THE BLUE COAT HISTORY MAGAZINE

MAY/JUNE 2020

Welcome to this month’s edition of the Blue Coat History Magazine!

This month, we interviewed Ms Holland on her history hero, Jasper Tudor and history villain, Henry VIII. Many students across the school got involved in our inaugural history competition – the question was “If 1066 is said to be the most important date in English history, what is the equivalent in another country?”. The winning entries were:

• Year 7-8: Shamal Harave, on India • Year 9-10: George Ke, on Morocco • Year 11-12: Abby Fortune, on Cambodia.

Our historical person of the month, written by Emily Maloney, is Shirley Chisholm, the first black congresswoman and presidential nominee. Inside, Holly Hunter sheds light on how the black power movement influenced the civil rights movement, and Gabriel Haywood describes the Toxteth riots over racial profiling by our city’s police in the 1980s. Also included is a film review of Platoon by Hillary Small, and a piece by Lucy Reade analysing riots that changed the world. In honour of Pride Month, Ruby Dunbar gives insight into the Stonewall Riots that took place in 1969.

Many thanks to all involved, and hope you enjoy reading this edition!

Kimberley Cota (Editor)

HISTORY HERO: JASPER TUDOR 1431-1495 An Interview with Ms Holland Edmund Tudor, who later married Margaret Beaufort in a political marriage, Jasper faced What makes Jasper Tudor a hero to you? a constant combination of intrigue, conspiracy and battle. These were themes I have always been fascinated by the which permeated his life and were familiar character of Jasper Tudor: even his name features of the intrigues me. Shrouded in mystery, with no ‘dog eat dog’ existing portrait and frustratingly minimal world in evidence for someone so important, which he historians have speculated and made lived: so, deductions to fill in the gaps. Born into the unlike the midst of the intense friction and rivalry political world leading to the Wars of the Roses, he was of today! His surrounded by the ‘movers and shakers’ of father was his time. He was the son of Catherine of beheaded and Valois, widow of Henry V, and Owen Tudor, his brother a Welsh clerk. Half-brother to the died of plague Lancastrian Henry VI and brother to in prison. Considering Jasper’s precarious coronation: a huge privilege and honour. He situation, was it luck or his ability to avoid was one of the closest advisers to the new defeat and capture that led to his survival? I Tudor king. He crushed rebellions at the believe that his skills and strategic thinking start of Henry’s reign, defeating Lovell and enabled him to ‘live and fight another day’. the Stafford brothers in 1486 and the supporters of Lambert Simnel, at East Stoke Jasper lived a life of extreme contrasts: one in 1487. day he had titles and land, another he was fleeing for his life, being in exile at least Jasper died in 1495 at the age of 64 without twice. As the Earl of Pembroke, he lived at any heirs and ironically, having dedicated the magnificent Pembroke Castle: it was his life to building the foundations of the here that the 13-year-old Margaret Tudors, his tomb was destroyed at Beaufort gave birth to a son: Henry Keynsham Abbey during the Tudor. Jasper spent the rest of his Jasper lived a suppression of the monasteries. life protecting his nephew against life of Jasper was a risk taker, dependable, the threats presented by the Yorkist extreme single-minded and steadfast. enemy. In 1472 Henry Tudor contrasts: one Without Jasper, there would have became the Lancastrian heir to the day he had not been a Tudor Dynasty and ‘this throne; the Yorkist King, Edward IV, titles and sceptred isle’ would have lost a needed to destroy Henry Tudor who land, another significant aspect of our culture and was now very vulnerable. Jasper he was fleeing history. whisked Henry away to Brittany, for his life, keeping him safe from the clutches being in exile What was one moment that defined of the Yorkists and certain death. at least twice. his life? Compare this to contemporary Jasper’s landing at Mill Bay, nephews, who, allegedly, had a very Pembrokeshire with Henry Tudor in 1485 different relationship with their uncle, and taking the unexpected route to England Richard III . . . but that’s another story. through the centre of Wales: his links to Jasper was a great military leader and an Wales were very strong and a significant exponent of guerrilla warfare. He gained an number of powerful Welsh nobles, such as impressive reputation in his home country Rhys ap Thomas, committed themselves to as a loyal, reliable, resilient leader and the Tudor’s attempt to seize the throne from relationships he developed were to reap the Yorkist, King Richard III. Without this rewards in 1485. Travelling through Wales, support, it is likely that Henry wouldn’t he gained much needed and unwavering even have got to battle, let alone won at support from the Welsh nobility as Henry Bosworth. Tudor made his path to Bosworth. After the If you could meet Jasper, what would you Tudor victory at Bosworth, Jasper was ask him? rewarded richly by his nephew with a title, lands and marriage to Katherine Woodville. Come on Jasper: the truth now, are you He carried the King’s crown at his nephew’s Henry’s father? HISTORY VILLAIN: HENRY VIII 1491-1547 What makes Henry VIII a villain to you?

