The Role of the Sea As Source of Energy Supply in the Italian National Perspective

Dr. Fabio INDEO

The role of the sea as source of energy supply in the italian national perspective

(code AI-SA-05)

INDEX

Abstract p.2 Chapter 1 – The national energy scenario p.5 1.1 Energy demand and source of imports p.5 1.2 National energy security and geopolitical vulnerabilities: the dependence p.8 on energy imports 1.3 The National Energy Strategy and the sea role in the energy production p.12

Chapter 2 – Italian offshore oil and gas production p.17 2.1 The marine zones p.17 2.2 Offshore national production of hydrocarbons and potential reserves p.20 2.3 The propulsive effect on the offshore operations of the 164/2014 law p.24

Chapter 3 – Renewable energy production from the sea p.31 3.1 Offshore wind: National perspective and EU framework p.31 3.2 Energy from the sea: potentialities and perspectives p.37 3.3 Marine algae and biofuel production p.41

Chapter 4 – Energy supply from the sea: future issues and perspectives p.44

4.1 The decision-making process of the “sblocca Italia law and p.44 environmental issues . 4.2 Endogenous hydrocarbons production or energy hub? p.47 4.3 Threats to the energy infrastructures: the role of the Italian Navy as p.49 security provider

Conclusion p.52

Bibliography p.55 List of acronyms p.62 Note on Ce.Mi.S.S. and the Author p.63

Abstract The condition of dependence on hydrocarbon imports represents a common issue shared by the main developed countries in the world, mainly because the domestic energy production is not sufficient to meet the national energy demand. In this scenario, energy importing countries are dangerously exposed to a vulnerability condition: as a matter of fact, potential disruptions of import supply are a serious threat which affects their energy security, even if the negative impact depends on the level of diversification of energy sources. Commonly, the energy security is defined in the consumers countries as “the availability of reliable supplies at affordable price”. In Italy we can observe a similar scenario: even if energy demand is lower than in the past years, the limited endogenous production of oil and natural gas entails a strong and marked condition of dependence on imports (90% for oil and 88% for natural gas imports). National energy security appears threatened by several factors linked to this dependence on imports: the vulnerability of maritime routes which cross the energy chokepoints (such as the Hormuz Strait for oil imports coming from Persian Gulf), the persistent political and social instability which characterize some of the main energy suppliers (mainly natural gas and oil imports from Libya and Algeria following the impact of the so called “Arab spring” events), the confrontation between Russia and Ukraine (strategic transit country crossed by Russian gas exports to Italy, which covers 47% of total Italian gas imports). In order to partially solve this condition of vulnerability linked to the high dependence on energy imports, the Italian Government launched in 2013 the National Energy Strategy, aimed to increase the domestic energy production of oil and gas as well as of renewable sources. A national energy policy focused on these two priorities must be supported by the adoption of a regulatory framework aimed to promote onshore and offshore drilling activities and an endogenous production of oil and gas, as well as to lead preliminary exploration and research activities in order to estimate potential reserves. Furthermore, these targets of the National Energy Strategy are in line with the guidelines of the European Union Commission set in the climate and energy package, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting the production and the use of energy from renewable sources. In a scenario of a rising domestic energy production, the sea could play a key role in the Italian scenario, considering the geo-morphological features of our peninsula - 8.000 km

costs - and its privileged geopolitical position in the heart of the Mediterranean region. Thanks to its geographic location, Italy can dispose of additional areas of its national territory where it can develop exploration activities of hydrocarbons in the sea and test new technologies for the production of energy from renewable sources such as offshore wind, energy produced from the sea (wave energy, tidal energy, tidal current power, tidal range power, etc), algae for the biodiesel production. Moreover, this strategic geographic position also allows Italy to potentially play a significant role as EU natural gas hub, delivering additional gas supply to the European markets (through offshore pipelines and LNG terminals) coming from Caspian region, North Africa or Middle East in order to enhance the EU energy security condition through an efficient diversification strategy. This research is aimed at analysing the Italian energy offshore potential and in which measure the energy from the sea could contribute to enhance the national energy security: a potential increase of the endogenous energy production could entail a related reduction of the dependence on import (with a positive economic impacts on the energy bill) and a greater diversification in the energy mix for the electricity production, with a raising contribution of “clean” energy produced from offshore renewable energy technologies. To realize this research, I analysed official data available on the Italian Ministry of Economic Development website - concerning the national offshore production of hydrocarbons and potential reserves - and the research studies and reports of ENEA and EWEA - on the energy production from the sea – as the starting point to elaborate the future energy scenario and the perspectives related to the possible contribution of the energy from the sea to the national needs. The first chapter outlines the features of the national energy scenario, focusing the condition of dependence on imports and the role of the sea as transit place: 100% of oil imports and 30% of natural gas imports are delivered through oil and LNG tankers, and offshore gas pipelines. Following the launch of the National Energy Strategy, Italy aims to increase the domestic energy production, thus facing the its existing vulnerabilities and enhancing own energy security conditions, also through the exploitation of energy produced from the sea. Chapter two is dedicated at the hydrocarbons offshore potential. Starting from the actual data related to wells in production and reserves estimation, the recent legislative provisions (such as the 164/2014 law, the so called “Sblocca Italia” and also the directives

aiming to enhance safety during sea operation) could represent an incentive for the promotion of offshore prospecting activities. The exploitation of the potential offshore oil and natural gas reserves could allow to increase the national energy production of hydrocarbons, reducing the dependence on imports and strengthening the national energy security. The third chapter is dedicated to the energy produced from the sea, focusing on the offshore renewable energy technologies and their potential implementation in the national scenario: offshore wind, energy produced from the sea (wave power, tidal current power, energy from sea currents, etc), algae for the biodiesel production. On the basis of the different options, the most suitable areas for the development of “clean” electricity deriving from natural elements such as wind and water have been detected. The fourth chapter focuses on the hindrances - environmental ones and related to the lack of consultations and disagreements between governments and local authorities - which could delay or block the exploitation of offshore hydrocarbon reserves and the production of energy from the sea. Moreover, a national energy policy shaped on the development of energy production from the sea could pose some security problems linked to the necessity to protect offshore infrastructures: the Italian Navy could play the role of security guarantor, contributing to the fulfilment and the protection of the national strategic objectives in the energy field. The present research highlights the intrinsic potentialities of the energy production from the sea, even if different problems still exist. The hydrocarbon reserves do not appear sufficient to modify the condition of national dependence on gas and oil imports, if they are not associated with energy saving measures and with the massive contribution of the renewable sources. Electric energy production from the exploitation of wave and tidal current power represent interesting options, able to highly and positively impact the energy demand of small and medium towns, and to contribute both to the production of electricity from green sources – diversifying the mix of used renewables – and to the fulfilment of the objectives set by EU through the climate-energy package.

CHAPTER ONE

The National Energy scenario

1.1 Energy demand and source of imports In 2014 the Italian energy demand was 166.43 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtep), with a decrement of 3.8% compared to 2013. The decreasing primary energy demand - after the peak of consumptions which reached 197,76 Mtep in 2006 and partially recovered in 2010 – has confirmed the negative trend of consumption reduction, representing the lower energy demand in the last 18 years. Several relevant factors have influenced this decreasing national energy demand: among them, the repercussions of the economic recession and crisis and a wider energy efficiency. 1

Graph 1:Total primary Energy consumption by fuel (MISE 2014)

1 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, La situazione energetica nazionale nel 2014, Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico Direzione Generale per la Sicurezza dell’approvvigionamento e le Infrastrutture Energetiche, Luglio 2015, pp. 11-12, http://dgerm.sviluppoeconomico.gov.it/dgerm/downloads/situazione_energetica_nazionale_2014_v4_con _allegati.pdf 5

According to the first graph, two thirds of the Italian total primary energy consumption are covered by fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal), while the share of renewable sources has overtaken 20%, in accordance with the EU energy policy directives based on the reduction of CO2 emissions. In 2014 the oil demand slightly increased (34.4%, compared to 33.7% in 2013) as well as the national imports of electricity (5.7%, compared to 5.4% in 2013), while the natural gas demand decreased (from 33.2% in 2013 to 30.5% in 2014) and the demand of coal was stable (8.2%). Instead, the increasing use of renewable sources highlighted a significant and positive trend, accounting for 21.2 % (compared to 19.5% in 2013).2 In spite of the growth of 2.8% of the national energy production in 2014, we can observe that the domestic production of energy is not homogenous and this follows different trends: the production of natural gas is irreparably declining, while the national production of renewable energy is sharply rising and the domestic production of oil is constantly growing following a positive trend started in 2010.3 In 2014 Italy produced 5.75 million tons of oil (+5% compared to 2013), while the production of natural gas dropped to 7.28 billion cubic metres (- 7.6%), which represented the negative peak of the domestic gas production. At the same time, the Italian energy production deriving from renewable sources is rapidly rising (+4.7%), driven by the growth of hydroelectric production (+8.1%), while the production of coal is stagnant. 4 Nearly 50% of the energy produced by renewable sources is used for heat production, while 45% is allocated for the electricity production and the remaining 5% in the transport sector (mainly biofuel). Water is the renewable source most used to produce electricity, accounting for nearly 50%: solar energy (19-20%), bioenergy (14%) , wind energy (13%) and geothermic energy (5%) are the other sources within the energy mix. In the national demand of electricity water and geothermic energy sources cover 40.9%, while traditional fuels satisfied 44.2 %: moreover Italy imports 14.9% of its electricity needs.5

2 Ibidem 3 Ibidem, p.13 4 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico,La situazione energetica nazionale nel 2014, 2015, p.13 5 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico ,La situazione energetica nazionale nel 2014, 2015, pp.15-17; Terna, Dati Generali, http://www.terna.it/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=z78c0JKUYA4%3d&tabid=418&mid=2501 6

Graph 2:RES shares in the energy mix

In spite of the reduction of the national energy demand, the decreasing domestic production of hydrocarbons has pushed the Italian government to increase oil and natural gas imports, sharpening a dangerous condition of vulnerability which affects the national energy security, given the high dependence on energy imports. In 2014 the decreasing consumption of energy caused a reduction of energy imports (- 5.1%) and the dependence on energy imports decreased from 74.7% in 2013 to 73.6% This trend was particularly evident in the imports of natural gas (-10,1%) and oil (-3.9%): on the contrary, in 2014 imports of electricity increased (+3.7%).6 In 2014 oil imports were lower than 54 million tons (-7.9% compared to 2013): considering that endogenous production of oil satisfies only 10% of the total oil demand, the Italy’s dependence on oil imports accounts for 90%, highlighting a dangerous unbalance and a marked vulnerability in the national energy security condition.7

6 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico,La situazione energetica nazionale nel 2014, 2015, p.13 7 Unione Petrolifera, Relazione Annuale 2015, UP, 2015, p.39, file:///C:/Users/oem/Downloads/Unione%20Petrolifera%20Relazione%20Annuale%202015.pdf 7

Concerning natural gas, in 2014 Italy reduced consumptions from 70.1 billion cubic metres (bcm) in 2013 to 61.9 bcm in 2014 (-11.6%), because of a mild winter season. Even if Italy benefits of a reduction of its gas imports (-10% compared to 2013), the constant decreasing of the domestic production of natural gas keeps unchanged the condition of dependence on gas imports, accounting for 88%.8 We can observe that the Italian vulnerability in its energy security condition is a shared issue with the other countries of the European Union: the decreasing domestic production of natural gas also affects the main EU producers – - 12% in Netherland in the period 2010-2014 and -36% in the United Kingdom in the same period – as well as EU countries are strongly dependent on energy imports in spite of the reduction of consumptions. 9

1.2 National energy security and geopolitical vulnerabilities: the dependence on energy imports The strong dependence on energy imports is considered a vulnerability factor which affects national energy security not only in the economic terms - an increasing portion of the national budget must be allocated to pay energy imports – but also in terms of security of regular supply, mainly if the country is not able to successfully achieve a strategy of geographic diversification of import routes, through the involvement of additional energy suppliers in order to lessen the threat represented by a potential sudden interruption of regular supply. Commonly, the energy security (in the perspective of consumer countries) is defined as the availability of reliable supplies at affordable prices. 10 It is evident that the worsening relations and tensions among states could damage the condition of energy security, triggering sudden interruptions of the energy supply, which are delivered through oil and gas overland pipelines and by maritime routes (oil and Liquefied Natural Gas – LNG – tankers). In the overland energy corridors, the main factor of weakness is represented by the transit in a third country: as a matter of fact, a potential tension between the supplier country and the transit one could push the latter to hinder the energy supply to reach the consumer

