Climate-Smart Agriculture, Soil Conservation, and Irrigation Water Resources Management

Home , Datian County, Fuding, Fuqing, Guangze County, Jiaocheng District, Jin River (Fujian)

Fujian Farmland Sustainable Utilization and Demonstration Project (RRP PRC 47071)

SUPPLEMENTARY LINKED DOCUMENT TECHNICAL REPORT ON AGRICULTURE: CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE, SOIL CONSERVATION, AND IRRIGATION WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Fujian Province is located on the southeast coast of the country, with an area of 120,000 km2. About 85% of the area is mountainous or hilly. Under the subtropical climate, a deep weathered red crust was formed with a thickness of several to dozens of meters. Due to increasing population and policy related problems the original forests were mostly destroyed, leading to heavily eroded lands. Although Fujian still ranks first in forest coverage ratio in China, problems in its farmland are serious due to the pressure of economic development and as a result of inadequate farming practices, leading to degradation.

2. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) Fujian Farmland Sustainable Utilization and Demonstration Project (the project) involves (Figure 1) 13 Counties in five Municipalities: Sanming, Ninghua, Ningde, Zhangzhou, and Nanping. The project has three outputs: (i) productive farmland established; (ii) sustainable farming technology and practices adopted; and (iii) institutional capacity strengthened.

Figure 1: Location of Project Counties and Subproject Activities

II. PROVINCIAL OVERVIEW

3. Virtually all of Fujian is mountainous except for some narrow coastal plains. The province is crossed by several ranges of moderate elevation that run roughly parallel to the coast. They constitute a part of a system of ancient blocks of mountains trending from southwest to northeast. The Fujian-Zhejiang section forms a part of a raised massif that has been subjected to folding and refolding. A sharp natural boundary exists to the west and northwest between this uplifted block, on the one hand, and the low-lying Jiangxi Basin and the southwest part of Zhejiang province, on the other. Along that boundary run the Wuyi Mountains, which, in the extreme north, include the Xianxia Mountains on the Zhejiang-Fujian border.

4. The Wuyi Mountains, which form a formidable natural barrier between Fujian and the interior of China, reach an elevation of about 1,800 m in western Fujian and in adjacent parts of southwest Zhejiang. The range forms the watershed between the Min River system to the southeast and the Gan River system—a tributary to the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang)—to the northwest. Local relief forms a complicated pattern. As a result, water streams are forming a trellis but all flow directly into the ocean. There are 663 rivers, with a total length of 13,569 km with a drainage density of 112 m/km2. More than 597 rivers have a drainage area of more than 50km2, with a total catchment area of 112,842 km2. Total length of the main stream (Min River) is 3,134 km and 5 rivers with over than 5,000 km2 drainage area, the Min River, Jiulong River, Jin River, Ting River, and Jiao Creek. The largest river in Fujian is Min River, and Ting River is the only river that flows in the ocean through a neighboring province. Mostly in the upper reaches the rivers in Fujian are fan-shaped, which leads to water to form a concentrated flow with rapid speed. Due to the large amount and density of rainfall in the upper hilly area, flow peak discharge will be increased significantly to the downstream river, which will cause flooding easily. The water system is shown in Figure 2.Three creeks in the upstream catchment of the Min River (Jian Creek, Futun Creek and Sha Creek), account for 70% of the Min River Basin, Bei Creek and Xi Creek, flow both through Zhangzhou Basin and into the ocean, and account for 98% of the Jiulong River Basin area in Zhangzhou. The medium and upper Bei Creek contributes to more than 53% of the basin area in Zhangzhou.

Source: Project preparatory technical assistance, 2015.

Figure 2: Fujian Water System

5. The Min River flows 577 km within Fujian. It originates in the Wuda Mountains located on the border between Fujian and Jiangxi. Its tributaries also flow across Wuyi mountains and cut through central Fujian, 36 counties and cities across to Fuzhou in 60,900 km2, accounting for half of the basin in Minqing, Minhou and Fujian Province, flow through Fujian downtown, Changle, Lian River and eventually flow into the ocean.

6. In the upstream part of Nanping, there are Jian Creek, Futuan Creek and Sha Creek tributaries water fan-shaped system, the medium stream has flow into You Creek and Gutian Creek. The downstream part flows into Dazhang Creek and Mei Creek.

7. Fujian lies just north of the Tropic of Cancer. The climate along the coastal area of the province is semi tropical-hot in summer but cool in winter. Mean temperatures in Fuzhou range from about 29 °C in July to about 11 °C in January. There are three seasons in the year. November through February is the cool season; March through May, the warm season; and June through October, the hot season. The growing period lasts throughout the year. The northwestern mountains have a temperate climate but can become cold in winter. Summer is dominated by a monsoonal (rain-bearing) tropical airflow from the sea. There is some precipitation in winter, which occasionally falls as snow in the northwest. The coast is subject to typhoons during late summer and early autumn.

8. Fujian is abundant in water resources. It has a subtropical marine monsoon climate. However, there is an uneven spatial (Source: Fujian Climate Bulletin, 2015

Figure 3) and temporal distribution of precipitation. The annual average rainfall in Fujian is 1,667 mm, gradually decreasing from 2,200 mm to 1,600mm from northwest to southeast. The annual average runoff is 500 ~ 1,400 mm. The rainy season from March to September accounted for 82.5% of the average annual precipitation, a relatively dry season is from October to February. The rainfall in spring rainy season (March-April), rainy season (May-June), summer (July to September), dry season rainfall (October to next February) is shown1 in Figure 4, on average, produces a total amount of 116.87 billion m3, the per capita water resource is 3,769 m3, which is about 1.64 times the national level. The unit water resource amount is 6,387 m3, which is 3.32 times the national average level. Notwithstanding this apparent abundancy, there is still an issue because of the uneven distribution.

Source: Fujian Climate Bulletin, 2015

Figure 3: Spatial distribution of annual precipitation in Fujian in 2014

1 Spatial and temporal distribution of agricultural climate resources in Fujian and its impact on agricultural production. Chen Jiajin, Chen Hui,Ma Zhiguo, etc. China Agricultural Meteorology, 2007, 28 (1): 1-4. Fu Provincial Institute of Meteorological Science.

400 350

300

250 NP-Wuyishan 200 ND-Jiaocheng 150 LN-Yongding 100 SM-Youxi ZZ-Pinghe

050 Precipitation (mm) (mm) Precipitation 000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months

Figure 4: Seasonal distribution of annual precipitation in Fujian

9. Soils in the province (including the subproject areas) are typically red soils, classified in Soil Taxonomy as Ultisols (some Oxisols). The majority is strongly weathered and inherently infertile. Clay minerals are mainly kaolinites. They usually have a low cation exchange capacity (CEC) and they are acid (low pH). The acidity explains why tea is grown rather successfully on these soils. Generally, soils have a very low (<0.5%) organic matter content (OM). Since organic matter plays a key role in the stability of soil in terms of resistance of the soil aggregates to dispersion by water, susceptibility for erosion is high. Amounts of OM, however, can vary considerably with elevation and land use; under crops leaving little residues in the field (such as tea), or where residues are used as fodder, fencing etc., OM content will steadily decrease. Widespread constraints to crop production are a result of the chemical characteristics of these soils. Combined with the low pH, soils may show a toxicity of Al, Mn and Fe, and a deficiency in the major nutrients N, P and K.

10. Soils formed on sandstone or laterite have a more coarse texture and are more easily eroded, but because of the low OM content and the presence of iron oxides, also clay soils may form small aggregates of the size of coarse sand, resulting in a high porosity and therefore, freely draining. This also implies that soil water retention capacity is low. The degrading effect of soil erosion on fertility is strong, as the topsoil with the highest OM and nutrient content will disappear, leaving a new surface layer with poor structure and low microbial viability.

11. After centuries of rice cultivation, soils in the valley floors have been greatly modified. Well-developed gray-brown forest soils are widely distributed in the forest areas of the interior mountains, whereas mature red soils are common in the low hills and on high terraces.

12. Arable land is 1.35 million ha, a little more than 10% of the total land area of the province, of which more than 60% is irrigated. The remaining area is mountains and hills, with approx. 70% suitable for forest. In absolute figures, the area of land resources is small, per capita land is 0.35 ha, less than half of the national average. The per capita arable land is only 0.038 ha (0.57 mu), around 40% of the national average. The largest part of arable land falls

6 within the “low – middle yield” range, around 70%. More than 70% of land used for construction (urban, industry) is located in the coastal zone.

13. Since the 1980s, the total sown area of crops has fallen by 10% from almost 2.57 million ha in 1980 to 2.34 million ha in 2014. In particular the area under cereals (excluding rice) was almost halved: falling from 1.8 million ha in 1980 to 0.86 million ha in 2014. The area under non- grain crops rose by 185%’; from 0.4 million ha in 1980 to 1.14 million ha in 2013. The area of tea gardens grew from 0.11 million ha in 1980 to 0.243 million ha in 2013 the fruit garden area grew from .083 million ha in 1980 to 0.54 million ha in 2013. The total irrigated land area is 1.12 million ha, which accounts for 47.86% of the total sown crop area.

14. The development potential for the agro-forestry industry is huge, especially for land above 500 m elevation, which is suitable for the development of tea, fruit and other cash crops. Approximately 0.2 million ha is grassy hills and steeply sloping land, of which, 30,000 ha is unused (waste) but suitable for reclamation.

15. Rice (usually paddy) is the main arable crop for the valley floors. In the slope-lands rotations with rice are found (early season rice followed by rapeseed or potato), or one season early rice and one season late rice. Rice-based rotations still constitute the main agricultural industry, there is some lotus production but on a small scale. Although the benefit from good quality lotus is high, the market demand is higher than the production volume, as the area on which lotus is grown, is small and cannot easily be expanded. Also the development of three- dimensional farming2 is slow. Several large scale operations (including demonstration activities) with high standard agricultural practices were set up in lowland farmland in Jiaocheng District for vegetables, seedling nursery, flowers, and Chinese medicinal crops.

16. Apart from rice, other important crops are sugarcane, vegetables, canola (rapeseed), peanuts, potatoes, and a small area of tobacco. Fujian is famous for high yields of sugarcane. Vegetable production has developed rapidly in recent years (Figure 5), with an annual output of 600,000 tons, mainly used to supply northern China and for export. The main cash crops are fruit, tea, tea-oil, vegetables and tobacco, with tea as most important.

17. An overview of the cropped areas in 2000 and 2014 is given in Table 1. It shows the decreasing trend of cereals, paddy, oil crops and fruit, and the strong increase in reforested area and area under vegetables. Although because of this the total yield of the cereals and rice decreased, the per unit area yields increased, indicating a better performance. Output of tea, mushroom and timber showed a strong increase.

Table 1: Areas and Outputs of the Main Crops in Fujian in 2000 and 2014 Crop Total cropping areas Output (thousand ton), Timber Yield (thousand ha) output (thousand cubic meter) (kg/mu) Year 2000 2014 +, -% 2000 2014 +, -% 2000 2014 +, -% Cereals 1,303.21 860.96 -33.94 8,547 6,670.3 -21.96 312 371 18.91 Rice 1,222.31 839.49 -31.32 6,328 4,970.6 -21.45 345 390 13.04 Oil crops 125.04 117.11 -6.34 258 298 15.5 138 170 23.19 Vegetables 538.12 723.86 34.5 11,611 16,971 46.16 Fruits 563.7 541.9 -3.87 3,564 7,017.2 96.89 Tea 129 243 88.37 126 372 195.24 Reforestation 24.5 44.34 80.98 3,349 15,853 373.37

2 Three dimension farming is a system where fish and/or snails are grown in the irrigation water of the paddy rice or lotus crop.

Source: Fujian Provincial Statistic Book, 2015.

3000 ） 2500

1000 ha 1000 2000 （ Agricultural land

Area Area 1500

Grain crops 1000

500 Non-grain crops and oil crops

1/1/1980 1/1/1982 1/1/1984 1/1/1986 1/1/1988 1/1/1990 1/1/1992 1/1/1994 1/1/1996 1/1/1998 1/1/2000 1/1/2002 1/1/2004 1/1/2006 1/1/2008 1/1/2010 1/1/2012

Year

Source: Project preparatory technical assistance, 2015.

Figure 5: Agricultural land use changes in Fujian from 1980-2013 (Source: PPTA)

18. As shown in Table 2, production conditions have improved over the last decade. Remarkable changes are the decrease in fertilizer use by 2.3%, which is positive (but not enough in view of the often excessive application rates) and the increase in pesticide and plastic film use, both potentially leading to an increased environmental risk.

Table 2: Change of the Production Conditions in Fujian Province Items 2000 2013 +, - % Power of agricultural machinery (thousand kW) 8,730 13,370 34.7 Area of potential irrigation (thousand ha) 940 1,004 6.3 Fertilizer use (ton) 1,233,311 1,205,733 -2.3 Pesticide use(ton) 51,777 57,804 10.4 Power consumption in rural areas (million kWh) 7,243 34,668 79.1 Plastic film use (ton) 21,152 59,154 64.2 Data sources: domestic FSRs, 2015.

19. Fujian is one of the most important provinces in tea production in China; it is a major pillar of the industrial activities in Fujian. Tea trees are widely distributed in the province. In terms of total output, the province ranked first in the PRC, in terms of area, it ranked fifth. Yet, even with this high output, there is potential for both an improvement of the production systems and an increase in the cropped area.

20. Among the other crops considered in this project, tea-oil (Camellia oleifera) is the most important. Tea oil production areas3 are mainly found in Hunan, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Zhejiang, Fujian and 9 other provinces in the PRC. In Fujian 29 counties in 3 municipalities are

3 National Tea-oil Camellia Industry Development Planning, Ministry of Forest, July 2009.

8 considered most suitable 4 and another 17 counties in 2 municipalities suitable 5 for growing tea- oil. About 53.8 million mu forestland is suitable for planting tea-oil. Currently in the abovementioned 14 provinces, the total area under tea-oil is about 45.3 million mu, with approx. 1.96 million mu in Fujian (currently 0.1 million mu in a pre-production stage, 0.15 million mu early production stage, 0.84 million mu full-production and 0.87 million mu where production is declining). The current national tea-oil seed production is about 975,500 ton/year, of which, Fujian Province contributes 62,700 ton/year, which is able to produce 15,700 ton/year of tea-oil, the annual value of production is about CNY 0.845 billion.