Where do I stop? power struggles in his court. He ordered the Henry VIII was a destruction of hundreds of beautiful bully who did buildings, the melting down of hundreds of anything to get rare objects and the ripping up hundreds of his own way. exquisite manuscripts, lost forever. He was Born in 1491, he vindictive and mean to those who worked spent his for him, despite their loyalty and he turned childhood at on them as soon as he didn’t get what he Eltham Palace, wanted. He executed thousands: at least surrounded by 57,000 died as a result of his orders. doting women, the most significant of Cromwell, one of the greatest forward whom was his mother, Elizabeth of York. thinkers in British History, was executed in Starkey describes him as a ‘mummy’s boy’: 1540, despite his last plea to Henry, written spoilt, indulged, used to women doing his from his prison cell: ‘mercy, mercy, mercy’. bidding. Starkey believes that this could explain his attitude to women in his later Henry left a pile of detritus for his children years although Henry was, like all of us, a to sort out and his break with Rome, the product of his time. Henry was educated by Brexit of 1534, had massive consequences two of the finest teachers and thinkers of for generations to come. his day: Erasmus and Thomas More. He was charming, engaging, physically beautiful and gifted in music, jousting, dancing and riding: in effect, The Renaissance Prince. What went so wrong? He became King at 18 and inherited money from his father: it was party time.

On becoming King in January 1509, he broke away from the chains of his father and forged his own plans for glory. His engagements in Europe were embarrassing and highlighted what a weak strategist he was. He had no major victories and spent If you could meet Henry VIII, what would huge amounts to gorge his pride; this was you ask him? especially true towards the end of this life when his ‘rough wooing’ of Scotland led to When did you realise that getting rid of the debasement of the coinage, causing high Cromwell was a huge mistake? inflation and economic misery. What was one moment that defined their His relationship with women was volatile, life? to say the least. After a jousting accident in 1536 which left him speechless for two The unexpected death of his brother Arthur hours, his character changed and he became in 1502 meant that Henry would now be the unpredictable, cruel, paranoid and heir. This changed his life, and that of tyrannical. He was manipulated easily by thousands of others for ever; this was whoever was whispering in his ear and his especially true for Catherine of Aragon, his marriages were linked to faction and the brother’s widow, whom he married in 1509: the rest, they say, is History. HOW DID THE BLACK POWER MOVEMENT INFLUENCE THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT?

The Civil Rights Movement many facilities for white people clearly prioritised and better equipped. The Civil Rights Movement took place mainly in the 1950s-60s for black people to In 1941, Roosevelt issued Executive Order get equal rights in the law in the United 8802 which opened national defence jobs States. The 14th Amendment to the and other government jobs regardless of Constitution gave black people equal race. In 1948, Truman issued Executive protection under the law, however, many Order 9981 to end discrimination in the white people, especially in the South, were military. These events helped to set angered by this. To marginalise black initiatives to enact racial equality legislation people, Jim Crow laws were established in and incite the civil rights movement. the South. This meant that black people By 1966, the movement had gained couldn’t use the same facilities as white significant momentum, with many people, live in many of the same towns or go Americans embracing non-violent protest to the same schools and interracial against racial segregation. But, for an marriage was illegal. In addition, despite the increasing number of black people, this th 15 Amendment, many black people were strategy didn’t go far enough. They believed unable to vote due to tests. These laws protesting segregation failed to address the weren’t established in the North, but poverty and severe damage that discrimination was still prominent, generations of racism had imposed on black especially in jobs and housing. Moreover, Americans. Inspired by Malcolm X, whose Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 upheld the assassination in 1965 had brought even constitutionality of racial segregation under more attention to his ideas, the Black Power the ‘separate but equal’ doctrine. This did movement flourished in the 1960s and 70s. not prove to be equal in the slightest, with The movement wanted black Americans to progressing quicker and took a stronger focus less on integrating into a white- stand against discrimination. dominated society and instead create power of their own. Instead of using King’s non- King and Carmichael started an alliance violent protest strategy, they embraced again in 1968, with both movements Malcolm X’s focus on pursuing equality and supporting MLK’s Poor People’s campaign justice “by any means necessary.” which called for an end to poverty. King’s assassination brought riots country-wide, The March Against Fear with grief expressed from both movements. Later that year, one of the most visible Black These movements were shown to be Power demonstrations, which caused parallel forces at the March Against Fear in controversy from the media, was at the Mississippi, June 1966. This march was Olympics in Mexico where black athletes started by James Meredith to promote voter John Carlos and Tommie Smith raised black- registration for black people and protest gloved fists on the podium. discrimination. A white gunman shot Meredith, causing MLK, Stokely Carmichael With many black Americans deciding to of the SNCC and Floyd McKissick of CORE to support the Black Power movement instead, continue the march in his name. Marchers it can be argued that this movement were harassed by local white people and encouraged King to make advancements law enforcement continuously throughout. within the civil rights movement and begin On June 16, Carmichael led the crowd, to take larger and more public stands starting a chant of ‘We want Black Power!’ against discrimination. which was a stark contrast from the civil rights movement’s ‘We want freedom!’ Even today, severe discrimination chant. Carmichael was the first to use the against black people exists both in term ‘Black Power’ as a political slogan in America and world-wide. At a time like such a public way. Many historians believe this it has become even more this decision enabled him to ‘take over’ important to educate yourself on these MLK’s position as the voice of black events and hope to change this for the Americans. This prominence in the media next generation. caused backlash among MLK’s supporters, “If you are neutral in situations of with many frustrated by the idea of violent injustice, you have chosen the side of protests. The civil rights movement began the oppressor.” to lose momentum, with many young black Americans opting to support the Black - Desmond Tutu Power movement as many believed this was

