to a lack of representation in higher of all backgrounds to attend school them to towards make choices paths that will impact education institutions, leading to the together. Or so, it laid out the idea. their life. The student from a low-in- inequalities and disparities of attain- Over 60 years ago, racial segregation come community, one once of the bright- ing upward social mobility in America. in the United States was made illegal est in their class, might not attend a yet, despite the intent of making pro- four-year institution or will struggle gressive steps towards equality and along the way, while the student from desegregation of schools was the representation, schools still practice a privileged background will attend a 1947 case of Mendez v. Westminster. it. Today, the number of segregated four-year institution and likely be suc- In Mendez v. Westminster, nine year- schools have doubled since 1996, davis political review 7 where approximately 66 percent of termath of Brown v. Board, many right- but also having adequate resources, Black, Latinx, and Native students stu- wing conservatives began to witness sharing experiences, better teachers dents attend segregated schools. The the near end of the Jim Crow era and better programs. Getting rid of reason behind these staggering num- - segregation allows people to share bers has largely been due to the fact the same set of values so that when that similar to redlining, many school right-wing conservatives were wor- {Black, Latinx, and Native students] districts after Brown v. Board ensured ried about the progressive path the get to college it’s not a culture shock.” that Black, Latinx, and Native students United States was heading towards, were not to be integrated into their leading them to carry out the creation - schools; manyforming schools their own formed district their with of neo-segregated schools. Alabama ed the educational opportunities of ownpredominantly district with white predominantly students whiteand k- and various states began to create Black, Latinx, and Native students. eepingstudents Black, to keepLatinx, students and Native of students color private schools, which did not have to Due to the continuing practice of seg- out of the school system. As a result integrate due to the fact that the fed- regation, it has not allowed students of this idea, schools began to imple- eral government could only enforce to equally achieve. The resources ment loopholes around the Brown v. desegregation within public schools. are part of students’ quality educa- Board decision to keep certainstudents stud- of Alabama has one of the nation’s most tion, without the adequate resources, entscolor away from being integrated and segregated education systems. In students cannot achieve the same also keeping the adequate resources. 2018, according to the Equal Justice All of which the Brown v. Board deci- Initiative approximately 90 percent sion intended to stop. States began of Black students attended 75 of Al- environments and are not receiving to pass legislation that supposedly in- abama’s “failing” schools.” To this day, adequate resources and support, cluded “equal and diverse standards” Alabama has not removed the racist students will overlook their potential in all schools. language from their constitution. Al- and lose motivation to pursue a high- abama and other states have carried er education. The system has con- Some states succeededproceeded into enactingenact out a system that oppresses Black, tinuously questioned if Black, Latinx, and carrying outout out progressive legisla- Latinx, and Native students and has and Native students are deserving of tion, whereas other states disregard- created barriers. It is a continuous cy- receiving a quality education. - cle that has prevented students from eral states, particularly such as as in the South, achieving and attending a higher ed- While some states refused to make avoided the practice of integration ucation institution. education accessible, some states by passing legislation that kept seg- welcomed changes in the education regation alive in schools, despite the Supreme Court’s ruling. Alabama describes what segregation has pre- states to implement inclusive leg- is an example of how it was able to vented Black, Latinx, and Native stu- islation that made sure all students continue the racist policies and pre- dents from obtaining. were receiving an equal opportunity. serve segregated schools. Section - 256 of Alabama’s constitution states, “Segregation is something that was lished in 1960 when the state called “separate schools shall be provided normalized and has become [em- for education reform,; making it ac- for white and colored children.” After bedded] in the United States. [It] has - the Brown v. Board decision, Alabama still impacted a lot of things in our so- er education and for students from created an amendment that eliminat- ciety, today. ” disadvantaged and underrepresent- ed its responsibility to guarantee state He continued stating, “Integration is ed communities to seek the oppor- funding to public education, of which - tunity to enroll in higher education in- many Black students attend. In the af- ent backgrounds coming together,

8 davis political review laid out the “development, expansion, fornia was at its peak in terms of high- and integration of the facilities, cur- er education and economic growth; andinand the legislative legislative education action. action. system. It It Itcannot cannot cannot riculum, and standards of higher ed- students from all backgrounds began continue to leave behind historically ucation, in junior colleges [now Com- to attend the University of Califor- marginalized students.Without sub- munity Colleges], state colleges [now nia, California State University, and stantial change, reform, Black, Latinx, and CSU], UC and other institutions of California Community College sys- Native students will continue to turn be higher education in the state, to meet tem. However, it began to decline in leftaway behind. from applyingThe system or evenkeeps attending them out of [its] needs during the next ten years the late early 1970s when Governor higher education institutions, causing and thereafter.” Reagan, a Republican, used his “cut, there to be less and less representa- squeeze and trim” philosophy, and tion. California Supreme Court Justice, California’s education system took shared - a turn. Reagan cut state funding in Black, Latinx, and Native students cesshis views story story onmany of the the individuals education American looksystem. Dream. up to. all higher education institutions and are the most marginalized students in the education system. Racial seg- came to the United States and at- for Black, Latinx, and Native students regation is illegal, but the practice is tained degrees from Harvard Univer- - still very much present today. States sity, Yale Law School and Stanford cause he believed that the states are still practicing Jim Crow era laws. University. He has shared his story should not be spending on students’ In The Color of Law, Richard Rothstein and inspired many to pursue their intellectual curiosity. Reagan was not explains the practice of redlining and goals. Among all the achievements describes the racial segregation that California’s education system. In the exists through the practice of “defac- worked for the Obama Administration 1970s, Democratic governor Jerry to segregation.” Numbers play a sig- and served as a co-chair in the Equity Brown made “lower your expecta- and Excellence Commission,. where tions” the mantra, which further di- just money but zip codes too. For in- hehe worked worked on on ways equal to improve and equitable and gressed the education system in Cal- stance, neighborhoods that are along increase education. equity in the education sys- ifornia. A couple years later, California the freeways or separated by rail- tem. strayed away from the promises to roads are segregated; Black, Latinx, students and passed Proposition 13 in and Native students are already seg- believed that California can lead the - way, we did an extraordinary thing tem from a source of funding. In 1988, live determines the future education Proposition 98 passed; it outlined they will receive. According to recent country that it was possible to scale that there was a minimum funding studies, Black, Latinx, and Native stu- up institutions to educate millions of for K-12 schools and very little for the dents face poverty six times more people from diverse backgrounds. UC and CSU system, allowing tuition than their white peers as a result of But, over time we have come to real- to increase dramatically. Under Pete redlining. Students from low-income ize that reforms are needed and inno- Wilson, Proposition 209 was enacted neighborhoods attend schools that vations are key.” and prohibited state institutions from lack the necessary and adequate re- considering race, ethnicity and sex in sources to cater to students. Schools - university admissions, public employ- that are in low-income communities sponse in the state’s education sys- ment etcetera; this was the end of af- are often underfunded, whereas af- tem and expansion of the California immensely more funding and have the resourc- California cantoo, lead has theits history way as ofit onceenac- es necessary for students to attain a During the early to mid-1960s, Cali- tingdid anddiscriminatory in order to policies. do so, there There has has higher education. In certain school has davis political review 9 districts, schools that serve low-in- circumstances at home for kids who come students receive approximately By Lopez’s school is a Jack in the Box, across is a motel and seconds away is the freeway. Students enter education funding models that are from each other to determine which the school seeing murals painted school students will attend. The dis- with encouraging messages on the Studies by the National Center for trict line can be less than a mile away walls as they walk down the hallways Education Statistics show that stu- or even a block away from one house and go to their classrooms. Inside dents “living in poverty during early to another and yet, determines the the classrooms, there are some that childhood is associated with low- quality of education the student will have chalkboards; the gym has not er-than-average academic perfor- receive. been remodeled in years,; the grass in mance that begins in kindergarten the quad is semi-dry, surrounded by and extends through high school, Susana Lopez, a student at UC Davis, some benches. Not too far away from leading to lower-than-average school describes the high school she attend- her high school, is a school that is ap- completion.” This creates a dispro- ed and the obstacles she faces being proximately ten minutes away from a student of color at a four-year insti- for Black, Latinx, and Native students. tution. the picture, the school ten minutes away from Lopez’s school is known Kenny Vargas, a student at UC Davis, Lopez states, “We had outdated ta- for having hit TV shows and movies illustrates the everyday challenges bles; the sink didn’t work, so we never She’s All he faced growing up in South Central really did any real science labs; the That, Beverly Hills, 90210 and Bruce Los Angeles. He explained the envi- Almighty. Surrounding this school is a ronment that he grew up in and the tried their best but they didn’t have nearby park, a church, a private school the resources; our school was really outdated.” This high school has not one but two school. gyms, a quad area with a fountain and Lopez explains that students at her Vargas explains, “At a young age, my school did not have the adequate re- the interior and exterior of both cam- parents told me to go to school, to get sources needed in order to perform puses, along with the resources and the standards or objectives that were funding is astonishing. According to was in the heart of the projects. I saw planned by the state for students to a study by EdBuild, Black, Latinx, and a lot of people die, I got beat up a learn. According to studies, students Native students are enrolled in over- couple times, I got chased a couple that are located within cities tend to populated and underfunded school of times. [Teachers] did not really care have less funding, whereas schools districts, which has a pivotal role in a about their students, they tried but that are located in the suburbs have student’s performance. they gave up quickly.” more resources and are able to pro- Vargas described that students in his vide funding for the schools because - school were likely to “get into bad of the small amount of students they ty teachers, support for teachers who things” because there was an ab- cater to.; and the majority being white have a great many students, often sence of guidance and support from students attending these schools. many in areas of concentrated pov- the faculty. He further mentioned Lopez emphasizes, “We were trying erty, lack of infrastructure and lack of that the surrounding neighborhood to make [it] happen for us, but we access to technology that is needed.” around the school was not much help weren’t really there yet, we had the He continued, saying that there has for student success either. bare necessities.” to be support in order to “improve

10 davis political review A large percentage of Black, Lat- does. As a result, low-income children pre-determining the school and qual- inx, and Native students come from grow in an environment where work is ity of education they will receive. low-income backgrounds. According constant, and a lack of education is to the National Center for Children being received in school, leading stu- He continued stating, “The many in Poverty, the students that live in dents to put a pause to college. problems that we have providing low-income neighborhoods are: 65 broader economic mobility are often percent Black; 62 percent American If students from disadvantaged back- problems that require schools and Indian; 62 percent Hispanic/Latinx. grounds do not pursue a higher ed- universities to work in more innova- Oftentimes, students that live in these ucation, studies show that they will tive ways. So we have to redouble our neighborhoods and attend school make an income of approximately with little support and resources drop welcoming environment for people out early from school, work or attend attending a higher education institu- a higher education institution and do tion will make approximately $90,000. the right mix of funding, role models, shows - support in and outside of schools that Latinx, and Native students that live in tion assists in promoting social mobil- will give people the shot at improving their futures.” more likely to drop out. “‘Segregation is some- Vargas states, “We were stuck in thing that was normalized Support and encouragement are poverty and I wanted to work. After - a couple years of taking care of my and has become [embed- dent’s success. It is what allows family, I got tired of [working] so I ded] in the United States. students to be engaged and be went to school.” [It] has still impacted a lot curious about the world around them. Unfortunately, the schools Students that are primarily locat- of things in our society, and districts that most Black, Lat- ed in poor urban districts and ru- today.’” inx, and Native students are en- ral areas attend schools that servefail to serve rolled in are severely underfund- disadvantaged students, causing stu- ity for students from disadvantaged ed. Without the necessary resources dents to endure the most educational backgrounds. Affirmative If higher action education is si- to address the continuing issues, im- setbacks. One setback that students gnificantinstitutions for took a plethora this action, of reasons. it would For provement is hardly likely to be seen located in these areas face is an eco- one,allowincrease it disadvantaged would the allow possibilities and students open of gettingoppor- to rise soon. TheLack unequal of representation representation and andthe disd- nomic disadvantage. Low-income abovetunitiesaway from the for poverty.povertyhistorically line. marginalized g- iscrimination has kept opportunities away. families make an average of less than roups. Bryan Cendejas, a student at UC $25,000 a year; this income leaves Berkeley, addressed one of the chal- the family with little to provide for trajectory in the lives of kids who are lenges he faced that changed his certain resources than those who are perspective of school and how he lat- bounded by literally just a few blocks, er discovered higher education. children. A student who comes from that have concentrated poverty, He stated, “I stopped believing in my- - higher crime, fewer opportunities for self [when] my middle school teacher - mentorship and for role models.” told me to ditch better if I didn’t want ogy, books, school supplies, etcetera. This is a continuous cycle that illus- to be in her class; simply for asking Whereas, a student from a low-in- trates thatwhat growingBlack, Latinx up inand a low-inNative- too many questions in class. I wanted come background may have some studentscome neighborhood, have to overcome. students They areare to learn. So, I felt like if she didn’t want necessary supplies, but not all that a already put into a system that puts to help me, there was something them at a disadvantage, therefore wrong with me.”

