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Vol. 12 No: 2 · . , 1990 t' 4, , A .. Planning History Bulletin of the Contents Planning History Group

1 ISS 0959 - 5805 EDITORIAL ...... ~ ..· ················-····~ ------················· ········ ···· ···-·-········"···················· · ··············--·· ···· ····~·········-·-········-···········-··----- 2 Editor NOTICES Professor Dennis Hardy 3 School of Geography and Planning ARTICLES Middle ex Polytechnic Margarethenhohe Essen: Garden City, Workers' Colony or Satellite Town? ...... 3 Queens way Enfield Ursula v. Petz Middlesex Garden Suburb Planners 1900-1914: A New Middle C lass Liberalism in Conflict E 3 4SF with the Centrally Governed Town Planning Tradition in Finland ...... 10 Telephone 01-368 1299 Extn 2299 Laura Kolbe Telex 8954762 'Bolt-holes for Weekenders': The Press and the Cheap Cottages Fax Ol-805 0702 Exhibition, Letchworth Garden City 1905 ...... 17 Joe McGahey Associate Editor for the Americas Cities of Rubble to Cities in Greenery: Postwar Reconstruction Professor Marc A. Wei s Planning in Germany ...... 19 Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Jeffry M. Diefendorf Pre ervation Columbia University RESEARCH 27 -llOH Avery Hall ew York, 1 Y 10027 City Plans and their Implementation in 19th Century Greece ...... 27 USA Vithleem Hastaoglou-Martinidis, Kiki Kafkoula, Nikos Pc1pamihos Associate Editor for the Pacific Transformations of Urban and Regional Space in Northern Greece Or Robert Freestone before and after 1912 ...... 30 DC Research C. Hadjimihalis, N. Kalogirou, A. Ycrolym pos Design Collaborative Pty. Ltd. The Seaside Resort as an International Phenomenon: 225 Clarence Street A Bibliographical Note ...... 34 Sydney SW 2000 Lynn F. Pearson Australia Landscaping Control ...... 36 Warwick Mayne-Wilson Production Desig n: Steve Chilton REPORTS 37 Word Processing: Sandy Weeks Printing: Middlesex Polytechnic Print Centre Europa Nostra Awards for 1989 ...... 37

Planning Histo ry is published three times a year NETWORKS 38 for distribution to members of the Planning Histo ry Group. The Group as a body i n ot Landscape Research Group ...... 38 responsible for the views expre cd and tatements made by individual ..v riting or PUBLICATIONS 40 reporting in Planning Hi tory. o part o f this publication may be reproduced in any form Abstracts ...... 40 without permission from the editor. Bibliography ...... 41

Notes for Contributors PLANNING HISTORY GROUP 42 The prime aim of Planning History is to incrca e ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0.... ''''''''''''''"'0.' '''""''''''''''' ''''''''''''''''''"'''''''''''''''''''''"-''''-'''''"''"-"-""''""-"""""""""-~<• ... •u•••._o... ,..._,._._"0.'0.""''"'''''''""'"'''""''''"''"'''''"U'" •••••••••--• an awareness of d evelopments and ideas in Election of Executive Committee 1990-1992 ...... 42 planning history in all parts of the world. In PHG Executive Committee 1990-92 ...... 42 pursuit of this aim, contributions arc invited Membership Report, August 1990 ...... 43 from members and non-members alike for any section of the bulletin. Articles sho uld normall y not exceed 2500 words, and may well reflect work in progress. Photographs and other ill ustrations may be included. Contributions submitted on a disc, with accompanying hard copy, are to be encouraged; please contact the editor for format details. Planning History Vol. 12 No 2 Editorial Editorial

The editorial for this issue was written on a train, From Lancashire and Cheshire, the train races travelling from Glasgow to London, a diagonal south-eastwards, a route that surprises visito rs for route across Britain that takes nearly six hours. It the sheer extent of open countryside. There arc is an evocative journey for a p lanning historian, of­ glimpses of motorways and cooling towers, but it fering a cross section throu gh time as well as place. is the sight of canals and church towers that sets Late-eigh teen th century industrial landscapes rest the scene in this stretch of middle England. Per­ alongside post-modern fa ntasies, towns change haps, though, this is all illusion, for soon one is in places with country, in a kaleidoscope of changing Milton Keynes, as symbolic of the new Britain as is images. Wigan of the old. A city built for the moto r age, for the consumer with more time for leisure than Glasgow Central is where it all starts, the nine­ for work, with nothing old about it except endur­ teenth-century structu re of the refurbished station ing new town ideals. Low-flung commercial build­ veneered with modern heritage architecture. The ings in primary colours, and award-wining technology of modern transport is new, of course, housing schemes typify what is on view . and t he station works hard