Holly Hunter HISTORICAL FIGURE OF THE MONTH

hirley Chisholm was the first African- woman of a major party to run for a American woman to be elected to presidential nomination. S Congress and was the first black Chisholm was born in 1924 in Brooklyn, New York, to Caribbean parents; however, she spent the majority of her childhood living in Barbados with her grandmother. After moving back to the US in 1936, Chisholm attended Brooklyn College, where she was a member of the Harriet Tubman Society. Here, she advocated for the desegregation of the military, college courses focusing on black history, and the involvement of more women in the student All those Chisholm hired for her office were government. Chisholm had been introduced women and half of these were black. She to activism from an early age: her father said that she faced much more was a dedicated supporter of the rights of discrimination during her legislative career trade union members. She graduated with due to her gender, as opposed to her race. her Bachelor of Arts in 1946, and began her Chisholm became the first African-American career as a teacher, earning a Master’s woman to make a bid to be President of the degree from Colombia University in 1952. United States when she ran for the Whilst running a day-care centre from Democratic nomination in 1972, as well as 1953-1964, Chisholm became interested in the first woman to ever run for the local politics, and formed the basis of her Democratic Party’s presidential nomination. political career, working as a volunteer for Her campaign was underfunded and she white-dominated political clubs in struggled to be regarded as a serious Brooklyn. From 1965-1968, Chisholm was a candidate; she was ignored by much of the Democratic member of the New York State Democratic political establishment and Assembly, where some of her early received little support from her black male activities were getting unemployment colleagues. During her campaign three benefits extended to domestic workers and confirmed threats were made against her arguing against the state’s literacy test, life. which were administrated to prospective voters and effectively disenfranchised Although Chisholm was not elected as the African-Americans. In 1968, she was elected Democratic nominee in 1972, she was a as the Democratic National large support base, which included the Committeewoman from New York State. National Organisation for Women and famous activists such as Betty Friedan and In 1968, Chisholm became the first black Gloria Steinem. congresswoman and began the first of 7 terms. She was assigned to the House After leaving Congress, Chisholm resumed Agricultural Committee, where she met her career in education and wrote two Robert Dole, and worked to expand the food famous books: “Unbought and Unbossed” stamp programme. After spending some (1970) and “The Good Fight” (1973). She time on the Veterans’ Affairs Committee, died on January 1, 2005 after suffering Chisholm was assigned to the much-prized several strokes. Education and Labour Committee. When she retired from Congress she was the third highest-ranking member of this committee. Emily Maloney