davis political review 11 According to the No Child Left Behind cation system, school districts play create a system through this pro- Act, states were to ensure all students a large role in determining the qual- ity of education students receive. In of knowledge and motive as to who teachers.” However, Black, Latinx, and the 1974 case, Milliken v. Bradley, the they are targeting. The lines that are Native students frequently have less courts ruled that schools do not have being drawn create borders along so- - to integrate or have racial balance in schools, so long as the district lines has a large economic and racial mo- from the U.S. Department of Educa- were not drawn with racist intent. Due tive. When the school(s) disassociate to this decision, schools were able to themselves from the large district, it is that Black, Hispanic/Latinx and Na- escape the process of desegregation now small, which allows them to draw tive American students are enrolled and busing. Under this ruling, it be- their district lines and determine the in schools with higher concentrations came possible for school districts to type of students that are allowed to of less experienced teachers than redraw lines and allowed schools to take action during their admissions this process, school districts are more There is little support being given to process. Some schools in the United likely to have less Black, Latinx, and Black, Latinx, and Native students, as States have begun seceeding. School Native students. Now, schools that some ignore the potential in students. district secession is the practice of stay in the large school district typ- Cendejas further expressed, “I gave ically have more Black, Latinx, and up because I thought I was dumb, I district that they were a part of and Native students, thus receiving lit- thought I was a student that couldn’t creating their own smaller district. On tle funding because the district (and learn. I [later] learned about college average, large schools districts range the state) have to provide for a large when I was maybe 17, [when] I started from approximately 10,500 students amount of students, faculty, resourc- working around a lot of [privileged]white es, and more. For instance, in South people.” “‘I felt like if she didn’t San Antonio, Texas, the school dis- want to help me, there trict receives approximately less The environment students are ex- than $8,500 per student, whereas posed to creates a response that was something wrong the school district in Doss, Texas determines the direction they may with me.’” receives approximately $50,000 head towards. Obstacles are set per student. In the United States, into place, and Black, Latinx, and Na- to about 600,000 students. Where- approximately 60 percent of schools tive students face this time and time as, smaller districts can have as little have seceded, isolating Black, Latinx, again because of the inadequate re- as 1,500 students. Such schools that and Native students from attending sponses and lack of support from practice this, have made the assertion well-funded schools. The political those who are supposed to help en- that they take this action in order to and legal decisions of the past and sure students succeed equally. Their obtain more control over the funding present have allowed and made it intellectualism and ambition is often and distribution of school resources, easier for schools to secede, and is questioned; sometimes it puts a halt asserting local control; cities are ca- one of the reasons why segregation to their dreams and causes them to pable of self-funding and self-gov- still exists today. settle. This shouldn’t be the case; stu- erning schools. dents’ intellectualism and ambition Schools emphasize the importance should not be questioned, it should But the idea of local control is not of diversity and how it has “ stepped be encouraged. merely about having more control up ”to ensure all students are achiev- While the federal and state govern- of schools but rather, the resistance ing their full potential and given the ments are responsible for the edu- to school integration. When schools education they deserve. However,

12 davis political review studies show that Black, Latinx, and Alaska Native students; 7 percent has taught Black, Latinx, and Native Native students are at a disadvan- students that their culture is inferior tage, facing a plethora of barriers to percent Black students; and 18 per- and has allowed whites to believe - cent Hispanic/Latinx students en- that they are superior. As the U.S. be- ated under the Kennedy administra- rolled. The Bakke decision allowed came more multicultural and mul- tion with the intent to give students society to believe that racism was tiracial, it established an education from underrepresented communi- system that left behind and ignored ties the equal opportunity to increase no longer needed because the issue students’ cultures and backgrounds. representation in all areas, especially of racism was “resolved.” However, it So, when it established an education in higher education. Due to this policy, revealed that racism was indeed very system, they made sure that non- underrepresentedminorities were ablegroups to enrolled attend highin high-- present, showing that fewer under- minori- white students were able to learn er education and other areas in high representedties were attending.being groups represented. were being re- enough about the country and be numbers and while many saw this as presentedre- in a plethora of areas. “Americanized” but not allow them a step forward, others argued that it From the moment students of color to learn too much or recieve a quality was racial discrimination to favor cer- step foot on a college campus, they education; this prevented Black, Lat- tain backgrounds. are constantly reminded why they do inx, and Native students from being not belong. When really, they do be- able to succeed. In 1978, the Supreme Court took the long. case, Regents of the University of Cali- UC Davis student, Aliyah Kleckley ex- As time went by, Black, Latinx, and fornia v. Bakke which dealt with the is- pressed, “Lack of diversity, it sucks. Native students saw and witnessed You feel lonely, not a closeness of the injustice and fought for their right student was denied admission to the community.” to be allowed in schools that banned them. And so, when they do break the of the 100 seats were reserved for mi- Black, Latinx, and Native students cycle and attend higher education that attend four-year institutions of- institutions, they experience culture Bakke argued that he was denied ten see a lack of representation when shock, and racist and xenophobic based on race. The court ruled in fa- they are immersed into a new envi- messages when they arrive on cam- vor of Bakke and made the assertion ronment. Universities boast about the pus. that institutions cannot use racial quo- diversity on their campus, showing In 1879, Carlisle was established to tas as part of the admission process the pamphlets of students from var- forceApproximately Native Americans three centuries to assimilate. ago, but can use race as one of the several ious backgrounds. While the universi- By the mid 1970s, the government s- factors in the admissions process. ties’ intent is to allow students to see hutfrom down Harvard, boarding but attended schools like the colCarli-- themselves at a four-year institution, slelege but designated took little action for Native to help Ameri Natives- - they should acknowledge the lack of after.- versities to weaken the enrollment representation and address the rac- of disadvantaged and underrepre- ism that occurs on campus. sented groups in the United States. - welcome his presence on campus. InDu- In a report by Georgetown University dressed then it will persist. It does not theuring 1960s, that Hispanic/Latinx time, Latinx students Center on Education and the Work- matter if it seems as though the prob- were also not very well accepted or force, white students make up 64 lem is over, if there is still a problem welcomed to attend higher educa- percent in selective public colleges. and if it is left unaddressed the prob- According to the National Center for lem is going to continue to grow.” Latinx, and Native students fought Education Statistics, there are less for, still continues today. Despite the than 1 percent of American Indian/ For too long, the education system time that has passed, discrimination is

davis political review 13 still very present in many campuses edgement from universities has led support once students get to col- across the United States. to students taking action to change lege because it’s not just a question the campus environment, mainly of getting to college, it’s a question of TwoAbout years two ago years at Dukeago at University, Duke because students have reached a staying in college and succeeding in UniversityHispanic and , Latinx students were college,” told that their presence was not wel- comed as their painting was vandal- action, butbut universitiesthe university are is responsible meant to He continued saying, “we’ve seen ized. In response,to Hispanic/Latinx that action, the caterfor the to culture all students’ they create needs and and allow. fos- greater recognition in the last few de- students painted a statement that Theyter a morecannot inclusive continue environment, to ignore; they so cades that universities need to have read, “They tried to bury us. They haveit should to take part in making substan- a mission and that mission is to make didn’t know we were seeds.” In 2014, tial change. The response of some sure that students who have parents Black students were targeted at the that have never been to college or changing the campus climate. It is students spread cotton balls by the more than simply writing a statement that those universities are there for Black Culture Center. This and oth- of the event or stating that there is an them too and that means not only er incidents, led students to protest “ongoing investigation” with little de- academic support but it also means against racism that occured on cam- tails to inform students of what is to helping them navigate the social en- pus, went on a hunger strike, and later vironment.” led to the football team announcing Black, Latinx, and Native students. that it wouldn’t play or attend practice until the university president resigned, students attend a higher education in which he did. Last year at the Uni- we have to [face]. There is no com- institution, the universities must also versity of Arizona, the university pres- munity, there is a feeling of alienation meet their needs. - from everyone else.” wards Native American students. The DueRacism to theand lackdiscrimination of representation is howembedd- the in students spoke out against the lan- Black, Latinx, and Native students are inhighersystem the US’s education in thesystem. US this hasIt has createsprevented prevented aand prob min- pe-min-- guage and demanded accountability lemorities in thefrom future succeeding forin the United since itsStates ince- from him as he negatively impacted the experiences they face; they ex- suchption. that, It was if Black, never Latinx,made toand serve Native min- the Native American community on perience discrimination, racism , andmi- orties,students, only are to notkeep represented them out. atThe the campus. At Yale, students formed the croagressions,microaggressions. etc. The experience for systemuniversity, has itto will be continuedismantled. to If repeat not, Black, Latinx, and Native students in this cycle of inequality and injustice. the lack of acknowledgement about will continue. the racism that occurs on campus. have to carry psychological and emo- Cendejas states, “{White people} And now with COVID-19, classes have tional stress and manage academia. don’t understand. They think it’s us resumed online, further revealing the Without having more Black, Latinx, doing something wrong, when really inequalities that students from disad- and Native students attending at a vantaged backgrounds face. With on- plethora of higher education institu- us, not on the system.” line classes, Zoom has been the new tions, they face a constant battle to classroom, and has allowed people prove their worth everyday. Univer- HeCendejas further further expressed, expressed, “The [educa -

behind the screen to feel more pow- sities must meet and respond to the “Thetion] system is not serving {Black, erful to use hateful, racist and dis- needs of Black, Latinx, and Native Latinx, and Native people]. students}. It’s un- criminatory language. students. fortunate, it’s sad that change is not coming soon, until {Black, Latinx, and The lack of action and acknowl- people]

14 davis political review [that] change. Like always, it’s us.” There is still a system of dominance ability and their potential. This and in place and it has become normal- more creates a continuing cycle that - ized in the United States. Racial laws, keeps students away from achieving tory as being heroic and standing for policies and regulations have pre- their full potential and aspirations. what is right, reminding Americans vented Black, Latinx, and Native stu- of how far the country has moved dents from achieving and climbing TheThere education must be significant, system must meaning- change forward from the past. Sometimes up the ladder. Today, it has become ful change. - people forget who fought for a better more transparent than ever that there tive students should not be barred is a government set in place that has from a quality education nor should and equal system. lacked addressing the issues and they be questioned if they deserve needs for Black, Latinx, and Native it. Black, Latinx, and Native students When it seems as though the United students. Under the Trump adminis- should not question their belonging, States is progressing,attempting to it progress, somehow it didi-- tration, the Americanpublic hashas public heardheard has thethe clai-seen cla- their presence or their intellectual- imsthems claims andand rhetoric and rhetoric usedused used to to attack toattack attack takes over. In 2018, then-Attorney minorities. The Trump administra- achieve. The American Reality stands tion lacks the understanding of what in the way of their success; everyone Obama-era education guidelines Black, Latinx, and Native students is deserving of fulfillingthe American their Dream.dreams. which helped promote equity and face; it is out of touch with the reali- Be proud of diversity, welcome it; equality in schools. Under Betsy De- ties Black, Latinx, and Native students embrace cultures, races, ethnicities, Vos, the Department of Education is etcetera and promote an equal and digressing the progress that past gen- role of the Department of Education just system so future generations do erations have long fought for. DeVos and Black, Latinx, and Native stu- not have to endure to break the cycle has proposed redirecting funding to of injustice and inequality. the private system; she has repeat- - Kleckley expressed, “I’m here for edly refused to protect all students; sue[s] in society ties to segregation, a reason. I’m lucky to be here, so I eliminated “unnecessary” guidelines, and is why white people maintain and has made workforce cuts in the dominance.” She is not the only one that feels this Department of Education, one of the way. Black, Latinx, and Native stu- If the people in charge that are sup- Civil Rights. There are people in po- posed to serve the public are not al- hustling and running a marathon with sitions of power that dofailfail not toto acknowl- lowing change towards an equal and a relentless mentality to break the cy- edge the wrongdoings and the racist equitable society, the cycle will con- cle and barriers set in place. It is time Text policies set into practice,; somehow tinue. With the policies put in place, it that there be actionan equal for andaccess Textjust to syst- an they infer that it is the problem of has prevented Black, Latinx, and Na- emequalText and and equitable education--it’s Black, Latinx, and Native people and tive students from attaining a higher been long overdue. Black, Latinx, and Native people are education; without a higher education to blame for not being able to achieve. there are less Black, Latinx, and Na- tive students represented in the pro- begins when people do not acknowl- fessional workforce; without Black, edge the legacy of racism. Segrega- Latinx, and Native students in various tion was really normalized in the 20th a century and a lot of people do not guidance for Black, Latinx, and Native realize or believe that we still live in a students and lack of relatability; when very racist and segregated society.” students face this, they question their

