DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 089 365 CS 201 206 AUTHOR DeBoer, John J., Ed.; And Others TITLE Education and The Mass Media of Communication. INSTITUTION National Conference on Research in English.; National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, Ill. PUB DATE 50 NOTE 71p.; Published and distributed by NCTE from its former office in Chicago EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$3.15 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS *Communication Skills; Elementary Education; *English Instruction; Instructional Aids; *Literature Reviews; *Mass Media; *Media Research; Multimedia Instruction; Secondary Education ABSTRACT This monograph deals with the utilization of modern communicational media as aids to instruction and learning inthe English classroom and contains studies pointing theway toward expanding student experience through multimedia instruction.Chapters include "Magazines," which presents objectives for magazine study, discusses students' reading interests, and suggests class activities based on magazine study; "Newspapers," which reviews thenewspaper reading interests of children and youth and considers objectivesand activities for the classroom; "Radio," which analyzes children's listening interests, examines the effects of radio listeningon children, and explores useful classroom practices; "Television," which discusses public interest in television, examines financeand programing in commercial television, and considers the effects of television on education; "Recorded Sound Aids," which summarizes the available research, suggesting classroom applications for recorded materials; and "Motion Pictures," which discusses the motion picture as an instructional device and a cultural force. (RB) U S DEPARTMENT OF NEALTH, EOUCATION A WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO VIAINININNINNANEmolosolw DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN ATING iT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NeCESSARkLY REPRE. SENT OF FiCi AL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EOUCATJON POSITION OR POLICY. Education and The Mass Media of Communication

Prepared by a Committee of The National Conference On Research In English

RESEARCH BULLETIN OP THE NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON RESEARCH IN ENGLISH Reprinted from Elena Nkry Enlist?, January to May, 1950 Ara Official Publication of the National Council of Teachers of English John J. D:Boer, Editor

Officers of the Nationzl Conference on Research In English: ( 1949. 1950) President: Harold A. Anderson Vice-President: Bess Goodykoontz Sectetary-Treastuer: Gertrude A. Whipple

Editorial Committee For Research Bulletins Of The National Conference On Research In English:

Emmett A. Betts, Chairman, Temple University Roy Ivan Johnson, University of Denver Nita Damon Smith, New York Univerrity

Published and Distributed by

THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH 211 West 68th Street Chicago 21, Illinois Single copies, 75 cents 10 or more copies, 60 cents each Catalog Order No. P 56.6 EDUCATION AND THE MASS MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

Prepared by a Committee of The National Conference On Research In English JOHN J. DEBOER, Chairman University of Illinois ROY IVAN JOHNSON University of Denver P. A. K1LLGALLON University of Oregon LILLIAN NOVOTNY Oriole Park School, Chicago DALLAS W. SMYTHE University of Illinois PETER L. SPENSER Claremont Graduate School MARION R. TRABUE Pennsylvania State College ABRAM W. VANDERMEER Pennsylvania State College

*0*

A RESEARCH BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON RESEARCH IN ENGLISH

THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF '1EACHERS OFENGLISH Copyright 1950 by The National Council of Teachers of English Printed in U. S. A.

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY- RIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED SY National Council of Teachers of EnglWH TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATING UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE NATIONAL IN STITUTE OF EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRO- DUCTION OUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM PE- OUIRES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OW N ER TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Chapter L INTRODUCTION 5 ROY L JOHNSON

Chapter II.MAGAZINES 7 JOHN J. DEBOER

Chapter III. NEWSPAPERS 26 JOHN J. DEBOER

Chapter IV. RADIO 39 LILLIAN R. NOVOTNY

Chapter V. TELEVISION 47 DALLAS W. SMYTHE

Chapter VI. RECORDED SOUND AIDS 58 PAT KILLGALLON

Chapter VII. MOTION PICTURES 69 ABRAM W. VANDERMEER Introduction ,JOY 1. JOHNSONt

The lag in education has been accounted The various chapters of this bulletin deal for in various ways. One explanation lies in thewith the utilization of modern communication- "heritage concept" of education. We are so con-al media as aids to instruction and learning. cerned with the past that we have little time forWhether the utilization be in connection with the study of the present. Another contributingcourses in English or other areas of study is not, factor is the persistence of organized patternsat the moment, a matter of primary concern. of learning and established procedures. Thus we The logical assumption is that in all areas learn- commit ourselves, both in subject matter anding will be strengthened by intensifying experi- method, to what has been. A practical impedi-ence and multiplying the media for the com- ment in the modernization ofschool programs munication of th,ughts, ideas, and impressions. has been the lack of educational tools adapted Since English deals with communicational skills, to school use. Traditionallybooks have beenone might suppose that the English curriculum the tools of teaching and learning. For manywould be prompt to respond to the social and years the tinging of the morningschool bell technological advances in modem communica- was the signal to "take up books"an ex-tional practice. But in the past half century, pression that still prevails in some sections ofwhich has been the most productive period in the country. Reading and recitation have been,the world's history in science and invention, in the main, the ritual of school practice. surprisingly little progress has been made in adapting the products of science to the pro- But as the problem'of pupil learning has be- cesses of education. Itis true that there is a come the subject of psychologicalstudy, wesparse offering of educational filmssparse in have accumulated convincing data to show that comparison with the total production of films the berg learning (chat is, learning which lasts on a commercial basis. Some excellent radio re- and which functions in use) results from active cordings in special fields are available. There experience, and varied experience, rather than is a fairly abundant supply of good music re- from passive assimilation and recitation of fact.cords. Occasional "hook-ups" are reported be- This extension of pupil experience has been ac- tween the schools and local radio stations. Some complished in some measure through the use colleges and universities have their own broad- of maps, globes, structural models, and labora- casting centers or arraage for "time" with a tory materials in science. Also, as education has neighboring station. But many, if not most of taken cognizance of community problems andthese services are commercial or promotional in community interests, some emancipation from nature. They illustrate possibilities rather than books has been achieved by utilizing corn-perfected program.; adapted to specific needs. munity resources as aids to learning. These ex-The showing of a film, for exampl; is too often an adventure in entertainment (or a "build- pansions of the school program are reflections up" for the local theater) rather than a planned ofbroadened concept of education which in- educational experience. sists that subject matter must be life-related, that the school must be identified with society 'Professor of Education, the University of instead of divorced from it. Denver.

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Planning: here lies the key to better use ofa few selected magazines and newspapers. But instructional materials. And the planning must as audio-visual materials ate accumulated, they be of three sorts. First in order is the develop-too must be made easily availablewith a ment of a larger store of appropriate materialsminimum demand on teacher time and a mini- adapted to specific needs and purposes. A mum of delay in supplying the requested ma- moving picture which happens to have its terials. Since the library is already a functioning setting in Colorado in 1890 is not necessarilyorganization, serving the curricular needs of a good educational film for a unit of study inthe various departments, it would appear to be Our Western Expansion. Second, there mustthe logical administrative unit through which be planning with respect to the way in whichadditional aids should be channeled. But what- the new experience is to be utilized. Whatever the answer may be,itisessential, for preparation is needed? What emphases are totimely and effective use, that all types of ap- bestressed? What follow-upactivitiesate proved teaching materials(including films, needed to fix the new learning and relate it toslides, recordings, etc.)be made readily ac- the obectives of the unit? Third, there must cessible. be some effective re-planning in connection The stvdiz.s reported in this bulletin point with the problem of scheduling and distributingthe way towr.rd an enlargement of pupil experi- in order to bridge the gap between the teacher ence thrbugh the utilization of such communi- and potential teaching aids and materials, cational media as newspapers and magazines, A word about the last of these three needsfilm strips and motion pictures, radio, and the problem of distribution. The function ofphonographic transcription (or recordings). the library has long been recognized as an edu They will undoubtedly suggest the need for cational function. In spite of the fact that somefurther studies in exploring the possibilities of librarians still look upon books as somethingthese media in linking inschool and outof to be guarded rather than used, most libraryschool experience. They wilt also suggest the programs (particularly in schools) are service need of more effective mass planning and mass programs. Is it not logical that, as the materials action, on the part of educational groups, in of learning expand, the services and resourcessmoothing the way for wider and wiser use of of the library should expand? When the tools modern materials and modern technological of learning were restricted to books, the libraryaids in teaching. was largely a "place of books"with perhaps Magazines JOHN J. DEBOER

America may be said to be a nation of mag- than in magazines as media of communication. azine readers. For every book reader in theAs in so many other ways, the school has been United States there are at least two magazineslow to adjust itself tothis development in readers. Americans read magazines for amuse: American life. Clearly in the field of magazines ment, for information, and for inspiration. They the school has both a great opportunity and a turn to magazines for interpretation of the great challenge. news, for sidelights on interesting characters, Objectives for Magazine Study for humor, for advice on practical problems, The study of magazines in school should be for adventure and excitement, and for personalguided by a number of clear objectives. Mere and religious guidance. Magazines supply read.reading of magazines at home or in school can- ers with fiction, history, political analysis, child not in itself result in. the improvement of the psychology, news of sports, hobbies, and scien quality of magazine reading by American youth. tificdevelopments, suggestionsforinterior The following objectives are suggested as pos- decoration, home building and maintenance,sible direction for educational efforts in this clothing, health care, choice of schools and va- field: cation spots, as well as scores of other types of 1. The Expansion of Magazine Reading In- informational and recreational materials. They terests. present these materials in the form of words, One of the fundamental purposes of the sec- photographs, cartoons, charts and graphs, draw. ondary schools is to prepare young people for ings, and other visual symbols. Magazine corn. the constructive use of leisure time. The maga- munication has become a highly developed art zine offers a wide variety of opportunities to and is today one of the most interesting and ef- .adolescents, not only for the pursuit of their pre. fective reflectors of American life. sent interests, but also for the development of The 6,000 magazines publishedinthe many worthwhile new interests. Boys and girls UnitedStatesrange from lowgrade Comicwhose tastes in magazines are limited to the books, cheap pulp magazines, and lurid adven- pulps, adventure magazines, or one or two popu- ture magazines to such sophisticated journals lar magazines can learn to enjoy many other per- as The New Yorker, quality magazines likeiodicals which will open new fields of interest Harper's, and learned periodicals like the Jour- and activity to them. Hobbies, sports, athletics, nal of Genetic Psychology. Within a given fieldfashions, public affairs,science and nature, of interest, they range from such an excellenthumor, education and child care, occupationi, popular magazine as Science News Letter, toworthwhile fiction, and many other areas of the Scientific American, to the highly technicalinterest are represented by many magazines magazine Science. There is a magazine for every of ,which the typical child is unaware and which level of reading ability, interest, taste, and po. are usually not availableat the commercial litical opinion. magazine stand. It is the responsibility of the school to make these available to him and to How well prepared is the American public encourage him to explore them. to read magazines with intelligence and pleas- *Professor of Education, the University of Il- ure? Generally speaking, the American school linois. Numbers in parentheses refer to refer- has been much more interested in booksences at the end of this article.

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2, The Improvement of Reading Thiel. policies and practices, the ability to make wise selection among magazines, and the develop We have frequently heard the complaint that ment of powers of critical discrimination in the public tastes in books, radio and television pro. reading of magazine materials are among the grams, photoplays, and magazines are deplorably low. No doubt this complaint is justified. Butmore important objectives of instruction in this tastes, like other human characteristics, are inarea. large part learned, and itis possible for the The MagazineAs a Mass Medium home, the church, the school, and other social A brief look at some magazine statistics will institutionsto do something about them.suffice to demonstrate the importance of mag Teachers can, by creating a favorable environ-azines as a concern of the school. Approximately ment and providing happy experiences with6,000 magazines, with a total circulation of high grade magazines, substantially improve240,000,000, are published in the United States young peoples tastes in magazine reading. (9). According to one estimate (64), the aver. age American family spends $7.42 per year for 3. The Development of Independent hag.magazines. The Comic magazines alone account ment in Magazine Reading. for a circulation of at least 40,000,000 (1). In a democratic society, ultimate decisions a-One publisher of a group of magazines reports bout public policy must be made by the people. an annual gross revenue of more than 337,000,- It is of the greatest importance, therefore, that000 (22). A leading picture magazine pub. the people have access to as many sources of in-lished $57,000,000 worth of advertising in nine formation and opinion as possible, and that theymonths of the year 1947 (28). learn to make up their own minds after care- These figures suggest the significance of the ful examination of many points of view. Whenterm "mass media" as applied to modern ye- young people read magazines which reflect onlyhides of communication. They also suggest a one basic view respecting public policy, they are new probleminthe development of likely to be influenced by the particular person,democratic institutions. When a single voice persons, or agencies which publish the maga-can be heard at one time by 90,000,000 people zines. For this reason, high school youth shouldvia the radio, and a single magazine is read by be introduced to many viewpoints in the maga-an estimated 25,000,000 people, the question of zine world. They should learn how to comparewho controls these opinion-forming agencies, these viewpoints, to recognize the bias of theand in whose interest, assumes enormous signi- writers, and to make tit, their own minds in-ficance in a society in which ultimate decisions dependently. must be made by the people themselves. The question of control vitally affects also the na- Magazinesand the School ture of the educational problem with respect to In undertaking the task of teaching chil- magazine reading. dren to read, the school has traditionally placed its chief reliance upon the medium of books. Control of the Mass Media Actually, newspapers and magazines are read Elevenpublisherscontrolroughlyone- much more widely and regularly than booksfourth of the total magazine circulation, with 17 (97). To heyoung people to live intelligentlymagazines out of the total of 6,000. They are in a world of newspapers and magazines would DeWitt Wallace (of Reader's Digest), Curtis seem to be a primary obligation of the school.Publishing Company, Crowell Publishing Com- Familiarity with and interest in a wide rangepany, Hearst Publications, CoronetEsquire, of magazines, some knowledge ofeditorialInc.,J. Howard Pew, Time, Inc., Gardiner MAGAZINES 9

Cowles, Atlas Corporation, T. M. Meu Iler, and high schools be devoted to magazines and other McCall, Inc.Five publishersCurtis, Time,mass media. There is evidence that schools are Crowell, Hearst, and McCallwith ten maga-increasingly giving attention to this problem. zines, represent one-fifth of the total magazineHowever, such study will have relatively little circulation in the United States. value if it is confined to the purely mechanical To what extent does this concentration ofaspects of magazine production. It should be control tend to guide public opinion in specificbased upon dearly defined objectives appro- directions? Do the publishers named representpriate to the social situation. Independence of a sufficient diversity of viewpoint to enableany one magazine or group of magazines in the American readers to form independent opin-formation of opinion on social, political, eco- ions? Do these publishers, consciously or un-nomic, and personal questions should certainly consciously, serve any special interests by meansbe one such objective. Such independence may of their publication? be achieved not merely by the critical analysis of the large-circulation media, but by compari- As the Hutchins Commission on a Free and sons with the numerous excellent magazines of Responsible Press recently pointed out,The more limited circulation. agencies of mass communications are big busi- ness"(23). Itis inevitableand legitimate Elementary School Children's that the editorial policies of these periodi- Interests in Magazines cals should be influenced in varying degrees by What magazines are read by children and the economic interests of the publishers. Neveryouth? A great many studies of magazine read- theless, if a majority of readers arc dependent ing interests have been reported. The reading upon media which are under minority controlof magazines appears to be popular atall and reflect a single editorial coloration, thegrade levels (123). At the early elementary school clearly has the obligation to broadenlevel boys and girls tend to prefer the the base upon which the majority forms itssame magazines, while the differences in opinions, Moreover, in view of the tremendous interests between boys andgirlsincrease present circulation of such magazines as themarkedly in the upper grades 5.8 (13). At Reader's Digest, Life, and Time, itis ques-least one investigator found that magazines are tionable whether the school, in requiring theread in larger quantity by boys than by girls, reading of these magazines to the exclusion that boys show more interest in current events of others,isjustified in contributing toand show greater independence in their selec- the further extension of this circulation and in tion and reading of magazines (13). As one further limiting the range of opinion with might expect, many investigators report that which young people have contact. Exclusive bright children read more and better magazines subscriptions by classes to a singly mass maga-than the slow learners do (54, 26, 25, 61). zine can perhaps be justifiably interpreted asMiddlegrade children of limited reading ability unintentional propagandizing in behalf ofa can become interested in such magazines as single viewpoint on human affairs. Popular Science and Popular Mechanics (50). Intellectual independence And There is a closecorrelation between socio- Magazine Study economic status and number and quality of A writer in a recent issue of the North Cen-magazines read (69). tral Association Quarterly (113), recognizing What magazines are read by elementary the urgent need for magazine study in theschool children? Child Life appears to be very schools, recommends that a semester's work inpopular in the elementary school, particularly 10 MASS MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION in the early grades. Boys' Life, American Boy,report similar figures for junior college stu- Open Road, Boy Scout, Calling AllGirls,dents, while Witty and Coomer (121) found American Girl, Miss America, Playmate, Popu- that they read four magazines(other than lar Mechanics, Popular Science, Youth's Com- comics)regularly, and that the average re- panion, Jack and Jill, Children's Activities, and mained consistent from grade to grade. The stu- American Junior Red Cross News are frequentlydent? rankings of the fifteen magazines read mentioned inlists o( popular magazines for most frequently in the Witty-Coomer study are elementary school children. given in Table If. In general, the findings of Older elementary school children exhibit in-this study with respect to the magazines pre- retest in several adult magazines. Life, Reader's ferred are confirmed by numerous other studies Digest, National Geographic, and Collier's, ac-e.g., thsoe of Donahue (29), Elden and Care cording to some studies, are widely read bypenter (37), and Leary (70). One study (92) seventh and eighth grade children. Huber andreported that the average high school student Chapel lear(69), comparing the magazinespends 2.85 hours per week in reading maga- reading of bright and dull children, found that zines. the former preferred such periodicals as Radio TABLE I News, Scientific American, and American Mag-LIBRARIANS' RATINGS OF CHILDREN'S azine, while the latter chose such tides as Photo- MAGAZINES' play, Film Fun, True Stev, and Argosy. Magazine First Choices The circulation figures of the children's Story Parade 43 magazines do not always conform to the judg- National Geographic 39 ments of librarians and teachers as to their re-Popular Mechanics 33 lative quality. Although Witty reports (120) American Girl 28 that children show a keen interest in such mag- Child Life 27 azines as My Weekly Reader, Current Events, Boy? Life 27 Jack and Jill, Story Parade, Children's Activities, Popular Science Monthly 18 and Jr. Language and Arts, not all of these at-Nature 14 tain the wide audiences enjoyed by many per- Junior Scholastic 14 iodicals not so highly recommended. In a studyChildren's Activities 13 directed by the writer, Amar recently secured St. Nicholas 11 the ratings of 50 leading children's magazinesJack and Jill 10 by representative librarians from all parts ofJr. Natural History Magazine 9 the country (4). The librarians ranked the list Model Airplane News 8 in the order of their chokes as to fortnar, gen-My Weekly Reader 7 eral literary quality, popularity with children,The Open Road for Boys 6 and the extent to which the magazines promote Current Events 6 democratic ideals. The magazines with thenum- I3oy Life 5 ber of first choices are given in Table I. Science News-Letter 4 High School and College Students' Jr. American Red Cross News 3 interests in Magazines Jr. American Red Cross Journal 3 At the junior and senior high school level,Young America 2 magazines continue to be popular with boysCalling AU Girls 2 and girls. Brink estimates that high school youth read from two to three magazines regularly 'From "Children's Magazines Today," by Wes- ley Francis Amar. Elementary English Review (18). Ells (35), and Byrne and Henman (20) XX No. 7 (November, 1943), page 288. MAGAZINES 11

TABLE II senior year of high school. Girls turn early to RANKINGS GIVEN BY HIGH-SCHOOL adult magazines, and by age 15 tend to be avid STUDENTS TO THE FIFTEEN MAGA- readers of women's magazines and fiction 'nag- ZINES, OTHER THAN COMICS, READ azines, according to Walter (115). SEXES. MOST FREQUENTLY BY BOTH As in the case of elementary school pupils, (From Witty.Coomet) the quality of adults' magazine reading varies Name of Magazine Rank Both Sexes with reading ability (19). Punke (90) found Reader's Digest 1.0 that high school boys prefer the themes of ad. Life 2.0 venture, sports, and mechanics, while girlqlike romance, society, and .fashions. He also noted Saturday Evening Post 3.0 Ladies' Home Journal 4.0 a sharp decline of interest on the part of boys McCall's Magazine 5.0 in boys' magazines in the course of the ninth Good Housekeeping 6.0 grade. According to this study, high schools should apparently continue to provide suitable Collier's 7.0 boys' magazines for pupils in the first seniestet National Geographic 8.0 Scholastic 9.0 of the ninth year. Many studies emphasize the close relationship between young people's in- Popular Science 10.0 terests in magazines and the availability of cer- Time 11.0 Popular Mechanics 12.0 tain magazines (98). American Magazine 13.0 In a study of the sources of high school Esquire 14.0 pupils' information on current affairs, Lemmers Look 15.5 (72) found that 61 per cent of the pupils de. Eells (35), in a study of the magazine read- pended upon radio first for their knowledge of current events, 31 per cent depended upon ing interests of over 17,000 high school pupils newspapers first, and only 8 per cent depended found that the three magazines ranking highest were Reader', Digeil, Li /e, and American Mag. primarily on the news weekly. azine. These three magazines, in addition to The interests of junior high school pupils Time and Collier's were common to the lists ofin magazines arc reported by Ashby (8), who both boys' and girls' preferences. Other maga- made a survey of the reading habits of 530 boys zines on the girls' list were chiefly women'sand girls in the Dennis Junior High School, magazines, while those on the boys' list showed Richmond, Indiana. Ashby lists the following greater variety. types of periodicals as favorites among the In a recent careful study of high school young people whom he interrogated: students in reading, motion pictures, and radio, TABLE Sterner (107) reported that the chief interests FAVORITE MAGAZINES OP PUPILS IN of high school pupils are adventure, humor, and THE DENNIS JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, love, and that the choice of medium is much less RICHMOND, INDIANA significant than the choice of theme. In Byrne Bop and Henmon's study (20), women's monthly 1. Newspapers magazines appealed most to girl seniors in high 2. Comics school, while monthly and weekly fiction mag- 3. Popular Science azines and quality magazines were read by a 4. Boys' Life substantial number of both boys and girls in the 5. Popular Mechanics 12 MASS MEDIA OP COMMUNICATION

6. Open Road for Boys 4) How do we know what the stories 7. Life are about? 8. Collier's 5) Can we find stories or pictures about 9 America's Boy the topic we are studying in school? 10. Liberty 6) How much do we need to pay a year for a good magazine? Girls 7) How can we interest mother and fath- 1. Newspapers er in getting the magazine for us? 2, American Girl 3. Life Bringing magazines of interest to school. 4. Comics Looking for material on topics to be studied. 5. Look Looking for pictures to interest other chil- 6. Good Housekeeping dren. 7. Collier's Exploring a magazine 8. American Magazine Reading storieschildren think will 9. Weekly News Review 10. Ladies Home Journal be interesting. Showing completion of activity after The Use o/ Magazines in Elementary Schools child has read and followed directions in the activity section of magazine. The literature on the use of magazines in Reading poems of interest to class. schools contains little evidence of systematic Surveying material to be found in activity on the part of elementary schools in the field of magazine reading. Many elementary magazines. schools, however, provide copies of Child Life, Reading to find material for a given Junior Scholastic, Story Parade, and other chit. topic dten's magazines in the school library. The Telling stories, reading stories, dram- Madison (Wisconsin) Public Schools have pub- atizing stories lished an excellent pamphlet entitled, Magazines Discussing how to make objects of in- for Elementary Schools (78), containing a unit terest to child or group of children on magazines for second grade, another for the Reading poems individually or in intermediate grades, and a third for the fifth groups grade. The pamphlet also lists, with evaluative Writing original poems and stories annotations, 63 magazines recommended for Reading for fun children's use. The titles of the magazines are for a class magazine given in Table IV. Looking at pictures The units described in the Madison pamph- let suggest such activities as the following: Enjoying poems and pictures Drawing and constructing for fun Raising questions by pupils: Finding pictures for group booklet 1) What magazines are easy enough for us to read? Finding storks and poems of interest 2) What stories are easy enough for us on topics being studied. to read? Painting and making things 3) Where can we find the names of sto:- Keeping a scrapbook ies most quickly? Preparing a class magazine MAGAZINES 13

Experimentation 5) Advertisements (many, few, Carrying through to completion of none) science experiments presented in 6) Size of print (fine, medium, magazine large) Sharing stories and poems written by 7) Quality of paper (poor, fair, the children good, excellent) Presenting a play or dramatization of 8) Number of pages story found in a magazine Making a class movie or frieze Comparing current issue of a certain rnag- azine with an old copy to note change Organizing and evaluating magazine unit Listing magazines that are purely recrea- What part of the unit was of most tional use to us? Listing magazines that ate published pd What do we like about the work done madly for informational purposes by group? Listingarticles from magazines that are What conclusions have we made con- pertinent to units for grade cerning the questions we wanted Listing ways in which children's magazines answered? are similar to, or different from adult Preparing a magazine display magazines Hearing talk on magazines by school Listing magazines that futther intetest in librarian any hobbies Listening to talk by Uncle Ray on the Choosing a magazine, and giving following publishing of a magazine information: Making a list of different interests to 1) Why you liked or disliked magazine be found in magazines (Use Table 2) Whether it is too old or too young or of Contents) "just right" Browsing among magazines 3) Whether it is worth the price Looking at magazine pictures 4) What feature in the magazine you en- Talking about interesting stories and joyed most articles 5) Whether girls or boys would enjoy Classifying stories as to whether they the magazine most ate fiction or true accounts 6) Whether itis worth ordering for Finding stories about people of other school or classroom library lands, otherreligion;, of immi- grants,etc.(Inter-culturalrela Finding out how much you would save by dons) buying any particular magazine by the year, rather than by the month; in Preparing classification chart of mag- groups, cachet than individvally azines. using following headings: Comparing accounts of same article by dif- I) Price (by month and year) ferent authors 2) Frequency of issue Writing poems or stories and sending to 3) Size contributors' column 4) Illustrations (many, few) Finding answets to specific questions 14 MASS MEDIA OPCOMMUNICATION

Reporting to class on interesting article d. Do they show keener observation of Having a "Magazine Hour," for presenting material contained in magazines? original poems, stories, or any other e. Have they grown in creative expres- material developed during study of sion? unit f. Do they find increased enjoyment in Visiting a printing shop to see types of reading magazines? machines g. Do they show increased interest in hobbies? Posting references to interesting magazine h. Are they activelyinterested in the articles on the bulletin board magazines ordered for the school? Preparing a class magazine containing a var- i. Do they sometimes compare the worth iety of features of one magazine with another? Designing the cover, sectional headings, etc., for the magazine The objectives listed in the units stressed Preparing advertisements related to class in-particularly the importance of developing pow- terests ers of critical discrimination in the reading of Evaluation magazines, widening the range of children's in Devices terests, and building a background of signifi- a. Observation by teacher cant factual information. b. Checking of pupil's magazine-reading That elementary schools can succeed in im by proving the magazine reading habits of children 1) Questionnaire was indicated in a report by Norris (86), who 2) Class discussion and reports compared the magazine reading of children in 3) Informal tests r platoon school and in a non-platoon school. 4) Conference with librarian She concluded that "the desire to become Evaluation questions interested in a variety of magazines can a. Are pupils increasingly interested inbe brought about with children in the early reading better magazines? readers." Similar results were obtained by Erick- b. Do they show less interest in Comics? son (38), who made numerous desirable mag- c. Have they improved in techniques forazines available to a group of sixth-grade chil- research reading? dren.