THE FIRST BATTLE OF PANIPAT, 1526

any fierce battles have been fought Between the 10th and 12th century BC, India M across the world over the centuries, was invaded by Muhammed Ghazni and but only a few have left a lasting impression Muhammed Ghori. Initially defeated by the on the history of the human race. One of great King Prithviraj Chauhan III, these was the First Battle of Panipat. This Muhammad Ghori had retreated but came battle saw the establishment of the Mughal back to avenge his defeat in 1192AD. Empire in India and so changed the very However, he wasn’t able to gain a strong fabric of Indian history and culture. foothold on the whole of the vast Indian subcontinent. Instead, these dynasties were Chandragupta Maurya founded the confined to the north-western areas of Mauryan Empire in India in 321BC in India. Following this, many sultanates Magadha (present day state of Bihar, established by the local Mughal rulers came Eastern India) after defeating the Nanda and went. Dynasty and the Greek/Macedonian empire. He is believed to be the first Emperor who In 1503, the kingdom of Cochin, in South united the vast Indian sub-continent, which Western India, was taken over by the until then was divided up into many small Portuguese who were the first European kingdoms and republics (Janapadas). For settlers in India. Now India had Portuguese many centuries after that, India remained in the South West, the Mughals in the North, united as one big nation, even though there and the Indian Marathas in the South. Sultan were many kingdoms and dynasties within Ibrahim Lodi, of the Delhi Sultanate, was a its different regions. divisive ruler, and had angered his local nobles and alienated them. The local governor of Punjab, Daulat Khan Lodi, invited Babur, the Mughal ruler of Kabul in Afghanistan, to invade India. Babur was a descendant of Timur and an ethnic Uzbek but was unable to rule successfully in Samarkand (now in Uzbekistan) and had travelled South to occupy the present-day Afghanistan and ruled from Kabul. He had already made a few futile attempts at invading Sindh (present day Pakistan) before 1524. Eventually, the infighting within the Delhi Sultanate, made it possible for Babur to succeed. Although he only had an army of 10,000 men, that could be heavily outnumbered, he made sure that they were well equipped and superbly trained before he finally invaded. He not only trained his soldiers in using gunpowder weapons, but also maintained their skills in traditional warfare. Only at the very end of 1525 did he embark on his invasion. The betrayal of the local population helped Babur in killing the Lodi Sultan in the First Battle of Panipat. Babur had the advantage of possessing gunpowder India, the Mughals destroyed many majestic weapons, which Ibrahim Lodi lacked. Hindu temples and other places of worship. Furthermore, the sound of the cannons A number of Hindu practices were banned. frightened the elephants of Lodi which Many Indian centres of art and learning trampled his own men! were destroyed and brutally targeted. These included ancient universities in Kashi Some say that Ibrahim Lodi was unfairly (Varanasi or Benares). The Mughals literally defeated because his people betrayed him; looted India, leaving it in a mess with a huge on the other hand, he was the one who debt on her hands. Under the Mughal rule, alienated them. India was ripe for the picking of any nation Babur succeeded in establishing his rule in that chose to invade. the Indian sub-continent. Although many Some people may argue that the British rule Mughal dynasties ruled parts of North India before Babur, he was the first invader who of India was the most important event in successfully occupied much of the vast land, Indian history; however, had the Mughals both North and South. The Mughals are not invaded India, leaving them weak and in credited with many contributions to the huge debt, there possibly wouldn't have local life and culture in India including the been any British colonisation! This is why, I introduction of an early version of the tax consider that the First Battle of Panipat in system, contribution to language, art and 1526 was the most significant in Indian culture including architecture. history. However, they were also the cause of much destruction and decimation of the rich Indian culture and heritage. Whilst invading Shamal Harave

THE TOXTETH RIOTS

n 3 June 1981, Merseyside police O arrested a black man in an unnecessarily heavy-handed way. A minor fight broke out between onlookers and police which escalated over the weekend into the L8 riots in which large scale battles were fought between police and protestors throwing petrol bombs and paving slabs. brought in from other cities to control the The police responded with the first use of crowds. CS gas grenades in the UK outside Northern Ireland where they were used in the Ever since the early 20th century, Troubles and, in another attempt to Liverpool had been in decline as Britain’s disperse the protests, drove vehicles at high trade moved away from the city’s docks to speeds into the crowds, killing one man and the East coast to transport goods to and injuring others. By the time the riot ended, from Europe more easily. After Clement 500 arrests had been made and up to 1000 Attlee’s post-war government introduced police injured, many of whom had been the British Nationality Act in 1948 to buildings had been damaged so badly by restock Britain’s depleted workforce, petrol bombs that they had to be everyone living in British colonies was demolished. given citizenship of the United Kingdom. As a result, Liverpool and the rest of the In the aftermath of the L8 riots, country saw high levels of immigration Margaret Thatcher allowed Liverpool to go from the Caribbean. Under the 1824 ‘sus into ‘managed decline’ knowing that the law,’ police had the power to carry out stop Conservative Party would never win an and searches based on suspicion alone. All election there anyway, a policy which took across Britain these new black communities the city decades recover from economically. were subject to discrimination by the police On 27 August 1981 the ‘sus law’ was who disproportionately used stop and repealed and the Scarman Report, which searches on ethnic minorities. Despite mass had been commissioned to investigate the backlash against this racial profiling, the Brixton riots before being expanded to Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir David cover all of the 1981 race riots, concluded McNee further stoked tensions by insisting that the Toxteth riot was the result of that black people were ‘over-represented in poverty and deprivation. offences of robbery and other violent theft.’ Gabriel Haywood Britain in the early 1980s faced several riots including one in Brixton a few months prior with up to 5000 people involved. The Toxteth riots coincided with a number of other disturbances in Manchester, Leeds, and Birmingham.