to live up to the highly­ publicised image of its rejuvenated city. Full of The rest of the journey is brief. The rings which paradoxes but it all seems to work, and as the train Abercrombie drew in his wartime G reater London crosses the Clyde one is confronted with ample evi­ Plan still provide a means to find one's way dence of the rebirth of this former centre of manu­ through the landscape of the Home Counties and facturing. Further out, though, the drab housing into the metropolis. Through the neat cou ntrystde estates- a product of earlier ideals of suburban liv­ and prosperous towns of the Outer Country Rtng ing, thwarted by the reality of mean municipal bud­ and the Green Belt (the latter too narrow to be gets - serve as a r eminder that the rebirth of a city meaningful, but still effective in defining the physt­ has to extend well beyond its centre. cal edge of the capital as Abercrombie would have wished), across London's suburbs ( most of them Vacant industrial sites and the outline of the dating from the 1930s and now in the throes of doomed Ravenscraig steel works spell out the pres­ renewal and intensification), and so t o the inner ent fa te of the industrial towns to the south of Glas­ ci ty and Euston Station. London continues to pros­ gow, once centres of coal-mining, ironworks and per- if measured in terms of central area r edevelop­ engineering. Food for thought here, but the ment - but some of the high costs of this arc scenery has soon changed to that of the magnifi­ immediately apparent; Glasgow, one wonders, cent Southern Uplands, an unbroken race through might be more effectively pointing the way to the a the hills until the train stops briefly at Lockerbie, future. quiet town no longer in the glare of publicity. Then across the border, and through some delight­ Dennis Hardy ful stations, their red stone and decorative iron­ work set against a backcloth of the Pennines to the cast and Lake District to the west. Carlisle, Lancas­ ter and Preston mark out the route, fo llowed by a stop at Wigan, its name immortalised by Georgc Orwell and synonymous with the idea of a north­ ern industrial town. Still one can see a few remain­ ing red-brick mills, their tall chimney stacks no longer smoki ng; the coal mines have gone, and playing fields have replaced former workings. Wigan Pier (where coal was once tipped into canal barges) is now a heritage centre. Even nearby Crewe boasts a heritage attraction in a converted signal box, strategically placed near one of the great junctions of the railway age.

1 Planmng I hstory Vol 12 N o 2 Plannang Htstory Vol 12 No 2 Notices ~A~rt~ic~le=s------~~ Notices Articles The case s tudy is the ci ty of Essen in the Ruhr SECON D ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNA· INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON CAMILLO SITTE: Margarethenhohe Essen: Area. Essen is one of those ci ties in Germany TIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE STUDY OF DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE, which experienced in the course of the 19th cen_­ TRADITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS, BER KELEY, USA, INSTITUTO UNIVERSITARIO Dl ARCHITETTURA, Garden City, Workers' tury a fundamental change from a sleepy awana~ 4-7 OCTOBER 1990 VENICE, 7·10 NOVEMBER 1990 town with an episcopal see and about 5000 mhabt Colony or Satellite Town? tants around 1820, to a coke-town with a popula­ The second conference of the International Associ· A three day international symposium has been or­ tion of more than 100,000 people around 1900. at ion fo r the Study of Traditional Environments ganised t o mark the centenary o f the publication of Two branches dominated the growth of the city of (IASTE) addressing the theme First World-Third Camillo Si tte's Der Stiidtebau nach seines Kunstleri· Ursula v. Petz Essen: north to the "medieval" town coal mining in­ World : Duality and Coincidence in Traditional Dwell­ schen Grundsiitzen. creasingly spread over the area, whereas in the Settlements will be held at the University University of Dortmund west of the town a cast steel factory started to ex­ ings and The symposium entitled "Sitte e i suoi interpreti" of California, Berkeley, on October 4-7, 1990. The (Si tte and his interpreters) will foc us on the in­ pand. final schedule includes 120 papers by scholars fluence the work of Sitte had all over Europe and Established in 1812, the factory of Fried rich Krupp from 34 countries. Keynote speakers include }anet Introduction the United States and on its various in terpretations. began to grow on the basis of special produ ~ ti o n Adu-Lughod, Samir Amin, Hasan-Uddin Khan, When in 1906 Margarethe Krupp the widow of one methods in steel casting and the correspondtng d e­ John