8 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico,La situazione energetica nazionale nel 2014, 2015, p.14 9 ISPI Osservatorio di Politica Internazionale, Focus Sicurezza Energetica, No. 21, Gennaio-Marzo 2015, pp. 14-16, http://www.parlamento.it/application/xmanager/projects/parlamento/file/repository/affariinternazionali/osse rvatorio/focus/PI0021.pdf 10 D. Yergin, Ensuring Energy Security, in "Foreign Affairs", vol. 85, No. 2, 2006, pp.69-82 8

markets, with economic damage for both actors. The worsening relations between Russia (main EU energy supplier) and Ukraine (transit country for nearly 60% of Russian imports to EU) clearly explains how the condition of dependence on energy imports affect EU energy security. Furthermore, economic and geopolitical tensions among countries could also affect regular energy supply delivered through maritime routes: in this case, the blockage of the energy chokepoints – geographic bottlenecks – is the main threat, preventing the transit through the existent strategic chokepoints (in the EU perspective) such as Hormuz Strait (between Oman and Iran), Bab el-Mandab (which links the Arabic Sea with the Red Sea) and Suez.11 By analyzing the Italian oil and gas imports through a geographic perspective, we can observe how the strong dependence condition on energy imports exposes Italy to the negative repercussions of the geopolitical instability which frequently affect producer and exporter countries. In the oil imports sphere, the Arab Spring events and the following condition of political instability in North Africa negatively affect one of the main energy supplier for Italy. As a matter of fact, Libya traditionally was the main oil supplier for Italy, thanks to its huge oil reserve and the geographical proximity: given the persistent condition of instability and the existent security threats, Azerbaijan has progressively replaced Libya becoming our first oil supplier accounting for 17.2% of Italian total oil imports. In 2010 (before the Arab Spring events), the geographic source of oil imports was equally balanced, because Middle East, Africa Russia and post soviet countries respectively covered 33% each of the Italian total oil imports. Following the condition of instability linked to the Arab Spring events, Africa and Middle East’s shares respectively decreased to 24.8% and 23.8%, while oil imports from Russia (16.5%) and from Caspian Sea (Azerbaijan 17.2% and Kazakhstan 7.7%) currently accounts for 41% of Italian total oil imports.12 The vulnerability of security supply is linked to the fact that oil imports from the Middle East must obligatory cross three chokepoints: Hormuz - where frequent tensions between Saudi Arabia and Iran could provoke a blockage of the energy transit - , Bab el Mandab –

11 Fabio Indeo, Le minacce sulla sicurezza energetica, in Catia Eliana Gentilucci (a cura di), “Indicatori di rischio alla sicurezza. Dall’analisi all’operatività. Il caso della criminalità organizzata e metropolitana”, Progetto di ricerca congiunto CeMiSS-CEFFS Gruppo di ricerca Università di Camerino, Febbraio 2010, Capitolo 6 12 Unione Petrolifera, Relazione Annuale 2015, pp. 38-39 9

severely threatened by war in Yemen and by Somalian piracy - and Suez, where security and stability depends on the Egypt’s political evolution in the post Mubarak and on terrorist threats of Daesh. Other oil suppliers Angola, Nigeria, Azerbaijan are countries potentially exposed to political and social instability, so regular energy supply are not completely reliable. The Italian natural gas demand is largely met with imports, delivered with gas pipelines and LNG tankers which reach regasification facilities along Italian coast. In 2014 Italy imported 26.15 bcm of natural gas from Russia, which accounted for 47% of Italian total gas imports and satisfied 42% of national demand. Norway, Netherlands, Algeria, Libya are the other gas suppliers for our country. Moreover Italy benefits of three LNG terminals which received supply from Qatar, Egypt, Trinidad and Tobago, Norway, Equatorial Guinea and Algeria. 13

Natural gas, infrastractures and suppliers Infrastructures Suppliers Entry point Capacity Imports in % on total 2014 imports

TAG pipeline Russia Tarvisio 32 bcm 26,15 bcm 47,00%

TRANSITGAS pipeline Norway Passo 18 bcm 11,43 bcm 20,71% and Gries Netherland s

TMPC pipeline Algeria Mazara del 30 bcm 6,78 bcm 12,29% Vallo

Greenstream pipeline Libya Gela 10 bcm 6,51 bcm 11,80%

Panigaglia LNG Algeria 4 bcm 0,02 bcm 0,40% Terminal

LNG Adriatic Terminal Qatar is the Rovigo 8 bcm 4,47 bcm 7,80%

13 SNAM Rete Gas, Piano decennale di sviluppo delle reti di trasporto di gas naturale 2015-2024, Marzo 2015, p. 31, http://www.snamretegas.it/export/sites/snamretegas/repository/file/Anno_termico_2014x15/piano- decennale/consultazione/Piano_decennale_2015-2024.pdf; Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Gas naturale-importazioni, http://www.sviluppoeconomico.gov.it/index.php/it/energia/gas-naturale/importazione 10

main supplier, 4,3 bcm in 2014

OLT LNG Terminal Livorno 5 bcm 0 0 offshore

Total 107 bcm 55,36 bcm 100,00%

Even in this case, by analyzing the geographic provenience of natural gas imports we can observe the vulnerability of the national energy security condition, given the instability of supplier countries. If we exclude gas supply coming from EU – which can be considered “geopolitically safe” and which increased of 40% in 2014 – 70% of Italian total imports are delivered by country affected by instability, due to political and social endogenous factors as well as worsening relations with neighboring transit countries. Libya’s case appears as the most significant example: in 2010 Libya was our third natural gas supplier: however, following the instability and internal conflicts linked to the Gaddafi’s removal gas exports to Italy were completely halted between March and October 2011, exposing Italy’s energy security to a serious threat.14 Even if Libya recovers gas exports capacity, the dependence on North African gas suppliers is particularly dangerous given this condition of high instability, fuelled by factors such as economic and political unsolved issues, the rising presence of jihadist terrorist linked to Daesh, the overwhelming flux of migrants which wish to arrive in the EU. These factors could potentially affect another important North African energy supplier, Algeria. Until 2012 Algeria was the second largest gas supplier for Italy, accounting for over 1/3 (30.8%) of total national imports, delivering 20.82 bcm of natural gas: despite favorable conditions (geographic proximity, huge reserves, an existent pipeline with a capacity of 30 bcm of natural gas per year) in 2014 Algerian exports dropped by two thirds. On the one hand, this evolution is favorable for Italy, allowing our country to lessen the dependence on energy imports from a country affected by unsolved political and economic

14 Fabio Indeo, The geopolitics of Energy in Mediterranean region: regional needs, security, logistics and interdependency. A perspective view. CeMiSS, Progetto di ricerca 2012, Roma, 2012, pp.15-18 11

problems, even if Algeria was able to contain the potential spread of Arab Spring effects in 2011. On the other hand, Algerian gas exports to Italy still represents more than 10% of the national gas demand: consequently, in a scenario of instability leading to a potential halt of exports, Italy should necessarily increase - in the short term - imports from other traditional suppliers, further sharpening the condition of dependence. 15 Considering that Russia is the main gas supplier for Italy - Moscow accounts for 47% of Italian total gas imports - the frequent tensions involving Russia and Ukraine (the main transit corridor to deliver Russian gas to EU) highlights how could be concrete the threat of a sudden halt of energy supply, damaging EU energy security. In order to prevent this threat, it will be necessary the realization of alternative corridors bypassing Ukraine (i.e Turkish Stream pipeline project or the enhancement of the existent North Stream gas pipeline) or to undertake a serious strategy of diversification of imports, trying to reduce the relevance of Russian gas. The vulnerability of the Italian energy system and the dependence on energy imports will be sharpened in the next years: as a matter of fact, Italy should increase the demand of natural gas in order to realize the EU energy and environmental policies to gradually achieve the decarbonisation process, mainly because natural gas is considered a “bridge fuel” to promote the transition from a fossil fuel economy to a clean and green economy based on renewable sources of energy. According to the analysis elaborated by SNAM Rete Gas, in the decade 2015-2014 Italian gas demand should annually rise of 2.1%, in order to support a potential economic reprise, a growth of electricity consumptions and a growing use of the natural gas in the transport sector. In spite of predictions concerning an increase of the domestic natural gas production - from 6-9 bcm to 11.3 bcm - imports will be fundamental to meet the national demand: as a matter of fact, natural gas imports will rise from 55 bcm in 2014 to 73.4 bcm in 2024 pushing Italian government to look for additional 18 bcm to meet internal demand. 16

1.3 The National Energy Strategy and the sea role in energy production The challenge of the Italian government to mitigate its energy vulnerability and dependence on imports could be successfully achieved by increasing domestic energy

15 Ibidem, pp.14-15 16 SNAM Rete Gas, Piano decennale di sviluppo delle reti di trasporto di gas naturale 2015-2024, 2015, pp. 33-34 12

production, both from hydrocarbons and from renewable energies. The sustainable production of domestic hydrocarbons and the development of renewable energies are two priorities action of the National Energy Strategy (NES) – approved on 8 march 2013 – which has been elaborated to address energy policies and future orientations.17 This strategic document speculates that a combination between an increased domestic production - from hydrocarbons and renewable energies (combined with energy efficiency measures) could guarantee an enhaced energy security, a reduced dependence on supply from 84% to 67% and a consequently reduction of the so- called external energy bill of about €14 billion per year (compared to the current 44,25 billion). It is important to underline the reduction of more than 20% of the national cost for energy supply from abroad in 2014 - compared to 2013 (56 billion euro) - which represents 11.8 billion euro saved. 18 Considering that Italy disposes of potential interesting hydrocarbon reserves (seventh largest natural gas reserves and sixth largest oil reserves in Europe), the strategy proposes the development of domestic production of oil and gas (attempting to recover the same shares of ‘90s), respecting at the same time the highest international environmental and security standards. According to NES 2013, the current hydrocarbons production could be increased of about 24 billion boe/year (barrels of oil equivalent) of gas and 57 billion boe/year of oil by 2020, duplicating the contribution to the endogenous production (from 7% to 14 % of the total energy demand). The development of a hydrocarbon domestic production will attract about 15 million euro of investments and the creation of around 25.000 jobs. Moreover, it will allow a reduction of about 5 million euro in the energy bill by 2020 thanks to the reduction of fossil fuels imports. 19 The increase of energy produced from renewable sources would be also functional to the decarbonization process and to the CO2 emission reduction, in line and following the EU guidelines and directives. The Report Energy Roadmap 2050 foresees a reduction of 80- 95% of CO2 emissions by 2015 in respect to 1990 shares, and a reduction of more than

17 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Strategia Energetica Nazionale: per un’energia più competitiva e sostenibile, marzo 2013, http://www.sviluppoeconomico.gov.it/images/stories/normativa/20130314_Strategia_Energetica_Nazional e.pdf 18 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Strategia Energetica Nazionale: per un’energia più competitiva e sostenibile, 2013, p.5; Unione Petrolifera, Relazione Annuale 2015, p.24 19 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Strategia Energetica Nazionale: per un’energia più competitiva e sostenibile, 2013, p.110 13

95% in the electric sector. 20 In 2008, EU established the Climate and Energy Package (known as the “20-20-20” package) with the following energy and climate objectives: unilateral EU commitment to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases by 20% by 2020 taking 1990 emissions as the reference, to increase energy efficiency to save 20% of EU energy consumption by 2020, to reach 20% of renewable energy in the total energy consumption in the EU by 2020. In October 2014, the EU council re-defined the energy and environmental policies setting more ambitious objectives by 2030. The new targets are: a 40% cut in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990 levels; at least 27% share of renewable energy consumption; at least 27% energy savings compared with the business-as-usual scenario.21 SEN foresees that renewable energies could cover 22-23% of primary consumption (compared to 11% in 2010), thank to their increased use on all sectors (electric, heating, transports). Concerning the sources which composed the energy mix to produce electricity, SEN foresees a significant increase of renewable energies in respect of the conventional sources: in 2020 the renewable share in the energy mix will be 30-35%, as natural gas share will also reach 35%.22 In a scenario characterized by a domestic energy production increase, the sea will play a key role due to several interlinked reasons. First of all, the geographic conformation of the Italian peninsula (with 8.000 km of coast and located in the hearth of the Mediterranean region) allows Italy to have additional areas of the national territory to undertake and develop exploration activities to find hydrocarbons in the sea bed and to improve and to test modern technologies for the energy production from renewable sources such as offshore wind, energy from sea currents and waves, algae for the biodiesel production. At present, 67% of the domestic production of natural gas is extracted from offshore fields (and the remaining share from onshore fields), while concerning oil, only 13% of the domestic production is extracted offshore and 87% on the mainland. 23

20 European Commission, Energy Roadmap 2050, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Brussels, 15.12.2011 COM(2011) 885 final, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52011DC0885&from=EN 21 ISPI Osservatorio di Politica Internazionale, Focus Sicurezza Energetica, No. 19-20, Luglio-Dicembre 2014, p.14, http://www.parlamento.it/application/xmanager/projects/parlamento/file/repository/affariinternazionali/osse rvatorio/focus/PI0019-20FocusISPI.pdf 22 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Strategia Energetica Nazionale: per un’energia più competitiva e sostenibile, 2013, p.31 23 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Rapporto annuale 2015-attività 2014, Ministero dello Sviluppo 14

The presence of oil and gas resources in the sea reinforces the sea role in the energy production: following the Ministry of the Economic Development estimates, 57% of the total proved national gas reserves are located in the sea while the proved oil reserves in the seabed will add up to around 10%.24 In addition to these proved reserves the seabed offers probable and possible hydrocarbons reserves which could be extracted and made available to satisfy the domestic energy demand, reducing the import share. The key role of the sea for the national energy security is also confirmed by the fact that Italy is completely reliant on oil imports delivered through tankers – and not through overland pipelines – which can dock in 16 different national ports (among the others Taranto, Milazzo, Falconara [Ancona] and Augusta). From Genoa and Trieste ports depart oil pipelines to supply also neighboring countries such as Austria, Switzerland and Germany. 25 Concerning natural gas, 90% of total imports are delivered through pipelines even if two of them (Transmed and Greenstream) are two offshore pipelines which cross the Mediterranean Sea from Africa to Sicily. Moreover, all future pipeline projects (Trans Adriatic Pipeline, Galsi, Poseidon) will be composed by offshore sections to reach Italian coasts. Furthermore, the increase of natural gas imports represents one of the option to better promote the geographic diversification of supply, even if Italy currently has a total capacity (17 bcm) not entirely exploited, importing only 4 bcm. 26 Moreover, the lucky geographic Italian position put the country in the front line to become the eventual European hub for gas, allowing our country to direct on the EU market additional supply (through offshore pipelines and natural gas) from Caspian, North Africa and Middle East. In particular the redistribution of gas supply coming from Capian Sea producers will be functional for the implementation of the Southern Energy Corridor promoted by EU, to

Economico DGRME, 2015, pp.29-30, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/stat/ra2015/it/ra2015.pdf 24 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Riserve. Riserve di idrocarburi al 31 Dicembre 2014, Ministero dello Sviluppo EconomicoDGRME, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/riserve/riserve.asp 25 International Energy Agency, CHAPTER 4: Emergency response systems of individual IEA countries, Italy, IEA 2014, pp. 264-265, https://www.iea.org/media/freepublications/security/EnergySupplySecurity2014_Italy.pdf 26 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Documento di consultazione per una Strategia Nazionale sul GNL, giugno 2015, http://www.mise.gov.it/images/stories/documenti/gas/documento_di_consulazione_per_una_strategia_na zionale_sul_GNL.pdf 15

boost the geographic diversification of the supply sources, coherently with the EU directives and in line with National Energy Strategy objectives. Obviously, this type of strategy is conditioned by the setting up of a several strategic storage and transport infrastructures (LNG terminals and gas pipelines, storage deposits) to connect Italian ports with European markets in order to satisfy the foreseen increase of LNG demand in Europe.