21. The main constraints for developing tea-oil production are: the areas most suited for planting are slope-lands, and currently there is a small benefit from the crop. Most of the tea-oil trees were planted in the 1960s-1970s, yielding only about 5 kg tea oil per mu, with a value of no more than CNY 200, which is much less than other cash crops, thus having farmers turned their interest away from this crop. High yielding varieties have not been well promoted. Sufficient funds are required to rehabilitate, manage and promote the new varieties of tea-oil camellia. The rehabilitation of existing tea-oil gardens and preparation of new land for planting is very costly and cannot be done without financial support.

III. CURRENT SITUATION IN THE PROJECT AREA

A. Rainfall and water resources

22. Details of the rainfall in the 5 project municipalities are given in Table 3. Although data on rainfall and water resources are not available on sub-project level, these figures give a useful reflection on the overall situation, showing that the annual totals are not the problem, but the distribution over the year, which is not uniform (see below).

Table 3: Precipitation and Water Resource in Project Municipalities in 2012 Fujian Project municipality Zhangzhou Longyan Sanming Nanping Ningde Province Annual precipitation (mm) 1,844 1,820 2,040 1,897 2,163 1,911 Per capita water resource 3 2,414 8,206 11,731 15,733 6,374 4,013 volume (m ) Per Capita Water availability 3 415 859 1,021 1,048 539 531 (m ) Volume available for farmland 3 601 656 622 633 532 610 irrigation (m /mu) Source: County Meteorological Bureau, 2015.

23. To show the uneven distribution in time and space in the project area, one representative county was selected from each municipality to evaluate variation of precipitation over time. Analysis was done of 15 years’ monthly precipitation data (over 2001-2014). Average

4 Most suitable areas in Fujian for planting tea-oil camellia: 10 counties in Nanping Municipality: Zhenghe, Songxi, Wuyishan, Jian’ou, Jianyang, Shaowu, Guangze, Yanping, Shunchang and Pucheng; 12 counties in Sanming Municipality: Mingxi, Meilie, Sanyuan, Taining, Yong’an, Jiangle, Jianning, Qingliu, Datian, Ninghua, Shaxian and Youxi; 7 counties in Longyan Municipality: Wuping, Xinluo, Yongding, Liancheng, Changting, Shanghang and Zhangping. 5 Suitable areas in Fujian for planting tea-oil camellia: 8 counties in Fuzhou: Lianjiang, Luoyuan, Changle, Jin’an, Fuqing, Yongtai and Minqing. 9 counties in Ningde: Fuding, Xiapu, Jiaocheng, Zhouning, Pingnan, Gutian, Shouning, Zherong and Fu’an.

9 annual precipitation of Youxi County, (Sanming Municipality) was the lowest, while for the other 4 counties there was little difference. Jiaocheng District showed the largest variation ( Table 4 and Figure 6). On average, one or two typhoons land in Fujian Province and the influence of five or six others can be felt in the province, these events can cause extreme rainfall but these are not expressed in the table.

Table 4: Precipitation Characteristics in Selected Representative Counties Precipitation (mm) Locations Ratio of extreme values Average annual Maximum Minimum Nanping-Wuyishan 1,755 2,847 1,317 2.16 Ningde-Jiaocheng 1,891 2,772 1,094 2.53 Longyan-Yongding 1,518 2,456 1,101 2.23 Sanming-Youxi 1,231 1,840 1,061 1.73 Zhangzhou-Pinghe 1,771 2,364 1,653 1.43 Note: Ratio of extreme values is annual maximum divided by annual minimum. Source: Feasibility study reports, 2015.

600

500

400

300

200

Precipitsation (mm) Precipitsation 100

NP-Wuyishan ND-Jiaocheng District LN-Yongding SM-Youxi ZZ-Pinghe Months-Years

Figure 6: Example of monthly precipitation in the project counties from 2008 to 2010

24. Table 3 showed only small differences between project municipalities6 in average water volume available for farmland irrigation, but differences are larger when taking locations (slope- land, valley floors) and seasons (rainy period, flood period) into consideration.

25. For the valley floors, the government has increased investment in water conservancy engineering structures based on the 11th Five-Year Plan, which includes reinforcement of small, medium and large size reservoirs which already have a danger status, improvement of water conservation in medium and large sized irrigation districts, and stream regulation of main rivers and its tributaries for flood protection measures. Municipalities often suffered from flood disasters caused by typhoons, rainstorms and continuous rainfall. When flood disasters occur, river embankments are broken, destroying the farmland along both sides of the rivers, and pose an enormous threat to village people's lives and their property. Although basic flood management and disaster mitigation systems already have been established in the project area, their standard is relatively low and many medium and small rivers have not been rehabilitated as yet.

6 Fujian Water Resources Annual Report, 2012.

26. In the project, valley floor rehabilitation is foreseen in 8 project counties of 5 municipalities 7 , 8 . With farmland close to streams and rivers, they have abundant water resources. In most project areas except Wuyishan City, drainage ditches and irrigation structures are already in place. However, because of the lack of sufficient inputs and maintenance and poor management, most of this infrastructure is out of date. At this moment, most of the project areas have no water conservancy practices of high quality, only some simple dirt ditches for water supply. For those project areas where streams and rivers are not found in the near vicinity, farming essentially depends on the natural precipitation. In order to expand the water diversion capacity, and to deliver water into farmland at higher locations, weirs will have to be constructed in suitable locations in the rivers with low-head barrage. This will allow existing non-irrigated land to be converted into irrigated farmland using pumps.

27. Wuyishan City is an example of a successful complete main water resource structure. It has 5 reservoirs with a total effective irrigated area of 11,300 mu. These reservoirs were constructed in 1960s-70s, with earth-rock filled dams. Improvement of these dams in recent years has ensured the availability of irrigation water to the project area.

B. Erosion

28. There are 23 key soil erosion counties in Fujian, an indication that water erosion is a serious problem in the province. Apart from the high rainfall with high intensities in the wet season, most of the soils (Quaternary red clays and red sandstone) are soft, fragile and highly weathered which gives a high inherent erodibility, and the soils are found on mountainous and hilly lands with steep slopes. In the key erosion counties, protection is required for all agricultural developments on sloping land. Seven counties in the project (Datian, Ninghua, Yongding, Pinghe, Hua’an, Shouning, Fu’an) are key erosion control counties with more than 5% of their erosion lands classed as moderate, severe or extreme9. In three of them more than 10% their area falls in these categories and another three have even more than 35%. Table V.4 in the IEE shows details of the current soil erosion status.

29. Lands with severe soil erosion are typically located in collapsing hill areas, or landslide areas. These areas with severe and extreme erosion are not suitable for agricultural purposes, not even for tea gardens. Therefore the tea and tea-oil gardens are located in the regions with moderate potential soil erosion, but more and more pressure is put on taking these lands in production in view of the potential profitability of tea and tea-oil. However, when used for tea and oil tea garden development these lands will experience increased soil erosion risks, particularly during the construction period, during the establishment of the tea trees in the first years after tree planting, and (to a lesser degree) during the production period. When proper drainage systems are absent or not maintained, landslides and collapse of terraces may occur.

30. Roads very often are a major source of erosion. The erosion potential from roads is accelerated by strong slope gradients (roads directed up- and downhill), intercepting subsurface

7 Zherong County in Ningde Municipality, Datian and Youxi County in Sanming Municipality, Yongding District and Xinluo District in Longyan Municipality, Zhangpu County in Zhangzhou Municipality, Guangze County and Wuyishan in Nanping Municipality 8 Zhangpu County subcomponent is under the Hua’an subproject, the activities will be conducted by Fujian Hongsheng Gardening Co., Ltd. 9 Soil erosion classification for southern China is (in annual erosion rate in ton/ha) as: tolerant < 0.5, minor 0.5-20, moderate 20-50, high 50-80, severe 80-150 and extreme > 150.

11 water flow, and concentrating overland flow on the road surface and in channels. For projects where, due to intensification or mechanization of the production system, new roads or tracks are foreseen their design should be closely related to the other in-field works (terracing etc.) particularly when they may become part of the drainage infrastructure. For non-paved tracks or roads, planting of grasses at the road surfaces is a good way to protect them from being eroded. Extreme rainfall events can have disastrous effects.

C. Irrigation and drainage

1. Slope-land

31. Large areas are still non-irrigated, but with the investment from local government authorities, a small number of tea and tea-oil gardens have sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation demonstration areas in place. In addition, they have conducted a terracing project, changing the original farming method with high runoff and erosion risk into a contour planting system. Supply channels, rainfall water collecting tanks, Zhujiegou ditches (see next par., also named bamboo joint ditches) and associated structures were put in place; rainfall water is now efficiently collected and stored for irrigation during the dry season. Terracing has decreasing water runoff and soil erosion, but also improved soil fertility and forms an extra source of water in the rainy season. It is therefore well accepted by local farmers.

32. The “Zhujiegou” ditch is a combination of irrigation and drainage works found in terraced fields on slopes created by local people. In Chinese it is named Zhujiegou because its shape looks like a cut bamboo joint. It is used in terraced fields and is directed parallel to the contour with a gradient of about 1/120. The ditches (usually with a depth of up to 50 cm, width of 40 cm) are interconnected with sediment-settling basins and earthen weirs. The upper end of these ditches is usually 10cm lower than the terrace bottom so as to facilitate a controlled inflow of water into the next settling basin. On the lower side of Zhujiegou ditches are connected with the main drainage ditch (Error! Reference source not found.7).

Figure 7: Example of “bamboo joint” or “Zhujiegou” ditches

2. Valley floors

33. Most project areas except Wuyishan, have drainage ditches and irrigation systems in place, but as a result of insufficient inputs in terms of maintenance and proper management, most of the infrastructure is out of date by now. For those project areas without creeks and rivers in its vicinity, agricultural production is non-irrigated. In order to expand the water supply capacity, and to enable irrigation of farmland on higher elevations, allowing a change from non- irrigated to irrigated farmland, weirs should be constructed in rivers with low discharge.

D. Soils

34. Soils were discussed in the provincial overview. Main soil types are red soils formed from granite or sandstone. Degraded soils show a very low OM content and a high bulk density. Paddy soils, important in the valley-floors of the project area, typically have a poor aeration. Gleyed paddy soils constitute about 30% of the total rice producing soils in the area. These gleyed paddy soils are formed under anaerobic circumstances. For year-long irrigation, cold spring water is used causing the soils to be cold, structure-less and anaerobic. The rice root growth is inhibited and grain yields are low. The gleyed paddy soil improvement techniques of ridge cultivation have been applied throughout the Fujian province with good results. Soils on the slope-land range from sandy to clayey in texture, the generally low OM contents lead to a low buffering capacity for nutrients and a poor structural stability. Improvement of the structure by adding organic materials and physical protection by mulches is necessary in order to have a sustainable resource base.

E. Agriculture

1. Cropping systems

35. Sloping land in the project area is considered suitable for development, mainly for tea, tea-oil and a few pomelo gardens. Compared with valley floors, sloping land has a relatively high elevation and is typically rainfed production systems. Currently ninety percent of the tea and tea-oil is grown in a system without soil protection; soil in between the trees may be covered with some weeds or is kept bare by mechanical weeding. In recent years, several intercropping models (where cover crops are planted in order to protect the surface against erosion) were developed based on local conditions. Following these examples, the Yongding subproject will grow Roselle in the gardens, and in Youxi legumes will be interplanted in tea-oil gardens. In recent years, due to continuous high temperature and dry weather substantial losses in the production of tea in Fujian province were reported. Drought in autumn not only affects the yield and quality of the leaves harvest in that season, but it also has a distinct effect on the yield and quality in spring season.

36. Tea and tea-oil gardens and fruit orchards are found on suitable slope lands. Currently, there is no irrigation system in most of these gardens. Rainwater collection tanks are sometimes built. Bamboo joint ditches were built in combination with terrace building in order to store rainwater in the field, helping to meet the need of water in the dry season. There are only few upland tea-oil gardens equipped as yet with water-saving (sprinkler or drip) irrigation facilities, installed by agricultural companies or in various demonstration fields. Overall, in situations where irrigation facilities are found these are simple and do not meet adequate drainage standards.

37. Even though the numbers in Table 1 and Table 2 (provincial overview) show a positive trend, overall it is observed that the current agricultural practices in the project area are out of date and typically based on extensive mono-cropping farming systems. Furthermore, the drainage and irrigation infrastructure is poorly developed, lacking proper planning and sufficient financial investments. This makes the system vulnerable for natural disasters. Apart from a small number of water conservancy facilities financed by the tobacco industry, all others basically rely on earthen drainage and irrigation ditches, which restricts the possibilities for agricultural mechanization. The complicated terrain (slopes, access) also makes it difficult to promote and introduce mechanization.

F. Climate and Climate Change

38. Climate change is discussed in detail in the Climate Risk and Vulnerability Assessment Report10. These are the main conclusions:

 Over the past 50 years, annual average temperature in Fujian has increased with 0.19 °C/decade. Winter warming up (0.273 °C/decade) is significant, especially since the 1990’s.  The annual average precipitation increased slightly, with 23.1 mm/decade, with fewer days of light rain but more rainstorm days, especially in the rainy season. Dry periods became longer but sunshine hours showed a downward trend.  In the future temperatures will increase with 0.2 to 0.5 °C/decade and changes in annual precipitation range from an increase of 8 to a decrease of 6.5 mm/year, all depending on the scenarios chosen for the modeling.  The north boundary of the tropical climate zone moves northwards and the production of certain tropical crops will become possible. The accumulated temperature will increase and the growing period of rice would be prolonged (6-11 days). Higher temperatures and warmer winters will be beneficial to diseases and insects and cause damage to crops and fruits.  The higher frequency and intensity of rainstorms and floods, often accompanied by typhoons, will lead to higher losses in agriculture.  Drought and low temperatures in spring will negatively affect growth and yield of tea.

39. The frequency and intensity of extreme events increased. Examples are the typhoon Longwang (Dragon King) in 2005, the “Super” typhoon Sangmei in 2006, low temperatures causing frost injury in 2008 and flooding in the heavy rainy season in 2010, and all causing serious damages.