Turner, and Dell Upton. The pro­ is to provide a forum for a comparative of the greatest industrialists in Germany in this Lisa Peattie, The aim velopment of special products, with about 1000 la· be edited by conference eo-director presentation of the impact of the Sittesque model period, signed the deed of foundation for a "wor­ ceedings will bourers in 1857 (1851 only 250) and abo ut 12,000 tn ezar AI Sayyad and Jean-Paul Bourdier. For reg· in Europe and to highlight the discourse on the kers' colony" on the outskirts of the industrial city 1873. It particularly profited from the French-Cer­ tstration information, contact : IASTE Conference, birth of modern town planning. of Essen, it was intended to improve the li ving con­ man War of 1870/71 and the preceding production Center for Environmental Design Research, Univer­ ditions of the people. boom in the armament sector. In 1873 the growth Stty of California, Berkeley, CA 94720; telephone Further info rmation from Guido Zucconi, Depart­ The colony, which according to the intensions of period everywhere came to an end JUSt as tt dtd for (415) 642-2896. ment of History of Architecture, Institute the founder was built under the aesthetic rules of Krupp also and the depression lasted then f or Universitario di Architettura, 30124 Venezia, Italy, the recently established German Garden City Move­ tel (041-719153-719040), Fax (719044). twelve years, before growth soared again. F rom ment, has become very famous because of the 1885 onwards the Krupp factory prospered anew layout of its plan, the picturesque site on the slope and this second boom lasted till the First World of a wooded hill, the smart design of the houses War. This is the period when the Krupp enterpnse together with its peaceful atmosphere. This "gar­ definitely becomes an international p ower on the den city" acted for a long time as a model village world market. also for the construction of colonies all over the Ruhr area. This paper will only discuss briefly the colony it­ self. The main emphasis, however, will concen­ trate on the discussion of how the project was handled by the local planning authority and the local politicians. The city of Essen at this time was an industrial boom town with a more or less obsolete "medieval" core, surrounded by coal mines and the Krupp steel factories. After 1900 it started to change its image into a modern city. It will be questioned how the entrepreneurial initiative of Mrs Krupp and the "Margarethenhohe" fits into this philos­ Fig 1 The 19th century Krupp coketown Essen, ophy, which was in the first instance represented from the north by a young planner called Robert Schmidt, who later became the most famous "regional planner" of The city of Essen was widely dominated by the the Ruhr area. Krupp factories: Krupp is Essen and - in the ftrst in­ When in 1906 the Margarethe-Krupp foundation stance- the city of Essen is synonymous with was established, the policy for town development Krupp. That is certainly true for the 19th century. and town planning (compared with 19th century Towards the turn of the century nevertheless this planning princi ples) changed radically. The con­ interdependance between city and Krupp slo wly struction of Margarethenhohe, which began four started to change because the city gradually years later, illustrates this change. evolved from a purely industrial town, a coke­ town, into a modern city and - in my opinion - the

2 3 Articles Planning I IJstory Vol 12~ Planntng I hstory Vol 12 No. 2 Articles ------~~~ ~~------~-- and was no longer o nly addressed to the corn plannmg and construction of Margarethenhohe rep­ in 1885. Erich Zweigert followed this policy in the garethe-Krupp foundation on the occasion of the wedding of her d aughter Bertha and Gustav von pany's s taff and its famihes but became a lso open resents one clement in this transformation process. first years after taking up office and promoted the to the entire population of the city. When the dona­ completion of the technical infrastructure such as Bohlen und Halbach. This donation "should serve in the first instance in providing the poor ("minder­ tion document states that the houses should be for A new policy in city development energy supply, tramwaylines, public services, etc. "poorer" ("minderbemittelte") classes 1t tS usually But around the turn of the century on the basis o f a bemittelten Klassen") with housing ... The founda­ Towards the end of the 19th century the role of the argued that at this time not the really poor were new appreciation of the role o f public administra­ tion's capital consists of 1 m. Reichsmark and 50 ha municipal administration was clearly shifting from meant, but those who within the population were tion at local level he primarily