CHAPTER TWO

Italian offshore oil and natural gas production Currently the Italian offshore production of oil and gas differently contributes on the total domestic production of hydrocarbons: as a matter of fact, offshore natural gas production is significant (67% of total national production), while offshore oil production accounts only for 13% of total national oil production. However, there are several strategic factors which stimulate the implementation of a national energy policy based on the exploitation of offshore oil and gas reserves, in order to enhance domestic production of hydrocarbons and to reduce the dependence on imports as well as reinforcing our energy security condition: the geographic position of Italy - also considering that the sea represents 64% of national territory - ; the existence of offshore reserves; a long term expertise in the seabed drilling activities; the evolution of technologies which currently allow to extend seabed drilling and exploration activities over 4000 metres. 27

2.1 The marine zones Through a geographic analysis of the Italian offshore hydrocarbon production, we can observe that the Adriatic Sea and the Sicily channel still detain significant probable and possible reserves to exploit, while the Tyrrhenian side appears less profitable in terms of exploration activities. Along the Italian continental shelf, the national government has created 7 marine zones, areas where energy companies could undertake exploration and drilling activities as well as to grant production licenses. At present nearly 25% of the Italian continental shelf (139.656 km2) is interested to exploration and production activities.28 The seven marine zones are: the Zone A, which comprises the Northern and Central Adriatic Sea (2% of the Italian continental shelf); the Zone B, which comprises the Central and Southern Adriatic Sea (nearly 4% of the Italian continental shelf); the Zone C - the second largest - comprises the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, the Sicily Channel and the Southern Ionian Sea (8% of the Italian continental shelf); the Zone D, which comprises the

27 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Il Mare, MISE RAPPORTO MARE 2015, MISE Direzione Generale per le Risorse Minerarie ed Energetiche, 2015, p. 47http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/buig/buigmare2015/buigmare2015.pdf 28 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Il Mare, MISE RAPPORTO MARE 2015,pp. 39, 69 17

Southern Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea, accounting for 3% of the Italian continental shelf; the Zone E, which comprises the Ligurian Sea, the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Sardinian Sea. Following the 2013 governmental decision to revise the size of the marine zones, the Zone E has been further expanded - also including the western sector of the Balearic Sea - so widening the drilling and exploration areas; 29 the Zone F is the largest marine zone, accounting for 9% of the Italian continental shelf: this zone extends to Southern Adriatic sea and Ionian Sea reaching Messina Strait; the Zone G, which comprises the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea and the Sicily Channel, accounting for 7% of the Italian continental shelf. In order to safeguard some particular areas within these marine zones, the Italian government imposed restrictions to exploration and drilling activities in areas such as Venice gulf, Egad Islands (Zone C and G), the Naples and Salerno gulfs (Zone E). 30

29 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Zona E. Cartografia, http://unmig.sviluppoeconomico.gov.it/unmig/cartografia/zone/ze.asp 30 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Il Mare, MISE RAPPORTO MARE 2015, pp. 70-76 18

The marine zones of the Italian continental shelf 31

31 Ibidem, p.69 19

2.2 Offshore national production of hydrocarbons and potential reserves In 2014 offshore natural gas fields produced 4.8 bcm of gas - accounting for 67% of total national production which was 7.2 bcm – while offshore oil production was 0.75 million tons of oil, accounting for 13% of the total national oil production (5.75 million tons). 32 This production derives from 724 active wells on the seabed (305 produces natural gas and 56 produces oil). Following a geographic perspective, we can observe that the 305 gas wells are located in Zone A (230), Zone B (47) and Zone D (28), while productive oil wells are mainly located in Zone B (32), Zone C (22) and Zone F (2). 33

Offshore natural bcm Offshore oil production Thousand of gas production in in 2014 tons 201434

Zone A 3336

Zone B 755 Zone B 294

Zone C 3,8 Zone C 232

Zone D 733,9

Zone F 33,4 Zone F 227,4

TOTAL 4863 TOTAL 754

Almost 85% of offshore gas production is extracted in the fields and wells located in the Northern and Central Adriatic Sea: the strategic relevance of these fields can be explained considering that Zone A accounting for 46% of total national gas production (onshore and offshore). In the offshore oil sector there is a more balanced scenario, even if oil fields located in the Central and Southern Adriatic Sea are the most productive. According an historic point of view, Italy has started exploration activities on the national seabed at the end of 50’s, following the important discoveries of onshore rich deposits of methane in the Pianura Padana. Consequently, the first offshore exploration activities took place in the Adriatic and in Sicily, in the Gela area, trying to find an extension in the seabed

32 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Produzione nazionale di idrocarburi, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/produzione/produzione.asp 33 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Il Mare, MISE RAPPORTO MARE 2015, pp. 92-95 34 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Produzione Nazionale Idrocarburi 2014, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/produzione/storia/produzione%202014.pdf 20

of the hydrocarbon fields discovered onshore. Since the 60’s the Adriatic Sea clearly has appeared a promising deposit of oil and gas reserves, and after exploration and drilling activities, the first wells were put on production. Rich natural gas fields were discovered in the Northern and Central section of the Adriatic Sea (close to Ravenna), while at the end of 60’s in Calabria was discovered the huge natural gas field called Luna, which is the second largest after gas fields discovered in Pianura Padana and Northern Adriatic. 35 In the Southern Adriatic, the Rospo Mare oil fields in on production since 1982, and until now Edison energy company extracted 92 million barrels of oil.36 Following the exploration and research activities in the Sicilian offshore (Marine Zone C) between 1970 and 1980 the Italian energy company AGIP discovered Nilde, Prezioso and Perla oil fields, while in the seabed close to Ragusa AGIP discovered Mila and Vega hydrocarbon fields. In the 2000’s additional discoveries of gas fields (Panda, Argo and Cassiopea) pushed Eni to promote a project called “offshore Ibleo” aimed to promote an integrate development for an estimated production of 14 bcm in ten years. 37 The presence of potential offshore oil and gas reserves which could be developed strongly supports the aims of the National Energy Strategy, in order to increase domestic production and to lessen the dependence on imports. Generally, hydrocarbons reserves are subdivided among proved, probable and possible reserves, according to the international classification.38

35 Pier Federico Barnaba, CENNI STORICI SULL’ESPLORAZIONE PETROLIFERA IN ITALIA, pp. 3-4, http://www.pionierieni.it/wp/wp-content/uploads/Cenni-storici-sullesplorazione-petrolifera-in-Italia.-Di-P.-F.- Barnaba.doc; Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Il Mare, MISE RAPPORTO MARE 2015, pp.45-46; Francesco David e Luciano Lavecchia, Il settore petrolifero siciliano, Associazione Italiana di Scienze Regionali AISREA, Giugno 2013, p.5, http://www.aisre.it/images/old_papers/david_lavecchia2013.pdf 36 Edison, Campo Rospo Mare, http://www.edison.it/it/campo-petrolifero-rospo-mare 37 AGI, Energia: Eni, progetto "Offshore Ibleo" pienamente sostenibile, 14 Ottobre 2014, http://www.agi.it/research-e- sviluppo/notizie/energia_eni_progetto_offshore_ibleo_pienamente_sostenibile-201410141620-eco- rt10165 38 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Riserve di idrocarburi, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/riserve/riserve.asp 21

Offshore natural Proved reserves Probable Possible % proved gas reserves reserves reserves reserves (bcm)39

Zone A 20251 14344 7659 40,00%

Zone B 5342 5951 2494 10,70%

Zones 3836 12691 2447 8,20% C+D+F+G

Total SEA 29429 32985 12600 59,00%

Total National 53713 59774 24381 100,00% natural gas reserves (onshore and offshore)

Offshore oil Proved reserves Probable Possible % proved reserves reserves reserves reserves (thousand of tons)40

Zone B 3374 777 - 4,30%

Zone C 4103 1451 238 5,60%

Zone F 137 550 - 0,40%

Total SEA 7614 2778 238 10,30%

Total national oil 84807 93090 56071 100,00% reserves (onshore and offshore

39 Ibidem 40 Ibidem 22

According to MISE, 59% of total Italian gas reserves are located offshore: 40% in the Zone A (northern and central Adriatic), while oil reserves are almost totally located onshore (90%), mainly in Basilicata region. MISE estimates 74 bcm of natural gas reserves on the national seabed: however, hydrocarbons reserves should be larger, following new exploration activities in the marine zones, such as the new identified area within the Zone E. The development of the offshore oil and gas reserves depends on the attribution of exploration licenses and exploitation concessions: in the last two years, the Italian government appears inclined to multiply licenses and concessions, boosting a new political approach in the national energy sector confirmed with the recent legislative provisions such as the 164/2014 law, the so called “Sblocca Italia”. On 30 September 2015, Italy granted 23 offshore exploration licenses (in the 90’s these licenses were more than 80) and 69 offshore exploitation concessions.41

MARINE ZONES LICENSES CONCESSIONS

ZONE A 9 39

ZONE B 5 20

ZONE C 5 3

ZONED 3 4

ZONEF 3 3

ZONE G 3 1

TOTAL 23 69

Moreover, the exploration permits are granted after a long process of evaluation by different national agencies and Ministries, which also includes the important environmental impact assessment (VIA): on 30 September 2015 MISE analyzed 41 exploration permits in their different stages of evaluation.42

41 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Elenco dei permessi di ricerca vigenti, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/ricerca/titoliricerca.asp; Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Concessioni di coltivazione nel sottofondo marino, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/titoli/elenco.asp?tipo=ICM 42 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Elenco delle istanze per il conferimento di permessi di ricerca, Dati al 30 settembre 2015, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/ricerca/istanzericerca.asp?numerofasi=4 23

The prospecting permits only allow seismic activities of exploration in a limited period of time (one year) and these are also subjected to a long authorization process which involves national and local agencies. On 30 September 2015 there were 8 prospecting permits under evaluation. 43 Oil and gas volumes extracted offshore are delivered onshore by pipelines and then these volumes are refined and processed in 10 natural gas plants and 3 oil plants. However some volumes of offshore oil are carried to floating production storage and offloading (FSO e FPSO). These floating infrastructures (generally big oil tankers) process oil and then small oil tankers transport onshore these volumes of refined oil. In Italy we have 3 FSO: Alba Marina (Zone B, in connection with 3 Rospo Mare oil rigs), Firenze (Zone F, in connection with Aquila 2 and 2 oil rigs) and Leonis (Zone C, linked to Vega well.44

2.3 The propulsive effect on the offshore operations of the 164/2014 law The implementation of a legal framework better oriented to promote the development and the increase of offshore drilling operations aims to extend research and exploration activities which have progressively reduced in the years, due to negative results. In the last decade only 12 exploratory drillings have had positive results, 11 containing natural gas and 1 containing oil (“Ombrina Mare 2 dir” well, in the offshore area of Abruzzo region)

OFFSHORE ZONE A ZONE B ZONE G DISCOVERIES (2002-2014)45

2002 CALIPSO 003 DIR A PANDA 001 CALIPSO 004 DIR A DIDONE 002

2003 ANNAMARIA 002 PANDA OVEST 001 ARMIDA 001 DIR A

2006 BENEDETTA 001 ARGO 001 DIR

43 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Istanze di permesso di prospezione in mare, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/istanze/elenco.asp?tipo=PPM&ord=A&numerofasi=4 44 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Il Mare, MISE RAPPORTO MARE 2015, pp. 97-100 45 Ibidem, pp. 88-90 24

2008 OMBRINA MARE CASSIOPEA 001 002 DIR DIR ARGO 002

In the 90’s, almost 80 new wells were drilled every year, even if most of them were explorative wells. Later, exploration activities have been drastically reduced, and energy companies have preferred to develop and to optimize the production in the discovered fields, rather than to undertake new exploration activities. In 2014 drilling activities were carried out on 8 offshore wells (development wells) while no exploration wells were drilled.