40. In Table 5, the main climatic threats in the project municipalities are summarized.

10 The CRVA is an attached document to the RRP and available upon request.

Table 5: Main Climatic Threats in Project Municipalities Municipalities Threats Nanping Rain storm and flooding, drought in summer and autumn Sanmin Low temperature in spring, rain storm and flooding, drought in autumn, winter and early spring Longyan Low temperatures in spring, rain storm and flooding Zhangzhou Typhoon, rain storm and flooding in summer, drought in autumn, winter and early spring Ningde Low temperature in spring, typhoon and rain storm in summer Source: Domestic feasibility study reports, 2015.

G. Project activities; land development and rehabilitation

41. The adoption of a sustainable farming technology and related practices is foreseen through provision of: (i) agricultural equipment and materials to implement sustainable farming technology and practices such as soil conservation measures (e.g. application of organic fertilizer, zero or low tillage, mulching, and tree gardens for windbreaks and shade), integrated pest management, and other cropping technologies (e.g. intercropping, crop rotation); and (ii) soil and water quality testing equipment. To improve the conditions enabling to achieve above goals, the project also addresses essential infrastructure (iii) irrigation facilities and drainage for all subprojects; (iv) in-stream weirs in seven subprojects; (v) building almost 700 km of access roads and tracks for farm machinery, transport of products, plantation maintenance; (vi) the planting of almost one million trees and shrubs for shelterbelts; and (vii) improvement or installation of 27 km of riverside embankment for lowland farmland flood protection.

1. Crops and cropping systems

42. The crops within each subproject are shown in Table 6. Cropping or planting activities will (where necessary) be supported by irrigation and drainage infrastructure as well as access roads and shelterbelt establishment.

Table 6: Subproject Types Project Project Implementing Unit PIU Type and area of land (mu) county Rice 10,000 Wuyishan Zhuzi Ecological Agriculture Co., Wuyishan SOE Lotus 3,000 Ltd Tea garden 2,000 Green rice 361 Fujian Zhengyuan Ecological Food Town Co., Guangze SOE Organic tea garden 2,008 Ltd Green tea garden 4,649 Tea garden 30,000 Fujian Datian County Golden Phoenix Datian SOE Tea-oil garden 20,000 Agricultural Development Co., Ltd Rice 18,000 Youxi County Yangzhong Xinkaicheng Urban SOE Tea-oil garden 10,198 Construction Co., Ltd Youxi Nursery seedling base 14.5 Youxi County Shenlang Edible Oil Co., Ltd PPE Tea-oil garden 8,018 Ninghua State-owned Ecological Forestry SOE Tea-oil garden 26,500 Co., Ltd Ninghua Fujian Ninghua County Ninghua Science and PPE Tea-oil garden 2,394 Technology Co., Ltd

Project Project Implementing Unit PIU Type and area of land (mu) county Fujian Chunhui Tea Co., Ltd PPE Tea garden 3,454 Fujian Cuiyun Tea Co., Ltd PPE Tea garden 2,499 Fujian Jinxi Tea Co., Ltd PPE Tea garden 3,700 Fujian Houde Agro-forestry Ecological Co., PPE Tea-oil garden 9,600 Ltd Tea garden 3,592 Tea-oil garden 5,565 Longyu Ecological Industry Development Co. Yongding SOE Pasture 4,140 Ltd Rice/Potato 8,395 Vegetables 608 Tea garden 1,200 Tea-oil garden 1,820 Longyan Greenland Ecological Agriculture Rice 12,008 Xinluo SOE Development Co. Ltd Ratoon rice 2,000 Chinese pearl barley 2,690 Vegetables 2,064 Green tea garden 3,428 Fujian Xinghe Investment Development Co. Organic tea garden 6,651 Pinghe SOE Ltd Tea-oil garden 6,328 Green Pomelo garden 12,691 Tea garden 3,210 Hua'an Fujian Hongsheng Gardening Co. Ltd PPE Tea-oil garden 1,756 (Zhangpu) 11 Nursery seedling base 427 Nursery seedling base 500 Fu'an Fujian Farms Agribusiness Tea Co., Ltd SOE Organic tea garden 4,200 Tea garden 3,800 Jiaocheng Fujian Lvyin Agriculture Co., Ltd PPE Tea-oil garden 4,460 Tea garden 3,200 Fujian Jianye Agro-forestry Comprehensive Zherong PPE Tea-oil garden 11,500 Investment Co. Ltd Rice 500 Shouning Ningde Qilongxiang Agriculture Co. Ltd PPE Tea garden 6,000 (Dongqiao) Total 269,128.5 PPE = participating private enterprise, SOE = state-owned enterprise. Source: Project preparatory technical assistance and project management office data, November 2015.

43. Almost two thirds of the total activities (in terms of area) will be on the improvement of tea and tea-oil gardens on slopes. A total area of almost 191,730 mu is proposed to be used for tea or tea-oil gardens, comprising the new establishment of gardens on abandoned agricultural terraces and rehabilitation of existing terraced gardens. The majority of this (55%) is tea-oil. In the valley floors rice (paddy) and other grain crop cultivation accounts for 51,264 mu or 79% of the total lowland cropping area.

44. All subprojects will apply organic fertilizer (or compost) to replace chemical fertilizers. High organic matter contents in organic fertilizers help to improve and maintain soil structure and water storage capacity. Compost can increase the water holding capacity of sandy textured soils and can improve structure and water movement through heavier textured (clay) soils. By increasing the organic content of the soil, biological activity can be enhanced. Nutrient holding capacity can be improved because soils with high OM contents have a better buffering capacity.

11 The nursery seedling base is located in Zhangpu County.

Organic fertilizer, when produced from reliable materials, does not contain inorganic ions such as sulfate and chloride which may weaken soil structure, nor cadmium and fluoride which tend to accumulate in soil and ultimately affect plant growth. Nitrogen and phosphorus in organic fertilizers, however, are slowly released compared with chemical fertilizer. This is on the one hand an advantage, as they may not be leached away quickly, on the other hand, it is difficult to predict when and by how much the nutrients (in particular N) will become available to the plants. Organic fertilizers normally come either in the form of compost, which is the product resulting from controlled biological decomposition of organic material, or is composed of especially prepared organic by-products. Its source can be very diverse; animal manures, and crop residues being the most common ones, but also tree and bush trimmings, biosolids (such as sewage sludge), wood by-products, biodegradable packing material, and residues from food production or consumption. So, mature compost is valued for its organic matter content, and it typically used as a soil amendment to enhance the chemical, physical and biological properties of soil, but is typically not a fertilizer providing all necessary nutrients to the soil and crop, although when used at certain rates it can reduce the amount of required chemical fertilizer.

45. Due to the diverse nature of feedstock and composting processes, the quality of compost materials can vary widely. Therefore, the soil has to be tested to determine what is required in terms of nutrients, and the available compost materials also have to be tested with respect to nutrients, carbon content and pH. Table 7 shows general nutrient properties of some compost, based on sources from Europe and USA and China.

Table 7: Nutrient Content of Some Typical Composts (dry weight basis) % Nutrient content Type N P K Poultry manure 2-4 1-3 1-3 Feedlot manure 2-3 1-1.5 1-2 Dairy manure 1-2 0.5-1.5 1-2 Urban yard waste 1-1.5 0.2-0.5 0.5-1.5 Crop residue 1.5-2.5 0.2-0.5 1-2 Chinese commercial 1a (OM>65%) 4 3 3 Chinese commercial 2a (OM>50%) 5 3 2 a Rape seed meal, soybean meal, tobacco powder, amino acid, potassium humate; Forms of N present in the compost: Organic N > 90%, Mineral N (NH4-N, NO3-N) < 10%; K = Potassium, N = nitrogen, P = Phosphorous; Source: UC Davis Organic Symp. 2009 and Terrabetter Company, Xiamen.

46. Generally, N mineralization of common types of compost can be < 10% of initial N in the first growing season after application, with exception when very high-N animal manure-based compost (> 3% N), is used, especially if not well composted. Table VI.8 of the IEE shows that the amount of chemical fertilizers that will be replaced by application of organic fertilizer; it is considerable. However, care must be taken not to expect an immediate effect on growth and yields after converting from chemical to organic fertilizers because: (1) the current rates of fertilizer application is high and close to (even above) maximum, so considerable volumes of organics will have to be applied, (2) the complex release process of N must be well understood, which is a matter of experience and will take a number of years to master, (3) the composition of the compost or organic fertilizer has to be known, whereas it is likely that the ratio between N, P and K will differ from the requirements set by the crop, (4) the improvement of soil structure is a slow process which will take many seasons and because of the climate, compost will have to be applied continuously.

47. The project will lead to a considerable reduction in the use of agricultural chemicals, but it is crucial that both soils and organic fertilizers be tested to produce realistic fertilizer recommendations which match the crop needs. Particularly for newly established tea and tea-oil gardens, care must be taken that the correct ratios of NPK are supplied, so addition of chemical fertilizers in the first years may be needed. In those subprojects where organic production is planned, testing for proper choices of compost (types and quantities) is even more important.

48. The project plans are in line with the recent Action Plan for Reaching Zero Growth of Fertilizer and Pesticide Application till 2020 (released by MOA on 17 February 2015) which emphasizes that in Fujian Province fertilization principles should promote the use of straw mulch; increased application of organic fertilizer; green manure crop planting during the winter fallow period; focus on the use of calcium, magnesium, phosphate, lime, silicon calcium and other alkaline soil conditioners to improve acid soil; and combine fertilization techniques with simplified cultivation technologies.

49. With respect to the above mentioned action plan this project will establish a pilot for the technology of integrating water and fertilizer application (fertigation). Cropping is not only about fertilization, it is necessary to develop and promote water-saving awareness and techniques. Inadequate fertilizer utilization as a result of the traditional fertilization techniques will be addressed in this pilot, to be established in Fu’an County (SOE).

50. The shift to extended use of organic fertilizer will also have an effect on the labor requirements and the farm logistics. Transport, storage and application of large volumes of organic fertilizers and compost will require more labor and transport capacity as compared to use of chemical fertilizers. The operations of spreading the compost on the field cannot be mechanized in the slope-land (tea, tea-oil) fields, and roads will be more intensively used.

51. Chemicals, (fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides) are potential non-point pollutants associated with soil erosion and water runoff, although organic fertilizers also contain nutrients which may act as pollutants. When fertilizers are carefully applied, e.g. mixed with soil under the tree rows, losses will be minimized.

52. Farmers should ensure that the soil is always protected against rainfall and are encouraged to use local appropriate vegetation species in the (oil-)tea gardens, both during and after the construction of terraces and other infrastructural structures. The vegetation will serve to protect soil from being eroded and could also produce economic benefits. An example of such a vegetative barrier is Vetiver, possibly combined with a creeper grass such as Cassia, which has shown good results in experiments in the province. With the use of local material, there is no risk for problems with invasive species.

53. In those situations where tillage activities are needed (soil preparation, weeding etc.) farmers are encouraged to do this in a way that erosion risk is minimized. These “conservation” tillage practices however, are more difficult to apply because they are generally based on minimum disturbance of the soil and the retention of crop residues on the soil surface, which makes it difficult to use mechanized equipment. For lowland crops in particular the cereals, machinery is available (Chinese design and manufacture, CAU) for sowing in untilled soils with a mulch layer of crop residues.

54. The choice of varieties for new tea and tea-oil gardens with respect to climate change is discussed in the Climate Risk and Vulnerability Assessment Report.

2. Irrigation and drainage

Hydrology

55. The hydrology system of the province was shown in Figure 2.

Water availability

56. In the subprojects with valley floor improvement, water for irrigation is mainly drawn from rivers and creeks for gravity irrigation. After the construction of weirs, the water level in these streams will increase. This water will be diverted or pumped into the irrigated areas.

57. The slope-land improvement subprojects mainly retrieve water from valleys which is pumped uphill. After construction of water collecting tanks in different elevations in the tea, tea- oil or pomelo gardens, surface runoff will be collected and used as irrigation water. This can meet the demand for crops growing on the slope-lands and thus adequately address issues caused by uneven precipitation distribution over the seasons, and also solve the water and soil erosion problems caused by high intensive rainfall and associated runoff.

58. In-depth calculations in terms of system dimensioning, crop requirements and water availability (rain and surface water) were made for the various sub-project situations.

Water availability for the valley floors

59. The explanation of the calculation of water availability for the subprojects involving valley floor improvement is given in detail at the end of this report in Annex 1. The total catchment area is 540.1 km2 with an irrigation area of 63,767 mu. The annual water supply capacity was calculated as being 310.33 million m3 at P=90% probability 12 (Table 8). Because of the seasonality of the rainfall and subsequent runoff, results are also given on a per-month basis.

H. Water demand prediction for valley floor subprojects

60. Water-saving efficiency was calculated for the valley floor subprojects for the situation with and without project. After lowland reclamation, land use will remain as rice cropping system. The irrigation water utilization index has increased from 0.4 to 0.7 after land preparation and improvement of the irrigation channels. The water demand before the project is 213.91 million m3 (P=90%), while after the implementation of the project, where even two crops of rice will be grown per season, the water demand will reduce to 63.80 million m3, saving 17.35 million m3 water with an efficiency of 28%. The monthly water demand for paddy rice took into consideration the planned crop structure, the rotation between paddy and other crops, water use efficiency after the improvements of the irrigation network and related practices, and the required irrigation intensity per ten day periods (Table 9).

