From Serials to Blockbusters: Media Industry Approaches to Comic-to-Live-Action Adaptations and Race by Kathryn M. Frank A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Communication) in the University of Michigan 2015 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Amanda D. Lotz, Chair Professor Susan J. Douglas Professor Lisa A. Nakamura Associate Professor Aswin Punathambekar © Kathryn M. Frank 2015 “I don't remember when exactly I read my first comic book, but I do remember exactly how liberated and subversive I felt as a result.” ― Edward W. Said, Palestine For Mom and Dad, who taught me to be my own hero ii Acknowledgements There are so many people without whom this project would never have been possible. First and foremost, my parents, Paul and MaryAnn Frank, who never blinked when I told them I wanted to move half way across the country to read comic books for a living. Their unending support has taken many forms, from late-night pep talks and airport pick-ups to rides to Comic-Con at 3 am and listening to a comics nerd blather on for hours about why Man of Steel was so terrible. I could never hope to repay the patience, love, and trust they have given me throughout the years, but hopefully fewer midnight conversations about my dissertation will be a good start. Amanda Lotz has shown unwavering interest and support for me and for my work since before we were formally advisor and advisee, and her insight, feedback, and attention to detail kept me invested in my own work, even in times when my resolve to continue writing was flagging. Susan Douglas, Aswin Punathambekar, and Lisa Nakamura have all provided insight and encouragement, both as members of my dissertation committee and in other avenues of academia. Robin R. Means Coleman, Shazia Iftkhar, Sonya Dal Cin, Megan Ankerson, and numerous other faculty have all been consistently enthusiastic about my work and have helped me to become a better scholar and a better teacher. This research would never have moved forward without the generosity of the nineteen creators and industry professionals who took time out of their schedules to meet with me. Although the venues where I conducted interviews were hectic and I was at times equally frantic, these iii creators were supportive and interested, and provided me with invaluable insights into the comic- to-live-action adaptation process. Special thanks are also due to the wonderful archivists at the University of Wyoming’s American Heritage Collection, who assisted me in accessing Stan Lee’s papers. My fellow graduate students in Communication Studies have been the most wonderful colleagues I could have asked for, and will remain some of the best friends of my life. I would have been sunk without their assistance and support. Edward Timke, Julia Raz, Candice Haddad and I started the program together in the fall of 2009, and though we’ve gone our separate ways, our shared joys and struggles will be fond memories for me forever. Sarah Erickson, Kitior Ngu, Lia Wolock, Monique Bourdage, Nicole Hentrich, Benjamin Pearson, Will Youmans, Helen Ho and many other department friends and colleagues have pushed me to be the best scholar and friend that I can be, and have comforted me when I bit off a bit too much. Chelsea Del Rio’s warmth, humor, and historical perspective have kept me sane, and fellow Stanford alum Christian D. Ngo has listened patiently and supportively to my complaints and struggles, even when mine involved words on a page and his involved the life-or-death situations of practicing medicine. Final thanks go to the University of Michigan and the various programs, organizations, and individuals that have supported me the past six years: the Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies; the Department of Communication Studies and staff members Amy Eaton, Hilary Conlisk, Margaret Mitchell, and Cheryl Erdmann; the Department of American Culture; and the Graduate Employees’ Organization, AFT Local 3550. I will always be proud to have been a Wolverine. iv Table of Contents Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ vi Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ viii Introduction: The Big Business of Comic-to-Live-Action Adaptations ......................................... 1 Chapter 1: “Comic-to-live-action adaptation” as genre: industry practices, racial formations, and representation ................................................................................................................................ 37 Chapter 2: Marvel’s self-promotion, franchising attempts, and the impact of live-action, 1960s- 2000s ............................................................................................................................................. 86 Chapter 3: “ Either your involvement or the dollar amount is going to change” - Creators on the live-action adaptation process ..................................................................................................... 104 Chapter 4: Racial formations, “racebending,” and live-action comic adaptations ..................... 134 Conclusion: Destined to Do This Forever? ................................................................................ 169 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 177 v List of Figures Fig. 1.1. The Batman serial presents Japanese and Japanese Americans as threats…………...45 Fig. 1.2. Dr. Daka’s low-budget outfit…………………………………………………………47 Fig. 1.3. Dr. Daka’s low-budget outfit and sparse hideout…………………………………….47 Fig. 1.4. The Scorpion’s mask and cloak………………………………………………………50 Fig. 1.5. The Scarab attempts to mummify Captain America’s girlfriend……………………..51 Fig. 1.6. Batman lamenting to the viewer……………………………………………………...59 Fig. 1.7. “Boff!” sound effect appears on screen………………………………………………59 Fig. 1.8. Romero’s distinctive mustache……………………………………………………….61 Fig. 1.9. Catwoman crashes a beauty pageant…………………………………………………63 Fig. 1.10. Nora Clavicle’s inept, miniskirted female Gotham Police………………………….65 Fig. 1.11. Steel and Sparky…………………………………………………………………….78 Fig. 1.12. Bane before his transformation……………………………………………………..82 Fig. 1.13 Bane after his transformation………………………………………………………..82 Fig. 2.1. Dr. Banner’s neighbor……………………………………………………………......95 Fig. 3.1. Ronald Wimberly’s joking response…………………………………………………105 Fig. 4.1. A fanmade image for the campaign against “racebending”………………………….137 Fig. 4.2. Kingsley as “The Mandarin”/Trevor Slattery and Pearce as Aldrich Killian………..154 Fig. 4.3. Close-up of “The Mandarin”………………………………………………………...154 Fig. 4.4. Tom Hardy as Bane………………………………………………………………….158 vi Fig. 4.5. Bane breaks Batman’s back………………………………………………………….159 Fig. 4.6. Marion Cotillard as Talia al Ghul……………………………………………………162 vii Abstract From Serials to Blockbusters: Media Industry Approaches to Comic-to-Live-Action Adaptations and Race by Kathryn M. Frank Chair: Amanda D. Lotz This dissertation analyzes the relationship between comic-to-live-action adaptations and race from the 1940s through the present. Comic-to-live-action adaptations are increasingly lucrative and appeal to mass audiences, and as such the representations of race contained in these texts circulate widely and impact and interact with other media representations. Multiple media industries, including the comics, film, and television industries are involved in the live-action adaptation process. Each of these industries has its own set of expectations about the adaptation and its intended audience, and these assumptions circulate throughout the industries. I consider historical examples of comic-to-live-action adaptations, archival material from Marvel Comics relating to ideas about live-action adaptation of their characters, interviews with comics professionals and promotional materials from other industry workers involved with adaptations, and contemporary representations of Asian American and Latina/os in comic-to-live-action adaptations. Comics professionals often feel disrespected by the live-action industries, experience a lack of agency in the adaptation of their work, and choose not to have their work adapted. This diminishes the pool of available representations in comics, which in turn results in less diverse live-action adaptations. The historical status of live-action comic adaptation as a viii lowbrow genre and how industries react to its increased prominence in the present day have also impacted how race is represented. Racial difference is often represented in higher-profile adaptations, but nuanced discussion of race and its meanings is rare. This dissertation contributes to existing work in media studies, ethnic studies, and media industry and production studies, particularly in examining how the processes involved at various levels of media production impact representations of race in media. ix Introduction: The Big Business of Comic-to-Live-Action Adaptations In 2010, science fiction and comic blog io9.com published an