davis political review 15 x DISCIPLES OF

ALL NATIONSDalton Barthauer given to me. Therefore, go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey - Matthew 28: 18-20, NIV

s there room for God in countries with these assumptions, and informa- “Views of Putin really depend on what Iwhere the government is the al- tion that isn’t consistent often doesn’t generation you ask,” says Germann, a mighty power? If so, how do Christians get recognized. Authoritarian regimes - spread their faith to every country, can use this deliberately: they can not cow who prefers the name Gary. “Peo- allow certain information or spin it.” without running afoul of authorities well liked in Russia even among the who are suspicious of their intentions? In an increasingly connected world younger generation. And Putin has Throughout history, this conundrum characterized by communication of done good things for Russia.” has played out a multitude of ways; peoples from across the globe, reli- oftentimes, not in favor of the Church. gion can be a means for authoritarian While this overall support of Putin In the Soviet Union, Nazi Germany, might seem strange to those in the Fascist Italy and many other countries, their citizens. “Authoritarian regimes West, he stabilized the economic tur- the Church was not tolerated as an can form important alliances with re- moil of the 1990s and is at least super- equal. At best, it was subjugated to be ligious organizations. In those coun- used as a propaganda tool for the re- tries, a relationship with a church has history as a global power. These facts gime, and at worst it could potentially as much to do with national identity supersede the authoritarian nature challenge the state and was attacked. as it is about religion,” says Dickinson. of the current government. Seeking However, time has proven the resil- “It’s not really a question about faith, in part to reassert Russia as a glob- iency of these religions. but it is a question about religion.” al power as a means to increase this The ability of the Church to survive domestic support, Putin has found an Recent decades have seen autocrat- persecution serves as evidence of its unexpected ally in local religion. The ic governments become much more enduring popularity among segments Russian Orthodox Church’s roots are willing to allow for the existence of of society, and authoritarian regimes deep in Russian society, wielding con- churches. Are dictators simply be- see more utility for religious tolerance - coming more benevolent, or have they even to the point of an alliance. out Russia’s history, and its member- perhaps learned from the startling re- ship has a nationalistic sentiment with silience of churches in countries like In Russia, Vladimir Putin’s tenure as as much as 80 percent of Russians Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union? leader has stretched into its third de- considering themselves Orthodox. cade, his grip on power a product of “In a given view of the world, there are political manipulation of the media As described by Gary, “a lot of Rus- certain categories or assumptions that and arresting oligarchs that dare to sians claim that they are Orthodox, but structure the way people receive in- challenge him. The result is wide- so few actually attend that it’s really formation,” says Professor Dickinson, spread pro-Putin propaganda and a just part of who they are as Russians.” a UC Davis history professor* who has political landscape devoid of rivals, In his relentless pursuit of popular- researched Christian men’s organiza- which has led to skyrocketing popu- ity, Putin has looked to the Orthodox tions and East Germany. “Information larity. Church as a rallying cry for Russian nationalism. The Russian leader reg-

davis political review 17

Design by Erika Ortega ularly uses Christian language in his other denominations in Russia. When ceded to Britain as a Crown Colony, speeches, implying ,with the Church’s Gary visited St. Petersburg in 2017 on full support, that his incursions into a mission trip, the government kept a Chinese ports were forced to give Syria will protect Christian values and close eye on him. “There are still very British merchants extraterritorial priv- Christian communities there, and ref- strict restrictions on Christians as to ileges and the government had to erencing the West’s supposed “de- what they can do there. You can’t go bauchery” in media and acceptance out and talk about your faith outside of supported the drafting of this treaty, of homosexual lifestyles. your square building or have signs or as it forced the Chinese government - to allow missionaries to spread their “It kind of has this divinity aspect that er’ who would keep an eye on us and faith through the whole of China. Due God has given him this role of leader- see what we were doing.” to the political roles that these ear- ship,” says Gary. “That isn’t to say that ly missionaries played in exploiting he actually uses the teachings in how While the Russian government uses China, the Communist revolution re- he rules; it’s just kind of part of the cul- religious language to secure its hold moved accommodations made for ture that he’s adapted.” domestically, countries such as Chi- Christians. na use the mere existence of Christian Despite the Chinese Communist Par- The Russian Orthodox Church has communities to project an international enthusiastically embraced their role image of harmony. China’s relationship did not force Christianity out when in the Putin era, as Gary explains: “on with Christianity is much more compli- he seized power in 1949. On the oth- a government level, the Church has er hand,, Yuejun explains how even China was via Jesuit missionaries who from the beginning Christianity fal- Traditional marriage, family oriented, came to spread their faith in Imperial tered under the heavy scrutiny of the morality, are all Putin using theology China. Their arrival was initially viewed from the Church. Very conservative as a positive way to develop relations and traditional.” and trade ties with nations like Britain Republic of China, he decided that and Italy. Christianity can stay, but it must follow three principles; it must be spread by term as president of Russia, Putin “Those missionaries were superior to - signed the “Gay Propaganda Law.” This China’s own peasants because they selves and the priests must be chosen law prohibited the “promotion” of the come from the West” says Yuejun, homosexual lifestyle by banning any a UC Davis student from Shanghai. experienced government persecu- images of homosexuality in Russian “This means trading with the Western tion and mass purges of Christians. media or the distribution of “pro-ho- nations. So, the government funded As time passed, the opening of China mosexual propaganda” for the stated the building of some churches in ex- to the world saw indigenous Chris- reason of protecting Russian children change for Western trade and support. tian communities sprout, albeit under and family values. The Church has But, based on the modern view, those heavy restriction. missionaries are bad because most relationship: around 25,000 churches unequal treaties were signed with the Today, the People’s Republic of China that were destroyed under the Soviet interaction with the missionaries: for maintains three centralized, govern- regime have been rebuilt under Putin. example, the Treaty of Nanking.” ment approved institutions: the Prot- estant Three-Self Church, the China However, Putin’s warm embrace of The Treaty of Nanking ended the First Christian Council and the Chinese Pa- the Russian Orthodox Church does Opium War, severely damaging Chi- triotic Catholic Church. not extend a free hand to Christians of nese sovereignty. Hong Kong was According to Yuejun, China’s indig-

18 davis political review enous Catholic community shares ligious rhetoric particularly aimed at stitutions that govern Cambodia. In- many similarities to its Western coun- Christians, a new wave of arrests of frastructure in Cambodia lags behind terparts. “There is a huge Catholic Ca- religious clergy and a new law ban- most of its neighbors, and the govern- thedral in the heart of Shanghai called ning anyone under the age of 18 from ment struggles to provide education St. Ignatius Cathedral, located right at entering a church. It seems that Chi- and development for the country’s 15 the center of a very popular region and na’s battle against perceived foreign million inhabitants. the seat of the Bishop of Shanghai.” more. Christian organizations do consider- The Patriotic Catholic Church is not able work to help the people of Cam- recognized by the Holy See as its entire Not every authoritarian country has bodia. When Khmer Rouge atrocities clergy is selected and approved by the had such a cynical relationship with drove tens of thousands of refugees CCP, and the People’s Republic of Chi- the Church. In these countries, Chris- - na has not maintained any diplomatic tians can play an immensely positive ganizations were eager to provide relations with the Vatican City since its role in their respective societies both food and basic medical care to them. founding. Protestants, mostly located materially and beyond the physical. In 1991, the refugees returned as the in rural regions, also have the tac- UN launched a mission to restore it approval of the government. . “... there is an opportuni- Cambodia to a functioning status, However, this does not mean that ty for an exchange of and missionary organizations of- China’s recognition of Christianity is fered their assistance. Since then, - cultural values from Christian missionaries have tack- ly, Yuejan asserts that the Chinese spiritual to political, and led everything from education to are wary of the Church’s history and it is on this common the building of roads and housing possibility of being an agent of for- tracts to simple tourism functions ground that God has for no monetary gain in return. The “Christianity has disciples, but it is found a place in government appears truly grateful not popular. As I learned more about authoritarian systems.” to those who would help rebuild their country and grants more happened with this crusade? A schism, While powerful countries like China privileges to foreign visitors than the a schism again? The church is above have the capacity to regulate the lives average Cambodian citizen to foster the country? Why is this king [Henry IV] of their people, there are many coun- this foreign presence. kneeling at the Popes door? In the end, tries where the regime is unable to Yet the opening of the country did not we remember that this is a communist provide primary education. Cambodia mean the opening of politics. Cambo- land; and the people will rule it, not the has never known democracy; years of dia’s government has largely shifted Church.’” absolutist monarchy were interrupted away from the strict economic cen- by several hundred years of French tralization of traditional communism, However, China’s visible Christian colonization, only to be replaced by adopting neoliberal economic practic- community is coupled with an invisi- the sadistic reign of the Khmer Rouge es and even the façade of democracy. ble one. Underground churches have government under Pol Pot. After a Transparency International’s Corrup- sprung up throughout China’s history, brutal genocide that killed 1.5 mil- tion Perception Index ranks Cambodia and even today it is not uncommon lion, Vietnam invaded to topple the 162nd out of 180 countries, making for people who attend these church Khmer Rouge government, installing Cambodia one of the most political- meetings to be arrested and detained the Cambodian People’s Party to lead ly corrupt nations in the world. Prime without trial. The recent years under the country. This tumultuous history Xi Jinping have seen a rise in anti-re- - since 1985 and has many allegations

davis political review 19 of human rights abuses against him, - such as his do so free of charge and and his Cambodian People’s Party ruption. Because of the importance do so to prevent corruption by not ac- dominates domestic politics through of ksy, those who are poor don’t have cepting money. “We have to be care- rigged elections and near exclusive any opportunity. A lot of kids have to - control of the media, currently hold- work to help support their families.” ey [from the government], but at the ing all but four seats in the parliament. Despite these issues, however, Uri- same time we don’t want to be han- jah sees the current government as a dling education and building roads “In Cambodia, they have a concept means for good, should they choose it while they keep the money they had called ksy,” explains Urijah, director of - earmarked for that.” a prominent Christian mission organi- form, not exchange. I am support- zation in Poipet, Cambodia. “It literally ive of the current government, and I - don’t think it’s our place, as foreigners, jah maintains a gratefulness in having - to decide what kind of government the opportunity to help the people of der crossing infamous for scams. Cambodia should have. I think they’ve - There’s a tourist company here who had enough of that. With that, there side of the presence of God, and I be- has a lot of ksy, so they have an ar- are some overall frustrations. While lieve I feel his love for the people of rangement with the government so education is a focus for us, it’s not our this nation. I, myself, have a love for that they are the only ones able to sell job, it’s the government’s.” these people that I’ve never known things like bus tickets, for instance. before. I’m on their side, and I’m for So it’s not like there’s this terrible, “‘The teaching of God is these people.” massive oppression, but it is really reasonable,’ says Yue- corrupt.” Indeed, there are two recurring jun. ‘He tells people to commonalities in all cases that are However, Urijah contends that love, not to hate, to do quite striking: the understanding the daily lives of Cambodians are things for charity, to do of Christianity even from cultures largely independent of what goes where there is not much of a Chris- on in the realms of high politics, far things for the good… tian presence and overwhelming- from being managed by a totalitar- to love people, not to ly positive attitudes regarding the ian system. “There is really minimal Church. government involvement in day hate, to do things for the to day life. People don’t pay tax- poor.’” “The teaching of God is reason- es, you don’t need permits to build able,” says Yuejun. “He tells people things…in many ways, the government Therefore, missionaries with the to love, not to hate, to do things for is incredibly lax. And I am totally un- Cambodian government provide ba- charity, to do things for the good…to restricted in the sharing of my faith. In sic education for Cambodian chil- love people, not to hate, to do things that way, this is the most open place dren, teaching subjects such as En- for the poor.” I’ve ever been.” glish that can assist the entire country “Russia is a really tough place to grow in an increasingly globalized econo- up in,” says Gary, “both due to the el- However, this also means the people ements and just societally. I think the receive little aid from the government. percentage of literate adults has ris- message of Christianity gives people “People here want the government to en by more than 30 percent in the last hope.” do more,” says Urijah. “Especially in 20years. areas like education, quality health- This understanding of other view- care, infrastructure- even things like According to Urijah, organizations points comes as a surprise when

20 davis political review authoritarian regimes are viewed with a Western bias. It is a profound example of the better nature of the human condition and a far cry from the intolerant attitudes of generations past between church and state. In this air of mutual respect, there is an op- portunity for an exchange of cultural values from spiritual to political, and it is on this common ground that God has found a place in authoritarian sys- tems.