12 P=90% are rainfall/runoff values which would be exceeded 90% of the time (i.e. a 1 in 10 year drought).

Table 8: Available Surface Water by Runoff and Monthly Distribution of Inflow for Proposed Lowland Project Areas at P=90% probability Project Project Water Catchment Irrigated Available water Monthly distribution of available water Irrigation Areas Municipality County resource area (km2) Area (mu) amount(104 m3) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Zherong Shishan irrigated area Stream 1.05 500.00 78.45 4.24 3.69 4.08 5.33 12.32 12.24 8.32 9.65 8.63 3.37 2.35 4.24 Ningde Subtotal 1.05 500.00 78.45 4.24 3.69 4.08 5.33 12.32 12.24 8.32 9.65 8.63 3.37 2.35 4.24 Grain and oil base Stream 8,395.00 Yongding Pasture base Stream 98.10 4,140.00 5,232.26 115.60 186.79 958.00 773.80 1040.10 702.62 327.50 435.30 436.82 86.80 95.23 73.70 Longyan Vegetable &Breading base Stream 608.00 Xinluo Vegetables, fruits, rice base Stream 129.00 18,763.00 8,402.54 142.82 255.44 168.05 339.46 1278.03 2408.17 1677.99 548.69 981.42 245.35 115.96 241.16 Subtotal 227.10 31,906.00 13,634.80 258.42 442.23 1126.05 1113.26 2318.13 3110.79 2005.49 983.99 1418.24 332.15 211.19 314.86 Datian Grain (rice, vegetables) base Stream 82.50 18,000.00 4,752.00 184.38 140.18 142.56 372.08 418.18 901.45 767.45 390.14 717.08 350.70 186.28 181.53 Sanming Subtotal 82.50 18,000.00 4,752.00 184.38 140.18 142.56 372.08 418.18 901.45 767.45 390.14 717.08 350.70 186.28 181.53 Guangze Rice Area Stream 3.66 361.00 250.34 16.32 11.94 40.51 39.10 39.10 24.26 12.27 19.28 11.57 14.47 10.64 10.89 Nanping Wuyishan Rice, lotus coupling base Stream 189.79 13,000.00 12,317.37 209.40 505.01 911.49 2771.41 3781.43 1638.21 566.60 763.68 221.71 541.96 197.08 209.40 Subtotal 193.45 13,361.00 12,567.72 225.72 516.95 951.99 2810.51 3820.54 1662.47 578.87 782.95 233.28 556.43 207.72 220.29 Total 504.10 63,767.00 31,032.96 672.75 1103.05 2224.68 4301.19 6569.16 5686.95 3360.12 2166.73 2377.22 1242.65 607.54 720.91 Sources: Feasibility study reports and project preparatory technical assistance, 2015.

Table 9: Monthly Water Balance for Lowland Project Areas at P=90% probability Irrigated Water Municipalities Locations area quantity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total (mu) (0'000) Water 4.24 3.69 4.08 5.33 12.32 12.24 8.32 9.65 8.63 3.37 2.35 4.24 78.45 available Water 2.24 1.92 2.24 1.92 1.92 4.48 4.16 3.52 4.16 0.96 2.24 2.24 32.00 Ningde Zherong 500 demand Water balance 2.00 1.77 1.84 3.41 10.40 7.76 4.16 6.13 4.47 2.41 0.11 2.00 46.45 (±) Water 115.60 186.79 958.00 773.80 1040.10 702.62 327.50 435.30 436.82 86.80 95.23 73.70 5232.26 available Water 75.17 68.44 74.70 68.44 65.81 128.21 121.22 103.44 121.22 44.62 75.64 76.85 1023.76 Yongding 13,143 demand Water balance 40.43 118.35 883.30 705.36 974.29 574.41 206.28 331.86 315.60 42.18 19.59 -3.15 4208.50 (±) Longyan Water 142.82 255.44 168.05 339.46 1278.03 2408.17 1677.99 548.69 981.42 245.35 115.96 241.16 8402.54 available Water 102.00 87.43 100.59 87.43 87.43 195.52 188.01 161.70 188.01 56.43 103.41 99.17 1457.13 Xinluo 18,763 demand Water balance 40.82 168.01 67.46 252.03 1190.60 2212.65 1489.98 386.99 793.41 188.92 12.55 141.99 6945.41 (±) Water 184.38 140.18 142.56 372.08 418.18 901.45 767.45 390.14 717.08 350.70 186.28 181.53 4752.00 available Water 80.64 69.12 80.64 69.12 69.12 161.28 149.76 126.72 149.76 34.56 80.64 80.64 1152.00 Sanming Datian 18,000 demand Water balance 103.74 71.06 61.92 302.96 349.06 740.17 617.69 263.42 567.32 316.14 105.64 100.89 3600.00 (±) Water 16.32 11.94 40.51 39.10 39.10 24.26 12.27 19.28 11.57 14.47 10.64 10.89 250.34 available Water 2.20 1.88 2.20 1.88 1.88 4.39 4.08 3.45 4.08 0.94 2.20 2.20 31.39 Guangze 361 demand Water balance 14.13 10.06 38.31 37.22 37.22 19.86 8.19 15.82 7.49 13.53 8.44 8.69 218.95 (±) Nanping Water 209.40 505.01 911.49 2771.41 3781.43 1638.21 566.60 763.68 221.71 541.96 197.08 209.40 12317.37 available Water 35.08 0.00 78.92 78.92 131.54 0.00 105.23 184.15 105.23 105.23 26.31 26.31 876.90 Wuyishan 13,000 demand Water balance 174.32 505.01 832.56 2692.49 3649.90 1638.21 461.37 579.53 116.48 436.74 170.77 183.09 11440.47 (±) Water 672.75 1103.05 2224.68 4301.19 6569.16 5686.95 3360.12 2166.73 2377.22 1242.65 607.54 720.91 31032.96 Total 63,767 available

Irrigated Water Municipalities Locations area quantity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total (mu) (0'000) Water 297.32 228.79 339.28 307.71 357.70 493.88 572.46 582.98 572.46 242.75 290.44 287.41 4573.18 demand Water balance 375.43 874.26 1885.40 3993.48 6211.46 5193.07 2787.66 1583.75 1804.76 999.91 317.10 433.50 26459.78 ( ±) Sources: Feasibility study reports and project preparatory technical assistance, 2015.

Table 10: Available Surface Water Quantity by Runoff and the Monthly Distribution in Rainy Season at P=90% Probability for Upland Area Skewness Annual Coefficient Modulus ratio Runoff quantity in rainy season Project Project Catchment Irrigated coefficient runoff 2 of variation coefficient Municipality county area (km ) Area (mu) of variation quantity 5 6 7 8 9 Subtotal (Cv) (Kp) 4 3 Cs = 2Cv (10 m ) Jiaocheng 3.57 4460 0.30 0.60 0.64 231.69 36.38 36.14 24.56 28.50 25.49 151.06 Zherong 10.84 14700 0.32 0.64 0.62 776.98 121.99 121.21 82.36 95.57 85.47 506.59 Ningde Fu'an 12.00 8500 0.36 0.72 0.58 721.34 201.76 93.27 43.14 41.91 59.44 439.51 Dongqiao 5.17 6000 0.30 0.60 0.64 412.10 64.70 64.29 43.68 50.69 45.33 268.69 Sub-total 31.58 33660 2142.11 424.82 314.91 193.74 216.67 215.72 1365.86 Yongding 94 9157 0.35 0.7 0.59 5024.75 998.82 674.76 314.52 418.02 419.52 2825.64 Longyan Xinluo 57.61 3020 0.19 0.38 0.59 3726.97 567.00 1068.00 243.00 745.00 436.00 3059.00 Sub-total 151.81 12177 8751.72 1565.82 1742.76 557.52 1163.02 855.52 5884.64 Datian 290.65 50000 0.30 0.60 0.64 16741.44 1473.25 3175.85 2703.74 1374.47 2526.28 11253.60 Ninghua 46.41 48147 0.35 0.70 0.59 2190.49 326.23 529.86 154.05 279.43 220.32 1354.18 Sanming Youxi 58.90 18216 0.32 0.64 0.62 3454.60 507.83 248.73 452.55 625.28 317.82 2152.22 Sub-total 395.96 116363 22386.53 2307.31 3954.44 3310.34 2279.19 3064.43 14759.99 Guangze 4.59 4000 0.33 0.66 0.57 313.96 49.04 30.42 15.38 24.17 14.50 133.53 Nanping Sub-total 4.59 4000 313.96 49.04 30.42 15.38 24.17 14.50 133.53 Pinghe 4.49 29098 0.30 0.60 0.64 258.86 22.86 20.45 33.44 27.93 28.50 133.18

Zhangzhou Hua'an 28.05 4966 0.27 0.54 0.68 388.80 81.65 56.76 62.21 27.22 30.72 258.55

Total 32.54 34064 647.66 104.51 77.21 95.65 55.15 59.22 391.74 Total for Upland 616.48 200264 34241.98 4451.50 6119.74 4172.64 3738.19 4209.40 22535.75 Sources: Feasibility study reports and project preparatory technical assistance, 2015.

I. Water available for slope-land farming

61. The calculation methods and formulas of water inflow for slope-land are the same as for the valley floors. Specifically, runoff parameters will directly be adopted from the results available in both the "Fujian runoff contour map" and the "surface water resource in Fujian", and then used to determine the coefficient of variation of runoff Cv and coefficient of deviation Cs = 2Cv. The runoff in dry years under P = 90% and 75% will be calculated.

62. Designed probability of irrigation: If the garden is using stream water for sprinkler irrigation, macro-irrigation and piped irrigation, the design possibility of irrigation is p=90%, and for those land with improved piped irrigation garden, P=85%. For those collecting rainwater for irrigation, the designed possibility of irrigation is P=75% for every type of irrigation.

63. Water available at the design probability = annual average runoff catchment area * catchment area* runoff modulus ratio coefficient. Water available for upland projects area is 495.18 million m3 of which 317.22 or 64% from May to September The monthly available water distribution during the growing period was shown in Table 10.

J. Water demand prediction in upland rehabilitation subprojects

64. The scattered distribution of project areas puts a constraint on the choice of representative terrain conditions. Therefore, the water demand prediction has been conducted using a small catchment area as a reference, with comparable irrigation methods and crops.

65. For upland rehabilitation project water demand prediction, it is based on the project locations, catchment areas and type of project zone as had been decided. The possibility levels of irrigation quota has been selected based on crops (with or without intercropping), and irrigation methods.

66. Although for some low-yielding upland projects the new establishment of irrigation facilities is not planned, most of them will have a construction of terraces and water tanks for rainfall collection during the rainy season. Drainage ditches will be constructed on the inner side of the terrace at the bottom of the riser (terrace wall). In doing so, these subprojects will have an irrigation system in place but with lower efficiency as compared to sprinkler and piped irrigation. Therefore, the water demand prediction and water balance analysis will be conducted jointly for all the upland rehabilitation subprojects.

67. The project will involve an area of 200,691 mu with surface water as the source of irrigation. 200,264 mu of upland for rehabilitation with surface water as its irrigation source, which includes 103,435 mu of tea garden, 84,138 mu of tea-oil camellia and the rest 12,691 mu is being pomelo, vegetables and seedling nursery. Under P = 85% of the possibility of irrigation, the annual water demand is 9.87 million m3.

1. Irrigation schemes

Irrigation scheme of Paddy Rice

68. According to the requirements as laid down in "Irrigation and Drainage Engineering Standard", the volume of irrigation water use for paddy rice should be based on the controlled irrigation method of “thin, shallow, wet, dry”. Since 1990, Fujian has carried out extensive research on the best irrigation model for paddy rice, specifically for the situation in the Province.

69. This controlled irrigation methodology, is based on the various growth stages of rice after emergence, according to the physiological and ecological characteristics and related water requirement. The approach is built on irrigation with a thin water layer, and subsequent drying of the field, to achieve an alternating dry-wet regime. The dry situation is when there is no water at the soil surface (only water from rain) while the maximum (wet) limit is set at 60 cm water on the surface. During the four irrigation stages of paddy rice, control of irrigation is based on irrigation quota, irrigation duty (requirement), water depth, soil moisture content and the degree of field drying. This method allows optimization of the growing factors water, fertilizer, gas (air) and temperature of the soil.

70. A demonstration of best practices for paddy rice following this kind of irrigation approach is found in Xianyou County, Putian Municipality, southwest of Fujian Province, classified as Zone II- the coastal plain area. The irrigation requirement for early and late paddy rice is 441 mm and 577 mm respectively at P=90% probability. The monthly irrigation intensity is shown in Table 10.

Table 10: Irrigation Intensity to Reach Irrigation Requirement of Paddy Rice per Month in Xianyou County Months 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Irrigation Intensity (mm) 2.66 3.78 4.41 5.21 7.12 6.69 5.46 4.25 3.04 Sources: Feasibility study reports, 2015.

71. In Yongding District, results of a demonstration for irrigation of late paddy rice and intercrops of potato, cole (cabbage), pasture and other crops at P=90% probability are shown in .Figure 7. Yongding District is classified as Zone I – the hilly and mountainous area with a moist character, according to the “Standard of Normal Water Quota of Industries in Fujian (DB 35T-772-2013)”.

late rice Patato Cole Passture 40 35 30

/mu) 25 3 20 15 10 5

late late late late late late late late late late late late

Irrigation duty duty Irrigation (m

Mid. Mid. Mid. Mid. Mid. Mid. Mid. Mid. Mid. Mid. Mid. Mid.

Early Early Early Early Early Early Early Early Early Early Early Early Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Months

.Figure 7: Irrigation duty (requirement) based on a demonstration of best practice in Yongding County at P=90% probability

72. For determining the scheme of irrigation intensity of paddy rice, reference can be made to the irrigation practice shown above. It allows a prediction of the water demand and water balance assessment for rice together with its intercrops.

Table 11: Water Balance Prediction for Valley Floor Project Areas (P = 90%) Current Future Annual saved Project Project Water Multiple Irrigation Annual irrigation Multiple Comprehensive Annual irrigation Irrigated Irrigation Cropping Water utilization water amount Municipality County Type of crops utilization cropping water quota water demand Main crops Planning Irrigation Type cropping irrigation water water demand area (mu) Facilities area (mu) coefficient (104 m3) coefficient index (m3/ mu) (104 m3) index Quota (m3/ mu) (104 m3)

Rice, vegetables, Irrigation Zherong 500 0.47 1 448 48 500 Rice improved Irrigation channels 0.7 1 448 32.00 Ningde dryland crops channels Subtotal 500 48 500 32.00 16.00 Irrigation 8,395 Rice 0.45 3 448 836 8,395 Rice, potatoes, rape Improved irrigation channels 0.7 3 741 888.67 channels Irrigation Yongding 608 Rice 0.45 2 448 61 608 Vegetable & breeding Sprinkler irrigation 0.95 4 741 47.42 channels Irrigation 4,140 grass for forage 0.45 1 180 166 4,140 Pasture Pipe irrigation 0.85 4 180 87.67 channels Subtotal 13,143 1,063 13,143 1,023.76 39.24 Longyan 12,008 Rice Improved irrigation channels 591 946.23 2,000 Ratooning rice Improved irrigation channels 0.75 2 591 157.60 Rice, vegetables, Irrigation Xinluo 18,762 0.52 2.1 596 2,150 2,690 Barley production base,vegetable Improved irrigation channels 591 211.97 dryland crops channels 1,864 Vegetables Improved irrigation channels 0.75 4 522 129.73 200 Vegetables Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 4 522 11.60 Subtotal 18,762 2,150 18,762 1,457.13 692.87 Irrigation Datian 18,000 Rice 0.4 3 448 2,016 18,000 Rice, vegetables Improved irrigation channels 0.7 1 448 1,152.00 Sanming channels Subtotal 18,000 2,016 18,000 1,152.00 864.00 Rice & Irrigation Guangze 361 Potato,vegetable,p 0.4 1 596 54 361 Rice, vegetables Improved irrigation channels 0.72 2 626 31.39 22.61 channels eanut Irrigation 5,000 Rice, tobacco 0.45 1 596 662 5,000 rice Improved irrigation channels 0.71 1 448 315.49 346.51 channels Nanping Improved Wuyishan 5,000 Rice, tobacco Irrigation 0.71 1 448 315 5,000 rice Improved irrigation channels 0.71 1 448 315.49 -0.49 channels

3,000 Dryland NA 3000 White Lotus, snails, vegetables Improved irrigation channels 0.71 2 582 245.92 -245.92

Subtotal 13,361 1,031 13,361 908.29 122.71 Total 63,766 6,308 63,766 4,573.18 1,734.82 Data sources: FSRs and PPTA, 2015.