TABLE 1V MAGAZINES RECOMMENDED FOR ELEMENTARY GRADES (Curriculum Department, Madison Public Schools)

Name of Magazine Age Level Price Issued Aviation Flying 10 and up $3.00 Monthly Model Airplane News 716 2.50 Monthly Skyways 12 and up 3.00 Monthly

Handcraft Children's Activities 5 -12 Popular Mechanics 6.60 Popular Science Monthly 12 - 18 MAGAZINES 15

Local linefell Badger History with Junior Badger History 10 16 1.50 Monthly Crusader 12 and up .50 Monthly Junior Crusader 8 12 .50 Monthly Wisconsin Bulletin of Conservation 12 and up free Monthly Modern Problem! Building America 10 18 2.25 Monthly National Humane Review 9.15 100 Monthly Soil Conservation 12 and up 1.00 Monthly Young Crusader 7.12 .50 Monthly Nature, Science, and Health American Forests 12 and up 5.00 Monthly Arizona Highways 10 and up 3.00 Monthly Audubon Magazine 11 and up 2.50 Bi-Monthly Canadian Nature 9 - 15 1.25 131-Monthly Earth and Sky 10 12 .75 Semi-Monthly Highlights for Children 5 - 12 4.00 Monthly Hygeia 12 and up 2.50 Monthly, Junior Natural History 10 14 1.50 Monthly Nature Magazine 10 and up 4.00 Monthly Science News Letter 1218 5.50 Weekly Special interests American Jr, Red Cross Journal 12 18 1.00 Monthly American Jr. Red Cross News 7 - 14 10.50 Monthly American Photography 12 and up 2.50 Monthly Asia Calling 10 - 18 2.00 Monthly Better Homes and Gardens 12 and up 2.50 Monthly Horn Book 12 and up 3.00 131-Monthly Inter-American 12 and up 3.00 Monthly Jr. Language and Arts 5 -14 5.00 Monthly Junior Reviewers 4.16 2.75 131-Monthly Plays 11 16 3.0k) Monthly Popular Photography 12 and up 4.00 Monthly Radio and Television News 12 and up 4.00 Monthly Stamps 13 and up 2.00 Monthly True Comics 9 14 1.00 Monthly United Nations World 12 and up 4.00 Monthly U. S. Camera Magazine 12 and up 1.75 Monthly Young Wings 7 - 16 .50 Monthly Story Magazines American Girl 12.16 2.00 Monthly Boy's Life 12 . 18 2.50 Monthly Child Life Pre-School 3.00 Monthly 16 MASS MEDIA OV COMMUNICATION

Children'sPlay Mate 4 12 2.00 Monthly Collins Magazine 10 14 4.50 Monthly Jack and Jill 6 12 2.50 Monthly Open Road for Boys 12 15 2.00 Monthly Story Parade 9.15 3.00 Monthly Uncle Ray's Magazine 9.15 2.50 Monthly Wee Wisdom 6. 11 1.00 Monthly World Youth 12 15 2.50 Monthly Travel Magazine' Geographic School Bulletin 12 15 .50 Weekly Latin American Junior Review 12 16 1.00 Monthly National Geographic 10 and up 5.00 Monthly Travel 12 and up 4.50 Monthly

Current Events Current Events 10 to 15 1.20 Weekly Junior Scholastic 12 - 15 .90 Weekly My Weekly Reader 5 -12 .80 Weekly Newsweek 12 and up 6.50 Weekly Pathfinder 12 and up 2.00 Semi-Monthly World Topics Quarterly 12 and up 1.50 Quarterly Young America 7 -15 .60 Weekly

Magazines for Elementary School; provides in in certain particulars. Magazines like Reader', formation also concerning addresses of the mag- Digest, Coronet, Scholastic, and others have agazines listed, as well as amount of advertising made great effort to adapt the vocabulary level and illustrations in each. of their articles to readers of average reading The Use of Magazines in ability, and have supplied teaching aids de- Secondary Schools signed to make the respective periodicals more useful to teachers. However, the committee's As early as 1935, Bessey (15) discovered a general conclusion that no one magazine is widespread interest among teachers of English ideally suited to classroom use will continue to in the use of tnagazines in school. Her com- be valid so long as the element of editorial bias mittee reported that at that time there was no cannot be completely eliminated from the con- one magazine that was ideally suited to the tent of any mass publication. classroom, and that the greatest stumbling. blocks to comprehension and pleasure in read- An optimistic note was struck by La 13rant ing magazine literature were the difficult vo- and Heller (66) in their report of a study, cabulary whichcharacterized many ofthe nude in 1936, of the magazine reading inter- articles and the fact that frequently the subject csts of 215 pupils in grades VIIXII. Their matter was remotefromthe experience of findings revealed a breadth of interest at all adolescentsandfrequentlyinappropriate inlevels and a healthy and growing interest in theme for class discussion. desirable magazines. They expressed the belief If Miss Bessey's committee were to report chat the problem of teaching pupils to read today, it would probably modify its conclusions good magazines lies in making these magazines MAGAZINBS 17 available in quantity, in providing situationsing habits of the community, while pupils in where they may be read profitably, and in al- a social studies class studied the newspaper and lowing leisure for their use. The study provides magazine reading of the country as a whole and encouraging evidence that pupils' levels of dis itsprobable effect upon national thinking. crimination can be raised when the schoolComparisons were made between the two makes efforts toward that end. A mote recent studies and the results presented in assembly study by Mallon (80), however, seems to in and P. T. A. programs. dicate that "there appears to be little solid con - In a ninth grade class, a teacher (71) dis viction among schools concerning the use of covered that Comic books ranked first among perodicals and their place in the school pro- the pupils' preferred magazines. She requested gram." Mallon conducted a survey throughout the class to select magazines for the classroom the country to find out the amount spent forlibrary, and in their attempt to secure the best periodicals, the periodicals actually taken, and values for the funds available,pupilsread the names of the magazines bound. He found many magazines. The teacher asserts that as a that "policies with reference to provision of result of this experience pupils read fewer pulp periodicals are diverse in the extreme and in and comic magazines. every measurable detail." Another effort to develop critical judgments The National Council of Teachers of Eng- in magazine reading was reported by Glenn lish Committee on Research (Dora V. Smith, (47). Pupils were asked to list the magazines chairman) confirmed inits report (84)in they had read or were familiar with. The clasi 1935 the failure of schools generally to givethen discussed the relative merits ofthese adequate attention to the development of magazines, care being taken at the outset not to standards for the reading of magazines and brand any of them inferior. Gradually standards newspapers. Similar conclusions were reached of judgment were formed which were finally by Smith (103) in her survey of English in- placed in outline form on the blackboard. Each struction in New York schools, in which she re- pupil then made a detailed report of at least one ported that a wide variety of magazines were of the magazines, measuring it in the light of read by more than half the pupils with little in- the standards established by the class. Similar fluence from the school or library. units Were reported by Ronney (94) and Mann Class Activities in Magazine Study (81). A number of articles published in the Eng- Barnes (12), in an earlier experiment with lish Journal have described units in the study ofhigh school pupils, found that through the aid- magazines in high school classes. One teacher cal study of magazines pupils' tastes were ma- (39) followed the study of a short story an rerially elevated. thology with an examination of stories in the Class actvities designed to improve the cap- pulp magazines. Pupils brought to class pulp acity of boys and girls to read magazines with stories they liked to read and evaluated themdiscrimination are described in numerous other according to standards set up in class and others sources (3, 41, 93, 94, 95, 10, 106, 111, 126, set up by critics of the short story. Another 128). One class built a representative collection teacher (31) used magazines for supplementary of magazines by borrowing and purchasing reading, requiring pupils to examine them for copies. After study of the magazines; such ques- various types of literary selections. Carney (21) tions as the following were discussed: described in derail a unit in which the pupils if you could have just one magazine in your in an English class made a survey of the read- home, which one would you choose? Why? 18 MASS MEDIA0IrCOMMUNICATION

How would you spend a budget of $15 for high school. On Monday the students made a magazines for a family of five for one year? free selection of articles from a collection of Which magazines are edited by women? magazines, keeping a record of author, title, publication facts,' and subject. Tuesdays were Which companies publish the greatest num- devoted to the writing of letters to the teacher, ber of magazines? to members of other English classes, to sub- If you were editing a magazine what would scription agencies, to editors, to advertisers, be yotir chief interests and duties? Oral reports onthereading occupiedthe What are the chief differences between the Wednesday meetings. Spelling and usage skills, "slick" and the "pulp" magazines? based on oral and written work, were con. sidered on Thursday. Fridays mete devoted to Another teacherencouraged studentsto free reading of books and. to book talks, bring magazines to class and provided oppor- tunity for discussing the contents. He called Posters, articles recommending certain mag- upon the members of the class to consider the azines, letters to editors of magazines, and origi reputation of the author and the magazine as nal magazines written by the students arc ex- well as the publisher and the sponsor in evalua- amples of other activities carried on by classes ting the contents. A fourth year English class in English. Standards of selection of magazines formed a club for the study of current periodi- and-types of audiences to which the various cals. Two periods wire spent in general reading. periodicals are addressed are studied in a num- In the discussions that followed, the students' ber of high school classes. interests were classified under four or five major The Comic Magazines headings, from which each student chose one The popularity of Comic magazines among for special study. The students then formed both children and adults has been widely noted. groups and planned programs presenting the In a study of 950 junior high school students, findings of their reading. Finally they wrote Nasser (83) found that the most widely read summaries of their findings, answering particu- classificationofmagazines was the Comics larly the following questions: group (22 per cent of all magazine reading). 1. What magazines I read and what types In his study, however, as in others (notably of articles they contain. Ashby's (8), the reading of comic magazines 2, What magazines I like best and why I appears to decline during the junior high school like them. years. Yuill (127) reports the results of a cir- 3. What I learned from the magazine club. culation survey made in 1943 by the Market 4. What I should like to have done in the Research Corporation of America, which re- club if we had had more time. vealed that Comic book readers included an equal proportion of elementary and high school In another class the students selected a list graduates, and that college graduates accounted of nine magazines for class subscription. The for only slightlyless then one third of the magazines were available to students for home total group, Commenting on some of the best- reading but returned to school once a month selling Comics--Batman, Superman, Action, for directed reading. Articles which students True, Cdaing All Girls, Captain Marra, Captitin read were listed, with publication facts, in the Midnight, Pamous Funnies, and Mdgic Comics students' individual reading records. she expresses the conviction that some of A weekly sequence of activities was based the comics are "growing up," that they are on magazine study in a large California junior presenting good stories, often illustrating cur- MAGAZINESMAGAZI N ES

tent social problems and ptaticipating in cam-ing in the commonest 1,000 of the Thorndike paigns in the public interest, with a mediumWord List. The reading difficulty of the ma- the masses will accept. She finds in the comicsterial, as estimated by the Lorge formula, was an educational weapon which we should notat the fifth and sixth grade level. Because of be afraid to use. the vocabulary range, Thorndike concluded that Frank (42) points out that Comics are fill- the Comics do provide a substantial amount of ing a need in children's lives unsatisfied byreading experience for upper grade and junior teal life--for fantasy, adventure, and identi-high school pupils. fication with heroes. She believes that most The well-known fact that the legibility of Comic books are not harmful, and that they may reading material in the Comic magazines could be used as ladders to other books and as keysbe greatly improved is 'further confirmed by a to children'sinterests. She warns that over-study conducted by Luckiesh and Moss (75), indulgence in Comics may be symbolic of anin 1942. unsatisfied need in a child's life. Gesell and Ilg report that children's love Arbuthnot (6), after commenting upon thefor Comic books, beginning as early as age phenomenal sate of Comic magazines and theseven, is at its peak at ages eight and nine, fact that "young America is reading the Comicsand begins to wane after age nine (46). A and liking them," declares there is probablyseven year old, according to these writers, may little cause to worry about children and theirenjoy a children's magazine which suggests Comic strips as long as they are also enjoyingactivities which he can carry out (122). The good books. Het judgment would seem to beeight year old will enjoy looking into adult confirmed by a study by Heisler (52), whomagazines, and this interest will increase on to compared pupils who read Comics to excess and his ninth year (124). those who did not indulge in such reading. Witty and Coomer, on the other hand, after Heisler considered mental age, educational a-a study of reading interests of 500 high school chievement, socio-e,.onomic status, social ad-students, found that Comic ships attained high justment, and personal adjustment in his com-favor in the primary grades and continued to parisons. He found no significant differencesbe very popular throughout the middle and between the two groups. He pointed out thatupper grades. A slight decrease in interest in if significant personality differences were ulti-Comic books was noted at the junior high school mately discovered, it would still be necessary tolevel and a marked decrease in the four years determine whether maladjusted children pre-of seniorhigh school.Nevertheless, Comic ferred to read Comic books, or whether thebooks continued to hold high rank even in a Comic books caused the maladjustment. high school rich in opportunities and motiva- Sperzel {108) failed to find any relation-tion for wide reading...indeed, the authors of ship between the reading of Comic books and the report estimate that they constitute one vocabulary growth. Her findings, which sug- fourth of the total number of magazines read in gest that readers of Comic magazines do nothigh schools. suffer losses or achieve unusual gains in reading Witty and Moore (124) found that Negro vocabulary seem to be confirmed by Thorndikechildren in the middle grades read, on the aver- (112), who analyzed the vocabulary of Super-age, eight Comic magazines regularly,four man, Nos. 9 and 10, Batman, No. 6, and De Sec-often; and five, sometimes. These averages are sire Comics, No. 53. He found that each con-distinctly higher than those found for white tained about 1,000 words other than those fall-all- children in the middle grades. The writers be- 20 MASS MEDIA OV COMMUNICATION lieve that one step in the solution of the prob.Bum Raggedy Ann and Andy km is the provision of good books which are Oswald the Rabbit Krazy Komics rich in the elements of action, surprise, adFunny Stuff Santa Claus Funnies venture, and excitement. Izzy and Dizzy Looney Tunes Witty, Smith, and Coomer (80), afterA Ride to Animal Terry Toons studying the interests in Comic magazines on Town Felix, the Cat the part of 224 seventh and eighth grade chil- Dagwood New Funnies dren, concluded that reading the Comics rep- Mickey Mouse Happy Comics resents a general interest, which in grades IVJiggs Animal Comics to VIII is relatively uninfluenced by differencesBringing Up Father Goofy Comics in age or grade, sex, or locality. They suggest Super-Thrilling that the solution is to be found, not in suppres- Whiz-Comics sion, but in surrounding children with a variety Captain Marvel of good literary sources which are rich in theTerry, and the PiratesSlam Bang Captain Midnight elements of action, surprise, adventure, and ex- Sky Man citement. Superman Flash The Green Hornet Tom Mix Of particular interest is the conclusion ofDick Tracy Witty (81) after a study of 2500 pupils in Rodeo Ryan Jack Armstrong Buster Brown Comic grades IV to VI, that there is little difference in The Lone Ranger Book the amount and character of the general reading Sky King Andy Panda of those who read Comics extensively and those Prize Comics Red Ryder who seldom read them. Action Comics Kerry Drake Members of the magazine committee of the Madison, Wis., schools evaluated a sampling of Ufa.suable Comic magazines. After listing the advantages Nyoka The JungleRed Dragon and disadvantages of the Comic magazines, they Girl Blue Bolt Dare Devil classified a number of them according to theLand of the Lost Bat Man nature of the contents. Their list follows: Suzie Wonder Comics Famous Crimes Buck Rogers Nature of Content in a Sampling of Fight Comics Comic Magazines Outlaws Informational Sensation Comics True Comics Real Life Comics Following the principle advanced by Witty Hop Harrigan Picture Stories of the and others, the Children's Books Committee of Contact (Aviation) Bible the Madison (Wis.) Public Schools published Classic Comics Calling All Girls Entertaining a 1948-9 boolclist entitled Fun for 411 and All for Fun: Book; for "Comics Fan;." The list is Bugs Bunny Little Acorns annotated and classified by age groups. Magic Comics Tip-Top The studies that have been reported in gen- Ha Ha Comics Henry eral indicate that Comic books do not retard Jack in the Box Walt Disney Comics growth in reading ability or contribute to per- Tick 'rock Tales Coo Coo Comics sonality maladjustment, and that there is little Fairy Tale Parade Uncle Remus and his difference in the amount and character of the Our Gang Tales of Br'er Rabbit 'Magazine Committee of the Madison Public Ribtickler Popeye Schools, op. cis, pp. 4-5. MAGAZINES 21

general reading done by those who read Comicsmagazines while boys tend to show greater extensively and those who do not read them atvariety in their tastes in magazines. all. These studies do not however, reveal what 4. Bright children read more and better effect the stereotypes and assumptions presentmagazines than slow learners do. in the narratives of the Comics magazines, have upon the attitudes of children. It would seem to 5. Children of limited reading ability can be desirable not only to supply children andbe taught to become genuinely interested In young people with excellent reading materialsmagazines which are educationally acceptable, capable of competing with the Comics, but to 6. While a growing number of children make the Comics the subject of critical analysisexhibit interest in such periodicals as My 1Veek. and evaluation in class patticularly from the tyReader, Current Events, Jack and Jill,Story point of view of their characterizations of hu-Parade, Children's Actiaties, and Jr. Language man beings. and Arts, these magazines enjoy a much smaller The fact that such critical analysis can becirculation than those of others not so highly carried on successfully in the intermediate recommended. grades is suggested by Denecke (82), who 7. Estimates as to the number of magazines conducted a discussion of Comics magazinesread regularly by high school youth vary from with her fifth grade class. Children brought two tofour.The average weekly time devoted their Comic magazines to class and classifiedto magazine reading (other than Comics) by them as "good" and "bad." They exchangedhigh school students appears to exceed two the "good" magazines, using them as materialhours. for oral reports. Brief programs were presented 8. Students are interested primarily in the to other grades and copies of the magazines ex-themes of adventure, humor, and love, and the hibited. By these means a demand for bettertheme isofgreater significancethanthe Comic magazines was created. mediumradio, motion picture, or the printed General Conclusions page. Other themes of interest are mechanics 1. The mass circulation magazines are in-in the case of boys, and society and fashions creasingly controlled by a limited number ofin the case of girls. publishing interests, and should therefore be 9. Young people's interests in magazines abundantly supplemented by limited circulationare determined in large part by the accessibility magazines, in order that boys and girls mayof magazines. become familiar with a variety of viewpoints 10. High school youngsters depend much on current affairs. more heavily upon the radio and newspaper 2. The reading of magazines is popular atthan on the newsmagazine for their knowledge all age levels. of current events. 3. Sex differences in reading interests in 11. Elementary schools generally make little the field of magazines begin to appear at theeffort to guide the magazine reading of boys intermediate grade level. Boys tend to showand girls, although excellent children's maga- greater interest in current events, and apparent- zines are found in many elementary school ly exercise greater independence in the selec-braries. Some schools, such asthe Madison tion and reading of magazines. At the highPublic Schools and Long Island City High school level, Reader's Digest, Life, and Ameri-School (under the direction of Dr. Joseph P. can Magazine are preferred by both boys andMersand, chairman oftheEnglish Depart- girls, but girls show strong interest in women'sment), and numerous others, are conducting 22 MASS MEDIA OrCOMMUNICATION

systematic instruction in the reading of maga- 7. David 1'. Armstrong, "How Good Arethe Comic Boat?"Elementary English Review XXI (Decem- zines. ber, 1944) 213 12. One of the obstacles to the development 8. Lloyd W. Ashby, "WhatPeriodicals Do They of keen reading interests in magazines is the Read?" School Eyeentive LXI (October, 1941) 95. 9. N. W, Ayer and Son, Inc,, Ayers Directory of difficulty of the vocabulary and the remoteness Neuspepers end Periodicals 1944, p. of the subject matter from the experience of 10. James Edgar Baker, "An Analytical Study of the children and youth. ReadingHabitsand Accomplishments of High School Pupils." Unpublished Master's Thesis, De- 15. No single magazine is suitable for ex- partment of Education, University of Chicago, 1926. clusive use because of the editorial bias present 11. Jessie Shepherd Bannerman, "A SurveyofNews- in all magazines within the comprehension papers in Connection with the Reading Interests of Adolescents."UnpublishedMaster's Theses,De- range of pupils. partment of Education,UniversityofChicago, 1927. 14. When magazines are made available in 12. Horner F. Barnes, "Me High School Pupils Quali. quantity to children and youth, and when leisure Piedto Choose Their Own Magazine Reading?" is provided for their use, genuine interests in School Review XXXVI (April, 1928) 267.274. good magazines can be developed. 1). Danefee Belscr, "The Reading Interests of Boys," Elementary English Review HI (November, 1926) 15. A variety of class activities have been 292-256. successfully employed in improving the range 14. Bersiard Bcrelson, "The Effects of Print upon Pub- lic Opinion," Print, Radio, and Film in a Demo- and quality of young people's magazine reading. cracy, pp. 41-65. Edited by Douglas Waples. Chi- 16. Comic magazines are widelyread by cago: University of Chicago Press, 1942. 19. Mabel A. Betsey (Chairman), The Current Mega- both children and adults. sines and the Teaching of English. A Report of 17. Comic magazines vaty widely in educa- Committee of the National Council of Teachers of English.Chicago: The Council,1935.(Mimeo- tional acceptability. graphed.) 18. Comic magazines apparently have little 16. klabe1 A. limey (Chairman), Report of the Cont orifice of investigation on the Use of the Magazine effect upon behavior, personality development, in the High School English Clem National Council or reading ability. of Teachers of English. Washington: The Council, 1934. 19. The reading of Comic magazines tends 17. JeT,esieve Block, "Reading and Listening Habits of to decline in the early high school years.' High School Students," Wisconsin Journal of Edu- cation LXXIII (November, 1940) 151.152. 20. Good books and magazines cancom- II. William G. Brink, "High School Pupils' Interests In pete successfully with Comic magazines when Magazines and Newspapers," School Review XLVII children and youth have easy accessto a great (January, 1940) 40-48. variety of reading materials. 19. Guy Thomas Stowell, How Adults Read, Supple- mentary Educational Momographs, No. 49. Chicago: Department of Education, The University of Chi- References cago, 1937. 20. Ruth Byrne and V. A. C. Henman, "Reading In. I. A. B. C. Publishers' Statements for the period end. cereal of High School Seniors," English Journal ing June 30, 11941. XXV (January, 1926) 61.64. 2. Jessie Abbott and Bernice Williams, "A Study of 21, Elizabeth Carney, An Effective Newspaper and Mag- Children's Interest in Magazines," Childhood Edu- azine Unit," English Journal XXV (November, cation IX (May, 1933) 424-426. 19)6) 752-756. 3. Ethel P. Allen, "A Magazine Project," Sierra Edw. 22. "Circulation:9,496,841 rational New: XXXVI (November, 1940)1. (April,1937 Count of C,owell Company's Four Magazines)," Fortune XVI 4. Francis Wesley Amar, "Children's Magazines To.. (August, 1917) 63. day," Elementary English Review XX No.7 (No- vember, 1943) 218. 23. Commission on the Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press, p. 59, Chicago: The Uni- 5. Esther M. Anderson, "A Study of Leisure Time versity of Chicago Press, 1947. Reading of Pupils in Junior High School," Efenses- 24. Noel B. Cuff and It L. Donovan, "What Fresh- tory School Jour:set XLVIII (January, 1941) 298- 267. men Read in a Teachers College," A. A. T. C. Quarterly I (September, 1931) 8-14. 6, May Hill Arbuthnot, "Children and the Comici," 25. Con Lee Danielson "Magazine Reading of Children Elementary English XXIV (March, 1947) 171.113, of Superior Mental Ability," Educational Retemcb MAGAZINES 23