concentrated on the building land ... The capital ... is destined ... for the a r es ~ramed attitude in more or less controlling not able to create property by themselves a con­ fo llowing crucial subjects: construction of houses." (Essen, 1st December pubhc money and property, to a type of public en­ 1906). vincing argument if o ne looks at the soc1al status terprise which has to be based on efficient manage­ - Firstly the support of tertiary activities in the in­ of the later tenants. ment. Whereas it still was -up to the mid-80s- the town and the conversion of the town The foundation was governed by a board of eleven, dustrial Certainly, members of the Krupp staff should be aim to spend as little money as possible, into a "City". That d oes not mean only to at­ five of whom were members of the Krupp com­ municipal centre "appropriately taken into consideration", as 1t is necessary for the city to invest in ew "headquarters" and institutions to the pany, fi ve of the municipality, and in the chair tt then became tract n said, for the choice of the tenants for Margarethen­ ction of infrastructure and to run the "Oberburgermeister" Holl e, who succeeded Zwei­ the constru place and t o favour building for public and private hohe. bu t by and large the estate should be open to enterprise on the city's own behalf. gert. The board had to take the further decisions relevant administrati on and commerce; it also means ex­ everybody. In any case, it was not a worker's col tending the ci ty's cultural attractions. Zweigert about the Margarethenhohe. In 1886 the municipal architect of Essen, Wiebe, ony i n the traditional sense, because it was too far did both and it was largely to his merit that the w rites in a memorandum about "The housing con­ The building site, formerly agricultural land, Jays away from the company's premises as well as the main management of the railway board as well as ditions of the poor at Essen" that there would have across a valley on the top of a hill to the southwest mming pits, a fac t which made it tmposs1ble for the central administrative seat of the coal board been no need to promote municipal housing pro­ of the city, about 3 km from the main station. The the workers or miners to walk to work (a fact were to choose Essen for their location. At the grammes up to that time, "because the housing ai r at the site was clean, and the site safe from land which, for example, determined the llmtng of the same time Zweigert supported very much the shortage is only a consequence of the flourishing of subsidence caused by mining (because there is no lunch hour). building of a museum, an opera house, a public the industry and the arrival of the needed labour coal under the surface). With considerable energy, library, etc. But, more important, is that meanwhile attractive fo rce, which means that it is the responsibility of Burgermeister Zweigert had already in 1901 at­ middle class housing was urgently needed w1th the the factory owners to provide good accommoda­ - Secondly, Zweigert focussed on making the mu­ tempted to purchase the site. He wanted to ac­ whole city. The extension of the tertiary sector in tiOn for the bulk of the manpower." (Quoted from nicipal bureaucracy professional. Therefore, he en­ quire the land for the city to incorporate the the ctty demanded more, new and better housmg Kosters 1981, 64). As such, Wiebe argues that the gaged several qualified experts for the municipal neighbouring municipality of Ruttenscheid on the stock. But not only within the city area in general shortage in houses, the bad living conditions and administration (P. Brandi as legal adviser, 0. Wied­ one hand, and on the other to plan at the site a com­ had the housing demand of a new new middle the high rent prices were caused by the industry feldt as head of the- reorganised -public record of­ munal forest which the town according to Zwei­ class grown; even the company 1tsclf had changed which was acting without responsibility, when it fice, R. Schmidt as municipal architect). gert urgently needed as compensation for the 1ts labour force according to new production meth­ only concerned itself for profit and not for the rele­ heavily industrialised high density, 19th century - F urther, Zweigert supported very much the ods and new forms of commumcation and manage­ vant infrastructure, and he blamed the factory quarter in the northern part of the city. But in this founding o f intercommunal boards within the ment with the result that a new generatiOn of owners for leaving the problem t o the cities. From case Zweigert had no success. More successful, Ruhr Area to solve on a regional level p roblems white collar workers ("Beamte") acqutred jobs. In Wiebe's point of view it was not so much a pure however, was