Sparked by the arrest of Leroy Alphonse Cooper and general dissatisfaction with the police, the L8 riots continued for almost a month until 28 July by which time 70

CAMBODIA, 1975 1066, a year of 3 kings and the legendary which was set to define the course of Battle of Hastings seeing an end to Edward Cambodian history for centuries to come. the Confessor’s reign and paving the way for a new Norman rule in the form of The 20th Century proved to have disastrous William the Conqueror. 1066 was the consequences for Cambodia, occupied by catalyst for transforming English society in the Japanese during WW2, subsequently line with contemporary continental gaining independence in 1953 after almost developments, fusing English culture with a century of French decree. Despite its the foreign French language and lifestyle, neutral stance in the brutal Vietnam War, introducing a revolutionized aristocracy. this offered the impoverished country little England was at the dawn of a new historical protection from joint ARVN/US bombing era. Whilst William’s invasion was arguably campaigns in attempts to flush out Vietcong. beneficial to England’s past history of It’s safe to assume that Cambodia holds a corruption, revolution doesn’t always bring rather somber backstory leading up to about desirable social reform. With this in 1975. It’s the events that later prevailed mind, let us advance to 1975, the year however, that puts the abuses against Cambodians into a new, horrific dictatorships, with the Vietnamese perspective. increasing their influence throughout the 15th Century and the arrival of European 1975 saw the upheaval of the Lon Nol colonies during the 19th Century. However, Government, ushering in the Khmer Rouge it’s the events which stemmed from the under the control of Marxist, Pol Pot. What Khmer Rouge’s usurpation which have most came next can only be viewed as a socialist drastically impacted on Cambodia’s history. misery. Pot was infatuated with the The massacres of Pot’s era has induced the ideology of an agrarian communist utopia trauma of a nation, creating a strikingly and over the next 4 years of Khmer rule young population with only 3.6% of executed one fifth of Cambodia’s Cambodian’s above the age of 65. The population, demonstrating the worst mass country lives with 35% below the poverty killings of recent history sponsored by the line and whilst the 1979 invasion of socialist government’s genocidal efforts. Pol Vietnamese troops freed the country from Pot rewrote Cambodia’s timeline, branding Pol Pot’s fatal ensnarement, reopening 1975 the ‘Year Zero’, stripping the country international communication could only do of its name introducing instead so much for reconstructing the government. ‘Kampuchea’ and isolating the country from Pol Pot installed the mantra “to keep you is international relations. Drastic no gain, to destroy you is no loss”, such transformations occurred within impersonal cruelty imposed on an entire Cambodia’s socio-economic policies. Private country will inevitably have consequences, property and money were abolished whilst both politically but also personally, on the 2 million urban civilians were forcibly survivors required to live with the haunting moved to the countryside to endure forced events which stemmed from 1975. Despite agricultural labour all in attempts to seek the heinous nature of Pot’s crimes, the only ‘perfect harmony’. Basic freedoms were retribution he faced was life imprisonment curtailed and religion banned, torturing and in his jungle hideout, a tauntingly executing hundreds of thousands of unsubstantial punishment for someone educated middle class civilians filling 2000 who's crimes wiped out at least 1.7 million mass graves with Christians and Cambodians. The killing fields of intellectuals. Over the course of the Khmer communism have lingered on years after Rouge’s rule, the government confiscated the mass genocide of the Khmer Rouge’s lands, shut businesses and rationed food regime, giving effective weight to the creating collectivised communes to argument that 1975 is the most important engineer the ‘master race’ with social class year of Cambodian history. deemed completely worthless. The extent of the inhumane horrors of Pot’s communist Abby Fortune regime can be most rawly witnessed in the activities of execution centres established like S-21. ‘Re-education’ was the phrase coined by the Khmer Rouge to justify their starving and exploitation of an entire country, demolishing not only individualism and culture of Cambodians but of the nation itself. It’s visibly apparent the calamitous influence the year 1975 had on later Cambodian history.