Drilled offshore wells in 201446 WELL NAME SCOPE RESULT METRES

ANEMONE Development 3508 012 DIR B

BARBARA D Development Gas 2108 031 DIR B

BARBARA D Development Gas 1196 034 DIR B

ELETTRA Development Gas 1185 003

FAUZIA 002 Development Gas 2308

FAUZIA 003 Development Gas 2387 DIR

REGINA 004 Development Gas 2075 DIR B

ARMIDA 004 Development Gas DIR A 47

In the last five years, the legislation which regulates exploration and drilling activities has

46 Ibidem 47 Perforato nel 2013 ed ultimato nel 2014 25

considerably evolved, in order to achieve two goals: to enhance safety during operations on the sea and to promote offshore activities boosting energy security. At the same time, the recent laws have openly confirmed and reinforced some restrictions to ensure the preservation of marine environment and the safety of offshore activities. In terms of environmental security, following the oil disaster in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, Italy swiftly intervened on the existent legislation, changing some articles of the environmental code which were further improved in 2013 with the article 35 contained in the decree-law n.83/2012. 48 The article 35 bans exploration activities, prospecting and production of hydrocarbons in the marine and coastal areas under environmental protection and also in sea’s zones located within 12 miles from the external perimeter of these protected areas: moreover, this article generally forbids all oil and gas extractions and research activities within a unique and strict limit of 12 miles starting from the coast and from the external perimeter of marine and coastal areas under environmental protection.49 Moreover, the article 35 in the decree-law n.83/2012 confirms that offshore exploration activities, prospecting and production of hydrocarbons could be authorized only after a positive environmental impact assessment. The Directive 2013/30/EU of the UE Parliament and of the Council on safety of offshore oil and gas operations was a elaborated after the echo following the 2010 oil disaster: this Directive aims to create a common European framework to harmoniously regulate the environmental protection in the offshore activities.50 On 18 August 2015 Italy implemented in its national law this Directive with a specific legislative decree n.145. The main goal of this Directive is to prevent major accidents relating to offshore oil and gas operations and to contain devastating and irreversible consequences on the marine and coastal environment; to strengthen the protection of marine environment and of coastal economies; to establish security conditions for offshore exploration and drilling activities.51

48 Gazzetta Ufficiale, TESTO COORDINATO DEL DECRETO-LEGGE 22 giugno 2012, n. 83, http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazion eGazzetta=2012-08-11&atto.codiceRedazionale=12A08941 49 However, this article is strongly contested by the regions and environmental associations, mainly because the non-retroactivity of the article 35 means that the limit of 12 miles can not be extended to all requests of exploration which are antecedents to the entry into force of the decree-law n.83/2012 50 Gazzetta Ufficiale dell'Unione Europea, DIRETTIVA 2013/30/UE DEL PARLAMENTO EUROPEO E DEL CONSIGLIO del 12 giugno 2013 sulla sicurezza delle operazioni in mare nel settore degli idrocarburi, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2013:178:0066:0106:IT:PDF 51 Fulvio Conti Guglia e Daniela Di Paola, La Direttiva 2013/30/UE sulla sicurezza delle operazioni in mare nel settore degli idrocarburi, AGI Energia, 8 Ottobre, 2013, 26

In the regional scenario, the adoption of the Offshore Protocol for the Mediterranean Sea contains some measures aimed to prevent, reduce, combat and control pollution resulting from the offshore activities: this Protocol came into force in 2011 – two years before EU Directive – and positively influenced the evolution of the EU legislation concerning offshore activities and environmental protection. The cooperation among regional countries is one of the key point in this Protocol, allowing them to better prevent the impact and negative effects of prospecting and exploration activities. 52 The national law 164/2014, also called “sblocca Italia” (“unblocking Italy”) represents the most recent attempt of the Italian government to intervene in the energy policy, regulating prospecting and exploration activities both onshore and offshore and aimed to increase the domestic production of oil and natural gas. This law clearly confirms and further supports the guidelines contained in the 2013 National Energy Security document: to develop domestic energy reserves and resources in order to boost national energy security condition and overcoming the traditional dependence on energy imports. As a matter of fact, in the text the exploration activities and hydrocarbons production are defined as “”initiatives of strategic and common public interest”. 53 In addition to extraction activities, also the realization of transport infrastructures (import pipelines, LNG facilities, storage depots, national pipelines) and refining facilities have been considered as strategic national priorities.54 This strategic dimension of the hydrocarbons exploration activities would allow to facilitate legal procedures, thanks to a centralization of the decisional power in the energy issues on the hands of the national government, overtaking eventual oppositions and hindrances posed by regions and local authorities on prospecting and drilling activities to discover oil and gas (onshore and offshore). A single license has been introduced, and this could be used for both exploration and production activities in order to uniform Italian procedures with the best-advanced normative of the EU producer countries and to reduce the duration of the authorization

http://www.agienergia.it/Notizia.aspx?idd=1062&id=34&ante=0 52 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Protocollo Offshore, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/internazionale/protocollo.asp 53 Gazzetta Ufficiale, TESTO COORDINATO DEL DECRETO-LEGGE 12 settembre 2014, n. 133, http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2014/11/11/14A08767/sg 54 Ibidem 27

process which in Italy is more than double than the world average.55 Moreover this law also contains several dispositions aimed to strengthen and to ensure the environment protections, as the ban to undertake exploration and extraction of non conventional hydrocarbons (shale oil, tight oil, shale gas) in the national territory, due to the negative effects of the fracking drilling process on the environment and water as well as for the lack of available resources..56 The article 38 also introduces another innovation: in order to conserve the national resources of hydrocarbons located in the continental sea and near the areas with upstream activities of other coastal Countries, offshore experimental projects for oil and gas production can be authorized for a five years period (eventually extendible) in order to test the best technologies to limit the effects of subsidence on the Italian coast, also triggered by mining activity of the coastal countries, ensuring tax revenue for the State.57 The law 164/2014 has contributed to further improve the national legal framework positively influencing the restart of offshore exploration and research activities, also attracting interested energy companies.58 Between 2013 and 2014, following the redefinition of the marine zones – which bans the concession of new prospecting licenses within an area of 12 miles from the coast and from marine protected areas – 19 new exploration permits have been granted: 13 in the Adriatic Sea (Marine Zones A, B, F) and 6 in the Ionian Sea (Zone F).59 Concerning prospecting permits, five of the current 8 were presented in first semester of 2014: 2 in the Marine Zone E, 2 in the Sicily channel and 1 in the Gulf of Taranto while the remaining three were presented in the Adriatic Sea.60 During the 2015 we can observe the effects of the new normative (“sblocca Italia”): on 21

55 Mattia Santori, Sblocca Italia e trivellazioni. Novità, rivendicazioni, dati di fatto, Formiche.net, 16 Novembre 2014, http://www.formiche.net/2014/11/16/sblocca-italia-trivellazioni-novita-rivendicazioni-dati- fatto/ 56 Gazzetta Ufficiale, TESTO COORDINATO DEL DECRETO-LEGGE 12 settembre 2014, n. 133 57 Mattia Santori, Sblocca Italia e trivellazioni. Novità, rivendicazioni, dati di fatto, Novembre 2014; Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, La situazione energetica nazionale nel 2014, Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico Direzione Generale per la Sicurezza dell’approvvigionamento e le Infrastrutture Energetiche, Luglio 2015, pp. 68-69,, http://dgerm.sviluppoeconomico.gov.it/dgerm/downloads/situazione_energetica_nazionale_2014_v4_con _allegati.pdf

58 Il Sole 24 Ore, Petrolio, via alla ricerca di 15 giacimenti, Il Sole 24 Ore, 5 marzo, 2015, http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2015-03-05/via-ricerca-15-giacimenti-150054.shtml?grafici 59 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Istanze di permesso di ricerca in mare, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/istanze/elenco.asp?tipo=PRM&ord=C&numerofasi=4 60 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Istanze di permesso di prospezione in mare, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/istanze/elenco.asp?tipo=PPM&ord=C&numerofasi=4 28

October 2015 MISE declared 9 exploration permits with a positive environmental assessment (VIA) and 3 prospecting permits with positive VIA.61 Nevertheless, the possibility to lead offshore exploration activities entails an international regulation, in order to conciliate the national aspirations with the legitimate claims of the other countries which share the continental shelf with Italy: as a matter of fact the Italian government has concluded delimitation agreements to regulate the exploration and exploitation activities of the offshore hydrocarbons reserves located close to the shared continental shelf. Considering the potential reserves located in the shared portion of the Adriatic Sea, the relations between Italy and Croatia are particularly significant, mainly following the recent activism of Zagreb in order to exploit offshore fields. The median line parameter between the respective national coasts regulates the national zones of these two countries. The definition of the legal framework for the exploitation of the “Annamaria” hydrocarbon field - located between the Italian and the Croatian continental shelf – between 2009 and 2014 shows the positive relations of these two countries in the energy issue. In April 2014, Croatia launched an international tender for 29 oil and gas exploration blocks in the Adriatic Sea (8 of them located in the Northern Adriatic Sea and 21 in the Central and Southern Adriatic Sea) 62 Considering the favorable geopolitical position – closer to the Southeastern European markets which are strongly dependents on energy imports – and the possibility to benefit of five year exploration permits, many international energy companies - Marathon Oil, OMV, Eni, Medoilgas e INA - have expressed interests. Among them, Italian Eni and Medoilgas will conduct exploration and exploitation in one block located in the Central Adriatic sea. 63 Croatia aims to legitimate itself as a new energy hub for the EU, increasing national production and attracting investments in order to realize LNG facilities and new pipelines

61 Ministero dell'Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare, Provvedimenti VIA, http://www.va.minambiente.it/it-IT/Procedure/Provvedimenti5?pagina=1 62 Natural Gas Europe, Croatia Launches International Tender in Adriatic Sea, NGE, 2 AprilE 2014, http://www.naturalgaseurope.com/croatiainternational-tender-in-adriatic-sea; Haris Stefanatos, Croatia’s oil reserves estimated at 747 million tons,, Independent Balkan News Agency, 7 Marzo 2014, http://www.balkaneu.com/croatias-oil-reserves-estimated-747-milliontons/#sthash.8gmTGAfF.dpuf. 63 Five companies awarded for 10 exploration blocks in the Adriatic Croatian Hydrocarbon Agency Press Release, January 2, 2015, http://www.azu.hr/enus/Home/ctl/Details/mid/708/ItemID/41; Fabio Indeo, The Southern Gas Corridor’s Adriatic Dimension: Slovenia, Croatia and Montenegro, in M. Assenova, Z. Shiriyev (eds.), “Azerbaijan and the New Energy Geopolitics of the Southeastern Europe”, Jamestown Foundation Editions, 2015 29

to supply EU. Consequently Italy must defend its national ambition to play the role of EU energy hub, also exploiting the existent oil and gas reserves located in the shared portion of the Adriatic Sea as well as to cooperate with Croatia in order to guarantee safety and to environmental protection following offshore operations. Regarding Italy and Malta relations, there is a particular situation because Italian continental shelf borders with Malta’s one in the south east portion of the Italian sea close to Sicily. Currently Italy and Malta agreed for a partial and temporary delimitation called “modus vivendi”: however the disputed territorial waters and the lack of definition have substantially frozen all offshore exploration and research initiatives on potentially energy rich seabed. In October 2015 Italy and Malta unofficially agreed to suspend drilling activities in the south east of Sicily, attempting to improve reciprocal relations and confidence as a starting point to find a common legal framework to develop offshore operations, also including the maritime claims of a third involved country, Libya. 64

64 Fabio Caffio, Malta e Italia concordano moratoria trivellazioni, in "Affari Internazionali", 10 Ottobre 2015, http://www.affarinternazionali.it/articolo.asp?ID=3201#sthash.MmayylWY.dpuf 30

CHAPTER 3

Renewable energy production from the sea

Marine spaces surrounding our peninsula could be used both for the exploration and production of traditional hydrocarbons and also for the production of “clean” energy from renewable sources such as wind, or energy from sea waves. Italy has the possibility to exploit this huge potential, testing new form of energy production which are the main focus both of studies and researches and practical applications and prototypes to exploit energy from the sea.