73. Irrigation water sources for lowland rehabilitation subprojects are mainly from creek streams. The project activities will be based on the existing main channels. Branch channels and channels in the field will be lined to reduce seepage losses. In the Wuyishan subproject new irrigation channels will be built. The lowland rehabilitation subprojects cover 63,766 mu, which is mainly for rice production. In most of the area two crops will be grown in one year, and a small part of the land will be used for “three-dimension” agriculture and also some fruits. Under P = 90% of the design irrigation probability, the expected annual water demand is 45.73 million m3 for all lowland subprojects. The detailed water demand prediction results are shown in Table 12. This table shows the “best case scenario” with a comparison of the irrigation demand in the traditional system (always flooded) and the new “ADW” system (alternating wetting and drying).

Irrigation scheme of slope-land Tea trees

74. There are generally 3-4 harvesting moments for tea, and 1 harvest for tea oil trees. In Fujian there is abundant rainfall in spring and summer season, drought often occurs in autumn. Thus, tea trees and tea oil trees need to be irrigated from July to August when droughts may occur. For Tea trees, the water requirement from June to September accounts for approx. 75% of total annual water requirement. In Ningde Municipality, the net irrigation quota is 35 m3/mu, and the irrigation intensity in each month at P=90% probability is shown in Figure 8Error! Reference source not found..

6 /mu)

3 4 (m 2

Irrigation Intensity 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months

Figure 8: The irrigation intensity of tea trees at P=90% probability in Ningde Municipality (data source: FSR 2015)

Calculation of water demand

75. The water demand prediction during a design level year is based on the weighted average crop irrigation quota per unit area under an irrigation probability, which is based on the project land utilization planning, main crop and their rotation and intercropping methods, and the designed irrigation facilities, multiple cropping index and net crop irrigation quota.

76. The irrigation quota of crops, vegetables and fruit trees were selected based on “Water Quota in Different Industries” (DB35/T 772-2013), issued by Fujian provincial government according to the classification of project zone I and II, crop types and growing season.

77. Gross water consumption can be calculated based on the irrigation water use efficiency r, and net water demand calculated according to net irrigation quota.

Table 13: Water demand prediction for slope-land (P = 75%). Sources: FSR and PPTA Water Multiple Irrigation Annual irrigation Project Project Irrigation areas/ Planting Type of crops Irrigation Facilities utilization cropping water quota water demand Municipality county enterprises area (mu) coefficient index (m3/ mu) (104 m 3) Jiaocheng 1960 ground canals+Pipe irrigation 0.85 1 40 9.22 Lvin Company Oil Tea camellia district 2500 Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 40 11.11 8,000 Tea trees Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 31.11 Fu'an Fujian State Farm 500 Tea tree seedlling Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 1.94 Rainwater collecting tank, irrigation& 680 0.7 1 35 3.40 Jianye Company Tea trees drainage ditches 2,520 Sprinkler irrigation 0.95 1 35 9.28 Zherong Ningde Water collecting tank, irrigation and 3450 0.7 1 35 17.25 Jianye Company oil-tea trees drainage ditches 8050 Pipe irrigation 0.85 1 35 33.15 Shihou area in Jiaocheng 4000 Pipe irrigation 0.85 1 40 18.82 District Dongqiao Tea trees Wuqu area in shouning Rainwater collecting tank, irrigation& 2000 0.7 1 40 11.43 County drainage ditches Sub-total 33,660 146.71 Tea garden 3592 Tea trees Sprinkler irrigation 0.95 1 35 13.23 Yongding Tea-oil camellia Rainwater collecting tank, irrigation& Oil-tea garden 5565 0.75 1 60 44.52 (interplanted Roselle fruit) drainage ditches Rainwater collecting tank, irrigation& Longyan 900 0.7 1 35 4.50 Tea garden Tea trees drainage ditches Xinluo 300 Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 1.17 Oil-tea garden 1820 Tea-oil camellia Pipe irrigation 0.85 1 35 7.49 Sub-total 12,177 70.91 Rainwater collecting tank, irrigation& 21,500 0.7 1 35 107.50 drainage ditches Tea garden Tea trees 3,500 Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 13.61 Datian 5,000 Pipe irrigation 0.85 1 35 20.59 15,000 Improved ground canal irrigation 0.7 1 35 75.00 Oil-tea garden 5,000 Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 19.44 1,360 Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 5.29 Chunhui tea company Tea trees 2,094 Pipe irrigation 0.85 1 35 8.62 Ninghua State Owned tea 2395 Drip irrigation 0.95 1 35 8.82 Tea trees company 24105 Pipe irrigation 0.85 1 35 99.26 1280 Drip irrigation 0.95 1 35 4.72 Cuiyun tea company Tea-oil camellia 1219 Pipe irrigation 0.85 1 35 5.02 Sanming Houde agriculturry&ecology 9600 Tea-oil camellia Pipe irrigation 0.85 1 35 39.53 Ninghua company 2000 Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 7.78 Jinxi Tea company Tea trees Rainwater collecting tank, irrigation& 1700 0.7 1 35 8.50 drainage ditches 651 Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 2.53 Ninghua S&T Company 763 Tea-oil camellia Pipe irrigation 0.85 1 35 3.14 Rainwater collecting tank, irrigation& 980 0.7 1 35 4.90 drainage ditches Xingkaicheng Company 10198 Hose irrigation 0.85 1 35 41.99 Youxi 4518 Tea-oil camellia Hose irrigation 0.85 1 35 18.60 Shenlang Company 3500 Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 13.61 Sub-total 116,363 508.45 Tea Garden 1992 Sprinkle irrigation 0.9 1 35 7.75 Guangze 978 Sprinkler irrigation 0.90 1 35 3.80 Nanping Organic tea garden Tea trees 1030 Hose irrigation 0.85 1 35 4.24 Sub-total 4,000 15.79 Tea garden 3428 Tree trees Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 13.33 Organic tea garden 6651 Tree trees Sprinkler irrigation 0.9 1 35 25.87 pinghe Pomelo garden 12691 Pomelo garden Drip irrigation 0.95 1 35 46.76 Zhangzhou Oil-tea garden 6328 Oil-tea trees Drip irrigation 0.95 1 35 23.31 tea garden 3210 Tea trees ，vetagable Improved ground irrigation 0.7 2.4 166 76.12 Hua'an Oil-tea garden 1756 Oil-tea trees ,vetgable Improved ground irrigation 0.7 2.4 166 41.64 Sub-total 34,064 227.03 Total 200,264 968.89 .

K. Water balance assessment for slope-land areas

78. The total volume of rainwater collecting tanks in each catchment area is designed by the actual water demand. Since tea tree, tea-oil trees have a low water consumption, the runoff quantity is much higher than the water demand making water balance calculations not necessary. Tea trees and tea-oil trees just need to get supplementary irrigation when drought occurs from June to September.

79. The total water demand for upland project area is 9.80 million m3 at the design probability, while surface water available from June to September is 317.22 million m3. Surface water generated from runoff in the catchment is about 32 times the required volume. As rain water retention ponds will be built at suitable places to store runoff water, this can meet the crop requirement of water (Error! Reference source not found.3) in the drought season for the optimum development of tea leaves and oil tea fruits.

1. Organizational aspects

80. The subproject owners are mostly registered enterprises, with more strength and management knowledge than small individual farmers. Cost reduction and efficiency increase will have priority. Depending on the actual situation of each company, associations will be set up under the project, such as farmers’ specialized cooperatives, grower associations. Other associations of farmers will be aiming at maintenance of agricultural and water conservation facilities, as well as water use.

81. Currently there is inadequate management of the irrigation facilities. It is recommended that in those projects where new irrigation systems are installed or existing ones improved, water users’ associations are installed, to take responsibility for daily maintenance and management of publicly serviced irrigation facilities, to make it viable and successful in the long run

82. Water measuring equipment will be installed to monitor the water consumption in the demonstration sites of the slope-land gardens and valley floors that have set up sprinkler and micro-irrigation facilities. This will allow a quantification of the crop water consumption under different irrigation systems, which is important for a cost-benefit analysis.

2. Land improvement

Local (farm) tracks, drainage systems, irrigation channels

83. The level of agricultural infrastructure is relatively weak and the resilience to natural disasters is low. The condition of the main roads is good, with inter-village bus services established in villages in the project area. On the other hand, due to lack of a proper design and planning of irrigation structures, in most of the lowland farmland areas natural dirt roads are found. The rainy season causes muddy roads, negatively affecting farm work. Especially in the autumn harvest season, transport of agricultural products encounters difficulties. This is even more apparent on roads servicing upland (slope) lands. Roads are often too narrow making them unsuitable for any motorized agricultural traffic.

84. The irrigation infrastructure in general is old and dilapidated; the earthen channels and ditches are clogged (sedimentation), field irrigation and drainage facilities are in disrepair (Figure 9). Effective irrigation is not well possible in the dry season and the same applies to drainage in the wet season. Problems of floods, drought, insufficient irrigation, over irrigation and over fertilization are serious. There is a serious waste of water resources. Electrical and mechanical equipment such as pumps are dilapidated and have a high energy consumption and low efficiency. In all, the systems lack proper management.

Figure 9: Farmland drainage channel and irrigation ditch in lowland in Yongding District (Source: domestic FSR)

85. As an example, the key improvements in Wuyishan City focus on strengthening of agricultural infrastructure, such as field irrigation schemes, drainage projects and tractor roads, etc.. In accordance with the local conditions, the following goals should be achieved with proper planning through engineering measures and agricultural measures: “ditches connected, channels connected, roads smooth connected, irrigation in dry season, drainage in wet season, floods removable, tractors available for farming, soil fertilized”. With abovementioned measures, a high-yielding farmland can be established with acceptable yields in both dry and wet seasons, with high water usage efficiency and high safety and environmental protection.

86. In the project areas, the irrigation channel system is generally built in the valley floors with water being diverted from the river directly or temporarily stored by construction of dams and then diverted into the farmland. Such gravity irrigation is very common. In addition, surface water irrigation is also used in some areas where rainwater is diverted into rainwater collection tanks by construction of dams, canals, and raised water to hillside farmland by construction of pumping stations.

3. Dikes

87. Rivers in the project area are crisscrossed. Though the construction of water conservation infrastructure was constantly increased in recent years, most of these facilities in the project area are still inadequate or aging. Especially, flood control at the upstream side of main streams is lacking (no reservoirs), whereas the flood control at the downstream mainly depends on levees which are too low.

88. Even if part of the river sections are protected with concrete revetment the flood control standard is still low, the existing flood control standard cannot adapt to the needs of the rapid development of urbanization. Large parts of the river embankments are still of earthen materials, and are easily collapsed with a constant strong flow of water, so flood control ability is poor. Once heavy rain occurs, overbank flood, farmland flooding, or destruction of villages is likely. In addition, due to the frequent flood and high precipitation intensity in rain season, and the effect by the typhoon, flood loaded with mud will cause silting downstream and often cause obstructions.

89. The gully region in the project area is the main distribution network of the farmland, with flash floods causing waterlogging in fertile land on both sides of the gullies. In order to

30 effectively protect the basic farmland, channel engineering measures should be implemented in some areas. In Jiaocheng District, Yongding District, Xinluo District and Wuyishan, stream regulation engineering works should be put in place. More information on the design of dikes are given in Annex 1.

4. Lowland (valley-floor) reclamation

90. Comprehensive measures should be conducted for land, water, roads, forests and mountains in accordance with local and natural conditions. The middle-and-low-yielding fields should be built into a high standard farmland. Irrigation assurance and drainage standard should be improved with effective measures, by which the farmers’ request of “irrigation in dry season, drainage in wet season, roads available” can be met for farmland and resistance against disasters should be improved.

5. Upland (slope-land) reclamation

91. For sloping fields, the upgrade of existing tea camellia garden, tea-oil camellia garden and pomelo garden should be the key point. The tea and tea oil gardens, when they are newly constructed, may experience a short period when soil erosion is likely to be high due to the earthwork producing disturbed soil. During this period, the soil and water control measures cannot yet function at a normal level. Special attention should be given to reduce the risk of severe soil erosion and water losses. If the trees are planted on terraces, special attention is to be paid to terrace banks. The best way to protect these banks is to grow fast growing grasses of local varieties, before or along with those vegetative species for long term soil and water conservation. The tea oil gardens also need to consider the soil and water conservation because of the wide space between the rows. This space can be protected with the same species of the terrace bankside, or some fast growing local species with economic value can be used. Since most gardens are situated on sloping land, rainwater runs off rapidly along the slope, so the rain is not easy to store and use, whereas irrigation water shortage is one of the most important factors affecting yield and quality.

92. Therefore, reservoirs, irrigation engineering and drainage engineering works should be installed in the gardens. Rainwater can thus be effectively utilized and water use efficiency will be improved. Reservoirs can collect water higher on the hills and which then will be transferred to a pool or pond for irrigation. Depending on the landscape, reservoirs can be built at the top of the mountain, along mountainside, or at foothills. The size of the reservoir should be determined according to the terrain, the water resources and the irrigation area. As a general rule reservoirs with a volume of 100 ~ 200 m3 should be built for every hectare of (tea) garden.