davis political review 21 FOREVER

WARSBrandon Jetter

Design by Erika Ortega he Trump Administration’s an- with these wars, yet both parties re- - Tnouncement this past February main steadfast in their embrace of that it had signed a peace agreement American foreign policy exceptional- Democrats began to reject the grow- with the Taliban to end the war in Af- ism. - ghanistan came as a shock to many posed to the non-interventionism and -- and rightfully so. The plan, which Born out of its post-WWII status as a anti-Zionism advocated by the young called for a total withdrawal of US and global military superpower, the for- activist wing of the Democratic Party, NATO troops within 14 months if Tali- eign policy of the modern United they migrated out of their once leftist ban militants uphold their end of the States has a long history of bipartisan circles and into the Republican Party, deal, marks the end of the longest war domestic allegiance. Early on, Dwight where they developed the ideologi- in United States history. D. Eisenhower’s defeat of the Repub- cal strain that soon became known as lican Party’s William Taft-led isolation- neoconservatism. In its entirety, the United States has ist wing in 1952 led to the abandon- spent nearly two decades, 18 years ment of isolationist foreign policy. The With its support of humanitarian in- to be precise, engaged in armed con- Democratic Party, meanwhile, took a terventionism and the promotion of staunch anti-communist approach in democratic values abroad, the neo- the 1950s and ’60s, supporting wars conservative movement immediately administrations. A war so long that by in Korea and Vietnam, before the dov- found itself at home in conservative ish side of the party took over follow- intellectual circles of the Cold War American history, the U.S. military was ing the successful nomination bid of era. Consequently, advocates of the actively recruiting soldiers born after it ideology were able to rapidly take initially began. All things considered, over think tanks and publications like it’s not a surprise that the War in Af- the American Enterprise Institute and ghanistan has become synonymous nomination at the highly controversial Commentary Magazine, transforming with the concept of forever wars, the 1968 Democratic National Convention those institutions into public forums idea that the American military has in Chicago. There, a starkly divided for their ideology. Before long, neo- become stuck in perpetual foreign Democratic Party searched for a via- conservatism became a mainstay - ble candidate after incumbent Pres- ideology in establishment Republican ident and advocate of the Vietnam politics. both sides. War, Lyndon B. Johnson, opted not Yet while the neoconservative move- American forces are now spread out, other anti-war candidates (most no- ment gained a great degree of insti- quite literally, across the planet. In tutional power during the advent of 2017, the New York Times reported that majority of voters, but lost out on the the Cold War (in particular among the some 240,000 active-duty and re- candidacy to Hubert Humphrey, who Reagan administration), it still man- serve American troops were distribut- was seen as Johnson’s favorite . In the subsequent chaos, protests and strains of conservatism. In particular, riots broke out all across the city of neocons clashed with advocates of - Chicago and anti-war protestors de- paleoconservatism: a traditionalist, ther. Over the last two decades, Amer- cried the nomination, seeing it as an isolationist ideology that had grown icans have died everywhere, from re- establishment-rigged endorsement out of the anti-imperialist Old Right of mote deserts in Niger to islands in the of American imperialism. decades prior. Due in part to its inher- southern Philippines. The American ently populist nature, paleoconserva- public has grown widely disillusioned Four years later, in the ensuing polit- tism never quite gained the political

Design by Erika Ortega davis political review 23 clout of its rival intellectual. themselves within the liberal interven- It did, however, give the movement a and Wisconsin were partially related tionist wing of the Democratic Party. scare. to the high human cost of war faced by these communities. “You have to trace it to 2016, when - there was a hysterical backlash to brand Pat Buchanan launched a pri- Trump’s occasional attempts at de- Trump among the Republican intel- mary campaign against incumbent viating from standard American for- Republican President George H.W. eign policy, however, have placed York-based independent journalist Bush. Running to the right of Bush, who has covered the evolution of one of insurgent Buchanan’s chief - the neoconservative movement criticisms of the president was his ence in the framework decision to engage in the Gulf War. neoconservatives reacted viscer- Buchanan accused Bush and the of the media and the ally against Trump and therefore neoconservative movement of actual neoconservative sought to more formally insinuate dual loyalty, controversially claim- establishment, the lat- themselves into the Democratic ing that the Gulf War was the prod- Party, in hopes of creating a coali- ter of which still backs tion to back Hillary Clinton.” in Washington (a statement many Trump.’” critics labelled as anti-Semitic), be- Tracey, however, also noted that fore ultimately dropping out and en- him in the crosshairs of some of the after the election, the neoconser- dorsing Bush at the 1992 Republican most prominent pro-war Republicans. vative opposition to Trump became National Convention. In particular, Republican opposition more based on rhetoric, as the pres- to President Trump was most pro- ident increasingly began to back the Despite the loss, paleoconservatism nounced amongst avowed neocon- status quo of American policy. This, nevertheless became the bastion of servatives. Virtually all of the 2016 he said, led to the current disconnect the anti-war right. Ron Paul’s popular “Never Trump” coalition was made up - but unsuccessful attempts at securing of prominent members of the move- ures, many of whom have personal the Republican presidential nomina- ment, with many Bush-era ideologues tion in 2008 and 2012 were built out of Trump, and the actual harbingers of a coalition of Libertarians and paleo- Rick Wilson coming to the media the movement’s power. conservatives, many of whom shared forefront to denounce Trump. These ideological agreement in their opposi- “There’s been an embrace of an- tion to American military intervention- - ti-Trump neoconservatives in the pop- ism. This same political coalition would able Republicans,” whose opposition ular Democratic media world, which is reunite behind Donald Trump in the to brash behavior of President Trump always looking for Republicans op- 2016 presidential campaign. Trump, has propelled them to regular cable posed to the president,” said Tracey. television appearances. The inclusion “But their opposition to Trump is su- right-leaning economic views than Paul, utilized a similar populist oppo- media presence has further enabled don’t see the president’s commentary sition to US military intervention which the normalcy of favoring an interven- as aligning with what they see as up- challenged the Republican main- tionist foreign policy, as it has created holding American hegemony.” stream and propelled him into the the illusion of a left-right agreement presidency. In fact, it was theorized on the position. It’s also led to a num- Indeed Trump has increasingly capit- that Trump’s victories in the key Rust ber of neoconservatives re-aligning ulated to the pressure of the political

24 davis political review establishment, lining his administra- cabinet with neoconservative hawks. the continued use of drone warfare. tion with the very same neoconser- Trump’s more aggressive policy ac- Even since the departure of President vatives he once railed against. While tions have thus also gone largely un- Obama, the increasingly intervention- he has, at times, been far less antag- checked, even by members of the ri- ist political tendencies of the Demo- onistic than both his recent Republi- val party that have otherwise latched cratic Party have fully trickled down can and Democratic predecessors onto every other opportunity possible to its voters. In 2019, The Intercept - meeting diplomatically with Kim to oust him. reported data obtained from Politico Jung Un, calling for a withdrawal of showing that, despite a plurality of American forces in Syria and gener- It is worth noting that the Democratic Americans supporting Trump’s Syria ally avoiding new military entangle- Party, once fashioned as the anti-war withdrawal (49 percent approval to 37 ments (even backing down despite foil to the interventionist policies of the percent disapproval), the action was fears of a sudden escalation with Iran) most recent Bush administration, has wildly unpopular with Clinton voters, - the goal of his foreign policy is of- become increasingly pro-war itself. As with just 26 percent of those sur- recently as the 2008 election, Demo- veyed supporting the action (59 per- - perhaps the world’s most famous crats were campaigning on promises cent opposed). Among Trump voters, neoconservative: John Bolton. Bolton of shutting down Guantanamo Bay 76 percent supported withdrawal, has since routinely called for the top- and increasing diplomatic relations with just 14 percent opposing. - with historical foes. Upon entering zuela, and amid bipartisan pressure, The marriage of the Democratic Par- partially rolled back his initial Syrian Barack Obama almost immediately ty with a liberal interventionist foreign troop withdrawal. turned his back on his policy propos- policy has spread well beyond just als: ultimately keeping Guantanamo voter tendencies. A number of po- “The slight deviations that Trump Bay open, escalating the war in Af- litical advocacy and special interest does have with regard to rhetoric ghanistan, vastly increasing the use of groups have arisen in the aftermath of hasn’t resulted in any sort of mean- drone warfare (especially when com- the 2016 election, calling for bipartisan ingful shift,” argued Tracey. “There’s pared to his predecessors), as well as support of a more aggressive Ameri- ordering the killing of several Amer- can foreign policy, especially with re- the media and the actual neocon- ican citizens abroad. Not to mention gard to Russia. While outlets such as servative establishment, the latter of bypassing congressional approval to the New York Times reported as early which still backs Trump.” take military action in Libya, in addi- as 2014 that neoconservative-Demo- tion to expanding U.S. troop presence cratic intellectual circles were begin- Tracey noted that a number of prom- ning to coalesce, the actual union did inent think tanks, such as the Foun- not begin to grow in prominence until dation for Defense of Democracies, But just as quickly as the Democrat- after Trump’s election. The Alliance have largely supported Trump’s posi- ic establishment’s opinion on foreign for Securing Democracy, for example, tions towards countries like Iran and policy has transformed, so have the was founded in 2017 by Laura Rosen- Israel. views of its most ardent supporters. berger, a former Obama administra- As early as 2012, polling data revealed - So while the President’s general in- that 53 percent of liberal Democrats, me Fly, who had previously worked in stinct seems to be against entan- in addition to 67 percent of moder- the Bush administration. Proponents gling the United States in dangerous ate or conservative Democrats, sup- of the group claim it represents a co- ported the US’s continued operation anti-war voices in the Republican es- of Guantanamo Bay. 77 percent of supposed Russian interference in tablishment has forced him to line his liberal Democrats also supported American elections, while critics like

davis political review 25 journalist Glenn Greenwald assert All things considered, radical changes that it is evidence of an ever-growing in American foreign policy are unlike- alliance between neoconservatives ly to arrive in the near future. The in- and the Democratic establishment. domestic politics is likely to result in The legacy of Trump on the GOP’s a number of future politicians aban- foreign policy stance is yet to be de- doning the existential war narrative of the Bush years, but a total depar- more prominent ideological divide ture from the status quo seems im- among the next generation of con- probable. Instead, they may opt for a more nuanced version of the Trump approach, continuing the implemen- - ures like Tom Cotton, who may strive simultaneously decrying attempts for a more syncretic form of Trump- at overstretching American military ism; calling for strong nationalism forces. At the same time, there is the at home while promoting militarism possibility that military action will con- tinue abroad, albeit with much less Romney, may call for a return to the transparency and a greater degree neoconservative status quo altogeth- of subtlety, as was largely the case er. during the Obama years. Such a pos- sibility is perhaps the most likely re- The future of the Democratic Party sult, should American politics see a and its outlook is similarly blurry as return to normalcy in the post-Trump well. The entanglement of jingoist years, whenever they may come. policy advocates in the Democratic establishment has led to the normal- ization of an interventionist foreign policy and evaporated what remains of the left-wing anti-war movement. Current Democratic frontrunner Joe Biden still views Iran as an existential threat to American and Israeli geo- political interests, maintaining use of force as an appropriate possible de- Bernie Sanders, who has focused much of his campaign on domestic issues, has pushed back at the status quo, going as far as publishing a per- for an end to what he called Ameri-

26 davis political review A DOCTRINE OF

GENOCIDEAyesha Ishtiaq

n 1915, thousands of Armenian chil- states went out of their way to remove genocide of the 20th century that Idren left bloody footprints in the burn- the memory of this bloodshed. came about through careful planning ing Syrian desert as part of the death and strategy, targeted towards the Ar- marches ordered by the Ottoman To trace the trajectory of genocide, menians living in modern-day Turkey. Empire. By 1945, the German sky was it is crucial to begin at the turn of the In 1915, thousands of Armenians were dark with smoke from chambers full century, going back to Eastern Ana- pushed into the vacuum of extinction. of gassed Jewish bodies. Thirty years tolia in 1914. Dr. Houri Berberian, the The backbone of this genocide was later, babies were smashed against the Chankiri Tree in the Cambodian Armenian Studies at the University of - Killing Fields under the atrocious pol- California, Irvine, gave an enlightening icies of Khymer Rouge. Rwanda, in lecture at UC Davis on Thursday, Feb- For many years under the Ottoman 1994, was littered with thousands of ruary 13, 2020. Among her insights, Empire, the Armenians, among other rotting Tutsi bodies. Twenty years later when talking about the Armenians, religious minorities, faced legalized in 2014, Northern Iraq echoed with the she greatly emphasized the impor- obstacles towards their expression screams of Yazidi women and children watching the Islamic State of Iraq and of knowing the place of less studied - Levant pile men in mass graves, and people.” Armenians have long felt that pire, they paid extra taxes and faced shoot them to death. brunt of isolation and elimination from a multitiude of daily challenges. The history. In many ways, they are ide- Today, denialism has risen as a legiti- al for the study of how violence has - mate form of neglecting these events. trekked across time and history. ing of millions of Armenians was only It is not an event that a small, unknown this; Armenians were a threat to the group embarked on; rather, entire Turkish identity. Additionally, the fact