Bulletin (Los Angela City Schools) VI (December, 47. Clara Glenn, "A Class Study of Trash Magazines," 1926) 7-9. English Journal XXXII ( January, 1943) 20-30. 26, Warren M. Davis, "A Survey of the Reading Habits 48. AlonzoG.Gratet, "TheReadingInterestsof of Children," Ohio Schools XVIII (December, 1940) Adults,"Journal of Educational Research XIX 418-489. (April, 1929) 265.275. 27. Lena Penecke, "Fifth Graders Study the Comic 49. William S. Gray and Ruth Munroe, The Reading Books," Elementary English Review XXII (January, lestertils and !Wits of Adults, R 306. New Yorks 1945) 6-8. Macmillan Company, 1929. 21. Drparhurn/ of Commerce Annual Report, 1947. 50 ElizabethGuilfoile(Chairman), "Developingthe 29. Edward F. Donahue, "Leisure-Time Reading Inter- Reading Interests of Children," Elementary English ests of Catholic High School Boys," Catholic Edu- Review XX, No. 7 (November, 1943) 2113, cational Review XLV (November, 1947) 525533. 51. W. E. Hall and F.P. Robinson, "The Role of 30. Nell Doherty, "The Comics: 'Mercury and Atlas, Reading ss a Life Activity in a Feral Community," Thor and Beowulf' " Clearing Bowe XIX (January, Journal of Applied Psychology XXVI (August, 1945) 310-312. 1942) 530.542. 31. Caroline 1st Doonan, "Magazines for Developing 52. Florence Heisler, "A Comparison of Comic Bock Literary Taste," English journal XXXVII (May, and NonComic Book Readers of the Elementary 1948) 245.248. School,"Journalo/Educational Research XL 32. Stanley G. Dolsky, "Factors Influencing the A- (February, 1947) 458-464. mount of Copy Read in Magazine Advertisements," 53. Frank D. Henderson, "liihat Part Does the School Journal of Applied Psychology XVII (April, 1933) Play in the Formation of the Reading Habits of Its 195.204. Pupils?" School Review XXXVIII (January, 19)0) 33. Mollie E, Dunlap, "Recreational Reading of Negro 51.54. College Student," Journal of Negro Education II (October, 1933) 448-459. 34. Miriam Blanton Huber and Claude S. Chappellear, "Children's Magazine Reading," Journal of Educe. 34. David Easton, "What Does America Read?" The lions! Method VI (December, 1926) 145-159. Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals XXXVI (December, 1947) 108- SS. Alva Hudson, "Reading Achievements, Interests and 117. Habits of Negro Women," Journal of Negro Educa- tion I (October, 1932) 367-373. 35. Walter Crosby tells, "Comparison of Scalesfor Evaluation of Periodicals," Journal of Educational 56. Elden Hunter, "A Study ofPeriodicalReading Psychology XXVIII (November, 19)7) 637-640. Done by College Students," School and Society XL (July 14, 1934) 70-72. 36. Walter Crosby tells, "Periodicals for Use in Second- ary Schools," Secondary Education VI (October, 57. Angeline Woodrough Jefferis, "A Study of Read- 1937) 156.159. ing Interests of Young People in Industry," Un- published Master's Thesis, Department of Education, 37. Vera Elder and Helen S. Carpenter, "Reading In- University of Chicago, 1927. terests of High School Children," Journal of Mu- rational Research XIX (April, 1929) 276-282. 58. Jot Jennings, "Leisure Reading ofJunior High 31. Marion Erickson, "Developing Reading TIM'S in High School Boys and Girls," Peabody Journal of Magazine Literature," Elementary English Review Education VI (May, 1929) 333-347. XVI (January, 19)9) 10.14. 59. B. Lamar Johnson, "Adult Reading Interests as Re- 39. EthelE. Ewing, "Bring YourPulpsto Class," lated to Sea and Marital Status," School Review, English Journal XXVII (September 1938) 601-603. XL (January, 1932) 33-43. 40. Rudolf Flesch, "Estimating the Comprehension Dif- 60. A. M. Jordan, "Children's Interests in Reading," ficulty of Magazine Articles," Journal of General The High School Journal XXV (November - De- Psychology XXVIII (January 1943) 63-80. cember, 1942) 7-9. 41. AnitaP. Forbes, "Combating Cheap Magazines," 61. A, M. Jordan, "Reading Interests," The Nigh School English Journal XXVI (June, 1937) 476-478. Journal" XVII (October, 1935) 117-191. 42. Josette Frank, "Let's Look atthe Comics," Child 62. W. N. Kellogg, "The Influence of Reading Matter Study XIX (April, 1942) 76-77. UpontheEffectivenessofAdjacentAdvertise- 4). Raymond Frazen and Alfred Po let?, "Method for ments," Journal of Applied Psychology XVI (Feb- Determining Number of Readers Per Copy of a ruary, 1932) 49-51, MagazineCirculation," Journal ofApplied Psy- 6). ReginaldStevensKimball, "What Magazines Do chology XXVI (August, 1942) 477-481. High School Students Read?" School and Society 44. K, C. Garrison and R. A. 'fly for, "Botany Ma- XXI% (October 16, 1926) 416-488. terials Found inFour 'Well Known Magazines," 64. Charles V. Kinter, "A Case Study in the Econmics Peabody Journal of Education X (September, 1932) of Mass Communications," Journalism Quarterly 17-91. XXV (December, 1948) 361. 45. Reg Gary, "A Survey of Leisure Time Reading of '65. L. If. Kirkpatrick, "How Narrow Are the Special- School Children," Iowa Library Quarterly X (Jan- ists?" School and Society LXIV (September 21, uary-February-March, 1920 199-201. 1946) 193 -196. 46. Arnold Gesell and Frances L. fig, The Chili from 66. Lou L. La Brant and Frieda M. Heller, "Magazine Fier to Ten, p. 206. New York: Harper and Bros., Reading in an Experimental School," Library Jour- 1946. nal LXI (March 15, 1936) 213417. 24 MASS MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

67. Claude C. Lammers, "Sources of Pupils' Informa RecreationalReading," Englishjournal(College

tion on Current Affairs," School Review XLVI Edition) XXIV (May, 1935 )63 -)74. , (January, 1938) 32.36. 85. Evenus Newland, "A Study of Alliasions to Science 68. Herbert A. Landry, (Director), Reading Improve. inMagazines," Science Education XXI (October, went Study spa r, o ra by Educational Department, 1937) 126-130. The Readers Digest, Summary of Results of Study. 86. Ruth Elizabeth Norris, "A Comparative Study of Pp.II.Pleasantville, New York: Readers Digest, Children'sMagazineInterests,"Elementary Eng. 1942. lisp Reties(' V. (October, 1928) 241-245, 248. 69. May Lazar, Reading Interests, Activities, and Op- 87. V. C. O'Leary, "Scientific Knowledge Necessary portunities of Bright, Average, and Dull Children, for an Intelligent Reading of Periodicals," Teachers p.128, Teachers College Contributions to Educa College journal X111 (May, 1942) 115-117. (Terre tion, No. 707, New Yorks Bureau of Publications, Haute Indiana. Indiana State Teachers College) Teachers College, Columbia University, 19)7. 88. Paul C. Po'rnantier and Leonard J. Gibson, "Read- 70. Bernice E. teary, "What Does Research Say about ing Interests of Institutionalized Delinquent Boys," Reading?" journal of Educational Research XXIX journal ofExceptional Children IX(February, (February, 1946) 434. 1943) 135.138, 153-154. 71. Harriet E. Lee. "Discrimination in Reading," Eng. 89. Frederick L. Pond, "A Qualitative and Quantitative list; Journal XXXI (November, 1942) 677-781. AppraisalofReadingExperiences,"Journalof 72. Claude C. Lemmers, "Source of Pupils Information Educational Research, XXXIII (December, 1939) on Current Affairs," School Resters, XLVI (Jan- 241-252. uary,1938)32-36. 90. Harold If. Punks, "The Home and Adolescent Read- See also Paul Witty and David Karel, Reading and ing Interests," School Resiew XLV (October, 19)7) the Educative Process, p. 37, Boston: Ginn and Co., 612-620. 1930. William F. Ranch, "The Reading Interests of Young 7). Charles P. Loomis, "Educational Status and Its Re- Workers." Vocational Educational Monograph Num- lationship to Reading and Other Activities," Social ber 9. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Milwaukee Vocational Forces XVIII (October, 1939) 56-59. School, Pp. 102. 74. Sister Mary Cards Larang, The Effect of Reading 92. John C. Raymond, "Reading and Radio Interests," on Moral Conduct and Emotional Experienre. Wash- The Phoenix III(Fall, 1946) 313. ington. D. C.: The Catholic University of America 93. Frank K. Reid, "An Experiment in Magazine Work Press, 1945. Pp viii, 122. with Junior High School Students," English Jour- 75. Matthew Luckicsh and Frank K. Moss, "Legibility nal XXIV (March, 19)5) 223-225. in Comic Book," The Sight Saving Bellew XII 94. G. M. Rclyea, "Pupils as Magazine Readers," The (March, 1942)19. Journal of Education CXXV (May, 1942) 151,052. 76. Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrill Lynd, "The Use 95. 011a G. Rickets, "An Experiment in Gray's Leader of Leisure: A Study of the Reading Habits of a ship," English Journal XXII (February, 1936) 47- Typical Small City,"PublishersWeekly CXIV (December 1928) 2483.2486, 2545-2548. 53. 96. Belle Ronney, "A Magazine Unit," English journal 77. II. Y. McClusky, "An Experimental Comparison of XVII (January, 1933) 59-61. Reading the Original and Digest Versions of art Article," Journal of Educational Psychology XXXI 97. J. W. M. Rothney, "Interests of Public Secondary (November, 1940) 603 -61%. School Boys," Journal of Mutational Psychology XXViff (November, 1937) 561-594. 78. Madison(Wisconsin)PublicSchools: Magazine Committee, Magazines for Elementary Grades. Pp. 98. J. W. M. Rothney, "Reading Preferences of High 46. Madison; Wisconsin: Madison Public Schools, School Boys," English Journal XXVII (October, 1943, 1949. 1938) 650.660. 79. C. T. Malan, "What Should People Read in Demo- 99. R. II. Rovcre, "American Magazines in Wartime," cratic Government?" School and Society, XLVI New Republic, CX (March 6, 1944) 308-312. (December 18, 1937) 806-808. 100. Daniel Ii. Russell, "Reading Preferences of Younger 80. WilfredM. Mallon,"High SchoolPeriodicals," Adults inSaskatchewan," English journal XXX The School Res iew 1,111 (December, 1945) 601-609. (February, 1941) 131.136. 81. Ruby Mann, "An Experimentinthe Study of 101. W. J.Scott, Reading, Film end Radio Tastes of hlagazines,"English Journal XXVII(January, high School Boys end Girls. (Prepared under the 1938) 119 -141. direction of the New Zealand Council for Educa- 82. Ruth Munroe, "What They Read: A Study of the tionalResearch). New Zealand: Whitcombc and Reading Habits of Adults," Journal of MO Edu- Tombs Ltd., 1947. Pp. 208. cation I (February, 1928) 65-69. 102. Josephine Semmoris, "A Semester of Current Litera- 83. IsabelNasser, "Magazine Reading at the Junior ture: An Unscientific Experiment," English jour- I figh School Level," California journal of Education nal XXX (January, 1941) 47-5). XVI (December, 1941) 485. 103. Henry 0. Severance, "What Do University Reid?" $4. National Council of Teachers of English, Com- School end Society XXII (June 5, 1926) 726.728. mittee on Research, "The Contributions of Re- 104. Josephine Simmons, "A Semester of Current Litera- search to Teaching Curriculum-Making in English, ture: An Unscientific Experiment," English Journal January, 193) through June 1934: Literature and XXX (January, 1941) 47-53. MAGA%iNCS 25

103. Dora V. Smith, Ea.:baling In:Irsection in English I Id. Cyrifla Walther, "The Reading Difficulty of Mag. in the Elementary Schools of New York. A Report *Tines," School Review LI (February 1943) 100. of the Regents' Inquiry into the CI.aracter and 103. Costof PublicEducation in New York State, 117, A. B. Weiser and E. J. Ashbaugh, "What Do Junior Eighth Research Bulletin of the National Confer- andSeniorPupil*Read?" EducationalResearch ence oil Research in English. Chicago: Scott, Fores Bulletin 111 (October,1924)230-253,265.2643 man and Co., 1941. Columbus, Ohio: bureau of Educational Research, 104. Mary E.Smith, "Periodicalsinthe Classroom," Ohio State University. English Journal XXVIII (May 1939) 3721711. James E.West, "A Technique for Determining 107. Morpheus Smith, "Circulation of Farm Magazines" Levels of Group Reading," Educational Research School rod Society XI.VI (SeptemberII,1937) &Bain XVI (May 19, 1937) 113.121, 136 350.352. 119. Paul A. Witty, "Children's Interest in Reading the 108. Edith Sperzel, 'The Effect of Comic Books on Vo- Comics," Planet of Eqeranental Education X tabulaty Growth andReading Comprehension," (December, 1941) 100.104, Elementary English XXV (February, 1948) 109. 120. Paul A. Witty, Reading in Modern Education, pp. 11). 40.42, Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1949. 109. Alice P. Sterner, Radio, Motion Pirtnrei and Reed. Ill. Paul A. Witty and Anne Coomer, "Activities and dog 1ntercass A Study of Nigh School Pupils, p. 102, Preferences of a Secondary School Group," fournal Teachers College Contributions to Education, No, of Educolional Psychology XXXIV (February, 932, New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers 1943) 63-76. College Contributions to Education, ColumbiaUni- 122. Paul A. Witty and Anne Coomer, "Reading the verstty, 1947. Comics Among Grades IX to XII," Administration 110. RuthStrang,Eagoration 14 ReadingPatterns, Supervision XXVIII (May 1942) 244445. Chicago: University of Chicago Pass, 1942. Pp. 172. 123, Paul A. Witty and David Xopel, Reading and the III. Margaret J. Symberg, "The Pulps Arc Pupils' First Educatise Process, p.37, Boston: Ginn and Co., Choice," The Notion's Schools XXVI (June, 1943) 1930. 41.42, 124. I'aul A. Witty and Dorothy Moore, "Interest In 112. Robert L. Thornd:ke, "Words and the Comics," Reading Comics Among Negro Children," Journal Journal of Eel:alma:hal Education X Mamba, of Educational Psychology XXVI (May, 1945) 303 1941) 110-113. 308. W. 1.Keith Tyler, "Developing Discriminationwith 125, Paul A. Witty, Ethel Smith, and Anne Coomer, Regards to Mass Media," Noah Central Association "Reading the ComicsinGrades VII and VIII," Quarterly XXIII, No. 2 (October, 1948) 196-226. Journal of Educational Psychology XXIII (March, 114. James Vaughn, "Opportunities for Silent Reading 1942) 171-112. anJ Amount of Silent Reading in Certain Rural 124. Mayr E. Woodford, "A Reading Couise for Juniors," Schools and Homes of Michigan," An unpublished English Journal XXX (January, 1941) 24-31. reportfiled with William S. Gray, University of 127. Louise Dunlap Yuill, "The Case for the Comics," Chicago, 1924. School Executive LXIV (December, 1944) 42-44. 115. Henrietta K. Walter, "Reading Interests and Habits 128. Helen Zimmerman, "Making Magazine Study s of Girls," Gal Life in Americo: A Study of Back- Vital Part of the Curriculum," Minnesota Journal grounds P. 117.137. New York: National Com-. snifter for the study of Juvenile Reading, 1927. of Education XV (December, 1934) 142-143. Newspapers

JOHN J. DPBOER*

In spite of the rapid development of othermatch the efficiency of out other mass produc- means of communication, the newspaper re- tion industries, has at the same time created mains the people's chief source of informationthe danger of monopoly in the realm of ideas. regarding current affairs. According to Lazars.The need for critical reading abilities h there- feld,' neither the weekly newsmagazine nor the fore more acute today than in any previous per- radio newscast has reduced the total amount ofiod in our history. Examples of distortion and newspaper reading. The 334 morning news-suppression of the news in favor of the eco- papers in the United States aggregate a total cir- nomic and political interests of the publishers culation of 20,545,908; the 1,429 evening news- (real or imagined) could be enumerated at papers account for a circulation of 50,927,505; length. Inasmuch as the viewpoints advanced in and the 497 Sunday newspapers are bought bythe daily press are frequently supported by 43,665,364 people. Many copies of the news- propaganda materials distributed in large quan- paper are, of course, read by more than one per- tities to the schools, the need for providing a son. Clearly the intelligent reading of the newsbalance of opinions in the reading matter a- paper continues to be a primary objective ofvailable to children and youth becomes ap- the schools. parent. The problem is not merely one of creating the ability to comptehend what is in the news- The Newspaper Reading Interests of papers and to utilize their numerous and ex- Children and Youth cellent services, but of developing independent The newspaper reading interests of eletnen. judgment with respect to biases present in the lary school children.The great majority of news and editorial columns of the newspaper.studies dealing with newspaper reading have Roughly 85 percent of American towns have been conducted at the high school level. It would but one newspaper.' Of the 1,750 daily news- be wrong to assume, however, that elementary papers in the United States, 375 are owned by a school pupils are not interested in newspapets, few large chains controlling more than oneor that their interest h confined to the comic Ivirthof our totaldailycirculation' Thestrip. Anderson (1), Davis (29), and Lazar growth of the great news services and syndicates, (56) found that both boys and girls in the ele. which have enabled American journalism tometttary school devote a considerable amount of time to the reading of *newspapers. Johnson ' "The Daily Newspaper and Its Competitors," (54) found that children read books in greater Annals of the American Academy of Politicalquantity than adults, and that both adults and and Social Science, January, 1942, p. 219. children read newspapers about thirty five min- 2"One Newspaper Towns in the U. S., 1910-utes daily. If the time spent in listening to the 1940," N. E. A, Journal XXXVI (February,radio (generally estimated at two and one-half 1947) 118. to three hours daily), the time spent at the 'R. K. Eichelberger, "Freedom to be Well In- formed," Senior Scholastic (Teachers Edition) "Professor of Education, the University of Il- L1 (October 27, 1947) 22.3. linois. 26 NEWSPAPERS 27 movies (about three hours per week), and the One investigator (25) observes that stu- time spent in reading magazines estimated bydents tend, after graduation, to drift into indif- H. R. Anderson (2) at two to three hours ference and apathy with regard to current af- daily is added to this figure, it becomes apparentfairs. He attributes this fact to a number of that children spend at least as much time with factors: (1) unfamiliarity with newspaper vo- the mass media of communication as they spend cabulary (72 percent of more than 500 students in school. It is clear that the school cannot af- did not know that "probe" means "investiga- ford to ignore the educational effects of thesetion"); (2) inability to distinguish between communication media. news stories and editorials; (3)inability to While Comic strips lead in popularity a- detect instancesof journalisticlicense,em- mong the various features of the newspaper, bodied in such over-used expressions as, "it has general news, sports, and local news appearbeen repotted, alleged, or surmised"; (4) in- prominently among the sections which elemen- ability to discover discrepancies when news- tary school pupils read. The Comic section, ac- paper stories flatly contradict their headlines, cording to Witty (95), is very popular amongand (5) inability to distinguish between de- children. The average number of Comic strips sirable and undesirable newspapers. This in- read regularly by the groups in his study was vestigator recommends that schools give syste- twenty-one. The studies of newspaper readingmatic instruction in critical thinking, in the by children of elementary school age that have meaning of newspaper jargon, and in the de- been reported are extremely limited in number.velopment of criteria for eva ring newspapers. Further research in this area is urgently needed. Harvey and Denton (4:)) found that from The newspaper reading interests of high 70to 90 percent of high school students school youth.A very large number of investi-generally believe what they read in the news- gations have been made in the field of highpapers, but that when social science teachers school students' interests in newspaper reading. stress intelligent newspaper reading the per- Such studies as have been made of the time de- centage falls as low as 24. Seward and Silvers voted to newspaper reading by high schoolstu- (77) found that during wartime, readers tend dents suggest that young people generally read to believe reports issued by their government newspapers from 15 to 35 minutes daily (2, 12, rather than those issued by the enemy, and 29, 35, 43, and 54), and that adults spent 35.60 that they arc more likely to believe war news or more minutes daily in the reading of thefavorable to their own side rather than that newspaper (70, 54, and 94). Comic strips lead which is favorable to the enemy. One may all features of the newspaper in popularity,ac- assumethatinpeacetime, readersinany cording to most of the studies, with sports and country are more likely to accept their own general news (foreign and national) followinggovernment's version of an international dis- closely (2, 12, 14 and 20). Boys, of course, give pute rather than that of an opposing country. high priority to sports news, girls to fashionHarvey and Denton found further that read- news (35, 74, 76, 27). Front page news, as op- ers have a tendency to believe good news posed to news stories on the inside pages,a- rather than bad news, and to believe news chieved high rank among the sections of theadverse to its source rather than r.ews favor- newspaper most widely read by both boys andable to its source. An obvious goal for in- gitis in high school and by adults (20, 35, 37,struction in newspaper reading would there- 99 and 27). Local news likewise commanded fore seem to be the development of objec- great popularity (1, 2, 41, 74, 76, 99). tiviitywith respectto newsreports ifOM 28 MASS MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION sources involved in political or international Three major categories of objectives emerge controversy. from the literatureinthisfield. They arc Newspaper Reading in the Schools (1) the expansion of young people's interests in newspapers; (2) the development of an One study of school activities in prornot. awareness of the major trends and events in ing more intelligentteading ofthe news- currentaffairs;and(3)thedevelopment paper (43) revealed that 29 of 41 schools of powers of discrimination with respect to addressed made efforts to provide guidance newspaper reading. inthe reading of newspapers, and thatall of the schools believed that such efforts are 1. The expansion of young people's in- desirable. Judging by the extensivebiblio.we'll in newspapers. Newspapers at their best graphy of school units on newspapers, oneprovide a variety of services which are not may reasonably conclude that secondary schools, adequatelyutilized by yOung people, many at least, are giving considerable attention toof whom restrict their newspaper reading to the problem of newspaper reading. Whetherthe Comic strips, sports pages, and possibly they are giving 'effective guidance, on a suf. the front page headlines. 13y availing them. ficiently large scale,is difficult to say. Littleselves of other parts of the daily newspaper, evidence has been reported on this question.young people can find tnusement and enter. The results, in terms of young people's read- tainment, information concerning present hob- ing interests in the field of the newspaper,bies and suggestions for new ones, guidance would suggest that presenteffortsarein- in the selection of motion pictures and radio sufficient (57) (60). programs, business and vocational information, Objectives for the Teaching and many other kinds of aid. In many in- of the Newspaper stances young people need merely to be in- troduced to newspaper features to start them One of the clearest statements of desirable on the road to fuller utilization of the things objectives inthe improvement of young the newspaper has to offer. people's newspaper reading has been made by Dale (28). He asserts that intelligent study 2. The development of an awareness of of a good newspaper can help us lead richthe major trendy and event" in current affair'. lives by (1) showing us what work in theStudies of knowledge ofcurrent events on world we can help do; (2) helping us tothepart of young people and adults,in. get the most for our money; (3) helping useluding teachers, reveal that many people have to see the crime problem clearly; (4) help.only the vaguest knowledge of men and events ing us to have a good time on a small in in our own time. Regular newspaper reading come; and (5) helping us to make up our isessentialtoan elementary acquaintance own minds. In another place(27), Dalewith the happenings in the world today: With lists three objectives for the teacher of Eng- alltheir limitations, newspapers, along with lish in the development of disctimination inradio newscasts, are our chief source of knowl- newspaper reading:(1)familiarizing boysedge concerning the contemporary scene. A and girls with the best examples of modernlist of the major events recorded in the news- journalism; (2) helping boys and girls getpaper in the course of two or three days of news a richer and much more comprehensive un- reporting yields a large volume of information detstanding of the role that the press mightregarding such fields as politics, econtnics, play in community life; and (3) developing commerce, sociology, science, religion, educa- the capacity for close, careful reading. tion, art, and music. It would appear that the 4...... 0.