the financial adviser and property such as fresh water supply and sewage. T hi s re· 1,320 employees (whtte philanthropic attitude when Alfred Krupp built his administrator of Mrs Krupp, who was able to buy 1885 the company had only suited in the foundation of two relevant institu­ figure was up to 4,039. own housing estates, the workers' colonies for via middle men in 1903/04 an area of 250 ha of collar workers); in 1910 this tions in 1898 and 1904 - both with their needed better middle class "his" workers when the enterprise fl ourishes: be­ land in this area between Riittenscheid, Baldeney Therefore, the company administration located at Essen (Ruhrtalsperren­ . tween 1863 and 1892, 6800 flats as well as social in­ and Fu lcrum (50 ha of which were then con­ housing for the better paid verein and Emschergenossenschaft). frastructure and social welfare. tributed to the donation). Zweigert also approved t he reorganisation of the The financial adviser was But it was in the fi rst instance during the long p eri­ municipal boundaries. The incorporation of neigh­ a member of the Krupp od of economic d epression b etween 1873 and 1885 bouring communities into Essen mean t gaining management, but he was that a new approach of public intervention in tech­ more space and cheap land in, for example, the bo­ also a member of the city nical, social and economic fields was adopted b y rough of Altenessen in 1901, and the borough of council. He certainly had German cities and municipalities. This approach Riittenscheid in 1905. known about Zweigert's was based on the one hand on rapidly developing intentions concerning the technical standards in infrastructure and on the Finally, he was very much engaged as mediator be­ land and his unsuccessful other hand on the policy of (the German variant of) tween employers and employees during the efforts to acquire it. "municipal socialism" (Ba johr 1988). massive struggles after 1900. It can be suggested that he had obviously recognised that violent so­ With the donation of Mar­ up­ To offer social services and to respond to the s cial conflicts would have, among o ther things, ne­ garethe Krupp, which ply of public social infrastructure was a way to gative effects on the city's evolution towards a seems to be her own deci­ sis counter the negative effects of the economic cri modern "metropolis". sion, the Krupp company and the consequences of the rapid growth of the adopted a new course in towns. At Essen public money was per capita in­ its housing policy. The vested as follows: 1849- 3.86 Reichsmarks, in 1913- The founding of Margarethenhohe paternalisti c 19th century 53.50 Reichsmarks (Bajohr 1988, 118). Erich Zweigert d ied in 1906 at the age of 57- but attitude, which was so the new policy which h e had consequently pu r­ With expanding administration and services, the popular and so perfectly sued since the late 90s was already s uccessful. It carried out by the factory municipalities became more and more active fits very well into this context, that in this period players in the formation of the local en vironment owners, had become o ld f'\"1'1 Margarethe Krupp, since 1902 widow of the late fashioned . It now became and in the life of the city. This happened certainly Friedrich Alfred Krupp, established the Mar- at Essen, when a new "Burgermeister" took office more socially orientated, Fig 2 Approach to the garden city (1912)

4 5 Planmng H1story Vol 12 No. 2 Articles Articles Planning I ustory Vol 1 2~ ~~------~

The hst of the first 359 tenants w ho i n 1913 moved the construction of any single bulldtng o ver a long m at Margarcthenhohe proves this point: less than period is certainly the reason for the outstanding half the number of tenants (174) were "Kruppi­ appearance for the uniformity and consis tency of aner", employees of the Krupp company (workers, the estate. Margarethenhohe portrays thus a n employees, pensioners); the o ther (188) were, architectural language in its appearance whtch was astde from teachers (13), tradesmen (7) and very much appreciated at the time of 1ts o n gtns lt others" (39), employees of the m unicipality (55), was a contrast and a real alternative to the then the post office (24), the railway (20), the coal board poorly considered grid road sys tem w1th tts 19th (8 - it goes to Zweigert's credit to have these offices century multi-storey renthouse town extension, attracted to Essen), the police (11) and t he court which - as it was said - was e ndlessly extendable, (11) (Kosters 1981, 110). without any aesthetic appeal, the c tty o f ex ploita­ tion and speculation. (Nevertheless, a d es1gn b y Margarethenhohe - a garden city? Bruno Tau t would have been different and one can imagine that Hanncs Meyer, in the 1930s dir To say it in