93. Main drainage and irrigation ditches are generally distributed in the junction between woodland and tea garden on the hilltop, to connect the drainage canals. Size of the drainage and irrigation ditches is determined based on topography, vegetation, local rainfall, and catchment area. The storm defense design standard is usually based on the 10-year return period for an event.

94. It is very important that both drainage and irrigation ditches and water collection works are connected with each other to ensure that water is not lost, and excess water (after heavy rainfall) can be drained without causing damage. Rainwater collection tanks can also provide water for fertilization and pest control.

6. Design Standard for Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Standards and Criteria

 Criterion of High Standard Farmland " (NYT2148-2012), issued Ministry of Agriculture.  Code for design of irrigation and drainage engineering（GB50288—99）  Construction Standards for High Standard of Basic Farmland. (TD/T 1033—2012)  Land Development Project Planning and Design Standards（TD/T1012—2000）

Specific criteria

95. Flood control standards of rivers and streams: to withstand a once-in-10-years recession flood.

96. Drainage standards: in the project area, drainage all water in 24 hours with a once-in- 5-years recession rain for 24 hours.

97. Irrigation Standard: In the project area, tea gardens, tea-oil camellia garden on sloping land are equipped with sparkling irrigation facilities and drip irrigation facilities, the irrigation should be ensured to reach a percentage of 90%. Surface irrigation should be ensured to reach a percentage of 90% in lowland farmland. By other farmland, the irrigation coverage should reach 75%.

98. Road standards: Tractor road with width of 2.7-4.5 m (cement road); tractor road with width of 3.0-4.5 m for gravel; Field tracks (dirt) with width of 1.2 m.

99. Hydraulic Structures in this project should be designed according to the "Standard for Classification and Flood Control of Water Resources and Hydroelectric Project", fifth building design level.

7. Designs, equipment, new facilities

Development and improvement of valley floor farmland

100. Development and improvement includes land leveling, irrigation and drainage structures, farmland access roads and farmland protection works.

101. The farmland reclamation master plan incorporates the natural conditions in each project area. Main irrigation canals, ducts, anti-flood revetments, and farmland access roads will be constructed or renovated to meet the needs for irrigation, drainage or field accessibility. Where possible, use will be made of the existing infrastructure. Farmland access roads will have a hardened surface, connecting to inter-village roads meeting the requirements of mechanized farming. For some locations near rivers, revetments to protect farmland will be based on natural situations. At the same time, according to the characteristics of each project area, new farming technologies will be promoted for special feature agriculture, as well as with other agronomic measures. An overview is presented in Table 14.

Table 14: Main Constructions for Upgrading Lowland Irrigation & Drainage Networks Irrigation Irrigation Project area Main construction activities efficiency County (mu) improvement One overflow weir, 5 km of open water delivery Zherong 500 From 0.47 to 0.7 canals, 1.25 km of covered conduit, 1 culvert pipe Yongding 8,395 8395 mu land leveling, 6 water ponds at foot of From 0.45 to 0.7

Irrigation Irrigation Project area Main construction activities efficiency County (mu) improvement mountains, 6.8 km of open water delivery canal ,26.3 km of irrigation canals, 6 sets of covered conduits, 25.18 km of tractor roads 2 ponds at foot of mountains, 2 rainwater collection Xinluo 12,008 tanks, 35 km of open canals, 4 covered conduits, 28 From 0.52 to 0.75 km of tractor roads 10000 mu of land leveling, 40 km of tractor roads; 13 overflow weirs, 43 km irrigation canals, 16.94 km Datian 18,000 drainage ditches; 48 sites of power distribution From 0.4 to 0.7 equipment 12 units transformers , 45 km of lighting circuit. 361 mu of land leveling; 1 water diversion weir, 1.37 Guangze 361 km of canal upgrading, 1 pumping station, 1.35 km From 0.47 to 0.72 of field roads, 0.4 km of drainage ditches, 4.3 km irrigation and drainage canal improvement, Wuyishan 5,000 1.7 km flood discharge trenches / ditches, 15 km From 0.45 to 0.71 road construction (Wufu Main road in Wufu Town) Source: Domestic feasibility study reports, 2015.

102. Land leveling is carried out in order to improve farming conditions, with the following specific objectives: (1) meeting the requirements of agricultural mechanization and (2) meeting the requirements of field irrigation and drainage and basic farmland farming. In order to be able to level fields, the existing layout of fields, roads, irrigation and drainage ditches, may have to be modified, also in order to achieve high farming machinery efficiency. Land leveling will also include topsoil tillage, and (where needed for specific crops) building ridges. Field layout planning should take into account and be based on the natural, landscape, and terrain conditions. Inside the project area, fill and cut volumes should be in balance to minimize the amount of earthwork.

103. Irrigation and drainage engineering design includes irrigation channel layout, determination of irrigation system; layout and design of different level of channels and discharge ditches; determination of the location of the barrage and retaining slope, determination of pumping station location and design, equipment type and quantity; and the layout and design of field access roads.

104. Layout of irrigation and drainage channels: (1) Since farmlands in the project area are mostly located on the terraces and mountain slope of the two sides of the rivers, there is slope on the one side of the farmland with rather uniform inclination direction: on the one side, tilted along the river flow; on the other side, tilt the back slope to river. Thus, the layout of field channels will follow the terrain from high to low; (2) the water uptake of the planned and design irrigation system are similar to the current situation, water from various water sources are introduced to the boundary of the project area, and then through channels introduced to field irrigation. Irrigation in the project area will be based on local conditions. The outlet should be set up in the channel that water goes into farmland. (3) reduce area occupation and renovate existing irrigation and drainage channels; Normally the layout of existing channels will not be changed.

Roads and bridges

105. Roads are to be constructed in order to facilitate the project activities, and transport materials needed for agricultural production (both for inputs and for harvested products).The layout of these on-farm tractor roads connecting with the existing village roads, should follow the standards as indicated in Table 20 in the Annex 1.

106. Design principle: (1) field roads are collected to village, as far as possible combined with slope drainage engineering to prevent erosion. (2) in terms of the section design, to balance the amount of digging and filling, and avoid both digging and filling in large scale; Ascertain the excavation slope and filling slope, ensure the stability and security. For steep slope, the road should be step-shape. (3) according to terrain contour line layout, leave the big bend as it is and potential, straighten the small bend, and avoid a sharp turn. The minimum turning radius should be not less than 12 m, control road slope ratio within 3 ~ 15%. (4) use as much original path as possible, reduce newly developed road.

Drainage ditches design

107. Drainage design should suit local conditions, Design principles: (1) drainage layout is in line with the road layout and minimize the area occupied; (2) the “bamboo-joint” drainage connects to a storage tank (at the lowest point); After passing through a settling tank for sedimentation, the water flows into the storage tank and can be used for irrigation. Excess water will be discharged into the road drainage system or into nearby channels. (3) the gradient is determined by the actual slope. Design standard: 24 hours’ heavy rain with a return period of -5 years is to be drained off within 24 hours.

Viability

108. The valley floor farmland protection works are part of the full array of measures. In order to fully benefit from the improvements, the flood management standard must reach the required levels, which can be achieved only after the rivers have been properly dredged and dike protection construction is finished.

109. The designed standards such as those for flood prevention and for constructions as they were identified in preliminary design reports have already considered the choice of location of the project, and the connection of the completed flood management engineering in the downstream.

110. Hydrology calculation, designed flood calculation, designed water line estimation methods are reasonable, and in accordance with the surveyed historical flood level properly.

111. Calculation of the weirs and stability analysis of its structure can meet the requirements based on current regulations. Selection of sections and structure has also considered the economic and practical viability.

L. Conclusions and recommendations

1. Crops and cropping systems

112. New varieties of crops (rice, vegetables, tea and oil tea trees) will have to be considered in view of apparent climate changes. Although breeders may not yet have come up with adapted varieties, a choice may be made from varieties grown in areas which now have the projected climate. CSA principles are not yet translated into actual farming methods.

113. When shifting from one to two rice crops per season, there may be a time constraint between the two crops, so harvest and soil preparation methods may have to be adapted to minimize the time between two crops. Growing (rice) crops on ridges must be considered in view of the ADW system and the plans to grow a dryland grain or vegetable crop in the same year.

114. Quality control of organic fertilizers (manure and compost) with respect to nutrient contents, pH, OM etc. is absolutely needed when balanced fertilization is to be applied. Testing facilities with free or affordable access by farmers is crucial and must be accompanied by adequate training and on-farm advice.

115. Quality of planting material (e.g. properly grafted trees or rootstock) must be ensured and be accompanied with good care in the first years.

116. The design of irrigation water demand in both in lowland and upland rehabilitation subprojects should be reviewed with respect to planting models (e.g. intercropping) and water demand.

117. Optimization of labor use and product quality can be reached by proper mechanization and must form an integral part of the system.

2. Lowland development and rehabilitation projects

118. The arrangement of irrigation channels and ditches in the proposed valley floor areas is basically reasonable, targeted to develop high standard farmland for the Irrigation area planning. Overall planning has considered farmland, forest, roads, water system and mountains. After the comprehensive rehabilitation of the current low-yield farmland, yields will increase, which is in line with domestic food security policy.

119. The channel irrigation system and the selection of irrigation quota, has already considered the real crop production model in each project site. Based on the assessment, the data selection is reasonable, and the water demand prediction is reliable.

120. Design flow of channels has been conducted using appropriate methods and the design of sections and its structures are feasible.

121. According to the Water Laws and Regulations related to river management and flood control, all water related projects will have a preliminary design conducted by qualified design institute and obtain approval from the concerned government authorities. Therefore, the creeks regulation works for the Wuyishan City, Datian County, Xinluo District, and Yongding District should also prepare a preliminary design, and follow the domestic approval procedures.

122. Conclusion: the design of irrigation and drainage system of lowland rehabilitation subproject is viable. The results of the preliminary design can be used for project implementation after the revision and approval from concerned government authorities.

123. Actively introduce and promote new product, give priority to high value-added rice, develop the plant scale of rationing rice and organic rice; vegetables and fruit trees is complementary. Inter-planting or intensive rotation will improve the utilization efficiency of land. Promotion of the development of modern agriculture must be supported by cooperation of the food industries

124. Following principles should be insisted during the land development: overall planning and emphasized focus, scientific layout and typical demonstration, concentrated and scale development, government leading and farmers as the main body

3. Upland rehabilitation projects

125. Rainwater collection and utilization was analyzed. The rainwater collected from slope land will be used for irrigation and for pesticide application. This will solve the water shortage

35 during the dry season or in dry years due to lack of rainfall. On the other hand, this will reduce the water loss and soil erosion because of the effective collection of runoff. The project plans to improve a total area of approx. 56,000 mu of slope-land, mainly for tea, tea- oil camellia, and small amount for pomelo and pasture. The annual water demand for upland is 17.10 million m3 (P= 75%), this amount is about 5% of annual runoff and will therefore not have a negative effect on the water level downstream in creeks and rivers.

126. The selection of irrigation systems for the upland rehabilitation subprojects is based on local conditions. From technology advancement, economically rational and practical point of view, the subprojects have selected sprinkler, drip, and piped irrigation modes, which is a good basis for the research of alternative irrigation systems in the future when different irrigation water level may occur.

127. The upland rehabilitation subprojects have a comprehensive plan for the plots planning, irrigation and drainage layout arrangement. After the implementation of the project, it can fundamentally solve the shortage of irrigation water for the upland, improving irrigation and drainage conditions to reduce soil erosion, and improve crop yield and quality.

128. The water balance assessment has been conducted for sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation and piped irrigation according to the catchment area of each irrigation area, and conducted water supply prediction with suitable guaranteed rate of water supply. It is concluded that every irrigated area has a higher annual water supply capacity than the water demand.

129. The network layout of sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation and piped irrigation is reasonable, which comprehensively considered the local conditions and its advantages, which is in line with the energy-saving principal that ADB is encouraging.

130. The slope-land rehabilitation subprojects will collect surface runoff and use it for irrigation. After construction of water collecting tanks, the rainfall during the rainy season can be well collected. The volume of water collection tank is determined and designed based on the suitable designed irrigation guarantee rate, to ensure the water demand of each irrigated area. After construction of water delivery channels, water settling tanks can not only ensure the water supply but also filter the collected water, and meet the requirement of irrigation facilities. Zhujiegou ditches will be built in the inner side of terrace, main drainage ditches will be set up in the terrace wall to reduce the soil erosion to enhance the soil fertility.

131. For those subprojects that have not planned to establish sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation and piped irrigation, water collecting tanks, water approaching ditches and drainage ditches will be constructed and bamboo joint ditches to be built in the inner side of terrace will make sure the basic water demand can be met and with positive experience in existing local gardens, appropriate water-saving irrigation can be encouraged to be chosen.

4. Soil and water conservation, erosion

132. The major risks for erosion are during the construction phases when (sloping) soil is exposed to weather influences, as explained in the IEE. In established fields with irrigation and drainage facilities laid out and used as designed, the erosion risks are minimized. Any sedimentation from the upland fields will be intercepted in the basins. The use of organic material when spread on the soil surface will further protect the field.

133. Observations in other large development projects showed the importance of involving farmers right from the start, but also during project execution. E.g. during leveling or field preparation, when most of the physical development is done by contractors under supervision of project staff, there may be no involvement of the farming community (perhaps

36 in some cases to provide labor). Once the work is completed, an area of the prepared terraces may be allocated to individual farmers or a group of village farmers on the basis of a contract between the farmer and the companies or local government. Often this implies that while having no say in the developments, the farmers, who might have wanted a different design, are expected to pay back the development costs once the trees are in production.

134. Fujian province is well organized with respect to the assessment, control and prevention of water erosion in slope-lands. The standards developed for the design and construction of the new slopeland gardens must be followed accurately.

5. Recommendations

135. Appropriate water-saving irrigation such as sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation and pipe irrigation, should be chosen based on the positive experiences of the local people.

136. It is suggested that measuring equipment should be installed to monitor the water consumption in those upland gardens (green-tea, organic tea, tea-oil camellia, pomelo) and lowland (vegetable production base) that have set up sprinkler and micro-irrigation facilities. Knowledge of the water consumption under different irrigation systems will allow an analysis of economic benefits.