3.1 Offshore wind: national perspective and EU framework The construction of wind farms in the middle of national waters to exploit offshore wind and generating electricity, represents one of the most promising renewable energy sources. According to the analysis elaborated by EWEA (European Wind Energuy Association), in 2030 the wind potential could reach 230 GW (254 GW installed onshore and 66 GW offshore), duplicating the capacity referred to 2014 (129 GW) and growing of 2/3 referring to the expected capacity in 2020 (192 GW). 65 In this reference scenario, by 2030 wind energy supply should cover 24,4% of the total EU electricity demand, while offshore wind share will reach 7,7%. EU new regulation on the use of renewable energy in the decarbonization process will facilitate the increased production of wind energy. In 2014, EU Commission fixed the objective to reach 27% of renewable energies in the final energy use by 2030. This implies that RES will cover 46-49% within the energy mix necessary for the energy production: this scenario outlines huge perspectives in the wind energy use, which will cover at least 21% of the RES share foreseen in the energy mix. 66. Considering the geographical position and the wind intensity, the main number of offshore wind farms will be installed in the North Sea (45 GW), than in the Atlantic Ocean (13 GW) and Baltic Sea (8 GW) while the wind offshore development should be slow in the

65 European Wind Energy Association, Wind energy scenarios for 2030, EWEA, August 2015, p.3, http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/publications/reports/EWEA-Wind-energy-scenarios-2030.pdf 66 Ibidem, p.4; European Commission, Impact assessment for a 2030 climate and energy policy framework, COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT, SWD(2014) 15 final, Brussels, 22 January 2014 31

Mediterranean Sea, with only 23 MW installed in 2030.67 The last report published by Ernst & Young outlines that offshore wind has all the characteristics to become one of the most widespread and usable sources to diversify the energy mix, reducing the share of fossil fuels.68 The politic support of national governments (in terms of favorable regulations and enhancement of supply network) together with technological development will help the further use of this source and the optimization of related costs. The results of this report are in line with the EWEA recent previsions, foreseeing an installed capacity of 65 GW by 2030, thus permitting offshore wind to cover 25% of the EU electric production. This scenario could positively influence the energy security condition reducing fossil fuels imports and share and saving 18 billion per year, in addition to the creation of more than one million work places in the offshore wind sector.69 In the framework of the wind energy exploitation, Italy should be one of the lead countries of different EU project and initiatives, due to the present conditions (in terms of wind intensity and orography) above all in the south of the peninsula where 96,7% of the national wind power has been installed (63,7% of the installed plants). Apulia and Sicily hold the record of installed power and the first one hosts 26.5% of the total national installed power. 70 During 2013 the energy production from wind has been 14.897 GWh, 13% of the total production from renewable sources. 71 Nevertheless, the exploitation of offshore wind energy in Italy does not seem in the frontline and the peninsula appears unprepared to understand the huge energy potential guaranteed by wind farms installed in the sea. According to EWEA scenario, Italy will contribute to new onshore installation but not in the offshore farms: the main optimistic scenario foresees only 500 MW installed power offshore (high scenario).72 At present, all Italian wind farms are realized on the mainland: no wind park has been realized in the sea, a condition which prevents the exploitation of the huge potential

67 European Wind Energy Association, Wind energy scenarios for 2030, 2015, p.13 68 Ernst & Young, Offshore wind in Europe Walking the tightrope to success, March 2015, http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/publications/reports/EY-Offshore-Wind-in-Europe.pdf 69 Ibidem, pp. 12-13 70 Gestore dei Servizi Energetici, Energia da Fonti Rinnovabili in Italia – 2013, GSE Rapporto Statistico. 2015, pp. 64-67, http://www.gse.it/it/salastampa/news/Documents/_RAPPORTO+STATISTICOEnergia%20da%20Fonti%2 0Rinnovabili.pdf 71 Ibidem, p. 61 72 European Wind Energy Association, Wind energy scenarios for 2030, 2015,p.15 32

represented by strong winds blowing without any obstacles and guaranteeing an high energy productivity (30% more than the onshore plants).73 The best conditions to install offshore wind farm are areas fuelled by winds exceeding 7-8 m/s speed, located in low depth (4-40 m) and are more than 3 km far away from the coast.74 Between 2006 and 2013, 15 projects have been presented but none has been authorized and installed. This stand off in the offshore wind exploitation contradicts the previsions of the 2010 National Action Plan on the promotion of renewable energies, which foresaw a deep increasing of offshore wind farms: from 100 MW to be installed by 2013 to 680 MW to be realized by 2030. 75 Here follows an exhaustive table elaborated by Legambiente on the situation of offshore projects in Italy:

Offshore projects in Italy 76 Region/Municipl Procedure Potential power Realized or aity starting year (MW) under way project

Sardegna, 2013 72 NO Cagliari

Sardegna, Porto 2012 100 NO Torres

Sardegna, 2009 320 NO Oristano

73 Nextville, Energia dal vento in mare aperto, http://www.nextville.it/Eolico/552/Eolico_offshore 74 Eni Scuola, Le wind farm offshore, http://www.eniscuola.net/argomento/eolica/gli-impianti-eolici/le-wind- farm-offshore/ 75 Gestore dei Servizi Elettrici, Piano di azione nazionale per le energie rinnovabili dell’Italia, 30 Giugno 2010, p.156, http://www.gse.it/it/Statistiche/Simeri/GSE_Documenti/Area_Documentale/PAN/PAN%20DETTAGLIO.pdf 76 Legambiente, L’assurdo stop all’eolico off-shore in Italia, 15 giugno 2015, http://www.legambiente.it/sites/default/files/docs/eolico_off-shore_dossier2015.pdf 33

Toscana, Pisa, 2012 136 NO Vecchiano, San Giuliano

Puglia, 2008 300 NO Mattinata, Margherita di Savoia, Manfredonia

Puglia, Tricase 2010 90 NO

Puglia, Chieti, 2008 150 NO Campomarino, Serracapriola

Puglia, 2012 342 NO Manfredonia

Puglia, Brindisi, 2008 150 NO Torchiarolo, San Pietro, Vernotico, Lecce

Puglia, Brindisi, 2013 108 NO Torchiarolo, San Pietro, Vernotico

Sicilia, 2013 172 NO Petrosino, Mazara del Vallo

Sicilia, 2009 228 NO Pantelleria

Sicilia, Gela, 2007 136 NO Butera

Molise, Termoli 2006 162 NO

Emilia 2013 40 NO Romagna, Rimini

Puglia, Taranto 2010 30 NO

After a 5 year litigation between national government and regional and local bodies, in July 2015 the project for the realization of the first offshore wind farm in the Taranto port has been approved. It is a strategic and significant project because it is the first realized both in Italy and in the Mediterranean Sea. This wind farm has a 30 MW power and it is meant to make self-efficient the harbour area of Taranto.77 The most emblematic project is the one in Molise submitted in 2006 and rejected by the Italian Government in 2015, although a positive VIA): the Molise Region appeal and the adverse opinion of the Ministry Cultural Goods blocked the process, while the Council of State delegated the final decision to the Council of Ministries, which in May 2015 actually decided to cancel the entire proceedings 78 Besides the frequent litigations between central and local powers on the realization of these offshore infrastructures - arguing environmental but also political reasons - some natural hindrances effectively exist, delaying the development of offshore wind in Italy: in primis the wind blowing along the Italian coasts is not enough powerful as in the North Sea - except in Sicily and Sardinia - causing a gap in terms of energy power production from

77 Domenico Palmiotti, Taranto, via libera al parco eolico in mare. Dopo il Tar anche il Consiglio di Stato boccia il Comune, Il Sole 24Ore, 8 Luglio 2015, http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/impresa-e-territori/2015- 07-08/taranto-via-libera-parco-eolico-mare-il-tar-anche-consiglio-stato-boccia-comune- 092216.shtml?uuid=ACtH3rN 78 Silvia Giugno, Eolico offshore, perché l’Italia non ha nemmeno un impianto?, La Stampa, 24 Giugno 2015, http://www.lastampa.it/2015/06/24/scienza/ambiente/focus/eolico-offshore-perch-litalia-non-ha- nemmeno-un-impianto-sXuUN4JHb3DK35pIK93fcI/pagina.html) 35

offshore wind. Moreover, in the Tyrrhenian coast – more windy than the Adriatic ones – seabed are very fast: this condition make the realization of wind plants in the sea very difficult and expensive.79 While the offshore wind situation in Italy is frozen, the North European countries strongly support the development of this renewable source. In the first half of 2015, in Europe 200% more of wind capacity offshore has been installed than in 2014, over 10 GW, thanks to the production of 82 wind farms located in eleven nations.80 Germany, Netherlands and United Kingdom are the most virtuous related to this energy source. By 2015 Germany should be able to produce 3,3 GW energy from offshore wind, so reaching the objectives of 6,5 GW fixed for 2020, exploiting the wind potential of North Sea (89% of the productive capacity) and of the Baltic Sea.81 The EU Commission validated the German turning point in its energy policy, authorizing the implementation of 20 new offshore wind farms (17 in the North Sea and 3 in the Baltic Sea): as a matter of fact, the EU Commission has considered these projects in accordance with EU laws concerning national government aids, because these will help EU to achieve strategic goals in the energy and environmental sphere, promoting the use of renewable sources. By 2020 Germany will be able to produce 7 GW of renewable energy, thus guaranteeing 13% energy from renewable sources foreseen in the national plan, with an investment total cost of 29,3 billion euro.82 In London Array - United Kingdom - is located the world’s widest wind offshore farm composed of 175 turbines of 3,6 MW, opened in 2013 near the Thames estuary, 20 km far from Kent and Essex coasts. This plant with a 630 MW total power is able to cover the energy demand of 500.000 English families. 83 Although its stalling situation, even Italy carries on important studies and programs on the

79 Roberto Rizzo, Eolico offshore: in Europa a gonfie vele. Ma in Italia stenta, Corriere.it, 8 Gennaio 2014,http://www.corriere.it/ambiente/14_gennaio_05/eolico-offshore-europa-gonfie-vele-ma-italia-stenta- 8d8d66e4-762a-11e3-b130-d13220de9ace.shtml 80 European Wind Energy Association,The European offshore wind industry - key trends and statistics 1st half 2015, July 2015, pp.2-3, http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/publications/statistics/EWEA- European-Offshore-Statistics-H1-2015.pdf 81 Germany sees big rise in offshore wind capacity, Reuters, 20 Luglio 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/07/20/germany-renewables-wind- idUSL5N10013L20150720?feedType=RSS&feedName=rbssEnergyNews 82 Eolico offshore e aiuti di stato: l’Ue autorizza la Germania a sostenere 20 impianti, Green Report, 17 Aprile 2015, http://www.greenreport.it/news/clima/eolico-offshore-e-aiuti-di-stato-lue-autorizza-la- germania-a-sostenere-20-impianti/ 83 Roberto Rizzo, Eolico offshore: in Europa a gonfie vele. Ma in Italia stenta, Corriere.it, 8 Gennaio 2014,http://www.corriere.it/ambiente/14_gennaio_05/eolico-offshore-europa-gonfie-vele-ma-italia-stenta- 8d8d66e4-762a-11e3-b130-d13220de9ace.shtml 36

exploitation of offshore wind. The EU project Powered is one of the most important and advanced: this project involves 4 Italian regions (Abruzzo, Molise, Marche and Apulia and the province of Ravenna) overlooking the Adriatic Sea and has a cross-bording value involving Croatia, Albania and Montenegro. The objective is to install 7 wind force stations both offshore then on the mainland, with the aim to gather precise data on wind intensity in the different sea and costal Adriatic areas. Powered strategic value is connected to its planning function, through data gathering and comparison, aimed to establish the location of more productive areas also creating suitable conditions to make sustainable the exploitation of offshore wind energy in the Adriatic Sea, in the economic, political, energy and environmental terms.84 According to the gathered data, the Adriatic Sea seems a good location for the development of the offshore wind, mainly the southern section of the Adriatic, which presents good wind levels - Apulia, Albania and Montenegro – to develop an offshore wind production. Moreover, the intensity of wind is stronger in the oriental coat, due to the Balkans orography.85 Powered project highlights an important offshore wind potential to be exploited in our country, even if the practical implementation of wind farms in the sea is conditioned and subordinated to a political will and to the concertation between central government and regional-local powers.

3.2 Energy from the sea: potentialities and perspectives In addition to the important hydrocarbon reserves located in the seabed and the importance to exploit offshore wind, the sea could be also conceived as energy producer, both as driving force than through technologies exploiting its chemical or thermal potential. Nevertheless, there are few existing plants able to use the energy deriving from the sea and to produce electricity, while many prototypes are successfully tested, which could open the way to the widespread of this technologies.86 On the basis of the actual technological development and research, five different energies from the sea can be distinguished, each requiring a technology for the conversion in

84 Si veda il sito ufficiale del progetto Powered, http://www.powered-ipa.it/it/il-progetto-powered/ 85 Simone Tartuferi, Sviluppo dell'eolico offshore nel Mare Adriatico:ricostruzione del campo di vento di mesoscala e uso di reti neurali artificiali per la previsione di producibilità energetica a breve termine, Tesi di dottorato, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 2015, p. 68, file:///C:/Users/oem/Downloads/tesi_Tartuferi%20(1).pdf 86 Nextville, Tecnologie Innovative. Energia dal mare, http://www.nextville.it/Tecnologie_innovative/714/Energia_dal_mare 37

electricity.87 Tidal energy, or the procedure to produce electricity exploiting the drop between rise and fall. The tidal power station in Saint Malo (France), located in La Rance with capacity of 240 MW is able to cover alone 3% of the electricity demand of the Bretagne region. In the Scottish Pentland strait which separates the Oakney Islands from Scotland is under construction the world’s largest plant for the exploitation of energy from tides. It is a project with a final capacity of 86 MW, which will supply for 40% of electricity in the Highlands and could be potentiated till 398 MW.88 Wave energy is characterized by high energy density. This form of energy has been extensively studied and tested. Some prototypes plants have been conceived and on experimentation. For example, in Portugal an underwater wave farm has been successfully realized using the AWS (Archimedes Wave Swing) with 2 MW power. Portugal is also testing the Pelamis system, composed of hydraulic rams. Scotland is realizing the world’s biggest energy power plant from waves – the Costa Head Wave Project – with a foreseen capacity of 200 MW. 89 OWC Systems (Oscillating Water Column) are devices exploiting the oscillating water system principle and are tested on the coastal areas. An OWC example is LIMPET (Land Installed Marine Powered Energy Transformer) realized in Islay Island in Scotland, one of the biggest in the world and the first commercially sustainable (co-financed by EU Commission). It produces 500 KW energy covering the entire energy demand of the islands communities.90 Energy from sea currents is the kinetics energy produced by huge moving water masses which create sea currents. It represents the sea energy with highest raising and development potential in the medium and long term. A practical application has been realized in North Ireland in Strangford Lough, where the first power plant fuelled by kinetic energy from sea currents is working, with an installed power of 1,2 MW able to cover the energy demand of 1000 houses. Salinity gradient energy - also called Osmotic energy- is the energy available from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and river (for example at a river