NEWSPAPERS 29 school could and should utilize more fully and urnns. more skilfully the resources provided by the Developing discrimination in reading the daily newspaper for the preparation of well- newspaper is not a mere process of cultivating informed citizens. skepticism. It is a process of building a broad 3.The development of powers of discrimi-background of information about the topics nation with respect to newspaperresiding. under discussion, of inducing an awareness of a While the press performs an indispensable ser-given newspaper's bias, and of confronting the vice as an educational agency, and while Ameri- reader with a variety of viewpoints on public can journalists are among the most efficient in affairs. In practical terms, this process involves the world, newspapers are not, in the main, bringing into the classroom a variety of news- completely reliable as sources of information. papers, magazines, newsletters, pamphlets, and Most newspaper reading adults in the United books which will enable the reader to approach States express lack of confidence in the factual the local newspaper with greater intelligence. accuracy and impartiality of newspaper reports. Reliance upon a single source, or type of source, leaves the reader helpless in the face of what- The fact that the publication of a news- ever purposes may move the publisher. paper, or a chain of newspapers, invokes heavy financial investment quite naturally tends to Procedures in Newspaper Study A great volume of material has been pub- create in the publishers a bias in favor of the lished on the subject of classroom procedures in viewpoint of the large industrialist. The social the improvement of newspaper reading. Many and political outlook of the advertiser will also of the techniques reported are duplicated in the necessarily affect the treatment of the news. various reference listed below, but the total The need to win and maintain large circulation number of different activities is very large. will often cause newspapers to favor a view- Some of the more promising of these activities point thought to be popular among large sec- are listed here. They include suggestions for tions of the readership. For this reason itis both elementary and secondary schools. necessary to provide young people with skills that will enable: them to read newspapers with PROJECTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES discrimination. Class Activities I. Write a class book on the newspaper. Pitfalls in the reading of newspapers take Chapters may be devoted to these or many forms. Least common of these forms is similar topics: the deliberate misstatement of fact. Much more A. The ways in which the printing common is the distortion of the news by means press has changed man's life. of emphasis upon certain items and by means of underplaying or suppressing others. This B. How the newspaper affects our daily practice is probably unavoidable. It is followed lives. by newspapers of every political, economic, C. The industries connected with news- and social complexion. It results from the neces- paper publishing. sity of making choices among available news D. The contributions of the "fighting stories, and from exercising judgments which journalists" (Dana, Garrison, Zen- inevitably involve some prejudices. Some news- ger, etc.) to present-day newspaper papers, of course, make greater efforts than journalism. others to present the news impartially. Some E. Some of the outstanding services to newspapers are mote successful than others in the country performed by news eliminating "editorializing" from the news col- papers during the past war, 30 MASS MUDIA 01: COMMUNICATION

H. Prepare a class exhibit on the news. Jingoism paper. Invite other classes and your par- Facsimile Newspapers ents to visit the exhibit at an "Open C. Diagrams showing: House," The exhibit may consist of pro- 1. A newspaper plant layout jects such as these: 2. The ways news is gathered A, Charts showing: 3. The route news follows, from 1. A comparison of the amount of source to reader space given to various subjects or D. Models, in clay, wood, of papier types of stories in a tabloid news- mache. paper and more conventional E. Paintings, pencil sketches, or water newspapers such as the New Yotk colorings Times, the St. Louis Post.Dis- patch, the Kansas City Star, or the Present an assembly or PTA program Christian Science Monitor. about the newspaper. Activities such as 2. The percentage of your town these may be included on the program: paper which is devoted to adver- A. A Living Newspaper' tising and the percentage given to B. A skit depicting the editor and his news. (Measure by column staff preparing the day's edition for inches. Is the paper primarily an press. advertising or a news medium?) C. A monologue or pantomime show- 3. The special features that can be ing the "average reader" reading the found in ten of the leading news- "average newspaper." Perhaps this papers of the country. Show what could be portrayed in two scenes: can be found in one but not in first, how he actually reads it, and another, and perhaps compare second, how he should readthe your findings with your local newspaper. paper. IV. Visit a newspaper plant 4. The sources from which news V. Visit a paper mill or newsprint plant generally comes. VI. Visit a radio news room B. Caricatures, of cartoons, which ex: plain: VII. Visit an advertising agency 1. The duties of a newspaper editor, VIII. Prepare a class newspaper using and publisher, reporter, copyreader, following rules set up by the class as to headlinewriter, and foreign cor- what a good newspaper should do and respondent, contain. 2. The meaning of the following IX. A class survey to find out who the terms: class'sfavorite(1) news columnist, Rotogravure (2) reporter, (3) comic strip author, News syndicate (4) sports columnist, (5) features News vs. a feature story columnist are. Determine if the class's Tabloid choices have been the wisest and best. A newspaper chain 'See Brown, Spencer, They See For Themselves, Yellow journalism New York, Harpers, 1945, p. 57-77. NEWSPAPERS 51

X. Make a study of what a reader can ex-XVIII, Select several newspapers and deter- pect to find in various types and sizes mine how much space is devoted to of newspapers (byusing copies of crime stories and other of the sordid these papers):large metropolitan happenings of the day. Compare the dailies, tabloids, religious newspapers, amount of space with the amount given papers published by various national or to national news, international news, ethnic groups, labor newspapers, news- art, movies, books, and the theatre. papers published by companies and corporations, Sunday newspapers, week-XIX.Determine the community and welfare ly newspapers, and, if possible, news- projects that have been undertaken in papers published in other languages. your community during the past year. To what extent did the local paper par- Xi. Try to find some answers to this ques- ticipate? On the basis of its role in these tion: "What Effect Does the Reading campaigns, would you say thatthe in Our Community Have on Our Think- paper is, or is not, performing a corn ing?" munity service? XII. Bring to class articles to be judged by Dale's "Canons of journalism. XX. Make a comparison of radio columnists XIII,Briefly study the history of newspapers (e.g., Swing, Murrow, Shirer) with in the United States. newspaper columnists (e.g., Lippman Lawrence, Fleeson). SmallGroup Projects XIV. A panel discussion: The ways in whichXXI.Make a comparison of newspaper from radio news and newspaper news are different sections of the country. similar, and the ways in which theyXXII. Make a comparison of newspapers from differ. different types of communities (farm- XV. Compare the way in which news arti- ing, residential, industrial, etc.) cles in newspapers and news magazines (Time, Newsweek, Business Week,individual Projects New Republic and U. S. News) areXXIII. Find out all you can about the author handled. In what major ways do they of your favorite comic strip: his phi- differ? losophy of life, his political, social, and XVI. Make a class survcy, using the families economic affiliations, his views on con- of the class members as guinea pigs, of temporary affairs. To what extent are whatisread bythe differentage these views reflected in his work? Pre- groups, separating them by sexes. sent your findings to the class in a talk: "A Personality Profile of XVII. Compare you local newspaper with the New York Times, the New York Her-XXIV. Pick stories which you believe contain ald Tribune, the Christian Science "%fon. a definite bias. Tell the class what you itor, etc. believe this bias is, and what you think 'Responsibility; Freedom ofthePress;In- the effect of this bias will probably be. dependence;Sincerity, truthfulness, accuracy; impartiality;fair play; decency. Edgar Dale,XXV. Read several issues of Quill and Scroll, How to Read a Newspaper, New York: Scott, Scholastic, Tide, Editor and Publisher, Foresman, 1941. and Broadcasting to become familiar 32 MASS MI:DIA OFCOMMUNICATION

with the current issues and problems treatment of legislative bodies of thegov connected with school newspapers, ad- ernment? vertising, commercial newspapers, and 17. Do newspapers usually present a fair treat- radio news. ment of religion? 18. Ask the following questions about any Topics for Panel, Class, and paper you read; Small Group Discussions a. Who owns the paper? 1.Should newspapers suppress news "harm- b. What groups in the community is the fur to the country?" newspaper eager to attract? 2. Should newspapers omit names of first c. Who are the advertisers? offenders in minor crimes? d. What are the principal factors in the newspaper's editorial policy? 3. Should newspapers be licensed by the fed. eral government? e. What gtoups in the community are likelyto benefit(torn thiseditorial 4. Should newspapers be permitted to criti- policy? cize the government? f.What groups are likely to be harmed 5. Should newspapers publish beer advertise. by this editorial policy? ments? g.In what ways is this policy expressed 6. Should newspapers publish whiskey ad- throughout the paper? vertisements? h. Areimportantitems of news sup- 7. Should newspapers publish patent rnedi pressed? tine advertisements? 19. Are the headlines an accurate summary of 8. Should crime news be put all together on the news article, or are they merely glaring a certain inside page? fictions to attract readers? 9. Should crime news be omitted entirely 20. What is the point of origin of specific from newspapers? foreign dispatches? 10. Do newspapers usually suppress news 21. Does the paper have too many pictures? which will reflect on advertisers or prom. 22. Does the paper have too many cartoons? inent citizens? 23. Apply to the newspaper Dale's "Canons 11. Do papers in general purposely falsify the of Journalism": news? a. Responsibility 12. Are papers generally unfair to labor? b. Freedom of the press 13. Do papers generally publish too much c. Independence sensational news? d. Sincerity, truthfulness, accuracy 14. Does publication of crime news lead to e. Impartiality more crimes? f.Fair play g. Decency 15. Do papers usually present a fair treatment 24. In analyzing newspapers these factors of opposing political parties? should be brought into account; 16. Do newspapers usually present afair a. Who are its competitors? 'Items 1-17 are from: Thalheimer, J. A., and b. now many pages and sections does it Gererick,J.K., "Reader Attitudes Toward usually have? Question of Newspaper Policy and Practice", Journalism Quayle, ly XII (Sept. 35), 266.271. c. For what feature (s) is it outstanding? NEWSPAPERS 33

d. What are the outstanding features of 40.In what sense is a newspaper a business outstanding newspapers in the United enterprise, run for profit for the owner? States, and in foreign countries? 41.Isthere propaganda in newspaper ad- e. Who are,ifany,the outstanding vertisements? What is the function, good writers, reporters, analysts, cattoonists, or bad, of "public service" advertising? and photographers who contribute to 42,How important is freedom of the press in it? a democracy? 25. Does the paper present news accurately, .43.What are the inventions that have made interestingly, adequately? our newspapers the complex enterprises 26. Does it interpret the news? that they are today? 27. How does it interpret the news? 44.How much money is involved-the cash 28. Does the newspaper comment and editori- outlay-in publishing a newspaper? alize upon the news in its "news" articles? 45.What are the differences (how does the 29. Does the advertising in the paper help the paper change)in the various editions community carry out its business? published during one day? 30. Does the newspaper help solve business, 46.Are newspaper headlines usually accurate? family, or economic problems? 47.How much can be learned by reading 31. Does the newspaper entertain and amuse, headlines alone? (Try a class game: Each but not have this as its sole, or most im- pupil submit stories, with headlines cut portant, reason for being published? off. Mix them up, and try to match stories 32. Does the newspaper show what reforms with headlines.) or changes in society are needed? 48.What isa good definition of ''news"? What are its characteristics? 33. Does the newspaper help you get the most for your money? 49.What are the functions of advertisements? 34. Does the newspaper help you to see the 50.Why can some advertisements be grouped crime problem clearly? together without any display (classifieds) 35. Does the newspaper help you to have a while others must be attractive and showy? good time on a small amount? 51.What stories are usually found on the 36. Does the newspaper help you to make up front page? your own mind (not make it up for you)? 52.Why are advertisements in a newspaper usually grouped? 37. Is the source of news, as given in the news story, a reliable one? Is it a specific per- 53.How does the composition of a newspaper son or agency? Does the person hold a re- news story differ from that of nonprofes- sponsible position? Does he serve any sional news stories? specific or special interest? 54.What is the function of the editorial page 38. Which type of news is more accurate- in a newspaper? radio or newspaper? 55.What are the ways in which the function, 39. Would a newspaper withoutadvertise- type, and intent of editorials differ today ments present the news more accurately? from those of fifty years ago? and one radio station with a single owner. 56.In what important ways do news stories Other towns have a morning newspaper and feature stories differ? and an evening newspaper, both having 57.Many towns have only one newspaper with 34 MASS MEDIA OP COMMUNICATION

the same owner. Does this agree with what 5. Bereson, Bernard, "Effects of Print upon is usually thought of as "freedom of the Public Opinion," Print, Radio, and Film press," or with what is usually thought of in a Democracy, pp. 41.65. Edited by as "freedom Of competition"? Douglas Waples. Chicago: University of 58. What differences can be noted in by-line Chicago Press, 1942. and nonbyline news stories? 6. Berwald, Rose, "Learning to Use the 59. What are some ways in which news is Newspaper," Elementary English Review gathered? XV1I (November, 1940), pp.257.61, 60. What are the meanings of these words 284. which are often found in news stories: "alleged" 7. Bigelow, Charles L.,The Absolute Meas it is reported" tirement of Reader Interest," Journalism Quarterly, XXIII (September, 1946), 280 "from an unknown source" 87. "frOm good authority" it is felt in some circles" 8. Biller, Roy 0., The Unit on the Reading an unconfirmed report" of Newspapers: A Group Project," Eng- "no comment" lish Journal, XXXI ( January, 1942), pp. "a press conference"? 15.31. 61. How may propaganda be defined? Rec- 9. Block, Genevieve, ''Reading and Listening ognized? Combated? Habitsof H. S.Students,"Wisconsin 62. Can propaganda be found in comics, sport Journal of Education, LXXIII (Novern news, features articles, and editorials? bet, 1940), 151.52. 63. In what ways is your family provided for, 10. Booth, Jeorge C., Can Propaganda Anal- or not, in the makeup of your local news- ysis He Taught," Junior College Journal X paper? (February, 1940), pp. 310.311 64. How does your family usually interpret, 11.Brink, William G., "High School Pupils' or discuss the daily news? Interests in Magazines and Newspapers, 65. What are slanted headlines? School Review, XLVIII (January, 1940) 66. In what ways can the gist of news be ob- 40-48. tained htirriedly from newspapers? 12. Brooks, Mary Bacon, "The Newspaper: Material for a Unit of Work in Language' Bibliography The Grade Teacher, LV (November, 1. Anderson, Esther M., "A Study of Leisure. 1937), pp. 42.90. Time Reading of Pupils in Junior High School," Elementary School Journal, 13. Burr, S. E., Jr., On Reading Newspapers," XLVIII (January, 1948), 258.67. The Journal of Education, CXXXII (Feb- 2. Anderson, Howard R., "Newspaper and ruary, 1949) pp. 39.40. Magazine Reading," Social EducationI 14. Button, Philip Ward, "Newspaper Read. (May, 1937), pp. 329.32. ing Behavior of High-School Students," 3. Andrews, Katharine, "A 3B Class Studies School and Society, LXIII (February 2, the Newspaper," English Journal, XXXV 1946) p. 86. (November, 1946), pp. 497.50. 15. I3ush, Chilton R., "Toward Improving the 4. Baxter, Frederic, B., "Adventures in News- Sample in ReaderInterest Surveys," Jour- paper Reading," English Journal, XXVI nalism Quarterly, XXII (September, (January, 1937), pp. 42-47. 1946), 287.88. NEWSPAPERS 35

16. Byrns, Ruth, and Henman, V. A.C., Chicago, October, 1941. "Reading Interests of High School Sen- 28. Dale, Edgar, How to Read a Newspaper, ion," English Journal, XXV (January, Scott, Foresman, 1941. 1936), 61.64. 29. Davis, Warren M., "A Survey of the Read- 17. Caldwell, Mrs. J. B., "Newspaper Unit", ing Habits of Children," Ohio Schools Texas Outlook XXVI (January, 1942), XVIII (December, 1940), 488-89. pp. 48.49. 30. Dorey, J. M., "Children and the News. 18. Carney, Elizabeth, "An Effective News- paper," Elementary English Review, X paper and Magazine Unit," English Jour- (February, 1934), 44.47. nal XXV (November, 1936), pp. 752-56. 31. Dresden, Katherine W., The Newspaper 19. Cauley, Thomas, "Watching the Press," illthe Classroom," Social Education V Journal of Education 131 (April, 1948), (December, 1941), 581.83. pp. 125-6. 32. Dunlap, Mollie E., "Recreational Reading 20. Center, Stella S. and Persons, Gladys L., of Negro College Students," Journal of "The Leisure Reading of New York City Negro Education, II (October, 1933) 448- High- School Students," English Journal, 59. XXV (November, 1936), 717-26. 21. Chamberten, Maude, "The Improvement 33. Emery, Julia, "Vacation and Schooltime of Newspaper Reading," English Journal Reading," English Journal, XXVIII (June, XXIX (October, 1940), 639.47. 1939), 467-7i. 22. Cogeton, Evan B., "Using the Newspaper 34. Family Expenditures in Selected Cities, in Social Studies Instruction," Social Edu- 1935-36. Study of Consumers Purchases, cation, V (February, 1941), 115.117. Urban Technical Series, Bulletin No. 648. 23. Coolidge, Mildred R., "Newspapers as a Washington: United States Department Teaching Aid," Instructor, LVIII (March, of Labor, 1941. Pp. XII-386. 1949) p. 11. 35. Feingold, Gustave A., "Newspaper Tastes 24. Cox, Mary Hodge, "Learning How to of High-School Pupils," School and So- Read a Newspaper," Curriculum Journal ciety, I.IX (April 29, 1944) 316-19. X ( April, 1939), 172.74. 36. Fendrich, Paul, "Newspaper Reading In- 25. Cuber, John F., "Social Education and the terests of High School and College Stu- Newspaper," Social Education, XXV dents," Journal of Educational Research, (March, 1939), 177-79. XXXIV (March, 1941), 522.30. 26. Cuff, Noel 13, and Donovan, H. L., "What 37. Finley, Lester E., Measurement of Reading Freshman Read in a Teachers College, in Five Weekly Newspapers. University A. S. T. C. Quarterly,I(September, of Missouri Bulletin, Vol. XLI, No. 13. 1931), 8.14. Journalism Series Number 84. Columbia, 27. Dale, Edgar,"Attitudes,Interests,and Missouri:University of Missouri, 1940. Abilities of Pupils with Reference to the pp. 52. Wily Newspaper," Adjusting Reading 38. Gerberich, J. R., and Thalheitner, J. A., Program to Individuals, Proceedings of "Reading interests in Various Types of the Conference on Reading held at the Newspaper Content," Journal of Applied University of Chicago, Volume 11I (Com- Psychology, XX (August, 1936), 471-80. piled and F.dired by William S. Gray), 39. Green, Mabel A., The Newspaper", The Number 52. Chicago: The University of Grade Teacher LXV (December, 1947), 36 MASS MEDIA OPCOMMUNICATION