27 davis political review Design by Erika Ortega they were a Christian religious group ideology that can create enough hu- As of 2017, China has embarked on its - man bodies to bend even nature. This man Empire feared they could side genocide of the Armenians was held Xinjiang region have formulated what with other Christian powers and work together by themes of extreme na- The New York Times dubs a “chilling- - tionalism, elimination, mass incarcer- ly bureaucratic guide” for the round ence in the region. As the Ottoman ation, and death. These themes con- Empire faced its downfall, measures tinue to progress well into the current authorized use of state machinery were taken to ensure their survival and decade, a hundred years later. that has always inked the doctrine of - genocide. As China embarks on leav- Fascism: A ing global politics with another mas- of the Armenians. Warning wrote: “Fascism tends to take sive dent of humanitarian crimes, the hold in a step by step manner rather world watches in silence. The ruthless The Armenian genocide echoed wide- than by making one giant leap.” The tactics of incarceration, targeted pol- ly the orthodox idea of expelling any Ottoman orchestration of the Arme- icies of anti-Islamic rhetoric, and the racial minorities for not conforming nian genocide was only step one. To- prevalence of the ideology that puts - day, these steps have become strides one race as superior to the other is a ing an entire group’s existence, such as country after country competes in skeleton used countless times be- as the Armenians. This ideology gave fore. With the Armenians, the Ottoman birth to an intricate system allowing Empire’s might in the region overrode the genocide to be successful. Begin- any intervention. Today, China as an No event occurs in isolation in world economic and military power, has the of Armenian property and their subse- reigns to undermine any international quent deportation was legally autho- “who, after all, speaks today of the scrutiny. rized. The forced conscription of the annihilation of the Armenians?” in the Armenian men, separating them from Obersalzberg speech, before em- - their families, eventually followed. barking on the Polish invasion. It is jiang are hosting a vast majority of These families were then forced to crucial to understand the connectivity - embark on death marches meant to of these events and the circulation of jected to vile atrocities. Sources have eliminate a majority of the population ideas that transcend their time, giving reported cases of forced abortions, before reaching a destination. Those birth to one atrocity after another. The sterilization, and torture of Uyghur that survived, only did so to be put in novelity of ideas and the passage of women. The intent here has been to violence under the conditions of an- eliminate the spread of Islam. Similar camps built by Talat Pasha on Turkey’s archy have led to the establishment borders with Iraq and Syria. of a governed and legalized form of promote Sinicization—the process of genocide. Armenia in many ways was bringing non-Chinese cultures within The years of this genocide saw the a mold for the Holocaust, which even- that of the Han Chinese society. The tually pivoted the century into legally U.N. reported at least 1 million ethnic women and children put on boats and orchestrating sophisticated ways of left to drown. As a result, the Euphra- race elimination. Today, these events tes river accumulated so many dead have allowed leaders all over the August 2018. bodies that its current, warped by the bones piled across the riverbed, de- personalized agendas. From Sadd- This is how the ideology that killed am Hussein to Xi Jingping, the dots of thousands of Armenians began. Here There is a certain abhorrence in an genocide can be connected. it is, once more, in China. The sheer

28 davis political review potential state leaders possess that ternational scrutiny through strict cen- the government. If found guilty of in- leads them to draft plans on the legal- sorship and its status as an economic ized murder of another race is evident. one can be imprisoned for up to three China is on its way in following previ- continues to be unaware and in de- years. Not only does this article vio- ous fascist leaders that embarked on nial of the persecution implemented late a citizen’s individual freedom of by the Chinese government due to expression, but Article 301 also allows hidden kidnappings, and the indoc- their own economic dependence on the state to revoke legitimate recogni- trination of the masses. Leaked re- the country. It is clear that trade takes tions of events such as the Armenian ports have covered instances of sur- precedence over human life, whether genocide if it would portray the Otto- veillance, purge directives, and mass it is of goods or of captured slaves. man Empire as an inhumane political crackdowns on the Islamic presence. entity. - “Genocide has shown cussions, but so far, all reports point to Over a century has passed since the one general fact: the Uyghurs are be- the world the length Syrian desert hosted mass graves. coming this century’s Armenians. the human mind is able Again and again, the horrifying reality to go to in generating a of how states can authorize and justify doctrine as revolting as the annihilation of a race have erupt- state sponsored mass ed in the time since the Armenian many other countries are engaged in murder.” genocide. By 2014, the internet could relay grotesque video footage of the mass extermination of other ethnici- Yazidi beheadings performed by ISIL, Almost every developed country bringing their terrifying reality to the slave trade continues to grow in the today hosts millions of refugees, folds of these atrocities. Our ground descendants of genocide and war people were given the ultimatum of is soaking with blood. The collective crimes, and yet, there are still many conversion to Islam or execution. The conscience of the world is burdened that refuse to acknowledge what with the countless abductions and in- took place. The Armenian genocide with the blood of escapees, villages doctrinations. The ideology Xi Jinping continues to live on today because razed to the ground, and the entire seems to follow is undeniably similar Turkey has allowed it to be a writhing, male population massacred in mass to that of every previous fascist lead- continued memory with no chance of graves. The women and children were er. He wants what they all wanted: the healing. The country can legally in- abducted, with young girls placed in elimination of any force that presents carcerate any Turkish citizen that calls slave trade immediately. a threat to the inherent ideology of genocide.’ The talk of the 21st century has been under pervasive surveillance, forced revolving around world peace. Sadly, into labor camps or prison cells, and As the Ottoman’s created a bleeding the last two decades have seen atroc- pressured to give up their identities. red carpet in Syria because of national ities of vast extent; while we assume The ideology of a systematic purge identity, Turkey, a hundred years later, it was the 20th century which marked has been taking root in China since Xi refuses to let it dry by continuing the the beginning and the end. Although, Jinping’s tenure. However, the inter- tradition of elimination in the form of progressive movements all around national community is stuck in a head- Article 301. The premise of Article 301 have toppled autocratic regimes, with lock, because China has veto powers in Turkey’s penal code criminalizes all a rise in constitutionalism, freedom in any propositions by the U.N. The forms of expression that could be an of self, and public agency. But none country has found ways to dodge in- insult of Turkish identity, culture, and of these changes occurred in a vacu-

davis political review 29 um. They occurred upon a backdrop of revolutions and mass graves. Yet, the violence, the creation of extrem- ism, the killings, and the purges are all placed under the umbrella of the past STAND WITH HONG KONG without acknowledging their implica- tions on modernity.

The world is dotted with a pattern of killings, some widely known, while others receive a blind eye. No one Design by Meredith Bradley case takes precedence over the oth- er. There is no measurement of how many casualties make one event everywhere, has refused millions of people their right to history. The systematic denial of their destruc- tion haunts generation after gener- ation. The world has been thinking of mass graves as something of the past, something that an international now, more and more blood is pooling. Armenia is still alive today. It gave root to further evil, evil that is more orga- around legalities. The Ottoman Em- pire fell and the Nazis were put on tri- als, and yet, the mass burials did not haunting cries, silent stories, and the massacres of innocent lives all rotting away into nothingness. Genocide has shown the world the lengths the hu- man mind is able to go to in gener- ating a doctrine as revolting as state sponsored mass murder. The world faces a collective fundamental chal- lenge in creating a framework where all citizens of the world can proudly uphold decency and integrity for one another.

30 davis political review STAND WITH HONG KONG

Design by Meredith Bradley THE ISSUE OF HONG KONG: YOUTH POLITICAL ACTIVISM AND POLITICAL OPPRESSION Kymberley Chu

Disclaimer: This editorial article comes from an outsider viewpoint. I attempted to navigate understanding Hong Kong’s

of National University Singapore, ar- Ware Hong Kong’s youth political gues that political activism in Hong activists rallying? Why should we care other autonomous regions/countries Kong emerged as youth expressed about political activism outside of the can improve in their pursuit of democ- frustration at the poor progress of so- United States? racy, equity, justice, and human rights. cial issue legislation bills. In contem- It is the antithesis of what the totalitar- porary times, Hong Kong’s Special Within a Chinese totalitarian context, ian Chinese government desires. Administrative Region Government - (HKSAR) has prioritized economic re- drawal of extradition bills, the estab- Youth political activists in Hong Kong forms over social reforms. As a result, lishment of an independent inquiry are not a homogenous group, instead, both mainland Chinese government they come from various economic - withdrawal of the government term and social backgrounds. Former post- litical activism as a disruption to Hong “riot,” and unconditional release of im- doctoral scholar Dr. Lam-Knott Sonia Kong’s economic growth. Acts of po-

davis political review 31 litical activism, such as mass rallies, ny of HKSAR, who is in collaboration established chapters or student ad- have been met with police brutality in- with the Chinese government. vocacy groups around the world that cluding physical assault and spraying - tear gas onto protesters. The HKSAR’s Hong Kong’s complex situation not mands. Winnie, head representative police forces utilize these methods only remains localized but also has for Davis4HK, informed Davis Politi- of brutality to exert dominance and travelled across oceans in terms of cal Review that the UCD group con- fear among Hong Kongers in order to solidarity and support. Across the ducts boycott petitions, political leg- prevent widespread political activism - islation petitions, and public rallies to from happening. ifornia, Davis is home to the UC Da- vis Students Solidarity with the Hong standing in solidarity with arrested The New York Times re- Kong club (also known as Davis4HK and repressed political activists. ported that Hong Kong’s Indepen- or HKPASS). Three groups of Hong dent Police Complaints Council (IPCC) Kong activists were merged together One of the recurring reasons Ameri- is limited in conducting transparent into Davis4HK between October 14 to can undergraduate students partici- and independent judicial investiga- 15, 2019. This group of political activ- pate in the Davis4HK club is because tions of police violations. Foreign ex- its advocacy activities “represents the perts stepped down from the IPCC the democratic movement in Hong movement of self autonomy and an- due to their inability to conduct police Kong. They run petitions, manage ti-colonialism,” according to an Amer- fundraisers, organize peaceful rallies, ican undergraduate student majoring witnesses. Despite the demand for and share social media messages in Chinese studies. This student also launching an independent inquiry, the - highlighted marginalized groups, IPCC fails to address this demand ad- vis4HK club members include both such as the Uyghurs, who have been equately. Instead, the IPCC provides domestic American students and erased from their cultural history due Hong Kongers who have participated to China pursuing monolithic nation- conservative authority of not favoring in movements such as the 2014 Um- alism. political activism. Davis4HK representatives Steve and The alleged acts of police brutality Despite the abundance of student Gabe share the same intensity and support for the Davis4HK club, there passion for Hong Kong activism. gas at unarmed activists and the have been acts of harassment and Steve is a local Hong Konger who has beating of arrested political activists violence initiated against the liberal participated in pro-democratic rallies activists. Chinese nationalist protest- before the formation of Davis4HK. In Foucault’s panopticon. These acts ers yelled vulgarities at the Davis4HK not only demand order and provoke group. In fact, the Sacramento Bee on the streets of Hong Kong during fear, but also aim to form the “model reported an alleged incident where citizens” of Hong Kong. By utilizing re- a Chinese nationalist student aggres- pressive techniques such as physical sively ripped down an HK democrat- bullets into a young protester with- torture and surveillance, HKSAR aims out warning. This anecdote inspired to form “model citizens” who internal- Quad. Steve to participate in more demo- ize norms of obedience, submission, cratic rallies to demand government and social control. Overall, this police accountability and transparency over brutality not only acts as social control limited to Hong Kongers or in the its socioeconomic policies. techniques, but also enforces the po- cosmopolitan areas of Hong Kong. litical stability and legitimate hegemo- Rather, various student activists have -