137. The subproject owners are mostly registered enterprises, strong and under modern management. They will be particularly interested in cost reduction and improving efficiency. It is likely that companies will decide to form many associations. Currently there is little management to the irrigation facilities and transport structures generally are in disrepair, which makes it difficult to play its due role. It is recommended that, enterprises which are adequately equipped, should set up farmer water users associations in the irrigated lowland, to take responsible for daily maintenance and management of the irrigation facilities, ensuring sustainable use. Counties with sufficient means can seek for ownership of the water irrigation facilities, to improve and impose mechanisms for maintenance and management. This will help to lay a good foundation for the use of public funding for repair and maintenance of irrigation facilities.

138. For subproject's scale, land-use types should in line with the water supply capacity in each irrigation area, for facilitating the design and water supply and demand analysis.

139. The desire to adapt modern farming systems is positive, but success can only be achieve when the improvement of the infrastructure is accompanied by a strong and intensive network of demonstration sites, in-field monitoring system, soil and plant testing facilities and most importantly, a well-organized training and extension service.

ANNEX 1

A. IRRIGATION CALCULATIONS (VALLEY FLOORS)

140. Irrigation area division: The lowland improvement and demonstration subproject, is mainly utilizing water from rivers and creeks for irrigation, and the size of irrigation structures is mainly small scale. In order to facilitate the analysis of water resources, the design of the system, and the calculation of the water balance, information is used with respect to the water supply area, terrain characteristics and the water system.

141. Inflow analysis and calculation: the inflow of each irrigation area is a function of the dependability of irrigation design (information on frequency), and a “typical year” analysis will be conducted. Data are collected from a hydrological station in a project area nearby with similar climate and soil conditions. Based on the data from these hydrological stations, typical distribution of runoff during the year under P = 90% will be analyzed, and runoff distributed over the year will be predicted

142. Dependability of irrigation design: according to the "high-standard farmland construction standards" (NYT2148-2012) issued by the Ministry of Agriculture, the dependability of irrigation design can be determined for paddy fields, irrigated land, dry land. ForFujian Province,, the dependability of paddy fields, irrigated farmland, sprinkler irrigation, and micro-irrigation is 90%, 85%, 90% respectively.

143. Annual rainfall of the “typical” or representative design year: average annual rainfall of the project area is retrieved from the "Fujian rainfall contour map," "surface water resource in Fujian", and based on the location of the project counties and their rainfall characteristics. From this, the coefficient of variation Cv is determined, as well as the coefficient of deviation Cs= 2Cv. This is also the basis for the calculation of precipitation under different frequencies, such as the runoff in dry years under P = 90%.

144. Annual inflow of the design year is calculated according to the following formula: Wp = Kp × F × h × 10 million m3 Where: Wp- annual inflow of design year (m3) Kp- coefficient (dimensionless) of the runoff modulus (the modulus of the design year divided by the mean annual runoff modulus) This modulus is expressed as m3 per second per km2 F- catchment area (km2) h- annual average runoff (mm)

145. For those project areas that use water from rivers or streams for irrigation, the available water supply capacity is calculated based on ten days natural stream volumes. If the ten days natural stream supply capacity is smaller than the designed supply capacity for channels, the natural stream will be considered as available (as all water will be used). On the other hand, if the ten days natural stream supply capacity is larger, then the designed capacity will be considered as available

146. Inflow distribution is calculated over the ten days period and on a monthly basis. The data will be collected from the hydrological station nearby or, in case there is no hydrological station, data will be taken from those hydrological stations with similar hydrological and landform conditions and climatic conditions.

147. The analysis of the water supply-and-demand balance for low land areas was conducted along two approaches. The first one is to take the entire county as a unit and to assess the water demand over ten-day periods based on the possibility of irrigation. The second approach is to assess the water balance based on the water supply and ten-days

38 period water demand. During the design years, it will be determined if the water supply capacity can meet the demand for annual and ten-day periods.

148. There are 6 counties involved in lowland rehabilitation activities, for the large water demand of lowland mainly for rice production, the water balance assessment will be conducted based on annual water supply capacity and by using data from a hydrological station near the project location giving monthly and ten-day period distributions of the rainfall.

149. Considering the fact that the paddy rice area has a dominant share in proposed lowland project areas, and that paddy rice is a crop sensitive to water deficits and with a high water consumption, the water balance has been done on annual monthly levels at P=90% probability.

150. Water delivery buildings design: Water diversion buildings include the construction of barrage, water diversion gate, sluices at the channel, pumping stations, power distribution, and equipment.

151. In the southern part of the Wuyishan project area, there is a water-diversion channel near the pond next to Dian Village, which takes in water from Tan Creek to the fields for irrigation. However, the original design did not consider water flow control of the channel. So large amounts of water still follow to the project area even in situations where irrigation is not needed. This will easily lead to waterlogging in the project area. Therefore 2 diversion sluices will be built at both ends of the water diversion channels to control the water flow. When irrigation is needed, the headworks hoist will be raised to let water flow into the project area. For discharge the hoist at the end of the channel will be raised.

152. Cross building layout and design: When the irrigation channels crossing, irrigation culverts should be associated. When height of the grid fields is relatively high, drips should be constructed to well connect the vertical fields. When the channel needs to cross the road for irrigation supply, then a culvert should be constructed.

153. Layout of each subproject lowland farmland renovation project is designed according to these principles, but based on the natural conditions and actual plot layout. In Error! Reference source not found.10, Longyan Xinluo District is shown as an example of a typical lowland agricultural renovation design.

Source: Domestic feasibility study reports, 2015.

Figure 10: Layout of Farmland Protection Works in Xinluo District

B. IRRIGATION CALCULATIONS (SLOPE-LANDS)

154. For sloping fields, the upgrade of existing tea, tea-oil camellia and pomelo gardens should have priority. Because of their location, rainwater will easily run off and is difficult to store for use later. Therefore, reservoirs, and an irrigation and drainage infrastructure should be put in place.

155. The main components of the sloping farmland irrigation and drainage systems are: (1) the overall layout; (2) design of the irrigation systems; (3) design of drainage channel layout; (4) design and layout of farmland access roads.

156. The main crops in the subprojects with sloping land are tea and oil tea, with a small area of pastures and pomelo garden. Types of irrigation include sprinklers, dripper, and pipe irrigation. Some of the gardens are equipped with water storage tanks, irrigation and drainage channels (including Zhujiegou ditches). The layouts of the pipe network of sprinkler, drip irrigation, and pipe irrigation basically follow the same principle. The difference is mainly in irrigation water use coefficient.

1. Sprinkler irrigation

157. Sprinkler irrigation has a water saving rate of 40% -50% compared to conventional irrigation, and gives a uniform distribution of water over the field. There will be no surface runoff, deep drainage is avoided and surface evaporation is strongly reduced. The system leads to conservation of fertilizer, reduced labor requirements and more effective land use.

158. Sprinkling irrigation system design includes (1) determination of irrigation quota; (2) selection of nozzles; (3) pipe network layout; (4) hydraulic calculation of main and branch pipes; (5) calculation of pressure regulating requirements; (7) calculation of possible pressure differences.

2. Water collection

159. To ascertain the reliability of water source, rainfall and terrain (slope) conditions have to be considered, together with any existing water store tanks in the project area. New water storage tanks may have to be built at the collection points of surface runoff, to ensure water supply in drought periods, and to allow activities such as fertilization, and spraying pesticide.

160. Water Storage tanks is composed of: (1) rainfall harvesting tanks , (ii) water collection tanks and (iii) drainage networks.

161. Design principles: (1) Rainfall harvesting tank is generally laid out in the toe or low parts on the slope, partially below ground surface, connected with the drains to store surface runoff. (2) the distribution of the rainfall harvesting tanks and their capacity should be determined with local conditions based on topography, geology, slope runoff, storage and discharge relations, and construction conditions; (3) a settling basin is generally placed at the upstream side of the inlet of the reservoir. Surface runoff through drainage ditch flows into the settling basin, after sedimentation then flows into the reservoir. The settling basins arrangement should also act as an energy dissipation pool. (4) combined with sprinkler and drip irrigation systems, build large-capacity water storage tanks (or weirs) in toe of mountains according to local conditions, it is being pumped into rainfall harvesting tanks in higher level through water delivery and then distribute into field by field pipes by gravity.

162. Design Standards: calculation of the volume of the rainfall harvesting, is based on "Rainwater Harvesting and Utilization Works Technical Specification" (SL267-2001), and estimated by the following formula: KW V  1- 

Where V = water volume, m3; W =annual water supply volume, m3;α= reservoir evaporation and seepage loss factor, usually taken between 0.05 ~ 0.1; K = capacity coefficient, for irrigation water supply this is usually taken between 0.6 and 0.9.

163. Rainfall harvesting tank design: The tank will be an open semi-underground rectangular or circular tank. Reservoir design has to follow different specifications depending on the terrain and requirements. There is an access ladder inside the reservoir and security fence, over 1.1m high, around the perimeter of the reservoir.

3. Irrigation quota and irrigation cycle

164. In this project, major crops of slope cultivation are tea tree and oil tea tree. Shallow roots of tea seedlings have a poor resistance to drought. Therefore, this project is designed based on the water demand requirement of tea seedlings, with an elongated irrigation time for mature tea tree (as these will have a deeper root system). For the design, it is assumed that tea seedlings only can benefit from a layer H of 35-50cm depth. The upper and lower thresholds of soil available water content are 83% and 65% of Field Capacity, respectively, so 18% (by weight) or 25% (by volume) can be maximally available.

165. Irrigation quota (M) is calculated as follows:

M= 0.1γh (β1-β2) / η

Where: M = design irrigation quota mm; γ = soil bulk density, 1.4g / cm3; h-- moist layer depth of tea and oil tea(taken as) 35cm; β1-- upper limit of soil retention, (83% of field capacity) β2-- lower limit of soil water retention(65% of field capacity);

η = irrigation efficiency (0.87)

The above parameters may slightly change depending on local conditions.

166. Design irrigation interval T: T = m / W. This is a function of irrigation quota and design daily water consumption (W), the maximum allowable time between two irrigations to meet the water needs of crops. In our situation, the design irrigation interval T = 5 days.

167. In view of the growth characteristics of tea and oil tea, particularly with respect to the sensitivity to temperature and humidity, frequent irrigation with small amounts of water should be applied. Irrigation should be based on the variations in water demand during the growing period and the soil moisture content. Regular desilting of main and branch pipes is needed. System operation must strictly follow the design of rotation irrigation.

4. Selection of the nozzle and nozzle combination

168. Selection of nozzles and nozzle's combinations include: (1) nozzle selection; (2) nozzle combinations; (3) atomization targets; (4) combination of sprinkler irrigation system and irrigation intensity of sprinkler.

169. Nozzles selection: The quality of the sprinklers has to be such that it can meet the technical requirements of the system (output of sprinkler irrigation and atomization targets). After comparison a number of nozzles is selected. Its performance parameters are shown in Table 15.

Table 125: Nozzle Device Selection of Some Counties Output of Nozzle Working Flow Project Sprinklers Connection Range sprinkler Counties diameter Pressure (m3 / municipality model size (m) irrigation (mm) (kPa) h) (mm/h) Jiaocheng ο ZG3/4 external 15PY2-30 5 200 1.23 8-12 1.78-1.91 District thread ο ZG3/4 external Ningde Fu'an 15PY2-30 5 200 1.23 8-12 1.78-1.91 thread 24.5 / 0.84- Zherong 200-400 10-20 1.72-2.25 26.0 1.62 2.96- Pinghe PY 20 G1 7 300 9-10.5 2.53 Zhangzhou 1 3.41 Hua’an ZY-2 8 300 4.18 20.4 9.7

ο ZG3 / 4 Sanming Ninghua 15PY2-30 5 200 1.23 8-12 1.78-1.91 external thread 2.96- Longyan Xinluo PY 20 G1 7 300 9-10.5 2.53 1 3.41 Source: Domestic feasibility study reports, 2015.

170. Nozzle combinations: The determination of nozzle spacing should ensure a uniform distribution with a minimum number of sprinklers to reduce cost. Wind direction and speed is considered as well, the average wind speed is taken as 1m/s. in accordance with regulatory requirements.

171. Atomization Target: According to "Sprinkling Irrigation Project Technical Specifications" (GB / T50085-2007), the atomization targets for food crops, cash crops and fruit trees are 3,000-4,000.

172. Intensity of Sprinkling Irrigation System Combination: A reduction of the sprinkler intensity is made for certain soil types on slopes, following the "Sprinkling Irrigation Project Technical Specifications", which indicates a maximum intensity in order to prevent runoff and erosion.

5. Pipe network layout

173. Pipe network layout is mainly based on the location of water sources and shape of the irrigated area, referring to "Low-Pressure Pipe Irrigation Work Design Specifications". The topography should be followed as much as possible to make the pressure level in line with the surface.

174. Sprinkling irrigation pipe network is divided into three levels: main, branch, and capillary pipes. The function of the main pipe is to deliver irrigation water from the source to the collection tanks. The branch pipe delivers water from the collection tanks to the field pipes. Branch pipes should be perpendicular to the contour lines. Field pipes are perpendicular to the branch pipe, and depending on the topography, be parallel to the contour lines which usually means they are not in line with the wind direction. The layout of field pipes should be arranged as the "Feng-shaped" like the Chinese character "丰".

6. Development of sprinkling irrigation operating system

175. Development of sprinkling irrigation operation system includes the determination of the length of the spraying time, the number of rotations, and the number of sprinklers at work at any one time. To make sure that during each rotation the volumes of water are the same pipe diameters should be small. This will lead to a lower investment cost, and easier management. According to project actual conditions, a system with continuous flow in the main pipeline and a rotation in irrigation using groups of branch pipes will be adopted. With a rotation of 2 groups every day, five days are needed to complete a rotation irrigation cycle of 10 branch groups.

7. Hydraulic calculation of branch pipe

176. The main task of branch pipes' design is to limit the pipe flow deviation between 2 nozzles in a same branch pipe, so as to obtain satisfactory uniformity and irrigation efficiency. According to the principle of uniform spraying, the water head difference between any two nozzles on the same branch should be less than 20% of the designed working pressure of the nozzle.