58, 78. 52. J:wobs, Leland li., "Unit on the News- 40, Grumerte, Jesse, "An Investigation into paper,"InstructorXLIX (February, the Newspaper Reading Tastes and Habits 1940) 24. of High School Students,"High Points, 53. John, Mellie, "Teaching the Newspaper XIX (December, 1937), 5.10, in the High School,"Illinois Teacher 41. Hall, W. E., and Robinson, F.P., "The XXVIII (May,1940) 283, 304. Role of Reading as a Life Activity in a 54. Johnson, 11..Latnar, "Adult Reading In- Rural Community,"Journal of Applied terestsas Relatedto Sex and Marital Psychology,XXVI (August, 1942), 330- Status,"School Review,XL (January, 42. 1932) 33.43. 42. Harvey, C. C., "A Unit of Work on the 55. Lammers, Claude C., "Sources of Pupils' Newspaper,"National Association of Sec- Information on Current Affairs,"School ondary School PrincipalsXXXIII (Jan- Review, XIN1 (January,1938) 32.36. uary, 1949) pp. 65-75. 56. Lazar, May,Reading Interests, Activities, 43. Harvey, C. C., and Denton, Cecil F., Use and Opportunities of Bright, Average, and of Newspapers inSecondary Schools," Dull Children. Teachers CollegeContri . School Review, XLVI (March, 1938), butions to Education, No. 707. New York: 196.201. Teachers College, Columbia University, 44. Hogg, Rey F., "Test on the Newspaper," 1937, 128. The Grade TeacherLXV (January, 1948), 57. Leach, F. C., Jr. 'Newspaper 74, 76. Reading," 't exas OutlookXXV (October, 1941) 33. 45. Hill, George E., "The Vocabulary of Comic Strips," Journal of Educational Psychology, 58. Leary, Bernice E. "What Does Research XXXIV (February, 1943), 77-87. Say AboutReading?" Journal of Educa- 46. Hill, George E., "Word Distortions in tional Research, XXXIX (February, Comic Strips,"Elementary School Journal, 1946), 434-44. XLIII(May, 1943), 520-25. 59. Leggett, Dorothy, "Reading Newspapers 47. Hill, George E., "Relation of Children's andMagazines," The Social StudiesXXIX Interests in Comic Strips to theVocabu- (November, 1938), 296-301. lary of TheseComics," Journal of Educa- 60. Levi, Isabelle J., "Are High School Stu tional Psychology,XXVIV (January, dents Becoming More News-Conscious?" 1943) 48-54. Educational Forum,XXX (March, 1939), 48. HiII, GeorgeE.,and Trent, M. Estelle, 329-33. "Children's Interests in Comic Strips," 61. Levine, Irving J., "The Press: A Potent Journal of Educational Research,XXXIV Force in SocialEducation," High Points (September, 1940), 30-',6. XX (June, 1930), 59-62. 49. Horn, Gunnar,"Needed: Intelligent 62. Mac Dougall, CurtisD., "Journalism Newspaper Readers,'Nebraska Educa- Teaching," Journalism Quarterly, XXII tional Journal, XIX (October,1939), (December, 1945), 349.52, 392. 235. 63. McCune, G. H., and Marse, H. T., "War 50. Horn, Gunnar, "Newspapersas aSocializ- News:Materialsfor Teaching Critical ing Influence,"Nebraska Educational Thinking," Educational Digest VII (April, Journal,XX (May, 1940), 151, 168. 1942) 20-21. 51, Horn, Gunnar, "The Newspapers,"Clear- 64. McMullan, Lois, ''The Newspaper Goes ing House XVIII (May,1944), 539-41. to School,"Clearing House, XIV (Octo- NEWSPAPERS 57

bet, 1937), 103-4. 77. Seward, John P., and Stetvers, E. Evelyn, :+5. McNamee, Mary L.,"Surveying News- "A Study of Belief in the Accuracy of paper Policies," English Journal, XXVIII Newspaper Reports," "The Journal of (January, 1939), 57-59. Educational Psychology, XVI (October, Madden, Regina, "Pivoting Education on 1943) 209-18. the Newspaper," The Journal of Education 78. Shelter, Harry, "Newspaper Laboratory," 130, (October, 1947) 224-25. High Points XXIX (December, 1947), 67. Malan, C. T., "What Should People Read 49-53. in Democratic Government?" School and 79. Sister Anthony Mary, I. H. M., "Detroit Society, XLVI (December18,1937), Girls Study the Newspaper," English 806.08. Journal, XXXVI (May, 1947) 254-56. 68. Mersand, Joseph, "Why Boys Read News- 80. Staudenmayer, Maude Shanks, "Study of papers," English Journal, XXVI (March, the News," Clearing House, XXI (Jan- uary, 1947), 288-91. 1937), 195-99. 81. Stewart, Julia B., "Unit on Newspapers 69. Mitchell, C., "Attitudes of High-School for High School Seniors," Journal of Bs& Pupils Toward the Public Press," School ness Education, XIV (March, 1939), 20, Review L (February, 1942), 107-11. 24. 70. National Opinion Research Center, What 82. Stolper, B. J. K., "A Newspaper Unit for - Where - Who - DoPeople Read? Schools," Teachers College Review Denver, Colorado: National Opinion Re- XXXVI (October, 1934) 20-29. search Center, The University of Denver, 83. Squire, Mimic C., "We Read Behind the 1946. pp. 32. Lines," English Journal, XXIX (Septem- 71. Ormond, Helen, "All I Know Is What I ber, 1940) 556-63. Read in the Papers," High Points XXVII 84. Tangeny, Homer F., "A Study Relating to (April, 1945), 60-62. the Change in the Newspaper Reading In- 72. Paterson, Donald G., and Tinker, Miles A., terests of Secondary School Students since "Readability of Newspaper Headlines the Entrance of the United States into Printed in Capitals and in Lower Case," World War 11," journal of Experimental Journal of Applied Psychology, XXX Education X (June, 1942), 195-99. (April, 1946) 161-68. 85. Thalmeimer, J. A., and Gerberich, J. K., 73. Peavy, Katharine Brown, "Let's Learn a- "Reader Attitudes Toward Questions of bout Newspapers," Instructor I.1V (April, Newspaper Policy and Practice," Journal- 1945) 12, 48. ism Quarterly, XII (September, 1935), 74. Purk, Harold H., "The Home and Ado- 266-71. lescent Reading interests," School Review, 86. Tyre, Amy May, "Junior High School XLV (October, 1937), 612-20. Pupils and the Newspaper Vocabulary," 75. Rand, Helen, and Fisher, Mary C., "To Educational Research Record, University Understand What IsInNewspapers," of Nebraska Publication, Vol IX No, 4 English Journal XXV (January, 1936), (April, 1932), pp. 118.21; 124-25. 25-32. 87. U. S. Office of Education, How to Read 76. Rothneg, John W. M. and McCaul, Robert the News, U. S. Government Printing L., "Reading Preferences of High &IRA)! Office, 1940. Boys," English Journal, XXVII (October, 88. Vinson, Esther, "Education for Newspaper 1938), 650.60. Reading,' Secondary Education Bulletin 38 MASS MEDIA 01+ COMMUNICATION

VI (May, 1937), 118.19. 95,Witty, Paul, "Children's Interest in Read- 89, Wallace, Sault Agnes, "A Study of News- ing the Comics," Journal of Experimental papers," English Journal, XXII (January, Education, X (December 1941), 100-04. 1933), 45.49. 96.Witty,Paul, "Reading the ComicsA 90. Wallenberg, William, "Getting Truth Comparative Study," Journal of Experi- from Your Newspaper," English Journal mental Education X (December 1941), XXVI (May, 1937) 363-68. 105-09. 91. Wetzel, Naoma, ''The News at Eleven- - 97.Witty, Paul, and Comer, Anne, "Read- A Report Three Weeks After School," ing the Comics in Grades IX-X11," Educa- Educational Alethod XVII (January, tional Administration and Supervision, 1938) 185.188, XXVIII (May, 1942) 344.53. 92. Wheeler, Lester R. and Wheeler Viola 98.Witty, Paul, "The Reading Interests and D., "Newspapers in the Classroom," Ele- mentary English Review XXII (Decem- Habits of Five Hundred Adults," Educes- ber, 1945) 324-29. lion, LII (May, 1932) 554.62. 93, Whiteman, Samuel A., "The Place of the 99.Witty, Paul and Ullman, Harvey C., "The Newspaper in the English Curriculum," Reading and Reading Interests of Gifted High Points, XX (November, 1938) 20- Children," Pedagogical Seminary and Jour- 24. nal of Genetic Psychology, XLV (De- 94.c Wiese, Mildred J., "Objective: To Read a cember, 1934) 466-81. Newspaper," Adult Education Bulletin, 100.Wolseley, H. E., "Helping Pupils Read VII (April, 1943) 110-12. Newspapers Intelligently," School and So- ciety XLIX (January 14, 1939), 53.55. 10.

Radio LILLIANR.NOVOTNY'

What Are Children's and in education fields; and it is reasonable to Listening Interests? assume that this healthy growth will continue. In a mood of black despair, an outstanding A summary and critical analysis of research radio educator recently exclaimed, "Children of literature on children and radio in 1941 (9) gives a detailed analysis covering children be- todaylisten to the radio only whenthereis tween the ages of six and eighteen. This sum- no television set available." He was reflecting mary reveals the fact that children's radio lis- artattitude rather common today thattele- tening activities, even at an early age, are de- vision, because it is new and dramatic and has pendent largely upon what is available over the received so much public attention during the radio. Family listening seems to accountfor past year,is being forecast as the death of some of the most consistently popular pro- radio. This general belief, however, isdisproved grams among boys and girls and through all bystatistics(17), which indicate that there ages (39). Children themselves cannot be clas- has been a steady increase in the hours of sified by age levels as to likes and dislikes; radio listeninginthe average home. From they listen to the radio program that appeals to 1943.1948 this increase has been 26 percent. them. Planners of children's programs have A fifteenyear study of national advertising divided the listening habits of children into appropriations (11) shows that in 1931 the three groups (36) :the pre-school child up national advertisers spent three hundred thirty. to six- years of age; the intermediate group, three and a third million dollars in three media from to nine; and the older group from ten to fourteen. They do this in the belief that pro- 16S million in newspapers, 1131/2 million grams with definite appeals to children at each in magazines, and 56.8 million in radio. In of these age levels should be built and broad- 1948, national advertisers spent $393,700,000 cast,However, asurvey of children's radio in newspapers, $512,700,000 in magazines, and listening tastes refutes this idea, except in the $377,300,000 in radio. It is obvious that news- case of the youngest group concerning which papers have not killed billboards; even the news there is some doubt. magazines did not kill newspapers; radio did not kill or even injure other existing media. In a recent sutvey of radio listening habits Television, if used in conjunction with news- and program preferences of children in grades papers, magazines, and radio, will undoubtedly four to nine (38), children's serials were pre- follow the same pattern. Naturally, there is ferred by 28.5 percent of the children, followed by nonmystery dramas, crime and mystery competition between the media;buteach dramas,featured comedians, quiz programs, person is daily faced with the competitive de- popular music, variety, adult serials, miscellan- cision whether to read a book, go for a walk, listen to the radio, see a movie, visitwith 'Principal of the Oriole Park School, Chicago, friends, or listen to and viewa television pro- and member of the Radio Committee of the gram. This competition has made each medium Natiotrl Council of Teachers of English. Miss Novotny is editorta the "Look and Listen" progressively better in entertainment, innews, section ofElementary

39 40 MASS MEDIA OIT COMMUNICATION cous music, serious music,talks, sportscasts,olds (43), however, the followingstatistics newscasts(local),and commentators(net-were presented: work). As pupils progressed from fourth to Percent Average Time ninth grade, children's serials showed a con. Participating Spent during sistent decline in popularity, while non-mystery Day (minutes) dramas, crime and mystery dramas, and comedi-Radio 77 91 ans showed a reverse trend. Popular music alsoNewspapers 84 22 gained in popularity as pupils advanced in theMagazines 51 20 grades. Movies 27 44. In 1948, the following ten programs were Books 34 22 listed as the favorites of boys and girls agedIn other words, the amount of time spent lis- eight to fourteen (43): Lone Ranger, Blondie,tening to radio is 313. 6 percent more than is Lux Radio Theatre, Archie Andrews, Let's Pre- spent inreading newspapers or books; 355 tend, Gang Busters,, Frank Merriwell, Babypercent more than is spent in reading maga- Snooks, Disc Jockeys, Superman. These choices zines; 108.6 percent more than is spent in going show a marked similarity to the ten programsto movies. found to be most frequently listened to by A summary of average daily listening time children between the fourth and the eighth (39) for boys and girls was two and a quarter grade in 1939 (39): Charlie Mc Carthy, Jackhours. The 1947 study(38)indicated that Benny, Lone Ranger, Lux Radio Theatre, Jackpeak listening of village children occurs from Armstrong, Captain Midnight, Gangbusters,88:30 A. M. Farm children listened most be- Dirk Tracey, Don Winslow, Bing Crosby, Bobtween 6:30 and 8:30 a. m. Highest urban lis- Burns. tening ranged between 7 and 8:30 a.in. As An analysis of the listening of high school school hours approached, a sharp decline was. pupils in studies made from 1933 through 1943noted in the listening. In the evening, 90.1 (33) supports the findings reported in 1947percent of urban boys and 90.4 percent urban (10), that aside from the general run of pro-girls listen; 87.7 percent of village boys and grams to which teen-agers listen, there are three 84.6 percent of village girls; 82.4 percent of specific types of programs which might be farm boys and 80.6 percent of farm girls. The called their programs: (1) adult shows suchheaviest listening occurs from 4:30 to 9:30 as comedy, information, and drama; (2) popu- p. m. lar music programs with sparkling conversa- What Is the Riled of Radio don; and (3) programs in which teen-agers Listening on Children? participate, whether it be of the variety or 'in- This weekly average of about sixteen hours formative type. of radio listening, compared with the twenty- Differences in age, geographical variations, live hours spent in school per week, aroused socio-economic background, and sex differences the interest and anxiety of parent groups. They play a part in the listening habits of children,could not ignore the force of radio in its in- as well as in leisure time activities (9). Onefluence on children. Research findings(9) report (38) cites Comic books and the theatresupport them, for the evidence establishes be- as competing with both the radio and the text- yond doubt that radio has a strong emotional book for a child's attention out of school. In aappeal forits young listeners. However, the comparison made between juvenilelisteningtype of appeal that it has is likely to vary for and other activities of fifteen to nineteen year-different types of children. Age differences, RADIO 41

differences, content of the program, in- ward cooperation among representatives of the ticements offered by adverti.,ers, identification radio industry, national sponsors, advertising ;Rh a social group, and interests in other ac- agencies, organized women's groups, educators, Nilies are all factors which enter the realm of librarians, and radio editors in working toward he diem of listening. Rowland states (28), the improvement of radio programs for children If we are realistic, we must conclude that the (6, 28, 13, 14, 7, 5, 16). Late in 1947, for ex- necific effects of radio cannot be Measured and ample (43), the sponsors of the radio networks' hese effects cannot be separated from the mul- major children's shows promised 100 percent Iplicity of other life experiences." Research has cooperation with the American Heritage adicated (4) more intensive short-range emo. Foundation in a campaign using heroes to en- Ional effects of listening among younger chil- trench the bask tenets of Americanism in the Iren in comparison to older children; younger minds of the nation's youth: "Scripts of the iiildren react to incidents rather than to the various programs will stress good citizenship, evelopment of a plot. Older children are less intelligent use of the ballot box, tolerance, and tkely to take stories as "real," or seem better all the democratic obligations of ail Americans." hie to guess what is going to happen. Contrary to general belief, most children's In general, it was found (9) that parents radio shows must meet rigid standards before ()prove a greater number of programs than they being accepted for broadcast (26). Dr. Martin flsapprove. Their approval is based on educa- L. Reymert, internationally known psychologist unal grounds and the fact that radio listening who has been pretesting the Jack Armstrong ceps children busy, while their disapproval is show during the past ten years, has evolved the ,ised on emotional excitement induced by following set of standards generally applicable to crime and horror stories which were to children's programs: ,iund (18) to induce increased nervousness, 1. The program should be interesting to the leeping disturbances, and fears. child,, accurate in presentation and fea- Parents became aroused and indignantly sible in plot. rotested the horror program on the radio, for This means no superman exploits,or . was clearly a community problem. Even when superhuman phenomena.Superstitious .arents controlled radio listening within their beliefs and the supernatural should never wn homes, children heard these thrillers at he portrayed as having any factual basis homes of their friends. No radio station or reality, ,taped their denunciations. Child Study, Li- 2. The program shouldmeet acceptable rary, and Parent Groups began to study the standards of craftsmanship in presenta- roblem and conferred with broadcasters, who tion. lowed genuine concern, not only from a point 1 poor public relations but from a genuine The speeches of allcharacters should .esire to improve their offerings to children. be checked for poor grammar, syntax, and unnecssary slang: Only nonprofane As early as1934 the Women's National words should be used for strong exclama- radio Committee was formed toraise the tory expressions. Considerthe appro- landard of radio programs, and through their priateness of each character's speech in ofluence some of the most undesirable pm- relation to age and sex. sams were taken off the air (8). Since that 3. There should be vividness and clarity in ;me, there has I'ven a steady, strong trend to- presentiii,g the action. 42 MASS MEM OF COMMUNICATION

Keep the audience aware of whatis problem (8): it is not so much what 11 on the happening at all times, even though theair for children's listening that is dangerous for action is varied, fast-moving and strenu-the youth of America, but rather what is no! ous. The conversation of the chtrar.ters on the air. She cites the use of radio as a power- should indicate much of what is Iwppen. ful weapon in the hands of Germany and Russia ing. in indoctrinating their youth and points out the 4. The excitement of the plot should henecessity for using this medium of mass com wholesome, Eliminate horror elements. munication, with its tremendous influence on children, to educate our youth in democracy and Never end an episode on a pitch of ex- the building of a postwar world that is securt citement that will make rest and steep and democratic. difficult. Avoid shootings, kidnapings, brutalmurders, tortures and anything What Are Desirable that tends to induce insecurity. Classroom Practices? 5. The program should foster constructive just as radio networks and women's or social attitudes and promote a respect forganizations have cooperated in the improvement fine personal. qualities. of radio fare for children's listening based on Respect for parental authority and law study and research, so research studies in the and order should be instilled. Loyalty,use and effectiveness of radio have been in dependability, unselfishness, tolerancecorporated by educators and broadcasters in the and character should be emphasized.des dopment of effective use of radio in the However, black-and-white delimitations,classroom (1). Such phases of radio as an analysis of program planning, script preparation, between the heroes and villains must not be made. productiontechniques, classroomutilization, and evaluation of results have occupied the at- 6. Psychological phenomena and processestention of radio education specialists. A sum- should be treated in the light of the best mary of their findings incorporated in the year. available information. books of the Institutes for Education by Radio. 7. The program should contain sufficientOhio State University, Columbus, Ohio, and the hero characters, when these are children,School Broadcast Conferences, 228 No. La Salk to furnish models with which the variousStreet, Chicago 1, Illinois, serves as a record oh age groups or sexes may identify them-the gradual growth and increased effectivenes, selves. of educational broadcasting. 8. The program should contain educational elements interwoven as part and parcel fhe classroom teacher, then, has at his dis- posal a teaching medium which he may utilize of the story. to enrich the curriculum, to supplement, ex- The incidental technique with the childplain, and implement the learning process. The learning without realizing is better thannetworks, the local stations, and the I'M edu direct teaching. Science, adventure andcational stations all cooperate in the presenta travel are good devices for this. Factual don of good radio programs, either foritt presentation isa must. school or for home listening. In radio, the teach As was indicated earlier, at a comparativelyer has an educational tool which eliminates dis- early age the audience of children is listeningtance, which serves as a powerful motivator or to adult programs. Dorothy Gordon, well-known action as it stimulates the emotions of itslis- producer of children's programs, points up theteners, and which intensifies its message in iv RAMO 43 power to dramatize events. late further reading, lead to writing construc- tive criticism, or to creative writing based on Although Cleveland is well known for its desirable objectives. .se of radio as a direct teaching tool whereby master teacher carries through the complete In general, the first step in good utilization sson, most educational radio today may beconsists of finding out what programs are avail- haracterized as an out-growth of the "supple- able (44, 55), Then through the skillful guid- oentary" philosophy. The radio broadcast, itance of the instructor in a classroom discussion, believed, should be used to supplement and students may be led to make an analysis of those nrich the work of the class, just as the map,programs which would supplement and enrich lobe, charts, movies, filmstrips, field trips, and their particular fields of interest. Programs on lramatizations are used to contribute to cur- biography life stories of outstanding men iculum development. and women of our own time and of other times Stress is placed on the utilization of the drama and fiction, or news and commentary roadcast, for its chief value lies in its integra- canall be utilized to develop an increased ion with the classroom work. Experts in theawareness of the extensive field of reading in ;eld of educational radio will admit that the these areas. An appreciation of good writing oost excellent program on the air has negli-techniques in various types of broadcasts may ible value in the hands of an indifferent teach- stimulate an emulation of these techniques r who simply turns the radio on and off with- through simulated or live broadcasts. Letter- in taking time to integrate the broadcast bywriting to stations for materials or to express lequate preparation and follow-up activities constructive criticism may be encouraged. Let- iith the current fields of study. To assist theters may be sent to individuals as participants ...acher in using a broadcast, most educationalin the program, or to friends, to exchange views tries are now accompanied by a teacher's man - on broadcasts. Creative writing may be stimu- ti which contains a synopsis of the program,lated. We may use the radio broadcast to pro- s well as carefully developed suggestions formote an appreciation of excellent speech in lass activities, "Before the broadcast," "Dur-the actual broadcasts; we may encourage sm ng Broadcast," and "After the Broadcast."dents to emulate good speech exemplified in requently a listing of key words for vocabu. these broadcasts, in everyday conversation, in try development are included, and many addspeaking assignments, and in dramatic groups. bibliography of supplementary books in theWe may promote the development, of skill in dd. the organization of thought through outlining, The possibilities for utilizing radio broad-summarizing, or note-taking. We may develop tsts, including both in-school and out-of-schoolcritical discrimination by comparing analagous ,stening, in the field of language arts are un-reports and watching for distortions, by com- ,mited. Many current books and pamphlets on paring organization and completeness of cover- tilizationare available to the teacher whoage, by watching for pitfalls to thinking. 'fishes to avail himself of the best develop. ,lents in the field (12, 20, 25, 29, 37, 41, 42), Bibliography ictual classroom practices used by teachers Audio.vintal Material, of Interaction. Potty- mphasize the fact that even the poorest broad- eighth Yearbook, Part f, of The National , 1st on the air may be utilized in the field of Society for the Study of Education, Chcago: imguagearts:it may stimulate discussion, The University of Chicago Press,1949. !evelop critical analysis and appraisal, stimu. Pp. 283.84 give ,t summary of research 44 MASS MEDIA OP COMMUNICATION

studiesinradio and recordings. Prentice-Hall, 1948. 2.Classroom Radio Receivers.Washington, 13. Levenson, William B.Teaching through D. C.: U. S. Office of Education, Wash. Radio.New York: Farrar & Rinehart, Inc., ington 25, D. C. Basic specifications de- 1945. veloped by the U. S.Officeof Education 11. Lewis, Dorothy,Broadcasting to the Youth and the Radio Manufacturers Association of America.Washington 6, D. C.; The Na- Joint Committee on Specificationsfor tional Association of Broadcasters, 1941. ,School Audio Equipment, 15. Lewis, Dorothy and McFadden, Dorothy, 3. Dale, Edgar,AudioV isual Methods in Program Patterns for Young Radio. Lis- Teaching.New York: The Dryden Press, teners.Washington 6, D. C.: The National 1948. Pp. 250.263 general; 461, language AssociatiOn of Broadcasters, 1945. arts. 16. Logan, Clara S., "Children's Radio Listen- 4. DeBoer, John J.,The Emotional Responses ing,"National Parent Teacher,January, of Children to Radio Drama.Chicago: The 1948. University of Chicago, 1938. 17. Marshall,Elizabeth,StateChairman of Radio,Illinois Congress of Parents and 5.Evaluation of School Broadcasts.Columbus, Teachers,Radio Packet No.2. 228 North Ohio: Ohio State University, October, 1941 La Salle Street, Chicago 1, Illinois, "A Report and a Proposal for the Improve. 18. Mutual Broadcasting System(WON) ment of Children's Radio Programs through Cooperative Research." (Press Department Release). "Average flours of Listening per Home per Day," 6.Evaluation of School Broadcasts.Columbus, Fall, 1949. Ohio: OhioState University, October, 1941 19. Preston, Mary I., "Children's Reactions to "Suggested Criteria for Children's Radio Movie Horrors and Radio Crime,"Journal Programs." of Pediatrics, XIX (1941 )145. 7. Evaluation of School Broadcasts.Columbus, 20. Proceedings: Conference on the Establish Ohio: Ohio State University, February, ment of a Permanent Research Agency for 1942 "A Research and Service Agency for the improvement of Children's Radio Pro- Children's Radio Programs." grams.Washington, D. C.: Federal Radio 8. Gordon, Dorothy,All Children Listen.New Education Committee Linked States Office York: George W. Stewart, 1942. of Education, February 9, 1942. 9. Herzog, Herta,Survey of Research on Chil- 21.Radio Broadcasting and Television.New dren's Radio Listening.New York: Office York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1947. (An an- of Radio Research, Columbia University, notated bibliography containing neatly April, 1941. 1,000 titles.) 10. Johnson, Grace M., "Effective Teen Pro- 22.Radio The Classroom's Newest Teaching grams Appeal to Major Interests,"Radio Tool.Educational Products Division, 200 Showmanship,November, 1947. Hudson Street, New York 13, N. Y. 11. Kintner, Robert E., Executive Vice-Presi- 23.Radio Reprints.Radio Council, WBEZ. dent, American Broadcasting Company, In Chicago: Chicago Public Schools, 228 a speech before a luncheon meeting of the North La Salle Street, Chicago 1, Illinois, Advertising Women of New York (Oc- (Reprint of articles by classroom teachers tober, 1949). on effective utilization of radio broadcast's.) 12. Lazarsfeld, Paul F., andKendall,PatriciaL., 24. Radio Script Catalog. Educational Radio Radio Listening in America.New York: Script and Transcription Exchange. Wash- RADIO 45

ington, D. C.: U. S. Office of Education. Kaplan, Milton A., and Consultants, Skin 25.Radio and Television Bibliography,1948. in Listening. Chicago:The National Coun- Washington, D. C.:FederalSecurity cil of Teachers of English. Agency, Office of Education, (Prepared by 33. Spingarn, Jerome H.,Radio I! Yours.22 E. Gertrude G. Broderick, Radio Education Thirty-eighth Street, New York 16, New Specialist.) Comprehensive and up-to-date, York: Public Affairs Committee, Inc. annotated listing including a general over- 34. Sterner, Alice P.,Radio, Motion Pictures, view of the field, careers in radio, broad- dnd Reading Interests: A Study of High casting techniques and script writing, edu- SchoolPupils. New York: Bureau of Pub- . cationgeneral, uca ion-school uses of lications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- radio, scripts, books, and plays, engineering, versity, 1947. EM, television, equipment, transcriptions, periodicals, and sources of general informa- 35. Sterner, Alice,A Course of Study in Radio tion. An invaluable aid to teachers. Appreciation: Audio -V isnal Guides.172 Renner Avenue Newark, NeW Jersey. 26. Reid, Seerley, and Woelfel, Norman, "How to Judge a School Broadcast." Available on 36.Utilization Practices: School Broadcast Con. loan from Educational RadioScript Ex- 1 erence. 228No. La Salle Street, Chicago 1, change. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Office of Illinois, 1943. Education. 37. Waller, Judith,Radio, the FifthEstate. 27. Reymert, MartinL.,"Psychologists Help New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, Radio Program Become a National Institu- 1946. tion,"Printers'Ink, November 7, 1917 38.What Shall We Read about Radio?Com- piled by William 1.ewin.Audio-Visual 28. Rowland, J: H., ASociological Analysis of Radio as a Form of Mass Communication Guides.172 Renner Avenue Newark, New Jersey, 1942. in AmericanLife. (On loan, U. S. Office of Education, federal Security Agency, Wash- 39. University of Wichita Study, "Radio Lis- ington, D. C.) A Reprint of an abstract of tening Habits and Program Preferences of a doctor's dissertation,University of Pitts- Sedgwick County School Children in the

burgh 13fdletin, X1V,No. 6, April 10, 1948. Fourth to Ninth Grades." Wichita, Kansas, 29. Rowland, Tyler, and Woelfel,Criterii for May, 1947. Children's Maio Programs.Federal Radio40. Wilmette, Illinois Parent-Teacher Associa- Education Committee, 1942, Washington, tion Radio Committe, "The Home Radio D. C. Listening of Wilmette Grade-School Chil- 30.School Sound Systems. W ashington 25, dren Wilmette, Illinois, 1939. D. C.:U. S. Office of Education. Basic41. Wisconsin Research Projectin School standards developed by the U. S. Office of Broadcasting,Radio in the Classroom, Education and the Radio Mtnufacturers Madison, Wisconsin:University of Wis- Association Joint Committee on Standards consin Press, 1942. for School Audio Equipment. 42. Wocliel, Norman and Tyler, Keith,Radio 31. Siepman, Charles,The Radio Listener's Bill and the School. NewYork: World Book of Rights. 212Fifth Ave., New York 10, Company, 1945. New York: AntiDefamatiott League, 43.Youth Market Data.New York: NBC Re- 32. Saunders, Kay Monaghan, Sterner, Mice, search Departmeot, April, 1948. 46 MASS MEDIA OECOMMUNICATION