87 G. Sannino, V. Artale (a cura di), L'energia dal Mare, Quaderno ENEA, Luglio 2011, p.5 88 Scozia: avanti tutta con l'energia dalle maree, Corriere.it, 17 Settembre 2013, http://www.corriere.it/ambiente/13_settembre_18/scozia-maree-centrale_2f9a2d0e-1f97-11e3-9636- b0708204026a.shtml 89 Tethys, Costa Head Wave Farm, https://tethys.pnnl.gov/annex-iv-sites/costa-head-wave-farm 90 CORDIS, L'energia del moto ondoso promette di rendere autosufficiente un'isola remota, CORDIS, Servizio Comunitario di Informazione in materia di Ricerca e Sviluppo, http://cordis.europa.eu/news/rcn/15810_it.html 38

mouth). The Netherlands are the leading country in the exploitation of this type of energy: in Harlingen a testing power plant of 50 KW is active from 2005. Thalassotemic energy (or tidal energy or ocean thermal gradient) uses the temperature difference between cooler deep ocean waters and warmer shallow or surface ocean to produce electric energy using the OTEC technology (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion). Tropical areas are the most suitable to develop this technology.91 The EU Commission is clearly interested in the huge potentialities offered by these renewable energies, with the aim to successfully contribute to the transition towards a low carbon economy and based on clean energy sources: Blue Energy, or the increased production of energy from the sea, is the main aim of the strategy contained in the Blue Growth document elaborated by the Commission in 2012. 92 In the EU-Oea Roadmap 2015-2020 (elaborated together with Ocean Energy Europe), European Commission estimates that the contribution of energy from the sea will cover 1% of the EU electricity demand in 2020, reaching 15% in 2050 (20% in some countries) targeting the production at 188 GW (3,6 GW in 2020). 93 In spite of the huge potentialities offered by the different typologies of energy produced from the sea, Italy could produce energy from the sea concentrating its efforts only on some potential promising sources – energy from sea waves or tidal energy – setting aside some others – such as the thalassothemic and the osmotic energy – which required specific development conditions. According to the ENEA studies, the most interesting and promising Italian regions in terms of sea currents are Messina straits (the area with the main energy potential), Venetian lagoon, Sicilian channel and the Bonifacio mouths in Sardinia. 94 Concerning the waves energy potential, the geographic location of the Italian peninsula in the Mediterranean close basin reduces the energy potentials from waves in respect to the EU nations facing the Atlantic Ocean (France, United Kingdom). ENEA led a detailed research in the development potentiality of waves as energy sources, drafting the Wave

91 Nextville, Tecnologie Innovative. Energia dal mare, http://www.nextville.it/Tecnologie_innovative/714/Energia_dal_mare; Energia dal mare, Arvi Energia, http://www.arvi-energie.it/ 92 European Commission, Blue Growth Opportunities for marine and maritime sustainable growth, Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, COM(2012) 494 final, Luxembourg, 2012, http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/documentation/publications/documents/blue-growth_en.pdf 93 European Commission, Initiative on marine/ocean energy as a follow-up to the Blue Growth Communication, 10/2012, http://ec.europa.eu/smart- regulation/impact/planned_ia/docs/2012_mare_006_marine_energy_en.pdf 94 G. Sannino, V. Artale (a cura di), L'energia dal Mare, 2011, p.5 39

Mediterranean Atlas, useful for the localization of the most suitable sites to exploit this particular renewable source. 95 The North West Sardinian and Sicily coasts represent the most interesting areas for the production of waves energy. Between Baleari and Sardinia waves can reach 15 Kw/m, while in the Sicily channel the average value are high but lower than 10 Kw/m. Another interesting area individuated by ENEA is Pantelleria, because a future production of wave energy - besides the lower potential than in the above mentioned areas – could be functional to overcome the energy supply difficulties due to its insularity condition.96In relation to the wave energy, Alghero (in the North-West Sardinia) represents the national site with the highest energy potential, with 15 kW/m in November-February and 4 kW/m in summer. 97 The southern and central section of the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Ionian Sea present a lower energy potential – about 4kW/m and 3 kW/m waves power respectively – and the Adriatic Sea (around 2kW/m) depowers the waves power being a close sea. 98 Taking into account its potentiality, Italy carried on different projects aimed to exploit waves power as energy source, in order to increase the electricity shares from clean energies. Punta Righini (Castiglioncello, province of Livorno) in the Tyrrhenian Sea has been hosting since 2013 the first energy generator from sea wave of the energy company Enel Green Power and the society 40 South Energy. The energy generator R115 has an installed power capacity of 100 Kw and a nominal capacity of 150 kW: even if the impact is limited (covering the energy demand of 80 families), the implementation of this project represents an important step in the renewable fields, opening huge perspectives in the exploitation and production of energy from the sea. Moreover, as in Pantelleria, the future development phase of the R115 could cover the energy demand of the Toscana’s islands, considering the logistic difficulties linked to the traditional supply. 99

95 ENEA, L'Atlante ENEA del potenziale energetico dei mari italiani, http://www.enea.it/it/comunicare-la- ricerca/events/energia-dal-mare/Sannino1.pdf 96 A. Carillo, A. Bargagli, E. Caiaffa, R. Iacono, G. Sannino, Stima del potenziale energetico associato al moto ondoso in regioni campione della costa italiana, ENEA, ricerca di sistema elettrico, Report RdS/2012/170, Settembre 2012, pp. 5-11, http://www.enea.it/it/Ricerca_sviluppo/documenti/ricerca-di- sistema-elettrico/correnti-marine/2011/170-rds-pdf 97 G.Sannino, A. Bargagli, A. Carillo, E. Caiaffa, E. Lombardi, P. Monti, G. Leuzzi, Valutazione del potenziale energetico del moto ondoso lungo le coste italiane, Ricerca di sistema elettrico, Report RdS/2011/151, Settembre 2011, p.28 98 G. Sannino, V. Artale (a cura di), L'energia dal Mare, 2011, pp.5-6 99 Enel Green Power, Al via la seconda fase di test della macchina marina di ENEL Green Power sviluppata da 40SOUTH ENERGY, Comunicato stampa, 31 Gennaio 2014, https://www.enelgreenpower.com/it- IT/media_investor/press_releases/release.aspx?iddoc=1661476; Francesca Fiore, Energia dal mare: al 40

In July 2015 ENEA, in order to exploit wave potential to produce clean energy with low costs, presented the PEWEC device (Pendulum Wave Energy Converter), specifically studied for the Italian coast waves, characterized by mild intensity, small size and high- frequency. It’s a floating, raft-resembling device, to be positioned offshore, relaying on the hull oscillation induced by waves.100 This system has a low environmental and visual impact, able to supply 300 people, but also a great value because it can efficiently, economically and sustainably satisfy the energy demand of little villages characterized by supply logistic difficulties. Another very interesting technological development, which is destined to a successful implementation, is the project Dimemo (Maritime Dam for the Wave energy) 101, which exploits the wave breaking to produce electricity. In Naples Bay a prototype is under testing, conceived to integrate and extend the Italian energy strategy in terms of waves use. 102

3.3 Marine algae and biofuel production Biofuel production from algae represents a very interesting alternative, able to modify the energy mix through an increased production of clean energy and to progressively reduce the use of polluting fossil fuels. As other renewable energies, algae are a non-depletable source (as the sun and the wind) and broadly widespread, growing anywhere, as long as it gets enough sunlight, water and carbon dioxide. 103 Despite the few diffusion of the production processes of biofuel from algae, this RES is one of the most promising for the future. Biofuels produced from micro-algae culturing are defined “third generation”, differently from the first generation of biofuels (produced from food culture such as corn or cane) and second generation ones (produced from food processes residues or waste, agricultural or forestry activities). 104

via il progetto di ENEL Green Power in Toscana, Green Style, 20 giugno 2013 http://www.greenstyle.it/energia-dal-mare-al-via-progetto-di-enel-green-power-44022.html 100 ENEA, Energia: ENEA presenta tecnologia low cost per produrre elettricità dalle onde del mare, Roma, 7 luglio 2015, http://www.enea.it/it/Stampa/comunicati/energia-enea-presenta-tecnologia-low-cost- per-produrre-elettricita-dalle-onde-del-mare 101 Si veda il sito ufficiale del progetto Dimemo, http://www.dimemo.eu/ 102 Energia dalle onde, in golfo Napoli test per Dimemo, Ansa, 2 Ottobre 2015, http://www5.ansa.it/mare/notizie/rubriche/ambienteepesca/2015/10/03/energia-dalle-onde-in-golfo-napoli- test-per-dimemo_568991a5-23e8-4961-8b00-4ac527c82bff.html 103 Denis Lectier, Biocarburanti ad alghe: l’oro verde del futuro, Euronews, 27 maggio 2013 http://it.euronews.com/2013/05/27/biocarburanti-ad-alghe-l-oro-verde-del-futuro/ 104 Federico Caldana, Produzione di olio combustibile da microalghe: analisi delle tecnologie di processo e dell'impatto sulle risorse idriche, Tesi di Laurea Magistrale in Ingegneria Chimica e dei 41

The biofuels production from micro-algae presents many strengths compared to other cultivations. Firstly, this production does not impact on the food products market, avoiding to trigger sudden increasing costs of food crops drive by the boom of consumption of the first generation biofuel. Secondly, micro-algae are characterized by a very high productivity (10 times higher than the traditional first generation of biofuels as rapeseed and palm oil) thus requiring a less soil extension than other cereals farming (even 49-132 times less as for the growing of rapeseeds and soy).105. Moreover micro-algae can grow on wastewater currents allowing their purification.106 In the last years, the United States have been carried researches and application of technologies to optimize micro-algae culturing for the production of biofuels, but also in Europe some significantly progresses and testing have been done in the Scandinavian countries (Sweden and Norway), in the Netherlands and in Spain. An increasing use of biofuels produced by micro-algae in the transport sector would be an interesting evolution, in order to reduce high energy consumptions and high pollution levels of this sector: in the aviation sector, : the Algaelink Dutch society has been leading since years a pilot project together with the national airline KLM to test the increasing use of alternative fuel in the air transport sector. 107 Italy, thanks to its location, can count on different actions aimed to produce biofuels from seaweed. The national energy company ENI starts two important industrial projects called “Green Refinery", with the aim to reconvert two traditional refineries and to implement biorefineries for the production of second and third generation fuels, among which the seaweed cultivation. The biorefinery of Venice - Porto Marghera - has been the first one in the world to be converted from a traditional use to become green refinery. After 2017, when the second enlargement phase will be completed and the supply capacity will be increased to 560.000 tons of vegetable oil (from the actual 360.000), biofuel production will reach

processi chimici , Università di Padova, 2011-2012, pp. 4-6, http://tesi.cab.unipd.it/40288/1/Tesi_Caldana_Federico.pdf; L. Brennan, P. Owende, Biofuels from microalgae—A review of technologies for production, processing, and extractions of biofuels and co- products. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14, 2010, pp. 557-577 105 Vera Amicarelli, Annarita Paiano, Leonarda Lobefaro, Le microalghe nel settore dei biocombustibili. Sviluppo e sostenibilità, Energia, ambiente, innovazione, n. 2 Marzo-Aprile 2012, pp. 70-71 106 Eni, Biodiesel da microalghe, https://www.eni.com/it_IT/attachments/innovazione- tecnologia/piattaforme-tecnologiche/scheda-pt-biodiesel-da-alghe-rev-dic10.pdf 107 Si veda in proposito il sito ufficiale della società olandese AlgaeLink: AlgaeLink, Jet Fuel, http://www.algaelink.nl/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=13&Itemid=16 42

420.000 tons/year.108 In 2014 Eni, in the framework of the intent protocol signed on 6 November at the Ministry of Economic Development also announced the realization of a second biorefinery in Gela with an estimated work capacity of about 710.000 tons of vegetable oil per year and a production of 530.000 tons of biodiesel per year. 109 This kind of projects give the possibility to start a clean energy production from algae culturing supporting the fulfillment of the diversification objectives of the energy mix and the decarbonisation process promoted by the EU Commission and broadly transposed in the national energy policy. In Europe, Italy entered the consortium MED-ALGAE, composed by twelve public and private organizations from 6 different Mediterranean countries: Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Malta, Lebanon and Egypt. This consortium aims to implement 5 pilot plants for the cultivation and exploitation of micro-algae for the biofuel production.110 In 2012, Alga Energy promoted in Italy a very important project aimed to produce electricity from a fuel oil deriving from algae growing and squeezing and finalized to the re- qualification of ex-Cucirini area in Lucca. 111 As per the wind offshore, it is a practical application with a limited impact (a city district) but a great relevance in a future perspective to boost the transition toward a clean energy. In the research field, Modena city realized a pilot plant for the biofuel production from algae, through the collaboration of private companies of the RES field (Teregroup) and University (Engeneering hub). Alagamoil is the name of the dual-fuel mix – 50/50 methan and biofuel – produced from the culturing of micro-algae. It is an excellence project, being Teregroup the first Italian company in Europe which has tested on standard vehicles the biofuels from algae, while in the United States already exist service stations delivering biofuels from algae. 112