But why is 1975 the most pivotal year? Cambodia is no stranger to invasion and .

THE STONEWALL RIOTS s June is Pride Month and is dedicated to the celebration of LGBTQ people and Acommunities, as well as advocacy for their rights, it is important to remember the roots of this event, which is now celebrated by millions across the world.

The Stonewall Riots took place from 28 June – 3 July 1969, at the Stonewall Inn, which was located on Christopher Street in New York’s Greenwich Village – the hub of LGBTQ life in the city. The Stonewall Inn acted as a safe haven for all LGBTQ people in the area as it was a place they could truly express themselves while living in a time when public acts of a homosexual nature and ‘masquerading’ as a member of the opposite sex were illegal. Like all other gay Rivera, who were transgender women of bars at the time, the Stonewall Inn was colour, are also regarded as prominent accustomed to police raidings, but as the figures in the Riots, and it is vital that we establishment was Mafia-owned they would acknowledge the immense contribution often be informed prior to these occurring these women gave to the LGBTQ movement, and were able to minimise damage. as the voices of black people and other people of colour are repeatedly silenced and However, on the night of 28 June, eight their actions deliberately disregarded, both plainclothes police officers entered the within the LGBTQ community and in society Stonewall Inn and arrested thirteen people as a whole. – these were employees of the bar as well as cross-dressing customers, such as drag The Stonewall Riots continued for five days queens. They were handled very after the initial raid; protestors threw aggressively by the police, with brutality pennies, bottles and stones at the police, towards LGBTQ people by the police having and were met with tear gas and beatings already been inflicted on countless from officers. Anger was further amplified occasions prior to the Riots. by homophobic news coverage of the events at Stonewall, and on 2 July there were Although there are several differing masses of LGBTQ protestors gathered accounts of the precise events of the around the offices of the Village Voice in Stonewall Riots, it is widely agreed upon response to their use of slurs when that Stormé DeLarverie, a black lesbian reporting on the riots. dressed in typically masculine attire, was beat on the head by an officer whilst being The Stonewall Riots are regarded as a forced into a police van, and that her critical turning point in the campaigns for imploration of the crowd gathered outside LGBTQ equality and visibility. The Riots the Inn to ‘do something’ was the trigger paved the way for organisations such as the that caused riots to erupt. Along with Gay Liberation Front, which was explicitly DeLarverie, Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia and proudly an LGBT body that denounced racism and found footing across the USA, as the legalisation of same-sex marriage in well as in the UK and Canada. Also, the first twenty-nine countries and the recognition pride parade, known as Christopher Street of transgender and non-binary identities. Liberation Day, was held in New York on Many countries now embrace the LGBTQ the one year anniversary of the Stonewall members of their societies, and the changes Riots, 28 June 1970, and they have since that have occurred in the last fifty years been held every year in many different were undoubtedly catalysed by the countries. Stonewall Riots.

Since the events of 1969, there have been Ruby Dunbar huge progressions in the rights of LGBTQ people, from the decriminalisation of homosexuality in numerous countries, to