Current News 50. News Tonight. Radio Information Bureau 44. 4. E R. Journal. Associationfor Educa- Compton News Service, 630 Fifth Avenue, tion by Radio, 228 No. La Salle Street, Chi- New York 20, New York, cago 1, Illinois. 51. The News Letter,Edgar Dale, Editor, 45. Broadcasting. Broadcasting Publications, Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio Star( Inc., 870 National Press Building, Wash- University, Columbus, Ohio. ington, D. C. 52. On the Dial. National Broadcasting Com 46. CBS Listeners' Guide. Columbia Broad- parry. RCA Building, New York, Net casting System, 485 Madison Avenue, New York. York, N. Y. 53. PracticalEnglish. Scholastic Publication 47. P. R. E. C. Service Bulletin. U. S. Office of 7 E. Twelfth Street, New York 3, New Education, Federal Security Agency, Wash- York. ington 5, D. C. 48. Listenables. Edited by Leon C. Hood, Chair- 54. Radio-Best and Television. 452 Fifth Ave- man. NCTE Committee on Radio. 61 nue, New York 18, New York. Lafayette Avenue, East Orange, New Jersey.55. Variety. 154 W. Forty-sixth Street, Net 49. "Look and Listen," Elementary English, York 19, New York. 211 W. 68th Street, Chicago 21, Illinois, Television DALLAS W. SMYTH&

The advent of television portends profound The Prospect for Television changes in our civilization. A new evaluation Today, 94 TV stations in 54 cities make TV of educational uses of all methods of com-available to about 53 million people living in munication is required, resting on an aware-these metropolitan areas, and to about 22 mil- ness of the potential and the problems pre-lion more who live outside them, but within sented in TV (as we may hereafter call tele- the service range of the stations. This represents vision). Predictions about so new an art mustrapid growth since the first of 1948 when there be handled With due respect to rather widewere only 19 stations on the air. We may ex- margins of possible error. Within these limitspect the 94 stations to increase to more than (identified by words such as "about," "prob- 100 by the end of 1949. ably," and "in the order of"), this article at- There are now about 3.2 million TV sets tempts to predict the shape, size, and rate of in use. In the past 12 months the number in use growth of this new medium. It then tries tohas multiplied about five times; in less than sketch TVs implications on three levels. The two years, more than ten times. It is obvious first of these levels already has been established that we are living through the turbulent birth- through the overtures made by TV equipmentperiod of a major art form and industry. manufacturers to schools for experimentation The present users of TV, like the stations in pupil participation in TV at the producingserving them, are in the heaviest concentrations and receiving ends. It may be described as the of population. Thus, 16about one-third of "school industry cooperation" level. The second the totalof the communities with TV are levelis the possibility of operation by thelocated in Atlantic Coast States north of the schools of their own facilities both for produc-Potomac River. Another sixteen....are in the tion and reception.It may be termed theNorth Central States. Nine are in the South "school, operation" level. The third level con-Central States, seven are in the South Atlantic sists of the implications of TV for broader States, four on the Pacific Coast, and two in the issues of educational policy. For example,it Mountain States. There is now TV service in is suggested that the development in the pupil32 states. While it may be assumed that the of the habit of critical discrimination towards reader will be aware of the present existence of the fare offered by the TV and radio is a "must" TV stations in his own community, it may be for the schools of a democracy no whit lessuseful to list the communities which have con- urgent than the need to develop a similar habit sanction under way on TV stations and which with respect to literature. For example again, it may be expected to have service within the next is suggested that the eventual habituation of few months: most of the population to viewing TV for an Ames, Iowa Binghampton, N. Y. average of three or more hours a day may, un- 'Research professor, Institute of Communica- less offset by the influence of the schools, work tions Research, and member of the College of against the growth of integrated personalities Commerce and Business Administration, the and may impair the effectiveness of local University ofIllinois.Formerly Chief, Eco- ill. nomics and Statistics Division, Federal Com- stitutions in performing their functions. munications Commission. 47 48 MASS MEDIA 011 COMMUNICATION

Kalamazoo, Michigan designed for the best use of the available Lansing, Michigan channels. This determination must takeaccount Nashville, Tennessee of the concentration of the population in certain Norfolk, Virginia small areas (especially the heavy concentration Portland, Oregon Riverside, California in New England and Middle Atlantic States) St. Petersburg, Florida and the interference which will be created by San Antonio, Texas stations operating on the same channel, and on Utica-Rome, N. Y. adjacent channels. At present TV makes service available to Shortly after the War, the Commission, after somewhat less than half of the population.consideration of the possibilities of the arts of Fortunately, the future prospects for TV ate not broadcasting black and white and color TV, limited to the 66 communities now or verydetermined engineering standards and an al- shortly to be served. To understand the longer location plan for black and white TV. That pro prospect, however, requites consideration ofceeding established standards for black and technical problems. white TV in the 12 "low band" channels be- The Public Interest ire ihe Technical tween 54 and 216 megacycles.' 1e also allocated Base of Television the available assignments for about 400 stations TV, like all uses of the radio, is an applica. in some 140 metropolitan areas. The Corn. don of an electronic an to the use of the radiomission recognized that these channels would spectrum. In, the United States, according tonot provide service to the whole population,but national policy, well - settled for several decades, in the light of the importance of other uses ft)i the use "in the public interest, convenience andchannel space below 216 megacyclesfor FM, necessity," but notthe ownership of radiofor international radio-telegraph, for aeronauti- channelsisperiodically granted to citizens. cal radio, and for mobile radio-telephoneit These periodic grants, called licenses, are issued could not make more channels availablefot by the people of the United States {the owners TV in that portion of the spectrum. Instead ii of the radio spectrum) through a public agencyset aside a large amount of spectrum space It (now the Federal Communications Commis-the "high band" for experimentation in TV.' sion). This agency operates under a policy, By 1948, it was apparent that the tapir' adopted on behalf of the American people bygrowth of the TV industry would shortly re the Congress, of regulating radio communica- quire the "opening up" of more TV channel tion "so as to make available, so far as possible, than the 12 already assigned in the "low band: to all the people of the United States" the best Moreover, interference experienced by the nev. possible service in the public interest. Prior tostations in that band proved to be more setiou licensing the use of radio channels for com- 'Each of the 12 channels is 6 megacycles wide mercial use, the Commission must detertninzOther services were assigned some of the space. the best technique for performing the type ofbetween 54 and 216 me. This area has becom service in question. This determination of en- known as the "low band" for TV, a "band" bein: a number of channels assigned for a particull gineering standards, subsequently used by all radio service. equipment manufacturers and broadcasters, is The "high band" for TV consists of the spat.. necessary if we are to have standardization in between 475 and 890 megacycles. Experiment., equipment performance. The second prelimi- Lion in this band was thought of in terms of (1, nary to actual licensing is the determination by veloping either higher definition black an white TV or color TV, and exploring the equip the Commission of an allocation plana geo-ment and wave propagation peculiarities c graphic spacing of station assignments.that portion of the spectrum. TELEVISION 49

Ilan had been expected by either the industry orceding paragraphs, set the approximate limits he FCC when the 1946 allocation plan wason the shape, size, and rate of growth of TV. A .lopted. Con tequently, the FCC in Septembermore substantial appraisal of its prospects, how- 948 "froze" the process of granting new TVever, tests on an appreciation of its cost, its :onstruction permits and committees ofin- method of support, the character of its service, tustry and government enginceers proceeded toand its effects. tudy the problem of how to find space for more TV stations. While these studies were under- The cost of TV is high. This is TV's most .vay, Congressional concern was expressed overoutstanding characteristic. The minimum in- :he possibility that the Commission might again vestment required to start a full-fledged TV .lefer commercial authorization of color TV.station is in the order of $400,000about three Questions were raised publicly as to the role oftimes the investment of existing AM stations. patents and equipment manufacturers' influenceOperating costs for 14 TV stations in 1948 In the FCC's decision in favor of black andaveraged more than $500,000 apieceagain shite TV in 1946. As a result, demonstrationsabout three times the average for the AMsta- the progress made in developing the art oftions. These cost figures for TV reflectopera- color TV were held for FCC and Congressional dons on a fullbasis, with studio facilities, observers. The studies of the engineering com-film equipment, field pickup equipment,etc. mittees were directed explicitly to the complex Institutions, however, may consider entering and controversial issues presented by color andTV on a less ambitious basis, as will beex- the allocation of the "high band" spectrum space.plained later. The high cost of TV isa result On September 26, 1949, public hearings, wereof several factors. Construction costsare high: begun by the FCC to consider these issues. ThisTV studio programs require expensive andspac- proceeding will last for months, although de- ious production and rehearsal rooms with much cisions on some of the issues may be reachedcostly lighting equipment. Video and motion before the entire hearing is concluded. Out ofpicture equipment is expensive. Antennas,too, the hearing may come: (1) an adjustment ofcome high, both in elevation and in cost. Opera- the "low band" standards permitting an end to ting costs are high because of thenumerous the freeze, and the accommodation of betweenskills required in the TV Jabot force. Onenon- 100 and 400 TV stations within this band;network TV station in New York, for example, (2) a determination of color or black and whiteafter a recent reduction in staff, finds itself with TV standards for the "high band" which will be 155 employees, in contrast to which theaverage compatible with those in the "low band" (i e. AM radio station in 1947 had 23 employees. permit reception of signals from both bands by The difference is due to the fact that TV is sets equipped with adapting equipment). Mean- an art which is a little like three other art forms while, until the Commission acts to end itolte movies, radio, andthe stageand yetis "freeze" will still prevent any of the 313ap- plications caught in it in September 1948 fromunlike all of them. Until the unique TVare emerges with its own occupational skills and becoming active stations.Itis obvious that the pressures on the FCC for a resolution of thean experienced labor force, it trust remain ex- issues of the hearing and the early lifting of traordinarily expensive. After that it may merely the freeze will be powerful. be expensive.

Commercial TV Programming The method of self-support of TV is de- The technical factors, discussed in thepre-veloping along radio lines: advertisersponsor- 50 MASS MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

Presently more than 1500 advertisers arenouncements," "educational," "women's" "au- using TV, many of whom were not previously dience participation," "quiz," and '"miscellan- radio advertisers. So effective is TV reportedeous." The extent of the direct commercial in- to be as a selling force (i.e. demonstrating thefluence on TV programs may be indicated by product or service, as well as representing it inthe fact that in this typical week 41 hours of staticpicturesas in printed mediaor inprograms were reported as "educational," or 3 soundas in radio),that currentlyiteven percent of the total. In contrast, while all spon- gives rise to speculation as to its ultimate effectsored programs contain their own commercial on other methods of marketing goods. At pre- messages, an additional 49 hours were devoted sent, in a commercially experimental phase,to programs which purported to be nothing 'IV stations under the pressure of high costs more than commercial announcements.' are looking hard for sponsors. Their tendency The commercial influence on program con- will be to sell as many program hours as pos-tent even goes so far as to lead the broadcasters sible, for as high rates as possible. Almost all"strongly" to oppose a proposal tentatively ad- TV stations are now losing money, heavily.vanced by the staff of the FCC that statistics Even though by 1950 a substantial number ofshould be reported by TV stations to the FCC TV stations will be "in the black," this pressure on the total amount of their program time to sell time will not lessen, for the growingwhich is sponsored (as against sustaining), on number of TV stations will serve to keep it the total amount of their program time which is high. locally produced (as against network and film), The character of TV program service isand on the number of their spot announce- being shaped primarily by this commercial in- ments.' While seeking to deny the licensing terest in its maximum effectiveness as a selling agency information on TV programs, TV sta- tool. Program material is selected with this astions have been unwilling thus far to establish the controlling consideration from four possible'Although one prominent radio equipment sources: networks, film, studios, and remotemanufacturer, Zenith, is experimenting with pick-ups of events, sports, etc. The sponsored"phonevision," a method of delivering TV ser- vice over telephone wires which rests on viewer TV program fares added up this way in June: payments directly to the TV station. Sports programs amounted to 29 percent of the The data on sponsored program time is col- total programsthe largestsingletype. Alllected by a commercial research organization. sports are now successfully televised, with box-No information is publicly available as to the ing, wrestling, and baseball leading in popu-extent of sustaining program time. It isre- larity. In October, 1949, for the first time, anlatively a small part of total TV program time, in all probability. advertiser paid organized baseball more for the°Broadcasting Magazine, August 22, 1949, p. 44. privilege of putting the World Series on TV"A plan to extend the so-called Blue Book than on aural radio. "Variety" programs werestandards of radio programming to the field of second in volume (24 percent) and "children's"television has been initiated at staff level at the programs were third (11 percent). As examplesFCC. The proposal was explored at length last Monday at a meeting of the Broadcasting Com- of the high cost of TV, it is noted that the Mil-mittee of the Advisory Council on Federal Re- ton Berle slap-stick variety show is reported toports, which strongly opposed the plan and cost $20,000 per week to produce, and Philcourged that it be delayed at least two years. The is said to spend more than $15,000 a week onproposal had been referred to the Bureau of the its weekly "theatre" program. The remaining Budgetpursuanttoestablishedprocedures governing issuance of new questionnaires, pre- 36 percent of the program fire was divided paratory to Commission consideration." Broad- between "dramatic," "musical," "news,""an- casting Magazine, September 19, 1949, p. 48. TELEVISION 51

fot their own guidance any "code of ethics."the attention which the infant commands with The content of TV programs is thus governedhis future adult rote in the family." The many by the policies of advertisers, stations, and net-studies showing spectacular effects on the uses storks, in the absence of both general standards of leisure must be interpreted as indicative, ind any review by a public agency. but not predictive, of the changes TV will ef- The effects of TV might well be considered fect. Radio is hardest hit. Almost all (roughly on two levels. In the first place, TV will change nine out of ten) TV owners listen less to radio die structure of the so-called "mass media" ofbecause of TV. Average TV viewing is in the communication. In the second place, it will haveorder of 4 hours per day slightly higher powerful, but as yet nor precisely predictablethan average radio listening for non-TV fun- effects on the behavior, attitudes and person- flies. The residual radio listening for TV lam: tildes of the American people, particularly chit- ilies appears mostly to consist of news and music. .Iren. Movies a. re affected next most severely. While Effects of TV the magnitude of the diversion is estimated dif- Let us consider TV's effects on the "massferently, numerous studies agree in finding that media." flow soon TV will affect your corn-those who have TV sets attend movies less fre- ,nunity will depend primarily on where you are.quently and that most of the people so affected .1s we have seen, the technical and economic as are young people who formerly went to the pects of TV will lead to its concentration inmovies most frequently. Reading ranks third in Metropolitan areas in the next few years. In the order of activities affected by TV, with tiral areas and small towns north of the Masonthe reading of books apparently being affected nd Dixon line and east of the Mississippi, TV most, magazines next, and newspapers least. crvice will be generously available from the .numerous metropolitan areas, and itseffects Apart from its effect on the "mass media," vill be like those in the large cities. For theTV significantly affects other important uses .oral and small town population of the re-of leisure. Negatively affected are conversation nainder of the country, however, radio serviceand visiting (other than for the purpose of mill continue to consist for the most part ofwatching TV), phonograph use,legitimate 1M and FM programs. This is the outlook for theatres, dining our attendance at commercial he next three to five years, with the speed ofentertainment and recreation outside the home, he changes being affected most by either theparticipation in recreational activities outside ontinuation of very high levels of employment, the home (sports), and inside the home (hob- .r by depressed business conditions. Beyond thebies). A significant increase is noted, on the ext five years, the outlook is for a further ex-OL' er hand, in the extent to which the home be- ension of TV service to smaller and more re-comes the center for the family and its friends, for the purpose of watching TV. iote centers of population, and a corresponding lecline in AM radio (with offsetting increases A discussion of the effects of TV would not it FM radio in areas where the coverage areas he complete without some indication of what f FM frequency assignments will give it de- the "expert" crystal gazers see. Chairman Coy, isive advantages over AM). of the FCC, says: In considering the effects of TV (where it is'The Television Broadcasters Association an- .vailable) on other media, itis important tonounccd in October 1948 that "it is not possible or even desirable to attempt at this stage to emember, as one thoughtful industry re-formulate standards of practice." Bro.:drafting, (archer points out, that "we must not confuseNo', ember 8, 1948, p. 66. 54 MASS MUDIA OV COMMUNICATION tic relations value of such programs in popuof the wire circuits. The receivers covered It larizing the new service and the station in the this estimate are conventional hometype rc community is very great. When the infancy of ceivets; not the large screen size most useful the industryispast, this situation tends to in classrooms. To the investment II:presentee' change. Advertisers are then generally willing above, of course, would be added the operatin;, to buy more time and perhaps pi9, the stations costs of programming the station, for which per- for producing the commercial programs too. haps more than $100,000 should be allowed. Unpalatable as this situation may be, it appears, The wired system is thus more costly that on the basis of past experience, likely to he re- the coolerative system, but considerably cheaper pented in the case of TV. Schools would be well than the TV broadcast station. It has one Im advised therefore to obtain specific commit- portant additional advantage as compared with ments as to the future duration of their pro- the TV station; the fact that it requires no Ire. grams at specific times of the day, before com- queocy assignment and hence may be installed mitting extensive resources to such ventures. in a city where all TV frequencies are already School Operation. School systems should taken up. Its principal disadvantage is the fact consider several possibilities for using a TV thatitsassured audienceislimitedtothe system in which they own and control the trans-. schools in which it is installed; for access to the minting end, as well as receivers in the schoolgeneral viewing audience itis dependent oft plant. The first of these is the operation of TV the program plans of the commercial TV sta studios connected by wire with receivers in thedons, and on the use of the necessary feta) school plant; this would not entail broadcasting equipment. the programs to the general public, except by In urging careful consideration of the pos- relay through a commercial TV station, Thesibilities of the wired system, one is raising the second is the actual operation of a TV stationissue of the pedagogic value of TV as against by the school system. otherinstructionaltechniques.Itsliould noted, therefore, that it is not yet possible to The first of these alternatives, the wired, compare preciselythe effectiveness of corn or "closed circuit" TV system, has many ad- municating a given item of information to the vantages of cost and utility over either the co- operative or the full station operation. Tech- same person by means of TV, aural radio, mo don pictures, film strips, and by lectures, dis- nically, it would consist of studios (with TV cussions, etc.,in congregate assembly. Educa cameras, film equipment, and a master receiver for the pickup of TV programs from com-tional media range from chalk and blackboard to TV. Most of these media ;lave proven their mercial stations), control equipment, a wiring educational value for specif.c purposes. As the system connecting studios and receivers (which report of the Seminar on Educational Broad- may be either built or rented from the tele- casting put it; phone company), and the receivers themselves. By the addition of a micro-wave transmitter, The issue of when and where TV, fac- school programs could be supplied on occasion simile, and FM ire added to, replace or implement existing facilities must resolve to commercial TV stations and from there itself into a calculation of the advantage' broadcast to the general viewing public. Recent of the new imt,:llation as against its cost industry data indicate that such an installation In principle, the :hoice should he of that with classroom receivers in 20 rooms in each of medium or combination of media which best fits(a) the site and character mud 5 schools could be installed now for a total needs of the audience, (b) the character cost of about $100,000, exclusive of the rental and quantityofmaterialtobecony T111.11V1S1ON 55

municated, and (c) the skills and plan ofeminent force in imparting information and the broadcaster." building attitudes. An average of four hours of this issue of methods, naturally, must be settled viewing a day for so many families will repre- ocally. The point here is merely to urge that the sent an educational opportunity for the corn. hoice be made consciously and after fair evat. municacors which our school systems should not nation of the alternative techniques. lightlyfail to seize, The importance to the The second alternative method of schoolschool system of having its own station, of .,peration is to get one's own TV station. Thiscourse, lies in the independence and freedom to osts a lot. And major changes in school systemexperiment.with program types best suited to *udgets, such as would he represented by anin-and out-of-school listening Both the TV sta. investment of perhaps $500,000 and the as- don system and the wired TV system will be ',timption of operating expenses of perhapsattractive because of the assurance of continuity 100,000 a year, come slowlypainfully slow. in operation which is so essential to fundamen. ty. In favor of beginning now to make planstal educational policy execution. :11ici getit Lodge: Ix a TV tit: tierit nvy For those institutions which are interested rioted that the available TV frequencies will bebut wary of the cost aspects, inforniatiOn on ccupied by commercial stations in the nearcosts and all other aspects of operation of TV MNexcept to the extent that educational in.by an educational institution may be obtained titutions make their needs for such frequenciesfrom Iowa State College of Agriculture, where :ffectively known to the tt.c in the immediatea TV station is now being built and will begin ,uture. The frequ,:ncy problem will be particu telecasting early in 1950. 'arly acute in th! case of large metropolitan Educalional Policy implications areas where frequencies arc most in demand The prospect of 38 million American fain- and Where school systems may be expected toilies all spending an average of four hours a day ;nave greater budget possibilities for enteringwatching TV impresses one with the power of So a school system which ever wants to getTV. Here is .a tool comparable only to the inven- into TV station operation should hurry. Buttion of printing in its power to inform and to in- ,hould schools want to? The evaluation of TV'sfluence. And printing itself, it will be remem- importance in relation to the local in sehoolbered, contributed substantially to the over- program will provide part of the answer. But athrow of feudalism and the rise of the modern TV station makes available to the schOol systemnational state., the general viewer as well. The present itn Printing, however, was and even yet largely inaturityoftheartof TV programming is a tool suited to small-scale use, TV's bower should not blind us to the possibility that is rendered more impressive by the fact that techniques may develop whichwillrealize the number of TV stations is severely limited by the potential effectiveness of a combination of their high cost and by engineering factors. Nor the aural plus the visual, pills the time (simul- is this the full measure of the power of TV. taneity) features of TV. Such techniques may For the privilege of producing TV for the 38 give TV an efficiency far greater titan that of million American families will be largely con- other media. But whatever the inhetent centrated in the hands of those able to make fitiency of TV in communication (in compari. profitable use of the four national networks on son with other in-school techniques), the sheer bUlk of TV-viewing which will be done by "Institute of Communications Research, Uni- versity of Illinois, "Educational Broadcasciog -sortie 38 million American families by sonic date-- Its Aims and Itc.,ponsibilities," July 1919, within the next fifteen years will give it a pre- p. 16 (mimeo.). 56 MASS MEDIA Or COMMUNICATION