108 Eni, Progetto Green Refinery, http://www.eni.com/it_IT/sostenibilita/pagine-snodo/progetto-green- refinery-porto-marghera.shtml 109 Ibidem 110 Si veda il sito ufficiale del consorzio MED-ALGAE: http://med-algae.com/ 111 Una “spremuta d’alghe” per illuminare la città, Rinnovabili.it, 17 Ottobre 2012, http://www.rinnovabili.it/energia/biomassa/una-%E2%80%9Cspremuta- d%E2%80%99alghe%E2%80%9D-per-illuminare-la-citta/ 112 Ilaria Vesentini, Alghe hi-tech per produrre biodiesel: Modena avvia il primo impianto grazie alla tecnologia di Teregroup, Il Sole 24 Ore, 20 Febbraio 2014, http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/impresa-e- territori/2014-02-20/alghe-hi-tech-produrre-biodiesel-modena-avvia-primo-impianto-grazie-tecnologia- teregroup-145947.shtml?uuid=ABL52rx 43

CHAPTER FOUR

Energy supply from the sea: future issues and perspectives

4.1 The decion-making process of the “sblocca Italia” law and the environmental issues Although the energy production from the sea represents a strategic option to enhance the national energy security - increasing the domestic production in order to lessen the dependence on imports - Italian government has to face some relevant problems which could delay the development of offshore energy production. The adoption of the law 164/2014 has triggered a serious and hard conflict between national government and regions involved in offshore activities of prospecting and explorations. This is due to the fact that the dispositions of “sblocca italia” downgrade regional powers in offshore energy field, because offshore research activities and hydrocarbons production are conceived as “strategic activities of common public interest” for whom the central government power prevails.113 Following this centralization, the Environmental and Sea Territory Defence Ministry comes into the place of the regional councils in the examination of environmental impact assessment procedures (also the ongoing ones) 114 This contrast has pushed Italian regions on the Adriatic Sea - the most promising area for new offshore research and prospecting activities – to promote a referendum opposing the government decision to simplify procedures for granting offshore licenses, asking for the abrogation of the article 35 of the “Development decree” (promoted by Monti government in 2012) and some elements of the article 38 contained in the law 164/2014. On 18 September 2015 the governors of Puglia, Basilicata, Calabria, Molise, Abruzzo e Marche confirmed their position, which has been successively supported by other regions like Sardinia, Veneto, Campania and Liguria ant they presented 6 referendum proposals to the Court of Cassation. The regions contest the centralization process in the hand of the national government which hampers their power to prevent or to halt offshore projects: moreover this decision

113 Mattia Santori, Sblocca Italia e trivellazioni. Novità, rivendicazioni, dati di fatto, Formiche.net, 16 Novembre 2014, http://www.formiche.net/2014/11/16/sblocca-italia-trivellazioni-novita-rivendicazioni-dati- fatto/ 114 Ibidem 44

would be an infringement of the Title V of the Constitution concerning the concurrent jurisdiction between central government and regions. Furthermore the regions invokes the abrogation of the article 35/2012 which extended the ban of drilling activities from 5 miles to 12 miles starting from the coastal and from the external perimeter of marine protected areas: however this ban only concerns new prospecting, exploration and drilling activities and it is not retroactive, so excluding all demands for offshore activities presented before the article 12/2012 entries into force.115 Most of the exploration demands on the Sicily channel were presented before 2012 and these are within the 12 miles area. The regions involved in potential new projects of offshore exploration activities and environmental movements claim to fully restore the ban on all research and drilling activities on marine protected areas, extending the maximum limit of 12 miles from the coastal and on marine protected areas. 116 The environmental protection issues also influences the development of an extended offshore production, because of the strong opposition of local communities and environmental movements against the so called “drilling policy” and the national energy policy focused on the invasive exploitation of seabed. As a matter of fact, potential accident in the offshore infrastructures can irreversible damage the delicate marine and coastal ecosystem and relevant economic activities such as fisheries and tourism. Moreover, their opposition is also strengthened by the fact that the potential amount of oil and natural gas reserves is not so abundant to justify the granting of large drilling and exploration permits in addition to the existent ones. The impact of offshore drilling activities is potentially higher on the Adriatic Sea, which contains promising oil and gas reserves in its seabed and it has been longtime exploited: the relevance of the Adriatic Sea in the national energy scenario is evident, considering that 60 production licenses on 69 currently actives are located in the Adriatic Sea, 39 of them in the Northern Adriatic and 21 in the Adriatic section between Marche and Puglia regions.117 Moreover, on 23 total exploration licenses, 17 are located in the Adriatic (9 in

115 TESTO COORDINATO DEL DECRETO-LEGGE 22 giugno 2012, n. 83, articolo 35, http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGa zzetta=2012-08-11&atto.codiceRedazionale=12A08941 116 F. Re, Referendum contro le trivelle, Il Sole 24 Ore, 1 ottobre 2015, http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/impresa-e-territori/2015-10-01/referendum-contro-trivelle- 063903.shtml?uuid=ACixS37 117 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Il Mare, MISE RAPPORTO MARE 2015, MISE Direzione Generale per le Risorse Minerarie ed Energetiche, 2015, p.80 45

the Northern Adriatic and 8 in its central and southern section), in addition to more than research and prospecting permit applications.118 This concentration of exploration and drilling activities on a closed sea as the Adriatic Sea could be dangerous, potentially damaging the delicate Adriatic marine ecosystem and the marine protected areas: the environmental scenario is further threatened by the exploration and drilling activities leaded by Croatia, on the other side of the Adriatic, which granted 29 exploration permits. In the Italian section of the Adriatic Sea there are 6 marine protected areas, the Gargano national park and the forthcoming park on the Teatina coast, 10 regional parks, and 31 coastal nature reserves (both regional and national), scenario which highlights the relevance of marine and coastal environmental heritage and biodiversity. Furthermore this environmental heritage is also relevant for the tourism, which is economically important for the two shores of the Adriatic Sea as well as for the Sicily. 119 Mainly, the environmental movements complains the seismic airgun surveys, which is the most used technology to realize offshore explorations, and their impact on the marine ecosystem. These fears are supported by an analysis leaded by the Norvegian Institute of Marine Research, which stated that the use of airgun technology for offshore oil exploration could reduce fish catches of 50%.120 In 2012 the Italian Institute ISPRA (the Institute for Environmental Protection and Research) published a technical report “Evaluation and mitigation of the acoustic impact linked to geophysical prospecting activities on the Italian sea”, which stressed that the use of airgun provokes levels of noise pollution on the seabed (mainly on the behavior of the marine mammals), while the correlation between airgun and the reduction of fish catches is not proved. 121 In its final recommendations ISPRA suggests the adoption of preventive measures to mitigate the acoustic impact and the noise pollution linked to the use of airgun technology,

http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/buig/buigmare2015/buigmare2015.pdf 118 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Elenco dei permessi di ricerca vigenti, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/ricerca/titoliricerca.asp 119 Legambiente, # Stop Sea Drilling. Dossier 19 Giugno 2015 http://www.legambiente.it/sites/default/files/docs/stopseradrilling_dossier_0.pdf 120 Norvegian Institute of Marine Research, Seismic activity both increased and reduced fish catches, 24 Febbaio 2010, http://www.imr.no/forskning/prosjekter/seismikk_gav_bade_okte_og_reduserte_fiskefangster/en 121 Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale, Rapporto tecnico Valutazione e mitigazione dell’impatto acustico dovuto alle prospezioni geofisiche nei mari italiani, 2012, pp. 12-19 46

mainly in the Mediterranean Sea in order to protect its biodiversity. 122 However, ISPRA also underlines that at present airgun is the most efficient existing technology to undertake exploration and research activities.

4.2 Endogenous hydrocarbons production or energy hub? By comparing estimates of offshore oil and gas domestic reserves and forecasting on the future national energy demand, we can analyze the energy production from the sea on the basis of different perspectives, also highlighting the existent vulnerabilities. According to MISE data, offshore oil reserves located in the national seabed would be nearly 10.630 million tons (summing up proved, possible and probable reserves):123 these volumes could meet only two months of the current oil demand, keeping unchanged the dependence on imports. Consequently, we can conclude that projects to increase offshore oil production are not supported by a strong energy feasibility, even because to obtain these oil volumes it will be necessary to undertake wide offshore drillings in marine areas with a delicate ecosystem and where tourism and fishery are relevant economic sector. A similar conclusion could be also referred to the offshore natural gas production, considering that total estimated reserves are 75 bcm (and only 29 bcm are proved reserves) 124: given that decreasing national demand in 2014 was 61.9 bcm and imports were 55.8 bcm, additional volumes of natural gas extracted offshore could partially contribute to guarantee the national energy security and only for a short-medium term. Postulating a complete exploitation of the offshore estimated natural gas reserves in ten years, additional 7.5 bcm of gas could be available, which is the same import capacity which is ensured by the Adriatic LNG facility (near Rovigo). These additional volumes could be significant in a national energy scenario characterized by a strong reduction of consumptions and a consequent decrease of the natural gas share in the energy mix: in this case, a parallel reduction of gas imports would be compensated with a growth of a domestic production, in a wider synergy which also includes a rising production of energy from renewable sources, enhancing national energy security.

122 Ibidem, p.32 123 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Riserve di idrocarburi, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/riserve/riserve.asp 124 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Riserve di idrocarburi, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/riserve/riserve.asp 47

However this scenario of decreasing use of natural gas appears unrealistic in a long term, because natural gas is conceived as a transit energy source from an economy based on fossil fuels to an economy based on renewable energy. Moreover also the SNAM document and the guidelines included in the National Energy Strategy and in the future National strategic plan for the use of LNG envisages a rising use of gas in the next decade. In addition to the aimed increase of the domestic natural gas production, these documents also stresses the potential role of Italy as gas hub, through the enhancement of the import infrastructures in order to satisfy domestic needs and also re-exporting some volumes to EU markets, contributing to the EU energy security. The National Energy Security document estimates an increase of the regasification capacity between 8 bcm and 16 bcm, even if in the case of realization of the Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) it will be necessary only additional 8 bcm to extend the current regasification capacity, which is ensured by three LNG terminal currently operating in Italy.125 Furthermore, following the start on production of the three LNG terminal currently under way - Porto Empedocle (Sicily, with a scheduled capacity of 8 bcm per year), Gioia Tauro (Calabria, with a scheduled capacity of 8 bcm), Falconara Marittima (Marche with a scheduled capacity of 4 bcm) - Italy will benefit of additional 24 bcm of natural gas to meet the national demand and to implement the role of energy hub to increase export toward EU markets.126 In addition to the LNG option, in the NES documents also provides for the realization of new offshore gas pipelines, like TAP and Galsi project - from Algeria to Sardinia and then to Toscana - in order to diversify the supply routes. 127 However, in the guidelines of the Environmental regional energy plan of the Sardinia region, Galsi project has been definitely put aside, opting for less-invasive solutions such as small LNG terminals in order to promote the methanisation of the Sardinian island. 128

125 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Strategia Energetica Nazionale: per un’energia più competitiva e sostenibile, marzo 2013, p.66 http://www.sviluppoeconomico.gov.it/images/stories/normativa/20130314_Strategia_Energetica_Nazional e.pdf 126 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Gas Naturale-importazione, http://www.sviluppoeconomico.gov.it/index.php/it/energia/gas-naturale/importazione; Fabio Indeo, Sicurezza energetica nazionale e strategia dell'UE, in “Economia e Ambiente”, No.6, 2010, p.26 127 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Strategia Energetica Nazionale, 2013, p.68; Edison, Gasdotto Galsi, http://www.edison.it/it/gasdotto-galsi 128 Regione Sardegna, Linee di Indirizzo del Piano Energetico Ambientale Regionale, Allegato alla Delib.G.R. n. 37/21 del 21.7.2015, http://www.sardegnapartecipa.it/sites/default/files/allegato_dgr_37- 48

Similarly, the guidelines contained in the consultation paper to elaborate a LNG national strategy coherently follow the energy-strategic aims of the NES document, aiming to support the decarbonisation process by means of a growing use of natural gas in the liquefied form for the sea and road transports, reducing the environmental impact.129 This paper - currently underway – promotes the technological development based on the Small Scale LNG (SSLNG) with the adaption of the existent LNG terminals to storage and refuel activities, which will allow them to supply ships and land vehicles. A concrete promotion of this energy policy based on LNG entails to upgrade the existent infrastructures, developing the 14 main national ports identified in the “Trans European Network Transport”130, with the creation of LNG storage and refuel depots, LNG terminals for liquefaction and regasification.131 This option will allow to promote and to optimize the geographic position of our country, surrounded by the sea, exploiting the existent ports as starting point to develop a widespread distribution network to supply energy in the whole national territory.