MOROCCO, 788

n Christmas Day of 1066, William of diverse history, ranging from ancient O Normandy became King of England Roman and Berber sites to modern following three momentous battles and architecture from French colonialism. three kings in the same year - a critical However, Islamic architecture is the style moment within English history. With the most prevalent today. Homes, mosques and Norman invasion came an influence in palaces display Islamic features such as architecture, widespread religion, as well as zellige tiling, geometric design and the development of the English language. arabesques. Today in Morocco, famous Similarly, in 788, Idris I founded the Idrisid landmarks like the Hassan II Mosque, the dynasty, what would become modern-day Bahia Palace and the Ksar of Ait-Ben- Morocco. The founding was the result of the Haddou were all built with Islamic elements Muslim conquest of the Maghreb which also in mind. Moroccan architecture brings brought an influence in architecture and the insight into the cultural heritage and the spread of Islam and Arabic to the previously Muslim identity a majority of Moroccans Roman ruled Berber population. The carry. For example, repeated geometric equivalent of "1066 in England" for another patterns represent the infinite power of country must have an indisputable Allah, a belief strongly held among significance on the country's culture to Moroccans, as a result of 788. This is why qualify as such. "788 in Morocco" is equivalent to "1066 in England". First and foremost, both events produced distinct changes in mainstream architecture. The Normans, for instance, introduced various castles and fortifications while also reconstructing small wooden Anglo-Saxon churches to large scale Romanesque cathedrals characterised by large arches with chevron patterns. Many Norman cathedrals and castles in England today are still present and are even considered points of interests such as Oxford Castle, Durham Cathedral and St John's Chapel within the Tower of London. Meanwhile, Moroccan architecture has shifted numerous times as a result of its Secondly, both events lead to a shift in have taken a different evolutionary path, religious views. Lanfranc, William's new had it not been for the Normans’ archbishop, made several church reforms enrichment of vocabulary. Likewise, the such as the substitution of most English Muslim conquest of the Maghreb brought bishops with Norman clergy as well as the Arabic language to the Roman-ruled challenging simony and ordering stricter Berber population, who previously spoke obedience. In a like manner, the Muslim Berber alongside Latin. Although Moroccans conquest of the Maghreb erected mosques today use French as a lingua franca for and popularized Islam to the previously business, diplomacy and the government, Roman ruled Christian Berber population the vast majority (90 per cent) speak which slowly converted over time. Today in Moroccan Arabic, a language derived from Morocco, Islam is universally present with the Maghrebi Arabic family with influence 42,000 constructed mosques and from the Berber language, for casual 99 per cent of the population discourse and conversation. Language identifying as Muslim. Therefore, has an important social function and The Arabic Islam guides many laws and fosters feelings of group identity and policies in Morocco. For instance, language solidarity, as a means of the Qur'an forbids alcohol establishes communicating values, beliefs and consumption, so serving alcohol the Arab and customs. The Arabic language to others is illicit. Islam Islamic establishes the Arab and Islamic additionally influences the values identity identity within Moroccan society and celebrations of Moroccan brought by the Muslim conquest. This within society. The Salat (the daily is why "788 in Morocco" is equivalent obligatory five prayers of Islam) Moroccan to "1066 in England". together with the celebrations of society Ramadan and Eid greatly affect brought by In conclusion, the Norman invasion of the timetable of Moroccan the Muslim 1066 brought a wave of influence in business, work and trade. This is conquest. architecture, religion and language. comparable to how Christianity in Similarly, the founding of the Idrisid England has influenced laws with dynasty from the Muslim conquest public holidays based on Christian also influenced the same factors with events such as Christmas and Easter. This is Arabs spreading the Arabic language and why "788 in Morocco" is equivalent to Islam to Morocco. The development of "1066 in England". Morocco would likely have taken a different evolution had it not been for the spread of Lastly, both events contributed to the Islam and Arabic from immigrating Arabs. evolution of the main language in both Therefore, I believe "788 in Morocco" countries. During Norman rule, around qualifies for the equivalent of "1066 in 10,000 French words poured into English England". from the French holding positions of power. George Ke Today, many French words are still present within the English language; English would THE FILM REVIEW

nder quarantine, I found myself with panoply of iconic films that the war U lots of time on my hands. Enough time, produced: Apocalypse Now, Full Metal in fact, to watch all 18 hours of the fantastic Jacket, Platoon, and others. These films gave Ken Burns documentary about the Vietnam War. Once I had digested more Vietnam- related information than I could ever reasonably use, I became interested in the me a much more personal insight into the hatred towards traumatic experiences a generation of men the Vietnamese, shared, as well as the toll it takes on a and the person’s psyche. destructions of food and Platoon (1986) follows a young American livelihood soldier who enlists to be an infantryman. which was Although he volunteers to go to Vietnam, common when he is stationed near the Cambodian practice. border he quickly realizes his mistake. Instead of Weak leadership, brutal warfare and a trying to dense jungle slowly unhinge certain convince the soldiers and cleave deep divides within his viewer that own platoon. The film not only serves as a these soldiers bleak depiction of war, but also raises are the epitomy of patriotism and American questions about morality and patriotism. heroism, the film invites you to weigh for One of the most striking things about the yourself what kind of peace military film is the intense disproportion of black or presence and civilian deaths will produce. Is working class young men who had been it really ‘peace with honour’ as Nixon drafted. The Vietnam draft was notoriously insisted? imbalanced in favour of the upper and This film is vital viewing for anyone with an middle class, leaving the uneducated interest in modern warfare or American working class to be sent off to combat and history. Although most are well-educated return with few employment opportunities. about the World Wars, the proxy battles of Chris, the central figure of the film, is in fact the Cold War period are often not given the an educated middle class white man who is same attention, despite the extreme there by choice, much like Oliver Stone, the political and social change they brought director of the movie. It is clear that Stone about. If you want to know more in depth draws on his own experience and subtly about the background of the war or the highlights the constant tension between the political climate of America at the time, the white, conservative soldiers with Ken Burns documentary is a phenomenal confederate flags on their wall, and the limited series exploring all aspects of the black draftees, to whom Chris grows closer. conflict (if you have the patience). Not only What sets Platoon out from other American is Platoon a piece of classic war cinema, but war movies is that it seems unafraid to it is also a valuable insight into the cost of question the value of America’s presence in war paid by regular people, millions of Vietnam. A disturbing scene in a village whom are alive today. shows senior, respected American soldiers Hillary Small attempt to brutalize an entire village out of