which individual TV stations will be forced by way of life for whichthe schoolswere Mill the economics of their operations to depend pared, until after the fact. With motion plctut for the bulk of their programs. These program and aural radio, we did better, but still not w. producers and those able to buy the time of in- enough. Now, on top of these major chant' dividual TV stations will be groups able to af- in methods of communications, we are asked ford the high price of the production talent assimilate the Implications of TV. capable of mastering the techniques of pro- Just as the printing press foreshadowed t: gramming the new art. transition from feudalism to the modern sta' With power goes responsibility. And the the present issue is, What kind of World v. great concentrated power of TV alters the kind be born through the mid-wifery of our ni and degree of responsibility for all social institu- and more powerful communications tools? N` tions. The nature of the change in this respon- have observed how aural radio served thefasc; sibility is suggested by the following excerpt. revolution in NaziGermany and in Italy. So from a report by the Royal Bank of Canada: is that there is a growing apprehension that Our brains are buzzing more than the may be misused, and a growing feeling that brains of men ever buzzed before, and the new nationalpolicy for its useneeds to be c' scale of events around us has assumed a veloped.' gigantic size. The buffer area between in- dividuals and between nations has shrunk, Specifically, howdoes TV affectt' every man feels called upon to react to schools? Most direaly, it willsend to the scho the total environment and to every inci- room children whose out-of-school time is spc dent that affects his neighbours at the far more in passive TV-viewing, and less in acti side of the earth. play, recreation out of the home,conversati( The radio (and TV) enters this picture as reading, and hobbies.To the extent thatchi an additional complicating force, because maturationis now aidedbyactive play it distorts further our picture of the world whether games, by diminishing our opportunity to select or in "make-believesod and isolate the things to which wb dram, inwhich the child is working outI give attention. We grow accustomed to own socialized personality the schools w' the weirdest of juxtapositions: the serious need to compensateforthe lack of su and the trivial, the comic and the tragic... activity by the children who spend hours ea Here is a collapse of values, a fantasia of day before the TV set. The range of effects effects that resembles the debris left by a storm. what the child does see on TV is another fact for the schools' consideration: We do not blame radio for it all, because much of our inability to comprehend is Television at its best in the homes pi caused by failure of our mental capacity to vides stimulating, clean entertainment keep up with our physical progress, but we children,keepsthemoutoftrout, do, surely, need all the help radio can give broadens theirthinking, and brings toward simplifying for us the chaos to them such events asthe presidentiali which it,itself, contributes so much. augural, which they would otherwise' One way of assistance might be by plac- ' ^The Royal Bank of Canada, "MonthlyLettt ing emphasis upon the facts which under- Radio and Society, July1949. Montreal, Cana lie the problems of the day. Another ef- inSee Smith, Bernard B., "Television: Thr. fortmight be directedtoward raisingOught to be a law,"liarper'r, September 19. standards of criticism and choke," p. 34-42; Shouse, James D., "CertainSocialP Economic Implications of Television," an :- A mere generation ago, the introduction dress at theBoston Conferenceon Distributi, of the automobile produced dislocations in our Boston, October 10, 1949. TELEVISION 57

unable to see. rates low on all studies of how people spend At its worst television can occupy themtheir leisure time. And by a wide margin, "lis- for hours, harming theireyes, causingtening to the radio" wins first place as the most them to lose needed exercise, exposingpopular form of recreation in a nation-wide them to crime, passion, brutality, vulgarity,study in Match 1949." In terms of hours, aver- and bringing on nightmares." age radio listening exceeds magazine reading A much more subtle and complicated prob-in the order of 10 to 1. It exceeds newspaper lem is presented to the schools when TV isreading by a very wide but flexible margin (de- looked at in its relation to the decision-makingpending on the city). It exceeds book - Leading process. It may be taken as axiomatic that oneeven more than it does magazines. The purpose of the schools is to aid the pupils in"literature" and "drama" of our present culture :vowing into adults capable of reasonable de-are thus predominantly composed of what is cision-making--for themselves as individuals,heard over the radio (and to a lesser degree as members of the family group, as members ofwhat is seen in movies and read in magazines Nations community organizations, as citizens of--end newspapers). Increasingly our "literature" their state and their country, and as members ofand "drama" will grow to consist of what is seen the human race common to all countries. Theover TV. dangerous potential of TV in this connection, The schools of our democracy have the of course, is the exposure of its viewers to theobligation to serve its needs. In the field of "engineering of their consent:. Attitudes on English these needs are for the development and .:very conceivable problem will be powerfullypractice of standards of criticism as appliedto influenced, intentionally or not, by what isthe popular "literature." This is not the occasion ..een on the TV set, especially by entertainment for a discussion of what such standards should programs. Already, of course, those with the re- be. Knowledge and experience in criticism of ..ources necessary to use the mass media for ex- art forms already exists which may be adapted. iensive "campaigns" effectively do influenceThe objectives are simple. Selectiveuse of the public opinion." The techniques of "publicmedia should be encouraged, based ultimately relations" within the next five to fifteen yearson respect for the dignity of man. And the .nay mature into reliable, efficient methods forpupils should be encouraged to make knownto engineering popular "consent" according to thethe stations (or movie makersor publishers) taterests of those able to command the use oftheir considered judgments on the program fate he necessary means of communications they are offered. They should learn their rights vhatever the identity of these persons or institu andresponsibilities toward TV (and radio ions. generally) in their capacities as future citizens and co-owners of the radio channels which they What can the schools do about it? They can through their federal agencies license nient their pupils toward the real world we to private persons for use in the "public interest, conveni- rive in to a greater degree than is now done. A .onspicuous opportunity lies before teachers inence and necessity." It goes without saying that he humanities, especially in the field of Eng.before they can teach such things, teachers fish. Out curricula in these fields are heavilyshould practice such rights and responsibilities themselves. weighted with literatureprose andpoetry - -and with drama. But our population, once it"Chicago Daily News, September 30, 1949, p. 20. Qaves school, pays precious little attention to "Elmo Roper poll, reported in Porune, March, uch material. Instead, we find that reading 1949, p. 43. Recorded Sound Aids PAT KILLGALLON!

The modern world demands new standards demand has spurred production to tretnendo, of efficiency in the fundamental skills of com-proportions. Numerous new producers have al munication. The criticalimportance ofthis peared, many of them specializing in recorelin: fact can scarcely be overstated. for children. In the past, communication has with dif- Technical improvements have been ma(' ficulty kept pace with the growing demandsin the recording process; discsof 'plastic- made upon it by social evolution. The resulting chronic maladjustment has now reached the light, flexible, unbreakable, less noisy, have bicl. dimensions of a ctisis, Despite the remarkabledeveloped; Victor has introduced a new mica contribution of science to the rapid transmission groove recording playing at 45 r. p. m., ( and appeal, it is a fair question whether modern hunbia's new type plays at 33 1/3 r. p. m., at, man will succeed in understanding his world playbacks which will play both in addition t and his neighbors well enough and quickly enough to escape disaster. llis struggle to un- the 16.inch, 78 r.p. m. recordings are no derstand has become a race between communi available. cation and disaster.' Children now constitute a substantial j A largeshare of theresponsibilityfor of the total consumer market. Millions of i meeting these urgent demands must, naturally,cordings are made for them each year. Phon, be accepted by the language arts teacher. Nographs have been designed specifically for tilt: teacher has greater need, therefore, for the best use;several recordof-the-month clubshay possible tools of instruction than he. For him,sprung into existence and several comprehei nothing less than fullexploitation of every sive .guides have been published to help pa available resource will do. ents and teachers deal intelligently with the di Few, if any, instructional aids have greater ficult problems of selection. potential value for the English teacher than the Certain other developments should do mu' sound recording and the sound recorder. They toward stimulating the classroom use oft, can be helpful in furthering most of her ob. cordings, also. Libraries in increasing numbc jectives and can be made to contribute in are assuming responsibility for collecting, evall unique fashion to learning activities of nearlysting, and circulating recordings. Textboo every sort. The present discussion reviews recent publishers have begun to recognize the educ developments in the field, summarizes research, tional potentialities of recordings. Recordin; and suggests some classroom applications. to accompany a series of basal readers are belt Clearly enough, listening to recordings has prepared; the American Book Company al' become an important life-activity of school-age Decca are collaborating in distributing and pr America. It presents new needs for guidance viding teaching guides for a selected list of i and presents a new opportunity to forge a bond structional recordings. between life in the classroom and the world 'Professor of Education, the University outside. Oregon. Some Recent Develofrtnents Yeager, W. Hayes, and Utterback, William "Foreword," The Annals of the American Interest in tecordings has been a spectacularcademy of Political and Social Science. CO post-war phenomenon. An apparently unlimited vii, March, 1947. 58 RECORDING SOUND AIDS 59

This reawakening of interest in the educa-obtainable (10). tional possibilities of recordings has been par- According to Kemp (9), 44 firms were alleled and perhaps outstripped by develop-licensed to produce wire recordersin 1948 ments inthefieldofinstantaneous soundand the number of wire recorders in useby the recording. end of that year was expected to reach400,000. A new teaching aid in the form of theHe anticipates the productionof educational magnetic recorder has appeared with uniqueand entertainment recordings on wirein the features offering exciting possibilities for manynear future andforeseesthepossibility of and diversified classroom uses. For, althoughpupils securing their homework fromlibraries instantaneous recording on discshas beencirculating magnetic recordings tobe played utilized by schools for some twenty years, mag- over their home radios. netic recording possesses advantages which pro- Similar, and probably greater,activity is mise to extend the use of sound recordingin progress in the tape recorderfield, "Audio greatly. Record" provides a comprehensive listingwith Inits present stage of development thedescriptive information and specifications,and magnetic recorder (lifers the teacher simplicity comments: of operation, long playing time, and a record- If the number of tape recorders onthe mar- ing medium which is editable, erasable, andket can be considered as anindex of the growth reusable. of tape recording, this methodof sound re- production certainly has a brightfuture ahead. A detailed analysis of the advantages and For there are literally dozensof models already limitations of disc, wire, and tape recordersin production, and new ones aremaking their is beyond the scope of this discussion. Severalappearance almost daily!' excellent analyses are available intheliter- A Summary of Research ature (2) (11) (26). Intensive research has Radio and recordings hold mostof their resulted in several recent developments whicheducational valuesin common. The results may well be mentioned here. of research on the effectivnessofeither are Despite small Tape and wire machines are now available in general mutually applicable. basic which arc sturdy, compact, portable, and re-differences in techniques of utilization, latively inexpensive. A high degree of tonalprinciples of learning and ofinstruction ap- fidelity and freedom from maintenance (la-ply to each with equal force.The present sum- restricted to a con- ficulties, however, are pill expensive (11). Un mary has necessarily been with interruptedrecording and playing timehas sideration of research dealing specifically been steadily increased from 3 or 4 minutesrecordings. The fact that results of researchin just a few short years ago (18) to 4 hoursradio education have many implicationsfor or even longer. Most school machines permit recordings is fully acknowledged. an hour of continuous recording. Combinations Research on recordings as instructional aids of tape and disk, wire, or tape recorders with has been neither extensive nor conclusive. Most built-in radios or radiophonographs are avail-of the information concerning it may be found able. The new microgroove recording tech- in the reviews by Reid and Day (19) and niques have increased recording time for theStenius (24), and in the textbook on radio disk recOrder, also.Itis now possible to re,education by Woelfel and Tyler (28). These Cold :a'40 minute program on a 16 inch disc, reviewersagree that much of the research in and ecjitipMeni fOr'conviiiinithe school's pre- the field of audio education has dealt with "see tt &dee to 'rnicrogroave is- readily'Audio Record, 5:1, August-September, 1919. Go MASS MEDIA OPCOMMUNICATION insignificant problems, that expertnental stud Rulon(22) compared recordingswith ies have frequently been faulty in design andprinted material to determine their ability to execution, and that results are often inconsistent stimulate further study. He concluded that re- and contradictory. cordings have little value forthis purpose. Several other investigators (1) (3) (7) have Despite the validity of these criticisms it reported opposite results. itis possible to marshal considerable research support for the value of recordings in achiev- The relative effectiveness of recorded and ing desirable learning outcomes ofseveral Jive broadcasts was investigated by Wright. types. In no case, it must be admitted, is thestone (29). No differences in their effect upon evidence conclusive. learning were found. Bathhurst (1) used espe- cially prepared recordings in nature study, Eng- There islittle doubt that recordings can lish, and sodal science in New York state be usedto, impart factual information. Car- rural schools. The recordings were judged to penter (3)listed the acquisition of facts in have aroused interest, stimulated activities and science and improved skill inapplying the improved thinking and listening abilities. Bath. scientific method as outcomes of hisstudy; burst observed too that the recordings seemed Ruton (20) reported that reading, the type.just as real, just as personal as radio and that script of a play proved superior to listeningbreaking the program to turn the recordings to the recorded version in immediate gains in was apparently not an important disadvantage. factual knowledge. After a week, however, the She stressed the important advantage to teachers listening group retained a higher percentage of of one-room schools with their heterogeneous what they had learned. groups of pre-auditing the programs before The effect of recordings on pupil interests presentation. Repeatability was considered very and attitudes has been less clearly demonstrated. important also for slower learners and for ab,- Miles (14) found an intensification of specificsentees. Lowdermilk (13) concurred in finding interests through use of supplementary sciencerecordings superior to Jive broadcasts in these recordings but noted a concurrent narrowing respects. ofthe range of interests. Lowdermilk (12) Few definite generalizations regarding the used printed scripts and recordings to compare effectiveness of recording for instructional pur. the influence of reading, of listening, and of poses can be drawn from the results of basic re- reading while listening on pupil attitudes to search. Any conclusions derived must be con- ward freedom of speech and the right of as- sidered tentative. Partly,thisis due to the sembly. Reading proved superior to listening,paucity and character of the studies. In part, but reading and listening was shown to be however, it springs from the fact that the ef- superior to each of the other procedures. Rulon fectiveness of a tool is largely a function of the (23), too, obtained slight changes in attitude skill of the user, the purpose for which It is through recordings. used, and the total situation surrounding its use It would be-rising, indeed, if the re Nickerson (15) and Ginsberg (6)in- stilts of efforts to appraise its effectiveness were vestigated the value of recordings in teaching Shakespearean drama. The Orson Welles.not at times inconsistent. Mercury Theatre recordings were used in each Cioc croom APfiliCaiions study. In each case favorable results in terms of The recording and the sound recorder to increased appreciation and understanding weregether can be a veritable Aladdin's lamp for the reported. modern teacher of English. The resources of RECORDING SOUND AIDS 51 radio and of recording libraries are made avail-and to search for implied meanings occasion able to his summons. They come to him in aally during the listening period. These are all form which Is inherentlyinteresting to hiselements established by research as essential pupils, and flexible and convenient for him. to effective listening (16)(25). The re- The dramatic qualities of recordings warm corder may be used to take listening materials the emotions and create a strong illusion ofof suitable difficulity and appropriate character exercise material reality;thus, the abstract becomes concrete,from the air, or excellent and facts, personalities, and events come alive.may be recorded from printed sourres. The artistic perfection of a fine professional Discrimination in listening is achieved in performance provides guidance through ex-the main by helping pupils to develop their ample and becomes a powerful stimulus toown standards and giving them sufficient op- emulation. Recording ones own voice tapsportunity to make ,theapplication, of these a universal interest which never wanes andstandards habitual. Again, the recorder may lends strong purpose to oral activities of everybe used to advantage. Good and poor pro- kind. grams or parts of programs may be taken from The number of different applications of the airfor direct compassion, analysis and, these fine audio tools which may profitably be later, for practice in application. made by the language arts teacher is limited Developing critical listeningability, also, only by his ingenuity and imagination. Only begins with the achievement of an awareness a few can be suggested here. Textbooks by on the part of the pupil that he is subject to Woelfel and Tyler (28), Dale (5), and Willey influences that warp his judgment and frust- And Young (27) combine a wealth of help-rate his understanding. The recording of a ful suggestions with excellent discussions of number of the patent medicine 'type commer- principles and methods. cials will provide excellent demonstration ma- Livening. Whether judged by the criterionterial. They seldom claim what they appear of frequency or the criterion of cruciality ofto claim. Commercials next may be analyzed great social significance (8), listening is thefor practice in identifying their basic 'appeal?. most important of the language arts, TylerThe techniques and devices of the propagan- (25)termsitthenumber one problem;dist are readily illustrated by radio oratory of Dale, Pinn, and Hoban (4) declare the "de-many kinds and especially good examples may veloping of discriminating, critical, listenersbe recorded during political campaigns and an absolute necessity for the survival of ourpreserved for future use. The use of emotion democracy in the Atomic Age." as an intellectual anesthetic may be shown in Recordings and the recorder seem eminentlystriking fashion by comparing an address by suitedto aid in developing listening com-a scientist with that of a demagogue or "a prehension and discrimination Research shows man with a cause.'! Prepared exercise material that the poor listener is ordinarily an inexper-for improving critical reading ability can be ienced listener 116).. Opportunities to listenrecorded and used to advantage occasionally. to nun)? -typeS of recorded programs for aPinaliy; since the habit' of listeningcritically wide variety of learning purpOSes Is thoe-should function regardles.; of that pur- T6ti: fundamental: Pupils --may be taught topo*' frit fisteiii4 1'1'4- be,much'may be 'lc- -46410i I is* ing; anticipate onipliibid by encouraging pu rimy -hap teti Ict btalk neXtr:reniaiCe'-jillein-fvaioate 41P-tkeit'114,ifilk ex erlences.- *Kt aI 4vier grioititiAit" have 114071:"tigi;--11* feetiMcf"tirohid*SertOtinliSiii csoi 62 MASS MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

for providing highly valid illustrative mater- Recording pupil speechis anaim, ials of current significance in a form whichsure-fire method of enlisting participation permits repetitionforcareful analysisand oral language activities, Hearing one's o% free discussion. voice asitactually sounds exertsa stror universal, lasting appeal. Speaking. Recent evidence suggests that oral English instruction in a majority of class- 2. Giving pupils an opportunity to rcco rooms is characterized by unguided practice inand analyze speech samples at intervals has lo, which techniques are given primacy over ideas;been a successful method of speech Miro% by lessonsin which teachers dominate andment. Gross faults in rate, pitch, enunciatit pupils are apathetic; and by great dependencepronunciation, etc., are rapidly overcome. Spec upon unapplied,isolated,practiceexercises defects, of course, are more stubborn. (17). Such conditions warrant the prescription 3. The candid microphone technique us of auditory aidsin large doses. occasionally on an unsuspecting group is real aid in encouraging careful speech. Recordings may be used to some advantage 4. Recordings of group discussions, formn for improving oral communicationskillsat round-tables,conversationpractice,&bat( every level. Benefits to primary children from stagedinterviews,etc., are useful in teal experiences with good recordings will he inci- ing the respective techniques involved; sill, dental but may be greater than is generally ulate high standards of performance, and 1w' suspected. Itis at upper elementary and high to develop speech consciousness. Comparisl schoollevels,however, that recordings canwith samples taken from radio will aid m make their chief contribution. terially. fete they may 'lye used to motivate in. 5. simulated broadcasting Whenever bro.; struction initsinitial stages, The recorded casting facilities are unavailable is almost voices and speeches of the presidents and of real as actual broadcasting when the progra! other eminent figures of the past or the Abeis recorded and played for an audience. Rt Lincoln in Illinois recordings will serve admir- motivation is provided for all the related Ian: ably. Subsequently recordings may be used tocage activities involvedin preparing serif stimulate oral discussion, suggest speech topics,casting, rehearsing, and producing. and, of course, to provide examples at every ti.The recorder is rapidly becomingscan' stage. All the forms oral communication may and equipment forthe dramatic coach,It take, all the techniques which skilled speakers hearsals are frequently recorded several rim employ, all the qualities which make the hu- before the final production, and the recot man voice an unrivalled instrument for trans- ings are used to improve interpretation, corn, mitting information and manipulating emotions speech and voice inadequacies, revise lines ay may be illustrated by recordings. make other desirable changes. The sound recorder makes its major ed- 7. Pupils may go into the community ucational contribution in this area of the cur- attend and record public forums, speeclv riculum. Its applications are numerous and theservice club meetings and similar function accruing educational values in each instanceMeeting and interviewing visiting celebriti' are obvious. A simple listing of a number ofand local community leaders regardless of th applications with a minimum of discussionpurposes to which the recordings may lat . would appear sufficient for present purposes: be put is clearly a most worthwhile experienc- RECORDING SOUND AIDS 63

Many other pertinent applications coulddealing with the broad social problems of our be mentioned, but it seems unnecessary. Thetime can be stimulating too. teacherwillfindopportunities to usethe When what one writes is destined to be recorder for oral English instruction at every recorded for real or simulated broadcasting, turn. She may well discover, too, that hearingthe purpose for writing is real and exacting. her own voice (perhaps hearing it much tooAnd every form of creative writing may be re- often) may be a revealing educative experience. quired for broadcasting sooner or later, if the instructor be both wise and subtle. Reading. Successful utilization of the re- corder in oral remedial reading has been re- A List of Sources ported (30). Samples were recorded to reveal Producers and Distributors . errors and pilemonstrare progress. Recordings of Recordings furnished examples of good reading. But theAmerican Automobile Association effectiveness of either the recorder or of re-Pennsylvania Avenue at 17th St. cordings for improving reading skills directlyWashington, 1). C. isprobably quite limited. Recordings have The American Social Hygiene Association unquestioned value as a stimulus to reading50 West 50th Street and they may be used to increase vocabulary. New York, New York Before children learn to read, their needs forAmerican Dental Association reading may be stimulated, their experiences 222 East Superior Street broadened, and their interests in hooks develop- Chicago 11, Illinois ed by listening to the many splendid story re- American Jewish Committee cordings now available. Liter, recordings may 386 Fourth Avenue be used preparatory to the reading of new types New York 16, New York of stories or of new forms of literature with good effect. American Legion National. Public Relations Radio Branch Recordings are best adapted, however, to Indianapolis, Indiana the task of developing appreciation and un- AudioScriptions derstanding of those forms of literature which require oral presentationpoetry and drama. 1619 Broadway An abundance of superb recordings for theseNew York 19, New York purposes is available. The recorder may render Bel-Tone Records great service by tapping that greatest of all8624 Sunset Blvd. sources of dramatic fareradio. Los Angeles 86, Calif. Writing. The legitimate functions of audio 1111)k:tone Records aids in this area of the language arts may he 354 Fourth Avenue Important though not numerous. Something to New York 18, New York write about and real purposes for writing areBlack and White Recording Company) Inc. perennial problems in the English classroom.410 Santa Monica Blvd. The Sound recorder with its ability to bring Los Angeles, Calif, to the clasSroOth.'the important events, theIhIsachei, Vah Norden, and Staff, Inc. 006 r 4nd kin et, the perk') ties the.Petroleum building the eolOr ahclAraMt -Lo i Angeles, California riactio!'preleni0 ed--b6 Err in R eco Miff-0,141i tecIa'r eke 1 64 MASS MEDIAOP COMMUNICATION