4.3 Threats to the energy infrastructures: the role of the Italian Navy as security provider The threat of a terrorist attack affecting energy infrastructures represents a serious concern in the international community, mainly for the devastating global economic repercussions due to a potentially long term halt of energy supply, in addition to human losses and environmental damages. The energy sector and transport infrastructures have progressively become an attractive target for terrorists, considering the huge and disastrous impact on the global economy: given the energy unbalance - high demand, dependence on imports and limited offer of energy supply – a sudden halt of energy supply will provoke an international economic turbulence, triggering a price increase of energy commodities due to the reduction of

21_del_21_07_2015-1.pdf 129 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Documento di consultazione per una Strategia Nazionale sul GNL, giugno 2015, http://www.mise.gov.it/images/stories/documenti/gas/documento_di_consulazione_per_una_strategia_na zionale_sul_GNL.pdf. 130 These ports are: Ancona, Augusta, Bari, Cagliari, Genova, Gioia Tauro, La Spezia, Livorno, Napoli, Palermo, Ravenna, Taranto, Trieste, Venezia 131 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Documento di consultazione per una Strategia Nazionale sul GNL, 2015, pp. 9-10, 20-31; Lorenzo Colantoni, Small LNG e la Strategia Italiana del GNL, AGI Energia, 9 settembre 2015, http://www.agienergia.it/Notizia.aspx?idd=2407&id=44&ante=0 49

available oil and gas supply. 132 Considering its geographic position, Italy could be dangerously exposed to security threats coming from the sea such as terrorism, piracy, marine and environmental pollution. It is necessary to plan protection initiatives to preserve the security of the offshore energy infrastructures (oil and gas pipelines, refineries, storage depots, LNG terminals, facilities for the production of renewable energy such as offshore wind farms) In terms of security, we can observe that some infrastructures appear more vulnerable than others: for instance, to realize a terrorist attack against offshore pipelines is more complicated - due to economic and operative reasons – compared to a potential attack affecting visible infrastructures such as onshore pipelines. Refineries, storage depots, LNG terminals, offshore facilities for the production of renewable energy are vulnerable targets and they attract terrorist attacks, as several cases in the past years can easily show. 133 In this scenario, the Italian Navy can play a significant and relevant role as security provider to protect offshore energy infrastructures and to preserve national energy security, thanks to its logistical self-sufficiency which allow them to immediately intervene.134 Since 2014 the Italian Navy has undertaken a fruitful cooperation with the Directorate General for Safety of Mining and Energy Activities, aimed to monitor and to control the national sea, enhancing security. The Italian Navy has the strategic task to guard offshore infrastructures and marine zones dedicated to the exploitation of the seabed.135 In these two years, the Italian Navy supported inspection activities of the Annamaria offshore field, which is between the Italian and Croatian continental shelf: moreover, another relevant task has been to patrol the marine zones opened to exploration, drilling and production activities, in order to prevent non authorized initiatives, potential cross-bordering operations of other countries and

132 Sulla tematica si veda: Fabio Indeo, Le minacce sulla sicurezza energetica, in Catia Eliana Gentilucci (a cura di), “Indicatori di rischio alla sicurezza. Dall’analisi all’operatività. Il caso della criminalità organizzata e metropolitana”, Progetto di ricerca congiunto CeMiSS-CEFFS Gruppo di ricerca Università di Camerino, Febbraio 2010 133 B. Lia, A. Kjøk, Energy supply as terrorist target? Patterns of “petroleum terrorism” 1968-1999, in D. Heradstveit, H. Hveem (a cura di), Oil in the Gulf: obstacles to democracy and development, Ashgate, Aldershot, 2004, pp. 100-104. pp. 108-109. 134 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, MISE RAPPORTO MARE 2015. Introduzione dell’Ammiraglio di Squadra Claudio Gaudiosi Sottocapo di Stato Maggiore della Marina Militare, MISE Direzione Generale per le Risorse Minerarie ed Energetiche, 2015, p. 8, http://unmig.mise.gov.it/unmig/buig/buigmare2015/buigmare2015.pdf 135 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Attività offshore: Mise e Marina Militare insieme per la salvaguardia, 8 maggio 2014, http://www.sviluppoeconomico.gov.it/index.php/it/per-i-media/comunicati- stampa/2030671-attivita-offshore-mise-e-marina-militare-insieme-per-la-salvaguardia 50

pollution of the sea linked to offshore activities.136 In addition to these relevant tasks, the Italian Navy deploys its dual use capacity (non military activities) in order to improve the marine environmental monitoring, to collect hydro-oceanographic data, to preserve marine biodiversity and fish resources.137Furthermore, the role of the Italian Navy must be also stressed for its contribution to realize the expected goals of the National Energy Strategy document and of the upcoming LNG national strategy document, by means of the adoption of a strategy to reduce consumptions and polluting emissions as well as a diversification’s policy of fuels and supply sources. The Green Fleet project has been promoted by the Navy with the aim to reduce the Italian Navy's dependence on oil up to 40% by 2020, through the growing use of biofuels and LNG: the Foscari high seas patrol boat is the first military ship in the EU using a fuel composed for 50% of green diesel. 138 The Italian Navy will play as an efficient and keen partner to implement and realize the envisaged LNG national strategy based on Small Scale LNG which will have the role to refuel the boats and the whole national “green fleet”.

136 Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico, Il Mare, MISE RAPPORTO MARE 2015, p.35 137 Marina Militare, La Marina Militare per l'ambiente marino, http://www.marina.difesa.it/cosa- facciamo/Pagine/strategia_ambientale.aspx 138 Marina Militare, Progetto Flotta Verde, http://www.marina.difesa.it/cosa-facciamo/flotta- verde/Pagine/flotta-verde.aspx 51

Conclusion This analysis on the potentialities of the energy production from the sea, in order to evaluate if it could be supported a growing endogenous production to enhance national energy security, has highlighted the strengths and weakness points of the Italian scenario. These are factors able to influence in the medium term the evolution of the National Energy Strategy. Starting from the current estimates on the actual offshore oil and natural gas reserves, the promotion of an energy strategy aimed to increase the hydrocarbons production through offshore drilling appears uneconomic and unable to guarantee a long term energy security condition. At present, the exploitation and commercialization of existing reserves could cover the actual gas demand for 16 months and the oil demand for 2 months. From analysis of the offshore reserves we can observe that on the national continental shelf natural gas reserves are larger and more geographically distributed than oil ones: the availability of additional gas volumes from domestic fields could contribute to the national energy demand, but could not solve the energy dependence from imports. Only energy saving and energy efficiency measures and a growing use of renewable energies could change the Italian condition of energy vulnerability. Meanwhile, research activities on new offshore fields seems a legitimated and obligated politic option which should take into account the fragility of the marine eco-system: it is necessary the recourse to preventive and mitigation measures (as recommended by ISPRA) in offshore explorative activities, using new technologies derived from the technological process and from research activities. The temporary freezing of Croatian projects related to offshore drilling activities in the Adriatic Sea – while the foreign companies holding licenses are progressively disengaged, primarily because of the oil low costs - stressed the difficulties to make the exploitation of offshore fields sustainable and profitable in a closed sea as the Adriatic Sea. A potential transformation of the Italian peninsula as a strategic hub of natural gas located in the south coast of the Mediterranean (despite of Central and North Europe) should have a major and significant impact. In this sense, the orientations expressed in the NES and in the forthcoming national strategy for LNG aimed to the strengthening of the infrastructural network to distribute additional volumes between domestic and European market.

Italy could significantly contribute to the EU energy security, thus implementing the southern energy corridor, focal point of the EU strategy of geographical diversification of import routes. The discovery of the giant Zohr offshore field in the Egyptian territorial waters by Eni – with potential reserves of 800 billion cubic meter (10 times higher than the total Italian offshore gas reserves) – could be crucial for the Italian strategy, considering the geographic proximity and the existent clause which allows Eni to have to decide the destination of the future exports. Nevertheless it is necessary to focus on the security issues, because the implementation of the different LNG terminals in the mainland and offshore – to play the role of hub – could guarantee the EU energy security, but Italy would be entirely charged of all potential environmental risks and possible terrorist threats to the energy infrastructures, in a kind of illogical “risk delocalization”. Considering this scenario, the Italian Navy will have the relevant task to protect the SLOCS (Sea Lines of Communication) which will cross our seas. Consequently the Italian Navy will be engaged in patrolling operations to protect LNG terminals and offshore infrastructures (wind farms, anemometric towers, plants for the energy production from waves and sea currents, etc) which should be implemented and dislocated in the next years in the national sea. The increasing of renewable energy national production – the other strategic priority defined in the NES – seems a more feasible aim to achieve: however some preconditions will be realized, such as a clear political will of the national government towards RES, technology innovation to make their application possible on a large scale, costs reduction to guarantee a wider accessibility. As already mentioned in this research, an increased production of electricity from offshore RES could allow to fulfill the twofold aim: diversification of renewable used and reaching the objectives of the EU climat-environmental package related to decarbonisation and CO2 emission reduction. Among the RES produced in and from the sea, offshore wind, waves power and third generation biofuels (from micro-algae) are the most energy fruitful options, mostly adaptable to the characteristics of the Italian sea, in terms of wind power and waves potential. The development of these clean sources and their combined potential could really impact

on the diversification of the energy mix to produce electricity enhancing the share covered by RES. Only through the overcoming of the bureaucratic hindrances and disputes between central and local bodies – which actually delay the implementation of offshore wind farms in Italy – our country will have the possibility to benefit from one of the most promising renewable source, taking into account that the wind offshore contribution should cover 7,7% of the EU electricity demand. The presence of theoretically suitable and promising area for the energy production from waves should represent and incentive for the practical application of prototypes for the electricity production. The actual development seem profitable, because even the implementation of small plants is useful to guarantee the energy supply and the self sufficiency from clean energy of small communities.

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Caffio F., Malta e Italia concordano moratoria trivellazioni, in "Affari Internazionali", 10 Ottobre 2015, http://www.affarinternazionali.it/

Colantoni L., Small LNG e la Strategia Italiana del GNL, AGI Energia, 9 settembre 2015, http://www.agienergia.it

Conti Guglia F., Di Paola D., La Direttiva 2013/30/UE sulla sicurezza delle operazioni in mare nel settore degli idrocarburi, AGI Energia, 8 Ottobre, 2013, http://www.agienergia.it Consorzio MED-ALGAE: http://med-algae.com/

CORDIS, L'energia del moto ondoso promette di rendere autosufficiente un'isola remota, CORDIS, Servizio Comunitario di Informazione in materia di Ricerca e Sviluppo, http://cordis.europa.eu

Edison, Campo Rospo Mare, http://www.edison.it

Edison, Gasdotto Galsi, http://www.edison.it/

ENEA, Energia: ENEA presenta tecnologia low cost per produrre elettricità dalle onde del mare, Roma, 7 luglio 2015, http://www.enea.it

Eni, Attività Eni in Italia, http://www.eni.com

Eni, Biodiesel da microalghe, https://www.eni.com

Eni, Progetto Green Refinery, http://www.eni.com

Eni Scuola, Le wind farm offshore, http://www.eniscuola.net

Enel Green Power, Al via la seconda fase di test della macchina marina di ENEL Green Power sviluppata da 40SOUTH ENERGY, Comunicato stampa, 31 Gennaio 2014, https://www.enelgreenpower.com

Energia dalle onde, in golfo Napoli test per Dimemo, Ansa, 2 Ottobre 2015, http://www5.ansa.it/

Eolico offshore e aiuti di stato: l’Ue autorizza la Germania a sostenere 20 impianti, Green Report, 17 aprile 2015, http://www.greenreport.it

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Tethys, Costa Head Wave Farm, https://tethys.pnnl.gov

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Via il divieto all'air gun, la Camera dà ok a ddl Ecoreati http://www.ansa.it/

List of acronyms

AWS:(Archimedes Wave Swing) DGRME: Direzione Generale per le Risorse Minerarie ed Energetiche Dimemo: Diga marittima per l'energia del moto ondoso ENEA: Agenzia nazionale per le nuove tecnologie, l'energia e lo sviluppo economico sostenibile Eni: Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi, azienda multinazionale creata dallo Stato Italiano EWEA: European Wind Energy Association Gasdotto TAG: Trans Gas Austrian Pipeline Gasdotto TMPC: Trans Mediterranean Pipeline – Transmed GW: Gigawatt INA: Compagnia petrolifera di stato croata. ISIS: Islamic State of Iraq and Syria ISPRA: Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale KLM: Compagnia aerea di bandiera dei Paesi Bassi KW: Chilowatt LIMPET: Land Installed Marine Powered Energy Transformer Marathon Oil: Marathon Oil Corporation è una società internazionale attiva nel campo del petrolio Medoilgas: Società dei Gruppo Mediterranean Oil & Gas Pic attiva nell'esplorazione e nella produzione di idrocarburi liquidi e gassosi MW: Megawatt OMV: OMV (Österreichische Mineralölverwaltung) Compagnia petrolifera austriaca OTEC: Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion OWC: Oscillating Water Column PEWEC: Pendulum Wave Energy Converter SEN: Strategia Energetica Nazionale SLOCS: Sea Lines of Communication TAP: Trans Adriatic Pipeline TAR: Tribunale Amministrativo Regionale TEN-T: Trans European Network Transport UE: Unione Europea

Note on Ce.Mi.S.S. and the Author

Ce.Mi.S.S.139

Il Centro Militare di Studi Strategici (Ce.Mi.S.S.) è l'Organismo che gestisce, nell'ambito e per conto del Ministero della Difesa, la ricerca su temi di carattere strategico.

Costituito nel 1987 con Decreto del Ministro della Difesa, il Ce.Mi.S.S. svolge la propria opera valendosi di esperti civili e militari, italiani ed esteri, in piena libertà di espressione di pensiero.

Quanto contenuto negli studi pubblicati riflette quindi esclusivamente l'opinione del Ricercatore e non quella del Ministero della Difesa.

Fabio Indeo

Fabio Indeo è dottore di ricerca in Geopolitica. Attualmente è ricercatore presso Center for Energy Governance and Security (Hanyang University, Seoul). Autore di diverse pubblicazioni su questioni energetiche in riviste nazionali ed internazionali. Dal 2013 svolge delle lezioni sulla Sicurezza Energetica in Medio Oriente al NATO Regional Cooperation Course al NATO Defence College di Roma

139 http://www.difesa.it/SMD_/CASD/IM/CeMiSS/Pagine/default.aspx 63

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