32 davis political review ions existing about Hong Kong, both the mainland Chinese conservative Together with Winnie, Steve and oth- Gabe and Steve encountered Chi- viewpoint on Hong Kong. Yu com- er supportive student activists, they nese nationalists who opposed stu- mented “The One China Policy is a desired to challenge the elitist-per- dent activism. Both were worried but response to colonialism and Western ceived and anarchic governmental not surprised about international Chi- imperialism, it is an answer to both system while promoting democ- nese students with conservative, na- racy to improve social reforms in tionalist viewpoints who conducted - Hong Kong. Winnie commented in aggressive acts on-campus such as terpreting political situations such as an email interview, “Even though we ripping down Davis4HK posters. Hong Kong in the political binary: em- are from background, we share the bracing the Western mindset versus same value and goal—supporting On the other hand, Gabe and Steve embracing the Chinese mindset. He Hong Kong and other communities received support from pro-demo- advocated for the One China Poli- cratic Hong Kong supporters in the cy towards Hong Kong because he speaking up for free speech and hu- community of Davis. Gabe elaborated was worried about separating China man rights. The diverse demography that their supporters from university and disrupting political unity in inter- allows us to share experiences, think and from town were willing to engage nal politics. Yu also stated that Hong in intellectual debates about democ- Kong’s economic inequality can be from each other.” racy, sign petitions, and participate in attributed to British colonialism during town halls with congressman John the Opium War era. Yu supported the Overall, the situation in Hong Kong Garamendi. Chinese government’s One China is not just limited to itself only. Hong approach because it could stabilize - Interestingly, Chinese nationalist con- Hong Kong’s economy to strengthen er democratic countries need to work servative and pro-democratic Hong its growth after British colonial oc- on. The goals of democracy and social Kong interviewees were interested cupation. He also insisted that Hong justice are almost universal among in addressing the socioeconomic Kong prior to British colonialism, was international-minded citizens. In fact, inequalities of Hong Kong despite territorially part of the Qing Dynasty. Davis4HK activists, coming from dif- - ferent geographical communities and tellectual viewpoints. Despite the nar- “I couldn’t focus my thoughts and cultures, strongly desired political re- concentrate on my studies,” said Win- forms and police accountability in the nie, Davis4HK head representative. “I case of Hong Kong. didn’t know what I could do to help American imperialism in Hong Kong’s the victims and improve the situation Winnie concludes, “Erosion of free- activism. Xiaoming, a political science of my hometown. I felt guilty, helpless dom, censorship, police brutality, student, advocated for a Hong Kong and depressed.” Winnie however be- suspicious disappearance of people, local-contextualized version of so- came motivated and determined to collusion between the government cial justice while attaining democracy advocate for Hong Kong’s democ- and the gangs, and ignorance of the and social equality through what the racy as she met other UCD students government towards the terrors and Hong Kong people want rather than from Hong Kong. Winnie overcame citizens’ lives, are happening in Hong adhering to American-centric values. helplessness by engaging in rallies, Kong. Hong Kong is not the only place cooperating with other student or- facing the threat of authoritarian rule. On the other hand, Yu not only em- ganizations, and passed a biparti- Police brutality, erosion of freedom san-supported ASUCD resolution on and human rights are happening in about Hong Kong, but also urged the condemning the censorship of pro- many places in the world.” public to read and learn more about Hong Kong campus activities.

davis political review 33 BOLSONARO: A NEW NORMAL Anna Gorski

Design by Cozette Ellis

razil has long been a country ste- continued loyalty to hypocrisy. How my, slaves had life expectancies of 20 B - does an outwardly beautiful coun- years and revolts within their commu- ture, lavish atmosphere and beautiful try such as Brazil fall so far from its nities were extremely common. Brazil people. However, the stereotypes throne? was one the last countries in the world that put Brazil on a pedestal are the to ban their slave trade in 1850, with same ones that keep it in a cage. To understand Brazil today, one must slavery itself only being abolished in Brazil has survived political and eco- take its complex history into account. 1888. The slow decomposition of the nomic crises for multiple centuries. Brazil declared its independence in monarchy led to a century of political Currently, Brazil is crumbling under 1822 and developed into one of the a new far right extremist president, for political power embedded itself following 16 years of democratic so- western hemisphere. As it is with mo- permanently into the newly forming cialism. Extreme poverty has been re- narchical and royal power, there exists government. Nationalism took hold of introduced to the country after it was a long history of royal favors and po- the Brazilian government during the eradicated for 10 years. There are 17 liteness that has become embedded early 19th century; the Second World police-caused deaths every day and in Brazilian culture, dependent on the 75 percent of those killed are young exploitation of poor and black citizens. sympathizing with Germany. During black men. Brazil is a land of remark- In contrast to the exuberant royal cus- the 1960s, Brazil’s military dictator- able contradictions as well as one of toms and rapidly expanding econo-

34 davis political review a massive curtailing of civil liberties ty costs that hit Brazilians across the and media censorship. Due to Brazil’s board, but especially the lower class. Brazilian president , was charged and history of deep-rooted political insta- In 2013, there was a 45 cent in Brazil- impeached by a determined and ian dollar increase in bus fares, and a growing right-wing group in congress today it exists as one of the most un- massive citizen-led protest ensued for administrative misconduct for equal countries in the world. In 1985, throughout the country. The anger, wrongly allocating funds. The polit- the military dictatorship was over- - ical factions within the Brazilian gov- thrown and many vowed never to let ernment working to take Dilma out an extremist right-wing government multibillion-dollar world cup event of power took advantage of popular in 2014 was a promise of improved dissatisfaction with the government far-right extremist president in over transport infrastructure for the mil- and used her as a scapegoat. Lula’s 30 years was elected: Jair Bolsonaro. lions of low income Brazilians that demoralizing imprisonment and Dil- use the subway and the bus system ma’s impeachments led to an over- Bolsonaro’s rise to power is a part every day. Unfortunately, these proj- whelming loss of faith in the Brazilian of a much larger worldwide shift to- ects never came to realization and government. Public trust in the dem- wards right extremism, seen with the government had to hike trans- ocratic socialist regime was obliterat- elsewhere, consequently targeting ablaze and open for a more ideolog- Boris Johnson. However, it is impos- Brazilians with the least amount of ical, militant type of politics. There sible to compare centuries-old west- money to spare. In percentage terms, was a growing movement against ern democracies to young southern a 45 cent increase in bus fare for low the left and each new scandal add- democracies like Brazil. Younger de- income workers makes transport take ed more fuel to the anti-socialist re- mocracies like Brazil, who have rela- up just as much space in the family sentments forming. Economic hard- tively recent histories of dictatorship, budget as food. Alongside the bus- ship, corruption scandals, and a lack are statistically more susceptible to fare protests, millions of Brazilians of government accountability paved be violently brought back into op- took to the streets to protest a string the way for an anti-system message, Design by Cozette Ellis pressive regimes, which they have so of corruption scandals implicat- which Bolsonaro’s brand of polarizing recently freed themselves of. What ing politicians, especially rich ones, populism lit up. Bolsonaro is not the is more terrifying is not the idea that across the political spectrum. Brazil could be violently brought to a dictatorship, but the fact that it is The Lava Jato (The Car Wash) inves- a burning throne and imploding polit- slowly and progressively becoming tigation, in which a small car wash ical order. one. business in São Paulo was discovered to be the center of a massive money What kind of phenomenon is it that - laundering operation, landed sever- Brazil, with its traumatic history, would fessor at UC Davis currently studying al politicians in prison, most notably champion the election of someone and writing about Brazilian History, ex-president and former beloved na- who has publicly labeled the dictator- points to 2013 as the year that every- tional treasure, Lula da Silva. As pros- ship as a “very good period”? A coun- thing changed for Brazil. According ecutors unveiled bribery schemes try must be in an excessively vulner- able position to allow an authoritarian poor economy, the 2008 depression totaling over 10 billion U.S. dollars, the take over, which for Brazil was creat- that hit the United States only trickled country was caught up in a polarizing ed and exacerbated by the political down into the Brazilian economy in political crisis. In 2016, then President scandals of Brazil’s prior ruling party, 2011. This led to a hike in commodi- the The “Partida Trabalhista”, a work-

davis political review 35 er’s party advocating for a socialist ness” in the face of corrupt socialism. silent majority is blamed for bringing democracy. It is argued that many Ironically, the Bolsonaro movement Brazilians were tired of the corruption now seeks to prove that they them- Bolsonaro garnered votes not only of the PT party, causing a complete selves are also not limited by the law, from the silent far right, but from the distrust in the democratic socialist shutting down any agency deemed center leaning majority of the elector- ideals that had been working in Bra- unnecessary by Bolsonaro’s stan- ate. Bolsonaro’s appeal beyond the zil for decades. Bolsonaro was able dards. Globo TV, Brazil’s longest living extreme right underlines a deeper to ride this wave of popular discon- and widely watched television net- transformation in Brazilian politics and tent into a new political era where the work in Brazil, saw its funding slashed global politics as a whole, as many dominant popular sentiment is anger because Bolsonaro didn’t like the way at the political class. Economic fallout the news network portrayed him. The right leaning leaders after years of and unemployment in recent years Bolsonaro powers defy court orders, center-left control. created national backlash against in- ignore police investigations and defy all other institutions, in the exact same action policies helping poor and black way that the military dictatorship did vulnerable economic income bracket Brazilians that were introduced by 30 years ago. The methods Bolsonaro in Brazil. After 2013, a growing resent- former more liberal administrations. and his team are using are as terrify- ment within the middle class was bub- - ing as they are familiar. bling against the broken government cession of 2008, found no consola- and the social programs that never tion within their current political sys- Even the election cycle of Bolson- seemed to actually help the country aro’s campaign was an aberration. - to project their frustrations. Simple Bolsonaro’s seemingly innocuous rise arated into very wealthy states and enough, Bolsonaro found a way to to stardom served as a surprise for very poor states, with many of the rich take vulnerable Brazilians and turn many. For 30 years, Bolsonaro was a states consisting of middle class citi- their anger on the poor, oppressed, bottom-tier congressman relegated zens who all voted for Bolsonaro. Just and disenfranchised and blame the to the fringes of political life advocat- like the U.S., the middle class in Brazil social programs they needed as the ing for a return to the U.S.-supported felt forgotten, even abused, watching reason why the economy was failing. military dictatorship, the same regime Through a mastery of social pres- that ruled the country with torture wealth while the favelas (lower-in- ence, Bolsonaro was able to attach and murder until 1985. As an obscure come neighborhoods) grew increas- every wrong in Brazil to the PT party congressman whose extremist pol- ingly more dangerous and gang-con- and all hope of a stronger, more capi- icy proposals seemed well beyond trolled. The socialist stronghold that talist future to his brand. what was assumed to be accept- controlled the country for almost two able in Brazil’s political liberal main- decades in Brazil was fractured be- Bolsonaro and the movement sup- stream, his current position of power yond repair and dissatisfaction with porting him crave violence and civil is a shock not only to the Brazilian left, their programs was growing from the - but to intellectuals around the world. class that paid for its empty promises. tions because they are angry, but Bolsonaro ran an extreme campaign, Bolsonaro saw this gap and stepped Bolsonaro views these as the neces- in. He gained media attention through sary conditions to justify a return of populism, landing himself in the driv- a range of shockingly bigoted com- dictatorship-era repression. The Bol- er’s seat of one of the world’s largest ments against the nation’s racial mi- sonaro movement rose to power by and most vulnerable democracies. norities and its indigenous population capitalizing on the scandals of the left Very similar to Trump and his revival before and during the 2018 election. party and their supposed “righteous- of deep-rooted national racism, the Virtually overnight, Bolsonaro and

36 davis political review his far-right party (PSL), which bare- cause of its roots in monarchical “fa- government, with social programs in ly existed the year before, enjoyed vors” and nepotism, Brazilian culture the north being the only source of an unprecedented rise to power. In today is still characterized by a feeling income for some families for gener- months, a previously unknown and that is somewhat comparable to the ations. Unlike the U.S., which saw two anti-democratic party became the hypocrisy of the “southern politeness” major wars fought within its own bor- second-most represented group in of the United States; favors are con- der to protect freedoms, Brazil never Congress. stantly traded not only in the political sphere, but in the social sphere where was established as a monarchy from Analyzing this phenomenon from a - the beginning. Brazil lacks the great comparative politics perspective, it cial politeness onto another person, “freedom” and anti-government ide- is quite possible that Brazil is simply they deserve it back. Brazil is a soci- als that many Americans take for too young of a democracy to have ety that was also heavily founded on granted. Brazilian historical support been able to remain stable. It is the- slaves, and this idea that some peo- for powerful leaders and inability to orized by renowned political scientist ple are meant to serve others is still Samuel P. Huntington that the young- excessive in daily Brazilian life as seen the rampant political corruption that er a democracy is, the more likely it through the huge national wage gap. went unscathed for decades in Brazil, is to fail. Brazil has only worked as a preceding Bolsonaro’s rise to power. true democracy since 1988, mak- On a personal level, Brazilians are It is quite possible that the Brazilian ing it a young adult at only 32 years also a group of people who have old. Additionally, it is impossible to certain characteristics that may allot their feet by a populist leader who study why certain events conspire in for their democracy to be unstable. can promise change through a stron- other countries without taking their ger government. culture into account. Using analysis his critically acclaimed book, Roots of of cultural norms is mostly theoreti- Brazil, that a “Brazilian” is someone There is no right answer to explain cal and should not be solely used to characterized by his or her “cordiality.” why Brazil is experiencing the political explain political phenomena, but un- The Brazilian persona, stereotyped in and cultural climate it is today. There derstanding Brazilian culture is a very are still questions to be answered, important requirement to be able to to enjoy the “good life.” Unfortunate- some will take decades to be solved understand Brazilian politics. The idea ly, the political implications of these and some will go on unanswered for- that societal changes develop top to traits create a class of people who do ever. There is without a doubt, a glob- down, from within the government al trend towards far-right extremism, to the people, is deeply ingrained in stereotype of Brazilians as empathet- but the question lies in whether this is Brazilian culture. There is a strong re- ic, open and hospitable people serves a current political fad that will be re- liance on the government to enact as the country’s greatest strength as placed with another one, or if this is order that then trickles down to the well as its greatest weakness. The the state that our world is developing masses, an attitude that has stuck Brazilian president during and after into. Is Bolsonaro a phenomenon, or is around since the beginning of time. WWII, Getúlio Vargas, was a fascist he the new normal? Brazilian politics are deeply rooted that was able to capitalize on this Bra- in a strong central government that zilian sentiment, taking advantage of originated from a strong monarchy the trusting nature of his people to - further institutionalize authoritarian- ernment after it. Brazilian political ism in the citizens of Brazil. Brazilians culture is one that is incessantly reli- have been almost taught for centu- ant and oftentimes over trusting. Be- ries to not only respect but rely on the

davis political review 37 Design by Meredith Bradley ALGORITHMS: THE ENABLING WEAPON OF CONFIRMATION BIAS Lei Otsuka

edia has a powerful history in and journalists became educators for new age provides instantaneous con- the United States, beginning their readers, investigating political nection to others and ease of access with the newspapers in colonial times, and corporate stories to uncover any to information that is incomparable to funded by political parties wanting fa- - the past. Free information is idealized vorable press coverage. Later, when in democracies because in theory, it the penny press was invented, the the years following the Washington gives all citizens a robust understand- cost of newspaper production was Post’s coverage of the Watergate ing of prevalent issues and makes lowered, allowing them to no longer scandal, which exposed the trans- them informed voters through better gressions of the Nixon administration education. In practice, the 24 hour What followed was the age of sen- and led to President Nixon’s resig- sationalism, as newspapers tried to nation. Newspapers during this era as well as the audience’s inclination grab the attention of readers through large, shocking headlines and per- were seen as vital protectors of de- rather than factual reporting, has cre- sonal interest stories. As profession- mocracy. ated a cauldron of misinformation. role of the press as “watchdogs” of Today, the internet has dramatically Perhaps the most illuminating ex- the government became prominent, changed the media landscape. This ample of the dangers of the internet