RIOTS THAT CHANGED THE WORLD ast week, the murder of an unarmed the riots that occurred after Martin Luther L black man in Minneapolis caused mass King’s assassination, activists agree that riots all over the United States and across George Floyd’s killing is the tipping point in the globe, from Perth to Tel Aviv. Likened to the war against police brutality. Although many protests have been peaceful, critics the birthplace of the modern Labour are condemning those who choose to act movement. aggressively, claiming that violent rallies have never changed anything and will only The Stonewall riots, on the other hand, were exacerbate the tension between police and undoubtedly violent and had intent to campaigners. To put this argument in injure. Throughout the 50’s and 60’s, perspective, let’s look at 2 protests homosexuality was still considered sodomy that changed the world; one and was illegal across the United peaceful and one violent. It has to be States. Gay bars were havens for recognised those in the LGBT community, who In August 1819 Henry Hunt arrived that change faced discrimination and harassment at St Peter’s field in Manchester to is not daily. The stonewall inn was a an audience of 60,000 men, women brought popular refuge, owned by the mafia and children to advocate his through who bribed the police to look the campaign for universal suffrage. He silent acts of other way and in turn made money was known as the champion of the goodwill, but extorting wealthy patrons by people, demanding the right to vote through the threatening to out them to their for every man and woman, and his hardship families. Despite payoffs, police still “radical” thinking attracted hordes and loss of regularly raided Stonewall, beating of working-class people who felt so many the regulars and charging their government was not martyrs. transgender people for wearing ‘non representative of their needs and gender appropriate clothing’. This values. This prospect of a united underclass, oppression came to a head when nine police marching arm and arm through Manchester officers raided Stonewall on June 28th 1969, reminded the magistrates and elites of the roughly arresting customers and staff. Word French revolution – which had occurred spread and soon hundreds gathered outside only 30 years earlier- and did not wish to the bar to riot, throwing bottles at police see a repeat of it. As staunch supporters of the Tory government, they believed giving voting rights to the uneducated masses was dangerous, and so requested cavalry and private soldiers to break up the protest. Police charged through crowds on horseback, murdering 15 and injuring 600. People of every class were astonished at how committed parliament was to blocking reform, and public opinion quickly turned. The public response to Peterloo was and pushing through the barricades. therefore an important factor to the build- Eventually the officers had to lock up to the great reform act, for it were only themselves inside the bar, to which rioters under the pressure of respectable public responded by setting the building alight. opinion that parliament were persuaded in The officers escaped, but the angry mob had 1832 to grant voting rights to a larger grown to thousands. This large sale protest proportion of British men. As the chartists made a huge impact and brought the continued the struggle for working class beginning of the modern gay movement. rights, we now look back at Peterloo as the The Gay Liberation Front started, publicly beginning of the fight for democracy, and advocating for LGBT rights and they publicly organised the first gay pride parade peacefully like Peterloo, it has to be one year on. In 1984, Berkeley became the recognised that change is not brought first district to recognise same sex unions, through silent acts of goodwill, but through giving the gay rights movement the the hardship and loss of so many martyrs. visibility and momentum that continues Had Martin Luther King, Mohandas Gandhi today. and Emily Davison not given their lives for their causes, the world we live in would be a In both of these cases, blood was shed with much more unjust and morally decrepit or without intention and mark the place today. beginning of less prominent civil rights movements. Whether you believe that the Lucy Reade Stonewall rioters had every right to act with aggression, or that protests should start