535 North Dearborn Street Educational Radio Script and Transcriptio Chicago 10, Illinois Exchange Campus Christian Recording Corporation Federal Radio Education Committee 1226 E. Eighth St. U. S. Office of Education Los Angeles 21, Calif. Washington, D. C. Capitol Records Educational Recorders, Inc. Sunset and Vine 171 South Los Robe's Avenue Hollywood 28, Calif. Pasadena, California Center for Safety Education FrancoAmerican Audio.Visual Distributin New York University, Washington Square Center, Inc. New York, New York 934 Fifth Avenue Children's Productions, Inc. New York 21, New York Box 1313 General Records Company Palo Alto, California 1600 Broadway Columbia Recording Corporation New York, New York 799 Seventh Avenue The Gramophone Shop, Inc. New York, New York 18 West 48th Street Cosmopolitan Records, Inc. New York, New York 745 Fifth Avenue Graphic Educational Productions, Inc. New York, New York 1106 Lillian Way Community Chest Records Hollywood 38, Calif. 155 East 44th Street Harry S. Goodman New Yorl:, New York 19 East 53rd St. at Madison Ave. Commodore Record Co. New York, New York 136 E. 42nd St. Harmonia Records Corp. New York 17, New York 1328 Broadway Decca Records, Inc. New York 1, New York 50 West 57th Street Halligan Studios New York, New York 475 Fifth Avenue Disc Company of America, Inc. New York, New York 117 W. 46th St. Harper & Brothers New York 19, New York 49 East 33rd Street Division of Libraries for Children New York, New York American Library Association Harvard Film Service 520 North Michigan Ave. Harvard University Chicago 11, Ill. Cambridge, Massachusetts Eccles Disc Recordings, Inc. Horizon Records Pantages Theater Building 521 Fifth Avenue Hollywood, California New York 17, New York Educational Recording Service Ideal Pictures Corp. 19-25 North Third Avenue 2408 West 7th Street Phoenix, Arizona Los Angeles 5, California RECORDING SOUND AIDS 65

Institute for Democratic Education National Council of Teachers of English 101 Park Avenhe 211 West 68th Street New York, New York Chicago 21, Illinois Intercontinental Audio-Video Corp. Pacific Sound Equipment Company 44 Horation Street 7373 Melrose Avenue New York, New York Hollywood, California Institute for Consumer Education Popular Science Publishing Company Stephens College Aucliisual Division Columbia, Missouri 353 Fourth Avenue Keynote Recordings, Inc. New York 10, New York 522 Fifth Avenue The Pronunciphone Company New York 18, New York 1315 Michigan Avenue Linguage Service'Center Chkagt,, 18 East 41st Street Radio Arts Guild New York, New York Wilmington, Ill. Lewellen's Productions Radio Transcription Company of America, 8 South Michigan Avenue LTD. Chicago 3, Illinois Hollywood Blvd. Linguaphone Institute Hollywood, California 30 Rockefeller Plaza RCA Manufacturing Company, Inc. New York, New York Camdm, New Jersey C. P. Mac Gregor SimmelMeservey 729 South Western Avenue 321 Soutn Beverly Drive Hollywood, California Beverly Hills, California Mercury Radio and Television Corp. Sonora Products, Inc. 228 N. La Salle Street 730 Fifth Avenue Chicago 1, Ill. New York 19, New York Musette Publishers, Inc. Timely Records, Inc. 113 W. 57th Street 123 West 23rd Street New York 19, New York New York, New York Musicraft Records, Inc. Tone Products Corporation 10 West 47th Street 351 Fourth Avenue New York, New York New York 10, New York Musk You Enjoy, Inc. Toono, Inc. -420 Lexington Ave, 1156 Main Street New York 17, New York Hartford, Connecticut NBC Radio-Recordink Division United States Recording Company 30 Rocktellet Plaza 1121 Vermont Avenue; N. W. Nei, York; New York Washington,- C. Ne Tdo Is to Leaiiiing Vogite Recordings, Inc. 4 Book Bldg. :NO' (4'4C-40:kw York Detroit," MASS MEDIAOP COMMUNICATION

Winnant Productions Audio Industries 300 W. 43rd Street Michigan City. Inc:. New York 18, New York Ultratone, Model PT-9, $189.50 World Book Company Bell Sound Systems, Inc. Yonkerson.fludson 1183 Essex Ave., New York, New York Columbus 3, Ohio World Broadcasting System, Inc. Re-Cord .O.Pone, Model RT-50R, $189.50 711 Fifth Avenue Brush Development Company New York, New York 3405 Perkins Ave. Young People's Records, Inc. Cleveland 14, Ohio 295 Madison Avenue Soundinirror, Model 13K.411, $199.50. New York 17, New York Soundmirror, Model BK-414, $229.50. Basic 4 ids to Selection Mark Simpson Mfg. Co., Inc. 1949 Lining of Educational Recordingsfor 32.28 49th St., Moro Effective Learning Long island City 3, N. Y. Educational Services MASCO Model R-3, $218.50. 1702 IC Street, N. W. MASCO Model 375, $189.50. Washington, D. C. (free upon request) Pentron Corporation Recordings for School Use, by J. Robert Miles.611 W, Division St., Yonkerson.Hudson, N. Y. Chicago 10, World Book Co., 1942. $1.24. The Pentron Astra.Sonic, Model T549, described and Several hundred recordings fully $179.50. evaluated. Sound Recorder & Reproducer Corp. Record- A Catalogue of Selected Educational 5501 Wayne Avenue ings, Recordings Division, New York Univer-flerniaprown, Philadelphia 44, Penna. 'New` sity, Film Library, Washington-Square, Magnesonic, $199.50. .4=-` York. $.15. An excellent selection of recordingsfor pur-Tapetone Manufacturing Corp. Sales Office: Broadcasting Program Service chase. 1650 Broadway Catalog of Radio Recordings, EducationalScript New York 19, N. Y. and Transcription Exchange FederalSecurity Portable Model, $229.00. .Agency U. S. Office of Education Wilcox-Gay Corporation Washington 25, D. C. Charlotte, Michigan Single copies free.Many excellent recorded Portable Tape Disc Recordio, $187.50. programs which may be rented. Wire ReCorders A Selected List of Sound Recorders (Only mediumpriced models are in.Mr King Products Company, Inc. eluded. Prices must be considered ap. 1523 63rd Street proximate only) Brooklyn 32, New York Tape Recorders Air King, $139.50 AmplifierCorp. of America Electronis Sound Engineering Co. 396.398 Broadway, New York 13, New York4344.46 Armitage Avenue Twin-Trax Magnemuse, Model 8100, $285.Chicago 39, Illinois RECORDINGSOUNDAIDS 67

Polyphonic Sound, PS179, $210.00 2, Bernstein, Julius C. "Recording and Play- Lafayette-Concord Radio back Machines: Their Functions inthe 100 Sixth Avenue Classroom," The English Journal XXXVIII New York 13, New York (June, 1949) 330341. Astrasonic, $149.50. 3. Carpenter, Harry A. "An Experiment with Portable Entertainment Center, $159.50. Recorded Science Lessons," Science Educa- Precision Audio Products, Inc. tion XXIV (April, 1940) 1.6. 1133 Broadway 4. Dale, Edgar, Finn, James D., and Hoban, New York 10, New York Charles F., Jr. "Research on Audio Visual . Wiremaster, $295.50 (without microphone) Materials", Audio-Visual Materials. of In. Radio Corp. of America striation. Forty-Eighth Yearbook, Part 1. Camden, New Jersey National Society for the Study of Muca- RCA Wire Recorder, $195.00. tion. Chicago: The University of Chicago, Wire Recording Corporation of America 1949, pp.253.93. ""rti 'Varick Street 5. Daiv., New,:tai6-V;Jual ..,MElhod., to New York 13, New York Teaching. New York: The Dryden Press,, Wireway, $149.50. 1946. 546 pp. Disc Recorders 6. Ginsberg, Walter. "How Helpful Are (Wills Dual Speed Playback) Shakespeare Recording?" The English Allied Radio Journal XXIX (April, 1949) 289.300. 333 West Jackson Blvd, 7. Goudy, Elizabeth. "Recordings for School. Chicago 7, Illinois Use," Education on the Air. Thirteenth Masco Disc Recorder, $87.92 Yearbook, Institute for Education by Radio. Lafayette-Concord Radio Columbus: Ohio State University, 1942, pp. 100 Sixth Avenue 140.51.. New York 13, New York 8. Greene, Harry A. Principles of Method in 35N 22575, $78.92. Elementary English Education. Fifth An- Combination, 35R. 22576, $99.95. nual Research Bulletin, National Confer- Nfeissner Mfg. Division ence on Research inEnglish. Chicago: Maguire Industries, Inc. Scott, Foresman and Company, 1937, pp. qt. Carmel, 111. 6-7. Radio-Phono Recorder, $174 50. 9. Kemp, J. S. "Magnetic Speech Recorders," ;peak-o.plione Recording and EquipmentCo. Quarterly Journal of Speech XXXIV ).3 West 60th Street (April, 1948) 2021205. dew York, New York 10. LeBel, C. J. "Choosing a Tape Recorder," Speak-o-phone, $112.50 Audio Reeord V (AugustSeptember, Vilcox-Gay Corp. 1949) 2.4. Charlotte; Michigan 11. Lead, C. J, "Au engineer Looks at the $149.50. Problems of Speech Recording," Quarterly BI6116iredtShy loninarolSpeech X0V- (April, 049) "Radio's Offspring the 216.'213. kftiia o*d er MI I R Id 'it ;,Atilliffe Shift: trans Reddilig d froillj leadio"Nogrdm 68 MASS MEDIA OP COMMUNICATION

Listening. Doctor's thesis. Columbus: Ohio Their Use in a Teaching Unit," Harvard State University, 1939. 193 pp. Educational Review XIII: (Match, 1943) 13. Lowdermilk, Ronald R. A Study of Ameri- 163.75. ca's Town Meeting of the Air. Bulletin No. 22. Rulon, Phillip J. "Comparison of Phono. 46, Evaluation of School Broadcasts. Co- graphic Recordings with Printed Material lumbus: Ohio State University, 1942. in Terms of Modification to Further Study," 46 pp. Harvard Educational Review X111 (May, 14. Miles, J. Robert. Auditory Aids and the 1943) 246.55. Teaching of Science. Bulletin No. 57,23. Rulon, Phillip J. "The Effect of Phono. Evaluation of School Broadcasts. Columbus: graphic Recordings Upon Attitudes," Hat.. Ohio State University, 1943. 18 pp. vard Educational Review VIX (January, 15. Nickerson, Paul, S. "A Study of the Value 1944) 20.37. of Reordings in the Teaching of Shake.24. &mitts, Arthur C. "Auditory and Visual speare," Radio and English Teaching. New Education," Review of Educational Research York: D. AppletonCentury Co, 1941, pp. XV (June, 1945) 243-55. 201-06. 25. Wet., Tracy F. "Listeningthe Number One Problem," AJJOCialiON for Education 16. Nichols, Ralph G. "The Teaching of Lis- by Radio Journal VIII (April, 1949) 85. tening," Chicago Schools Jou;nal XXX 26, U. S. Office of Education and Radio Manu- (June, 1949) 273.278. facturers Association Joint Committee on 17. Poo ley, Robert C. "Language Arts Survey Standards for School Audio Equipment. in Wisconsin Elementary Schools," Elemen- tary English Review XXIII (January, School Sound Recording and Playback Equipment. Washington, D. C, 1947. 1946) 8.14. 27. Willey, Roy DeVerl and Young, Helen 18. Pronovost, Wilbert. "The Influence of Ann. Radio in Elementary Education, Bos Electronics on the Field of Speech," Quar- ton: D. C. Heath and Company, 1948. terly Journal of Speech XXX (October, 450 pp. 1;44) 265-68. 28 Woe lei, Norman, and Tyler, I. K. )?4dio 19. Reid, Seer ley, and Day, Daniel. "Radio and find the School. YonkersonHudson, New Records in Education," Review of Educa- York: World Bonk Company, 1945. tional Research XII: (June, 1942) 305.22. 358 pp. 20. Rulon, Phillip J. "Comparison of Phono- 29. Wrightstone, Jacob W. Broadcasts verso, graphic Recordings with Printed Material Transcriptions in the Classroom. Bulletin in Terms of Knowledge Gained Through No. 49, Evaluation of School Broadcasts. Their Use Alone," Harvard Educational Columbus: Ohio State University, 1941, Review XIII (January, 1943) 63-76. 11 pp. 21. Rulon, Philip J. "Comparison of Phono- 30. Ziller, Nathan. ''Using the Recorder in Oral graphic Recordings with Printed Material Remedial Reading," The English Journal in Terms of Knowledge Gained Through XXXII (November, 1943) 519.11. Motion Pictures ABRAM W. VANDERMEE0

The motion picture has been described as particular purpose, or forsome teason she the most revolutionary instrument introduced deprives the class of motion pictures. Inthe into education since. the printing press.' Thefourth area, we recognize thatthe school is printing press did nomore than facilitate but one of many cultural factorsinfluencing the wider distribution ofa previously estab- child development in Americansociety.In liihed mode of verbalcommunication, while this instance the motion picture has the 'motion picture is a bearing an entirely new man;upon child development that is beyond the of communication. The superiorityof the mo-immediate control of the .teacher, although tfon picture over the printed word is partly thereare, as we shall see, some things which that if speaks in thepresenttense rather canbe done about it than in the past, partly thatitis so neatly independent Motion PiCitfreS COMtnittilcatingIdeas of the amount of previous school. One ofthe attributes of grOWing maturity ing the learner has received, and partlythat isfamiliarity it has a remarkable abilityto overcome the with and an effective under standing of an increasing limitations of time,space, and size through variety of things, processes, situations, events, and peoples. An the use of animation, time-lapse,cinemicro- important element In promoting wholesome graphy, and other motion picturetechniques. It is not surprising that teachers and child development ishelping the individual research to become workers the world over have lookedto the less naiveand provincial.The motion picture as a powerful typeof development desiredis most likely new instrument to occur for promoting acceptablepatterns of develop- in an environment thatprovides .tent in children. richand diverse experiences. Themotion pie- cure has much torecommend it asa supple- Four major areas may be distinguished ment to and, sometimes by necessity,as a sub- in studying the potentialities ofthe motionstitute for the "rich environment."'The mo- oicture inchilddevelopment. In thefirst tion picture can take the childon a very ,.-Idate; the motion picturecan communicate realistic visit toa Chinese family livingon (acts,principles, andconcepts to thea sampan in the Yangtze River. Aclass in Hatner. Secondly, the motionpicture can be Cody, Wyoming,can see Manhattan by film; aced inthe study andtreatment by pro, and a class in Manhattancan see Old Faithful ,ective techniques of children'sproblems ofin the same way. A motionpicture can recall personaladjustment. Thirdly, the motionpic- winterscenes in June, and candescribe with Nee nredirian can be usedas a means ofrealism the voyages ofColumbus. By "com- ;:ipressiori by children and adults.Finally, the pressing time" themotion picture can :show piCtiite-isla Part of the general culture 'Associate Professor of gduiation,ThePenn. .t:.;:itrati,j "through which thechild develops. silvanla8tafe 744, George F., inhis annual report to the In each 61 the(hit three areas, the use of American' CounCil on *lc41.0'0m -e is "administered"by the gA 06-CI kin)fc) lug 40040* thisiPP?f isfling- ft, 'She -p-r$v_idesher 'class -with 1r/ptirt to the CiiriFaoh,- ityatial)leirorn th-cycliopieJla' orate his'ielected for aide 20N 'Wacker iferhiclgoIllinois 62 70 MASS MEDIA or COMMUNICATION

In 60 seconds the complete cycle of the varactivities that are worthwhile from the stand- sous phases of the moon, or the germination point of child development. Unusual Interest of a seed. A film can depict the motions in language and art activities following flint of molecules, the devouring action of phago- showings in the primary grades have been cytes, or what goes on inside an automobilereported, for example, by the Santa Barbara cylinder. Schools,' A fewfilms, such as The Safest In the previous paragraph a number ofWay," have been produced mainly for the examples of the motion picture asa device purpose of Initiating specific types of lean). for enlarging and enriching experiences were ing activities. given. These were primarily Intellectual ex Films and the Projective rechnietteS periences, however, with a minimum of emo- A fundamental assumption upon which tional appeal, and presumably with relativelyprojective techniques are based is that child- littleeffect in reinforcing or developing at-ren arc likely to reveal their significant Inner titudes. Thereare, 'however, anincreasingfeelings and reactions in imaginative or make- number of documentary films which, by meansbelieve situations.Motion pictures may be of photographic emphasis, dramatic narration,useful in this connection In two ways: (a) by or accenting music and sound effects, can providing a realistic situation to which children exert influences far more powerful than those may react in a revealing fashion, and (b) by offered by other teaching devices upon thedepicting soda! and inter-personal relation- emotional development of children. ships which may have very intimate signifi- Evidences of the effectiveness of motion cance for the children individually, but which pictures in devloping understandings and in can be discussed in a group with a "reasonable influencing attitudes and opinions have been facsimile" of personal detachment, Examples of produced by a number of scientific investi-motion pictures which might be employed In gations.' Rulon',' forexample, foundthat projectiontechniques are You and Your motion pictures added about onefifth to im-Patnily'° and Shy Guy." The former dram- mediate factual learning and neatly two-fifthsatizesa number of problemsituationsin- to delayedrecall.Inductive reasoning,too,volvingadolescents andtheir parents.The was shown to be developed by seeing films.solutions offered by a child in postfilm dis- Ramseyer," by using motion pictures suchcussions may add significantly to the teachers' as The River,' produced statisticallysignifi- understanding of the child's problems, The cant modifications in attitudes that persistedadolescent whoishaving difficulty in ad for at least two months. justingsatisfactorilywithhisparents may A by-product of both intellectually stimu-benefit from discussing the problem presented lating and documentary motion picturesis 'Castle Films Division, United World Films, their contribution to the motivation of other 445 Park Avenue, New York, N. Y. 'For a comprehensive summary of such investi- "Bell, Reginald, etal, Motion Pictures in gations consult Encyclopaedia of EducationalModern Corticulurn. Washington American Research. (The MacMillan Co.) Council on Education, 1941. %don, P, J., The Sound Motion Picture its "2 reels, sound. American Automobile Associa; Science Teaching. Howard University Press,don. Washington, 1945. 1933, ' "Association Films, 347 Madison Avenue, New :r eltamseyer, L. L, "A Study of the Influence ofYork 17,N. Y. Documentary Films on Social Attitudes." Doc- "CoronetInstructionalFilms, Glenview,Ili total Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1938. linols. MOTIONPICTURES 71

inthe moving picture, withouthaving tomay reveal points in the area of child develop- admit to others that sucha problem does,ment at which the efforts of the school are in in fact, exist for him At the same time, hedirect conflict with the influence of the motion may find some comfort in the discovery thatpicture. Fortunately, however, many instances others seem to be interested in talking aboutcan be cited in which the entertainment (Urn how to get along with parents, and he may reinforces or contributes to the basic aims of acquire new understandings which will help the school. him to improve his own situation. Perhaps the most fruitful viewpoint for Tire Motion Picture as a school people to assume with reference to the Means of Expression commercial cinema's influence on child de.' velopment might be, "utilize the good; neu- The production of a motion picture that tralize the bad:' order to do either, It is first will meet "Hollywood Standards" is an expen- necessary to know something about the local sive, project and one that requires great tech cinema fare. The reading of discriminating ma- nical skill. If students and teachers can be led don picture reviews in current newspapers and to accept more modest standards, however, the magazines can be a helpful supplement and motion picture medium may provide many sec- guide to the actual motion picture viewing of ondary-school students with a valuable vehicle the teacher. When the occasion presents itself, for self expression. A number of schools which then, relevant aspects of current films may be have attempted complete motion picture pro- discussed in classes or small groups. Attitudes ductions as student learning activities have re- and opinions that are accepted uncritically by ported that the experience resulted in valuable young people in the half-light of the motion growth on the part of the students." Without ever making a complete film, however, such picture theatre tend to pall upon them when aspects of film production as, writing script, subjected to the daytime brilliance of reasoned discussion. Conversely, classroom application scenarios, and story ideas may provide a worth. may frequently reinforce acceptable ideas that while and stimulating way for a student to ex have been gained from the film. press himself in the motion picture medium." Many schools have organized separate elec The Motion Picture as a Cultural Force tive courses in photoplay appteciation. Others Every Saturday afternoon, on the average, have included similar study as units in English about 9,000,000 school-age childrengo to the courses. Such schoolroom activities are likely movies. What they experience at the cinema to promote acceptable patterns of child develop- each week may exert as powerful an influence ment when they are focussed upon the develop. on the development of their personalities as ment of sympathetic unJerstanding of the var. what They experience in school. Holaday and bout elements of motion-picture art rather than Stoddard" have shown that children in gradesupon the setting up of standards for the blanket 2 and 5 leirn from films aboUt 60 percent of 'See especially Brooke, WO, and Herrington, iht"facts acquired from thesame films byEugene, Student, Mak? Maio') Motes. Wash. superiOr adults. Peterson and Thurstone" haveingion; American Council on F.ducation, 1941. sk6Wn that entertainment films change attitudes "Holaday, P. W. and Stoddard; 0. D., Getting marked101 least wheri the film ison a subject ldearfrom MoPier. Neiv York: The MacMillan Co.; 1934. the had relatively little ''1?elett00; It, and Illurstone, 1.; L., Motiotk Pit= its1 -hande X.Perlenic'A moment's reflections 11101-#1theSOcd 4191140 Children. 116..".0 oti the iAt few have seen Yotlet -The IfirMillio Co4'1934. tz- 72 ELEMENTARY ENGLISH

approval or disapproval of specific motion plc- film techniques and an extension of film pro- duction experience to a greater number of A Look to the Future professional educators should do much to foster Potent as the motion picture is today in fuller utilization of the power of the film. the area of child development, snore may be ex- Bibliography pected of itin the future. Film research has 1. Dale Edgar, AudioVisual Methods in tended in the past to test the value of films di Teaching, Chapter 8. New York: The Dry- they are, rather than to promote their improve- den Press, 1946. ment by testing the efficacy of various repre- 2. Dale, Edgar, The Content of Motiori sentational and production techniques. Further. WC!, New York: The Macmillan Co., more, experience in film making has heretofore 1935. been confined largely to motionpicture tech- 3. Dale, Edgar, et A, Motion Pictures in Edit. nicians, with relatively little participation by caion. New York: H. W. Wilson. and Co., teachers and others concerned primarily with 1937. promoting child development. It is to be hoped 4. Inglis, Ruth A., Freedom of the Movie:. and expected that in the future film production Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, will involve greatly increased cooperation be- 1947. tween motion-picturetechnicians and com- petent educators. 5. Lewin, William, Photoplay Appreciation in American High. Schools. Monograph No. 2 The motion picture may also be employed of the National Council of Teachers of as a valuable tool for research in child develop- English. New York: D. AppletonCentury ment. The work of Gesell" is a case in point. Co., 1934. The University of Chicago has set up facilities 6. Rand, Helen, and Lewis, Richard Byrd, for similar use of motion pictures in child study. Film and School. New York': D. Appleton- Conclusion Century Co., 1938. The motion picture Is a valuable educational 7. Reisman, Leon, "Cinema Technique and tool, unique in its potential contributions to Mass Culture," American Quarterly, I, No. child development, and often powerful in its 4, Winter 1949. applications. Although research and experience 8. Schramm, Wilbur L., Communications in have established its usefulness in communicat- Modern Society. Urbana: The University ing ideas, changing attitudes, stimulating learn- of Illinois Press, 1948. ing, and providing a challenging medium of ex- "Child Development Series, Encyclopaedia pression, the full potentials of the motion pic- BritannIca Films, 1939 and following years. It ture haire not yet been realized. Research with is to be hoped that the motion picture camera regard to the relative effectiveness of various will soon become generally used as a mearts_of recording child behavior.

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