38 davis political review in recent history was the Unite the ing massive datasets of information social media as an echo chamber. Right rally in August 2017. The white shared on social media like Facebook Echo chambers are a metaphor used supremacist and neo-Nazi rally in or Twitter and creating latent space in media and communication theo- Charlottesville, Virginia, turned violent models, a type of model often used ry to describe the phenomenon that when a driver rammed his car into a occurs when one’s beliefs and ideol- group of protestors, killing one and Using this model of social media data, ogies are reinforced in a system with injuring several others. It was later re- researchers can study relationships others of similar beliefs and ideolo- alized that many of these protestors between users and the information gies. Since social media companies had organized through conversations on social media, making the inter- their algorithms are curated to bring net an accessory to the violence new content that the user will want by bringing harmful like-minded to see. This in turn creates a stream voices closer together. of content on the user’s feed that

Design by Meredith Bradley So how exactly have acts of vi- the user holds, creating individual olent political extremism like echo chambers. By agreeing with the user’s views, the echo cham- by social media? Answering the ber validates their opinion, regard- question broadly requires looking less of whether they are factual. into the algorithms that determine This weaponizes the user’s feed, cre- what comes up on a user’s feed. As ating a potential to lead to further ex- the internet has grown to contain an tremist views, which ultimately leads - to further extremism if the user holds gorithm can help sift through that shared and observe how the algo- such views. to bring forth a curated, relevant rithm impacts users. set determined through common- Being a relatively new area of study, ly searched data of individual users. For social scientists and social media there is a lack of empirical research companies alike, these patterns have data in support for advancing these on exactly how each algorithm works, theories. Research so far suggests but researchers have studied algo- interests. Two contrasting schools of that while algorithms do in fact have rithms by simulating their behavior. thought emerge from the research an impact on extremism, there is only Social scientists have emulated al- - gorithmic behavior in their research media increases interconnectedness, through close observation of user thus exposing users to more diverse by Benjamin Warner at the University behavior and suggested content on views that they otherwise would not of Kansas randomly sorted partici- each user’s feed. They can do this by assuming that algorithms do in fact world. Those who support this view liberal, conservative, moderate and a recommend content that is similar argue that social media usage re- mixture of all three. The participants to ideological beliefs and measuring duces political extremism since the individuals before and after expo- diverse viewpoints that the users are about Iran based on which group sure to information that aligns with exposed to online will overall result in they were assigned to, and the results a certain ideology. Another method a more moderate ideology. concluded that exposure to polarized that is more popular (and complex) content led to more extremism in the is directly observing the behavior us- The countering idea conceptualizes

davis political review 39 the mixed and liberal condition and directly oppose the extremist ideolo- actually reduced extremism in the gies promoted or corrective messag- resurfaced under several new names, moderate case. es immediately following untruthful - - ers have also dispersed to other net- For social media companies, the tremist content. These attempts have working sites, such as reddit, Discord Charlottesville riot led to the reali- mostly been initiated in mainstream and Telegram, a messaging app that zation that their utopian message of social media platforms such as You- sends heavily encrypted messages connecting users anywhere had an tube and Facebook, and research that self-destruct. - shows that the campaigns have been sequently birthed policies online to The white supremacy rally at Char- censor hate-speech, and other con- outnumbering by the extremist con- lottesville was popularized by users tent relating to violent extremism was tent available online. on Gab, a right-leaning social media implemented. application that had similar regula- When looking at the social media ac- tory policies as 8chan. A closer look Some attempts at countering extrem- tivity of people who were involved into the users on Gab found that Gab ism have been made. Yet, in the Unit- with acts of political extremism, such users were often banned from oth- as shootings or violent rallies, it is par- er social media platforms. Since Gab media fall victim to the civil liberties ticularly noticeable that these users was much less moderated than other guaranteed in the Bill of Rights. Free are more active on unconventional social media platforms, researchers speech and expression are both pro- social networking sites that have not concluded that the domains within tected by the First Amendment, but partaken in such regulatory policies. Gab that are unpopular in a global there have been noticeable restric- scope created a right-leaning echo tions on speech throughout the his- “Having biases is chamber. tory of the US Supreme Court, such as on language with an intent to in- human nature, but Since less mainstream sites are cite illegal action. The internet has allowing such biases to the main culprits in the promotion brought on a wave of new obstacles create disillusionment is of extremist ideologies, it is like- for the freedom of expression, and ly that action on their part would the Supreme Court and Congress not.” - have battled with its regulation since ing political extremism. Following 1990. This battle is best character- For instance, those involved in the the El Paso shooting, several heads ized by the Court striking down the attacks at the mosques in Christ- of states called for increased regu- Communication and Decency Act in lation of such social media sites, but 1996 and the Child Online Protection and later the El Paso shooting in Au- the allure of these sites is centered Act in 2004. The complication of en- gust 2019, were active on 8Chan, an exactly around their lack of regulation forcement arises with regulating ex- online messaging board. The site of speech, almost to the point of the pression on the internet; it becomes became notoriously known for its “/ unclear who should be held account- pol/” board that hosted the views remain optimistic about the possibility able for the language used when of many white-supremasist and of regulation in the future. users are never formally required to neo-Nazi users who embraced the identify themselves while conversing. site’s incredibly lax regulations, which Jonathan Taplin, director emeritus only restricts copyrighted material of the Annenberg Innovation Lab at Social media companies have used and child pornography. 8Chan itself the University of Southern California, counter-message campaigns that had its protections taken away by its cites a revision of the 1996 Commu-

40 davis political review nications Decency Act as a possible medium in 2004 to reach out to vot- deterrent for extremist language on less mainstream social media. Sec- presidential election illustrated the tion 230 of the act is a provision that protects social media companies social media to interfere with elec- from liability of the speech promoted tions. During the 2020 Democratic on their platform. Taplin argues that primaries, candidates have poured a since these companies are “active lot of money into social media adver- intermediaries” that alter information tising, with Bloomberg spending an estimated $63 million on Facebook each user, they should not be shield- alone. Combined with misinformation ed from legal responsibility from the that can easily rampage social media, consequences of speech expressed political campaigns pose a real threat on their platforms. in upcoming elections since they can easily manipulate users through tar- - geted advertisements to echo per- tempts are made to shut down these spectives that agree with biases. sites. When Cloudfare retracted its support as a host for the 8Chan, it While it is unknown what wide scale made a statement acknowledging actions can currently be taken, users doubts about the site remaining of- can be mindful of the content that is shown on their feed on an individual level. Having biases is human nature, easily and respawn on the internet in but allowing such biases to create a matter of days. disillusionment is not. Understanding - can have and holding responsibility ing a solution for the problem that is to seek the truth, rather than what we likely correlated with the rising num- ber of connections and attacks by way to be mindful consumers of the extremists globally would be ideal. data presented on social media. While Taplin brings up feasible op- tions, the unfortunate truth of the matter is that there has not yet been - equate method to curb the growth of extremism via social media on a glob- al or national level while the use of social media has continued to grow, especially during election season. The internet has been wielded as a tool for political campaigns since the early 2000s, with Democratic con- CE 2020 CULTURAL DESTRUCTION: A WARTIME PHENOMENA Devapriya Roy

42 davis political review scale wartime cultural destruction Bearing great risk, citizens helped in that would have been unthinkable in its transport to castles in the country- the past. side, where works remained largely undamaged until the conclusion of Often thought of as a collateral dam- the war. Even in such a dire situation, age of war, cultural destruction per- people were united in the mission of sists. But is it truly collateral damage? getting these paintings and sculp- tures to safety, driving the point that are valued hubs of art or architecture cultural heritage has more power in a community, pillars that provide a than people might think. source of pride and unity for people. When a site like this is decimated, it Poland was also victim to much plun- can have devastating impacts on the dering, looting, and destruction at morale of a community. Intentional the hands of Nazis, who intended cultural destruction has been made to obliterate their Slavic cultural her- into a tool of oppression by perpetra- itage, which they considered “de- tors. Despite international laws and generate.” The Warsaw Royal Castle, conventions prohibiting the destruc- home of Polish kings for six centuries, tion of cultural sites during armed and the seat of Parliament was con- sidered a “national historic treasure.” When Nazi Germany invaded Poland centuries of history from their victims. on Sept. 1, 1939, they leveled historic Cultural Destruction in the units to burn down Polish libraries. Third Reich Then, in a move of deliberate and tar- CE 2020 geted cultural destruction, Adolf Hit- Design by Cozette Ellis The Rape of Europa, a 2006 docu- ler personally ordered the shelling of

ultural heritage has power. Phys- mentary directed by Richard Berge Royal Castle, stating that “as long as Cical aspects of culture, whether and Bonni Cohen, tells the tale of the Royal Castle stands, Poland is not it be monuments, shrines, paintings, cultural destruction in the Third Re- yet lost.” or cathedrals are entwined with our ich during World War II. The Nazis daily lives. It becomes a constant, re- engaged in the systematic theft and Poles held a deep patriotic attach- assuring, and everlasting presence; destruction of thousands of historic ment to the castle, and as long as it a tangible mark of something that and valuable European works of art. stood, hope persevered. So, bores binds people together. The modern Art that had been treasured tenets of were drilled into the foundation of the era, dating back to the early 20th cen- European societies were destroyed if Royal Castle to create a “permanent tury, saw the invention of some of the deemed “un-Germanic” or “inferior.” threat.” Years went by and Poles grew most powerful weapons known to When word reached France that the tired of the oppression they faced un- man. However, this progression was a Nazis were slowly making their way der the Nazi regime, which resulted - to invade the nation, the Louvre was in the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. The ple may have been mobilized, and essentially packed into boxes. Hun- Germans crushed the uprising, killing the economies of countries around dreds of volunteers composed of 200,000 Poles and detonating the dy- the world may have grown, but these French citizens gathered to help pack namite charges in the Castle’s base. weapons ushered in an age of wide- up coveted art from the museum. The Royal Castle was destroyed, and