8. Hydraulic calculation of the main pipe

177. The calculation of loss of head along direction of main pipes refers to the formulas given in the abovementioned specification, the partial head loss is 10% of the loss of head along its direction.

9. Pressure regulation calculation

178. Due to the large height differences in the terrain, pressure reducing valves are installed on the main pipe to ensure a uniform pressure in each branch pipe. An orifice plate is installed at the inlet of the branch pipe.

179. According to the hydraulic calculations, the biggest pressure difference between two nozzles at work on the same pipe is 2.3m. The ratio of pressure difference to nozzle pressure at work needs to meet the standard requirements so that the spraying uniformity can be achieved.

10. Irrigation system

180. The system must be operated in strict accordance with the designed rotation. The irrigation should, where necessary be adjusted according to the water demand and the change of soil moisture content in various growth phases. Valves on both main and branch pipes should be opened regularly to wash away dirt and sand sediment

11. Typical design for sprinkler irrigation

181. The tea plantation project in Guangze County is chosen as the typical example of sprinkler irrigation and shown in Figure 11.

Source: Domestic feasibility study reports, 2015.

Figure 11: Typical sprinkler irrigation pipe network layout design in tea garden (Guangze)

C. PIPE IRRIGATION IN ZHERONG

182. For the project, piped irrigation system for tea-oil camellia garden is designed. The main activities for piped irrigation include: (1) Piped irrigation project layout plan; (2) designation and selection of tubing; (3) Pipeline design.

183. Piped irrigation system lay-out plan. Based on factors, such as: investment plan, water resource condition, landform of the project, restrained line layout will be adopted, each pipeline will set with one valve on the entrance, and will be connected directly with the outlet of water collecting tanks, and leak valves will be set in proper positions of the longer pipeline. The proposed burying depth of pipes is below the frost zone. The Feng-shaped (丰) pipeline layout will be adopted in the garden, main pipes in the project area will be perpendicular to the contour line, and hoses will be laid out parallel to the contour line. In the case of landform condition meets sprinkling irrigation requirements, pipe lines will be arranged on both sides of main pipes with 15m intervals.

184. Selection criteria of tubing for piped flood irrigation include: low price, longer duration years, smooth inner wall, and ease of installation. Based on the experience accumulated in recent years in piped irrigation, PE tubing will be used in this project.

185. Calculation of pipeline water flow: Water quota, daily irrigation duration, irrigation intervals, utilization coefficient is determined by the area of irrigation covered by the pipe. Pipe diameters of each kind of pipe are determined by the designed water flow, entrance water head, elevation difference and head loss. Typical design of pipe irrigation networks and its hydrological calculation is selected as (Figure 12 and Figure 13).

Figure 12: Typical design for pipe irrigation network layout in tea garden (Guangze)

Source: Domestic feasibility study reports, 2015.

Figure13: Typical irrigation pipe network hydraulic calculations of sprinkler irrigation design (Guangze)

D. LOWLAND REHABILITATION (FARMLAND PROTECTION, DIKE RECLAMATION)

186. The lowland farmland protection engineering involves Xifu Creek in Wufu Township in Wuyishan, Liuxi Creek in Xinluo District, Jiaotang Creek in Yongding District. The main project activities include widening and cleaning the sediment deposited along rivers, to build dikes. Based on the route of "the bends of the cut-off", the activity can improve the sediment interception, water storage and enhance the capacity for flood management.

187. The project areas are often affected by typhoon threats; typically 2-3 times a year, commonly in July and August. The heavy rainfall accompanying the typhoon can often cause flooding. During the rainy season in May and June, the continuous rainfall often causes flood.

On the other hand, droughts have seriously hampered the agricultural production in autumn and winter. In recent years, under the influence of climate change, extreme weather events significantly increased. For instance, storm intensity and length have broken records, and severe loss has resulted from flooding disasters (Figure 14Error! Reference source not found.). An estimated 35,536 mu of farmland will benefit from the creeks’ rehabilitation works.

Figure 11. Farmland Disaster Caused by Tiantu Typhoon in Xinluo District in 2013

188. The creeks that need to be rehabilitated in the project are chosen based on the following factors: (i) Counties which are located in rain storm centers and easily affected by typhoons with an elevated risk for flood disasters; (ii) Dikes which are below-standard in terms of flood protection; (iii) A large size of farmland and high numbers of people alongside creeks in need for protection, with poor infrastructure.

1. Drainage basin profile

189. The catchment area of Jiaotang River in Yongding Districtis 3.90km2, with an average annual flow of 0.113m3/s. The characteristics of the river are: short distance with a steep drop, so flood rises up and down sharply. The flood used to damage the farmland along the riverside during the rainy season even though the water amount over the whole year is small.

190. Liu Creek (Shizhong Creek) in Xinluo is the upstream tributary of Chuanchang Creek, and originates from Lantian Village of Shizhong Town in Xinluo. The creek flows through more than 10 villages such as Lantian Village, Yangzhong Village, Zhongxin Village, and eventually flows into Nanyi Reservoir in Jiulong River. The catchment area of Liu Creek is 139.3km2, the main stream length is 25.5 km, and the gradient is12.5‰.

191. Features of the proposed creeks’ rehabilitation works for farmland protection are shown in Table 16.

Table 16: Basic data on the farmland protection works Distance to Farmland Name Project Project be Annual average to be of the Location Municipality County rehabilitated precipitation (mm) protected river (km) (mu) Xifu Wufu Nanping Wuyishan 4.25 1900 5,000 Creek Townahip Liuxi Shizong Xinluo 17.50 1750 11,900 Creek Township Longyan Jiaotang Yongding 4.30 1614 4,136 Creek

Distance to Farmland Name Project Project be Annual average to be of the Location Municipality County rehabilitated precipitation (mm) protected river (km) (mu) Sanming Datian 0.94 1695 18,000 Total 26.99 39,036 Source: Domestic feasibility study reports, 2015.

2. Location of Farmland Protection Works

192. Location of all of proposed creek’s rehabilitation works is selected in places where there is farmland along 2 sides of the creeks, together with townships and villages in need of protection. These locations are shown in Figure 15.Error! Reference source not found.

Figure 15: Layout of creek’s rehabilitation for farmland protection works in Wuyishan

193. Other works for farmland revetment project include: (1) Xifu Creek in Wuyishan City; (ii) Jiaotang Creek in Yongding District; (iii) and embankments in Datian County. The proposed activities regard the rivers and creeks that pass through the project area, which include improvement of river embankment line and dike prevention.

3. Design Flood

194. Flood Characteristics: floods in the river basins are formed by a both a frontal rain and a typhoon rain, with most of the flood (and related damage) caused by the typhoon. Due to the frequent clash over the basin of cold air from the north and warm air from the tropical ocean surface during late spring/early summer, continuous heavy rainfall is likely to occur. It is characterized by a high intensity and a long duration with a wide impact range, generally causing medium and small floods.

195. In the rainy season from July to September storms and typhoons move inland, seriously affecting river basins High flood peaks are coupled with a strong slope of the watershed plus the fact that the river is narrow with limited flood handling capacity. Floods as a result of typhoon rain is unimodal, whereas flood peak during the rainy season are rather irregular. Single flood peaks usually last one day, sometimes 2 days, starting 2 to 3 hours after the termination of the storm peak.

196. Flood Calculation: Taking into account that the watersheds in the project area is belong to small-sized rivers in mountain areas, the flood comes and goes quickly, the approach of design flood calculation may follow a variety of methods. Four approaches can be distinguished: (i) Based on the measured discharge rate at a reference hydrological station, (ii) Regional comprehensive method, (iii) The inference formula method whereby the rainstorm data are used to calculate flood, (iv) The hydrologic analogy approach. Which kind of approach is considered depends on the hydrological data available, and the catchment area above the stream. From the point of view of engineering safety, after the economic analysis, the calculation resulting in the largest flood will be adopted as the design.

4. Drainage calculation

197. Drainage standards follow the "Fujian urban drainage design drainage Interim Provisions "Min hydropower (1997)Water No 926 issued by Fujian Provincial Department of Water Resources and Hydropower. According to this document, the drainage standard for township protection should adopt the standard of a flood occurring once in 3-years, and for farmland protection a flood with a 5-year return period. Drainage calculation: The dike embankment in some places is lower than the designed flood level, so waterlogging may exist. Therefore, a drainage system is required. And drainage culvert facilities should be set up according to the guidelines resulting from its planned use of protected areas.

5. Main technical outcomes from the preliminary design report

198. The main contents of this report are: (i) Hydrology assessment, (ii) Engineering geology assessment; (iii) Layout and main buildings. (iv) Construction.

199. Hydrology Assessment. This is a major task for river’s rehabilitation works and flood management. Main components of the assessment are: (i) Hydrology data collection and data analysis, (ii) Design flood calculation; (iii) Calculation of water surface line of the design flood; (iv) Hydrology assessment for waterlogging areas.

200. Regarding the calculation of water surface lines, it includes: (i) layout of backwater sections,(ii) defining the river bed roughness, (iii) defining the starting section and calculation of starting water level; (iv) the selection of water line calculation; (v) flow calculation at curve places; (vi) calculation of water level difference for water diversion dams; (vii) the analysis of backwater at bridges and gates.

6. Layout and Main Construction Buildings

201. Contents of engineering layout and main construction buildings includes; (i) Setting of design standards and criterions; (ii) Studying anti-flood bank lines and layout of embankments; (iii) Building of crosses; (iv) Dredging and cleaning rivers.

7. Design Standard

202. The preliminary design report adopts existing domestic sections of "dyke engineering design specification" (GB50286-2013), "flood control standard” (GB50201-94), "Urban Flood Control design specification" (GB/T50805-2012) and "preliminary design guidance to medium and small-sized river management project" (Water-related design, No. 277 [2011]), and other relevant regulations and documents. The flood prevention standard has been identified as a 10yearreturn period in Liuxi Creek. Flood management standard in each of the creeks is in compliance with the regulation of "Fujian urban drainage design Interim Provisions" (Min. hydropower [1997] Water No. 296), and considers the actual location, the objects to be protected and their scope.

8. Identification of flood control of the shoreline and embankment layout

203. Flood control shoreline identification principles: (1) according to the hydrology, topography, geology and the stability of creeks of existing riverbank, to select suitable river width and shape, to meet flood prevention safety and compliance with the law of riverbed evolution, to select the most economic viable shoreline layout; (2) selected shorelines should obey the banks that sought for smooth flowing, the bank direction should conform to mainstream of flood and suitable wild beach should be remained to reduce erosion and siltation. (3) flood control shoreline should be selected at high topography places, have good terrain condition and a sustainable beach, and to consider the existing advantageous terrain, revetment, which is convenient for management, maintenance and flood relief. (4) land development and utilization should also be considered under the premise to ensure flood safety.

204. Dike type selection: according to the terrain, geological conditions of the local situation and the foundation and embankment material, to minimize removal and land appropriation, the retaining wall of the dyke type is based on gravity retaining wall pattern analysis. The elevation of the top of the dike: the elevation of the top of the dike should be designed based on by flood level plus extra height above the top of dike. Extra height above the top of dike is compost by designed wave raising height, backwater raising and security heightening. The elevation of the top of the dike is determined by the design flood level plus the extra height above.

9. Road Surface of Top of Dike

205. In order to reduce land occupied, this will be combined with the development of urban and rural construction that will be more convenient for management and maintenance. The road will be paved with concrete to combine flood protection and road planning.

10. Stability and Stress Calculation for Embankment Retaining Wall

206. Skid resistance and anti-overturning stability of embankment retaining wall is calculated by adopting the relevant provisions in Appendix F of "dike design specifications" (GB50386-2013). Low riverbed elevation and a representative cross-section of embankment have been selected to review the calculation of skid resistance and anti-overturning stability of embankment retaining wall.

11. Seepage Stability and Scour Resistance Calculation

207. If the design flood level is slightly lower or the same as the existing ground level, there is no seepage stability issue, so no stability analysis will be needed. Scour resistance design to the dike foot: design of prevention dike foot from scouring, calculation of the minimum size of rock material for protection of the dike foot.

12. Drainage Culverts and culvert Design

208. Make full use of the existing drainage ditches nearby based on the proportion of drainage area, the construction of drainage ditches should follow the principal of available nearby, dispersed, fast discharge. Furthermore, two sides along the embankment and the farmland distributed in the protected area, and township development plan and duties of conduct works should also be considered comprehensively to design the trans-dike drainage culverts and culverts, which include the identification of size of drainage culverts and culvert size.

13. Crossings

209. Transition capacity of bridges in the river section has been conducted. For those ones that will not meet the discharge capacity, specific approaches should be taken for improvement. Sandbags will be applied when the flood level is reaching to above the designed level. Therefore, cross-building component will not affect the closure of the flood control system.

14. Roads

210. A farm road is mainly used on field, connecting towns and village road. Together with tractor road, as far as possible with the combination of slope water works to prevent erosion. Section design (Table 17) should as far as possible balance the cut and fill earthwork and avoid large volume of cut and fill. The tractor road should be as straight as possible. Sharp turns should be avoided. Farm track pavement should be above the ground around 0.25m.

211. In order to facilitate access of farm machinery to the farming plots, connecting ramps and farmland access roads have to be set up. Where the connecting ramps will cross irrigation channels, reinforced concrete cover has to be used to avoid damage. Designated locations have to be arranged giving space for vehicles to pass each other.

212. Farm bridge design: Because there are many rivers throughout the project area, a number of farm bridges should be built across rivers, forming a ring road network.

213. Four types of roads can be distinguished: tractor road (cement), tractor road (gravel), field operation road (cement or gravel), field tracks (dirt or grass). Well-designed roads are convenient for field management and effectively reduce labor requirements. Control road slope ratio 3-15%, turning radius is not less than 12m. Concrete pavement is recommended where risk for damage by erosion is high.

Table 13: Field road design indicators Width of Height above Type of Contact Width of Traffic situation road base the farmland road range road (m) (m) (m) Plots and Agricultural vehicles Tractor road branch road, and medium-sized 3-4 4-5.5 0.3-0.5 (Field Road) rural road agricultural machinery Tractor road Plots and Small agricultural (Production terraces 2-3 2.6-3.6 0.1-0.3 operations Road) connected Source: Domestic feasibility study reports, 2015.