davis political review 43 the spirit of the Polish people was for the Protection of Cultural Prop- Similarly, the Old City of Aleppo in completely crushed. Nazi Destruction Syria, with centuries of history and units then came in to raze Warsaw Later in 1977, protocols were added heritage at its core, would become street by street. However, decades to the 1949 Geneva Conventions to the site of one of the 21st century’s later, the Warsaw Royal Castle was strengthen the aforementioned pro- foremost acts of cultural destruc- rebuilt, because simply put, “Poles tections. Article 53 of these addition- could not live without [it].” al protections expressly prohibited World Heritage site in 1986, the Bat- But one of the most subtly powerful “any acts of hostility directed against tle of Aleppo saw countless medie- demonstrations of the devastating the historic monuments, works of art val buildings in the cities razed to the impact of cultural destruction was in or places of worship which consti- ground between 2012 and 2016. The Krakow, Poland during this time. Ironi- tute the cultural or spiritual heritage Temple of Bel, also in Syria, was lo- cally, the city made it through the war, of peoples.” The international legal cated in the ancient and holy city of structures enacted in the post-WWII Palmyra. The temple dated back to Nazis as having Germanic roots. Na- era supposedly made the targeting zis coveted a number of art master- of cultural sites a war crime, yet tales by the Islamic State of Iraq and Syr- pieces located in Krakow, which they of cultural destruction continue to ia—or ISIS—in 2015, after having stood echo across the world. As wars rav- for almost 2,000 years. Church altar was victim to such loot- age countries, cultural heritage sites - that stood for centuries continue to Cultural Rights are Human Rights crumble. German artist who had created the The destruction that occurred in both work centuries ago was seen as a ge- Known as the “Pearl of the Adriatic,” Dubrovnik and Aleppo shows that nius in the eyes of the Nazis. The altar the Old City of Dubrovnik in Croatia was to be sent back to the German stood proud. Dating back to the 7th nefarious agendas, despite prohibi- Fatherland, echoing the sentiments century, the city carved an important tion by international law. Karima Ben- that Germanic art should not be in place for itself in the Slavic world as noune, United Nations Special Rap- the hands of an “alien race.” Citizens a major sea power. The Old Town of in Krakow dismantled the altar and and Professor of Law at the Univer- hid it in the countryside, but the Nazis sity of California, Davis, spoke about tracked it down and shipped it to Ber- Cultural Organization—or UNESCO— this general narrative that cultural lin. However, the Poles had become World Heritage site in 1979. And yet, destruction is the collateral damage so accustomed to having the Altar in in the early 1990’s during the Siege intentional cultural destruction. “At way to their prayer” without it, said of Dubrovnik as part of the Yugoslav times, cultural heritage is destroyed - Wars, with over two-thirds of the Old kaj in The Rape of Europa. City hit with projectiles. In the same military hostilities, but often, this de- year, the Vijecnica—or City Hall—in struction is deliberately targeted,” Post-World War II International Legal Sarajevo, which was built in the late said Bennoune. Bennoune continued Structures & Cultural Destruction 1800s in the style of historic Islam- that recent years have seen a grow- ic designs, burned down during the ing trend emerge of perpetrators The sustained cultural destruction Siege of Sarajevo. The destruction of videotaping themselves destroying that had become all too common- the City Hall also took with it nearly cultural heritage while providingThe a place in the early 20th century re- two million books. - sulted in the 1954 Hague Convention itage destruction is truly a “threat to

44 davis political review the framework of cultural rights and In the face of international cultural ture.” To expound on the importance heritage protection.” destruction, what is the way forward? of local politics, Ausín spoke about Bennoune said that oftentimes, a various heritage sites in Yemen, which The extensive cultural destruction partnership is needed between that has occurred internationally - - during the last hundred years also al mechanisms for conservation and brings about the conversation of hu- protection of cultural heritage to suc- approach, in these countries, is to man rights, and how this kind of de- ceed. It is critical to provide interna- work alongside local governments struction impinges on them. Individ- tional backing and “technical know- and religious groups to “facilitate dis- uals and nations must support the how” for individuals who are acting cussions with a diverse group of local notion of universal heritage—the idea as “local cultural heritage defenders” and international experts.” This allows that cultural heritage belongs to us to ensure they have the resources to for an “inclusive exchange of knowl- all, regardless of location—because “operate freely.” the right to freely participate in and needs of the local community and enjoy cultural life are central global that of the global community as well. tenets in propagating the idea of hu- “As wars ravage coun- In order to prevent cultural destruc- man rights. tries, cultural heritage tion and conserve heritage in its af- termath, international and local ad- So why aren’t cultural rights seen as sites that stood for integral to the conversation of human centuries continue to action from local stakeholders and rights as others? “Cultural rights are crumble.” international actors. Cultural destruc- integral to the human experience,” tion is a multifaceted issue, so people said Bennoune. “They serve critical must be educated in the importance vehicles for enabling the enjoyment of cultural heritage in order to act. of other human rights.” Cultural rights Cultural heritage is not just carved can be used to “promote other hu- spoke about their mission of preserv- stone or paint on canvas, it is an in- man rights” ranging from the freedom ing cultural heritage sites around the credibly vital part of humanity, and it of expression, to the freedom of reli- world through advocacy, education, must be protected. gion. What’s more, cultural rights are essential in meeting the United Na- “In cultural heritage, just like in many tions’ sustainable development goals of the 2030 agenda and “dealing with broader social issues such extrem- applied to respond to these types of ism, hatred, discrimination, and pov- issues,” said Ausín. “That said, we live erty.” Cultural rights must be treated in an era of multilateral reactions and, as an important piece of the human rights narrative. “It was no accident should emerge from a bottom-up that these rights were included in the movement, and include a diverse founding document of human rights group of voices and backgrounds, lo- law, the Universal Declaration of Hu- cally and internationally.” This allows man Rights,” said Bennoune. actors to gain a complete perspective of issues and possible solutions, be- The Way Forward cause “built cultural heritage is about politics and identity, not just architec-

davis political review 45 THE WAR ON EXISTENCE: GUN VIOLENCE AND THE NRA Shelby Salyer

Design by Erika Ortega mass shooting, the NRA, with the help unemployment, education, race, col- T(NRA) is one of the most powerful of alt-right media outlets, played the lege education and population densi- political lobbyists in the United States. victim, hoping to push the deregula- As gun violence in the United States tion of guns and gun ownership. The gun owners favor gun control laws. rises to newfound levels, the motives NRA consistently claims that it is rep- and goals of the NRA become ques- resented inaccurately by the media, The NRA spent a record $9.6 million tionable at best and sinister at worst. but simultaneously refuses to en- for lobbying in 2019, even as its annual gage with journalists to set the record income dropped. Out of the 382 mass While the violent crime rate in the U.S. otherwise. After multiple attempts to shootings that occurred in the Unit- has declined, gun-related deaths-es- reach out to the NRA for comments, ed States in 2017, only around 10-15 pecially suicides- continue to rise. In- occurred in areas where NRA’s con- dividuals in the United States, mainly gressional funding was low. The $28 children and young adults, face an - exceptionally high risk of gun deaths - pushes the NRA to lobby for freezes compared to the same age groups Laughlin asserts that the “gun control in federal funding for gun control re- in other high-income countries. In Bloomberg, certain politicians and for children under 15 is over 16 times their cheerleaders in the mainstream the interests of the U.S. populace. The higher than in 25 other industrialized media constantly lie and try to portray gun violence epidemic in the United countries combined, and gunshot the NRA as a horrible organization”. States is a uniquely American prob- wounds are a more common cause He further added that it is a “gross lem due to the NRA’s skillful control of death than all “natural” causes of understatement” to call “mainstream over the gun-control narrative and death combined. media biased and misinformed.” its lobbying capacity. The NRA has repeatedly blocked common-sense Gun violence is a uniquely American In 2019, there were more mass shoot- legislation on local, state and federal problem. The death rate per 100,000 ings in the U.S. than there are days levels for decades. people due to gun violence is four in the calendar year. Americans feel times higher in the United States than increasingly unsafe as the NRA push- The NRA has been producing media it is in Syria and Yemen - two coun- es for loosened gun-control. Accord- and marketing designed to increase tries currently at war. U.S. schools are ing to the Harvard Injury Control Re- referred to as “war zones” by publica- search Center, survey respondents 2017, the NRA successfully blocked tions and media, as school and public do not believe that regular citizens a proposed assault weapons ban shootings continue to rise. Students should be allowed to bring guns in by claiming that it threatened gun no longer feel safe in spaces that restaurants, college campuses and owners’ Second Amendment rights, are meant to facilitate learning and other public spaces by a margin of despite the fact that the gun death growth because they live in constant 9-1. Contrary to the trend in gun vio- - fear of gun violence. lence and public opinion regarding Laughlin claims that “Anti-Second gun control, the NRA continues to Amendment” legislators are trying NRA media outlets claim that the push for decreased gun control and to ban “commonly owned” semi-au- push for gun control and negative policies that increase gun sales. It tomatic weapons and that a ban on perception of the NRA with regards has been found that states with more these weapons poses a “massive to mass shootings are solely caused gun control laws have lower levels of threat to law-abiding gun owners by media bias, especially progressive or liberal bias. In the wake of a recent even after controlling for poverty, that the weapons are “often used for

davis political review 47 Design by Erika Ortega home defense” and that “Americans org, because we provide updates on attack the show for making its cast of will be less safe” if legislators ban legislation every step of the way...NRA characters more diverse. semi-automatic weapons. members and gun owners must visit - The gun violence crisis in the U.S. As the NRA’s platform becomes more dates are endorsed and how they are cannot be discussed without looking polarizing with regards to gun control rated.” at the demographic that commits the - most mass shootings: young white sociated with the NRA are more like- The increasingly polarized platforms - ly to vote for right-wing candidates of the NRA and its television outlet, cess guns - usually legally. Further- that will legislate against gun control. NRATV, are cloaked in sexism, rac- more, the spread of white national- ism, anti-immigrant sentiment and biggest lies about the NRA is that we laws that ease access to guns are are this “big scary gun lobby”, further group out-group dynamic between thought to be fueling the unprece- stating that the NRA Institute for Leg- NRA and non-NRA members, calling dented amount of gun violence and islative Action has a “strong team of those who advocate for gun con- mass shootings in the U.S. According lobbyists” who are “working hard to trol “anti-gunners” who “don’t know to a 2014 study conducted by Pro- ensure we elect legislators who pro- - tect the Second Amendment.” Out- Laughlin further claims that “deceit is Washington, Tacoma, mass shootings - at the backbone of our [the NRA] ad- are correlated with “white male griev- ence of NRA lobbying, NRA members versaries’ weak movement.” NRATV ance culture.” The “triple privileges of white heterosexual masculinity” hard to ensure the U.S. Congress “Students no longer feel makes unexepected losses and and legislatures across America safe in spaces that are downward mobility more painfully have pro-gun lawmakers.” shameful, which can cause a “cu- meant to facilitate learn- mulative act of violence” to attone As the NRA declines, its messag- ing and growth because for “subordinated masculinity.” es have become more aggressive, they live in constant fear - There is an inextricable link be- tively creating a new voting block of gun violence.” tween misogyny, racism and gun out of gun owners. In 1972, gun violence: women in the U.S. are 21 owners were only 11 percent more has perpetuated hateful rhetoric on a times more likely to die from gun vi- likely than non-gun owners to vote for number of its shows and programs, olence than women in other high-in- a Republican candidate. As of 2016, supporting and advocating for racism, come countries. Over half of the mass that number rose to 30%. If only gun transphobia and sexual assault - call- shootings in the U.S. are linked to do- owners voted in the 2016 election, - mestic violence, and the majority of Donald Trump would win every state cle for political purpose.” NRATV also men that kill an intimate partner have except Vermont. If only non-gun own- defended conspiracy theorist Alex a history of domestic violence. “Ince- ers voted, Hillary Clinton would win Jones, who espoused that men are ls”, or “involuntary celibates”, are an every state except for West Virginia, being turned into “second rate wom- online subculture that expresses vio- and possibly Wyoming. According to en.” Additionally, in September of lent, vengeful and misogynistic ideas - 2018, an image of Thomas & Friends towards women. “Incel” subcultures bers that “every single NRA member characters wearing Ku Klux Klan are also known for virulent racism. and gun owner in America must vote” hoods was shown by Dana Loesch on Based on media reports, shooters are and must do so by visiting “NRAILA. NRATV in an attempt to threaten and increasingly identifying with or as “in-

48 davis political review cels”, and many failed shooting plots arm violence research is a war on are “incel” related. existence. Lawmakers must legislate gun control policies that ensure that As hate crimes and gun violence grow children can stay safe in schools and in the U.S., a link between the NRA’s the U.S. populace can stay safe at polarizing platforms and gun violence home and in public. The NRA’s war on gun control is also a war on exis- elevates the status of NRA members tence. Sales and memberships are more important to the NRA and the this country for our right to defend ourselves, our loved ones and our Lawmakers and politicians must stop communities.” The NRA and its mem- accepting congressional funding from bers continue to contribute to the gun the NRA in exchange for enactment of policies that put human existence at are radicalized by the concept of be- risk. Greater transparency in the U.S. ing part of a “grassroots army of pa- government and platforms of contact triots” ready to defend the messages and reporting must be established to of the NRA at any cost “before it is too allow individuals to hold their elected late.”

Knowing the link between aggressive violence, the NRA is purposefully ig- noring the lives of human beings in their dying institution and elevating the for continued lobbying power and rel- evancy continues to polarize the gun violence crisis in the United States. NRA misinformation campaigns, cor- porate greed and the prioritization of - lows mass shootings to happen - it NRA will continue to use its platform to create increasingly polarized right- wing content that motivates race and gender-based gun violence.

Gun control saves lives. The NRA’s -

davis political review 49 davis political review our campus, our conversation. dpr ISSUE NO. 2 www.davispoliticalreview.com

WAR & DISARMAMENT