advance- Margarethenhohe in Essen is ecto r certainly not a "classical" garden city i n the sense of the "Bauhaus", who worked in 1916 under Met­ Fig 4 Margarethenhoh e from a b ird's eye view zendorf at Margarethenhohe, did no t like the d e­ of Ebenezer Howard, even if it is usually named as Fig 5 T he fountain (c1928) in the market place is d ed i­ sign.) such. In the journal of the Garden Cities and Town cated to Margarethe Krupp; in auguration 1912 Planning Association the title o f an article in 1911 is named "The German Bournville" and this, I Anyway, the label "garden city" is very popular and Margarethenhohe also is s aid t o be the first sociation from 1907 onwards. The design of these •MARGAAETHE ·~ RUPP·ST I FT UNG• think, might fit very well. Peter Hall (1 988) calls it FUR·WOHNUNGSF German gard en city- or at least one o f the first, two squares have a s trong relationship to each ~- URSORGE · b:2 a "garden village". The title of a commemorative other, bu t the one at Margarethenhohe to my mind publication on the occasion of the 50th anniversa and it certainly has some features of the G erman ry shows more urban features. o f the foundation (Stei nhauer, 1956) says "Garten­ version of the English "model": stadt Margarethenhohe"- "Garden City Margare­ - It is rather big, as a separately p lanned estate, - Margarethenhohe is, as has been said, a middle K. thenhohe", but the author characterises the estate originally for 5000 inhabitants (the Krupp housing class housing a rea with mainly one and two family as a satellite town, a town to s leep in, a town to programme between 1864 and 1892/1914 totals houses with gardens (only in the 1920s, after ltve in ("Schlafstadt", "Wohnstadt") bu t also as gar­ 6800 units altogether), a figure which after the Sec­ World Wa r II, several blocks have been con­ den city. The publication on the occasion of the ond World War was augmented to 8-9000 people. structed ), surrounded by a green belt, which separ­ 75th anniversary of the foundation correctly ates- or shields- Margarethenhohe from the · ARCHrTE ~T-PROFESSOR · speaks of a "garden suburb" (Kosters 1981). -The estate has its own infrastructure, supplying expand ing city. But there a re no working places, ·GEORG ·M ETZENDORF· the inhabitants with basic self sufficiency (as intended in the Howard ver­ -ESSEN·AN·OEA·RUHR · needs s uch as a b ig s tore, sev­ sion) is impossible a nd there is also no cultural in­ Fig 6 Exlibris: The vision of the architect eral shops, a pharmacy, dependence. schools, play and sport grounds, and a police station -The architecture and the image of the estate has (in the beginning). Two been designed -over a p eriod of 25 years, from Margarethenhohe and t he local planning churches were planned but 1909 ti 11 1934 - by the a rchitect Georg Metzendorf, authority only built after World W ar who o riginally came from Darmstadt in Hassia. If one speaks of professionals in the local bureau­ Il. The central square has an He was a follower of Camill o Sitte's theory of the cracy after 1900, one has to come back to the en­ outstanding d esign as a city­ art of town planning. He entered the field himself gagement of Robert Schmidt as municipal a rchitect market place- it is not a vil ­ by designing a worker's house for an exhibition in at Essen in 1901. Unfortunately, l have not yet lage design bu t it does have Darmstadt in 1908, for which he won a p rize. He fo und a source which could say how Bi.irgermeis tcr a village atmosphere. Rows was a member of the German arts and crafts so­ Zweigert became aware of Schmidt, who was born of shops are located on t he ciety since its foundation i n 1907. The board mem­ near Frankfurt, had studied in Hanover and had a oo· two long sides o f a r ectangle, bers appointed Robert Schmoh l, the chief architect job at the hydraulic engineering authonty at and in between is the big o f the Krupp company a nd designer of Altenhof (I Ruhrort (today Duisburg) before he came to Essen. store (Krup p'sche Konsuman­ and Il) estate, to look for a s u itable architect fo r the But having hardly arrived in the city he attracted stalt) on the top of the hill in Margarethenhohe through the advice of men li ke attention because of a radical new plan, which h e a very rep resentative "metro­ Theodor Fischer at Munich (who recommended immediately had to d raw up. He revised an extst­ politan" design, and oppo­ Bruno Taut(! )), Ka rl Henrici from Aachen and ing plan which still was based upon the grid sys­ site to it the restaurant and others. Schmohl introduced Georg Metzendorf to tem and he redesigned it. Instead of drawing only hotel in a somewhat rural the board. He was recommended by his elder streets and blocks of houses he put in the middle o f style. The d esign of the brother H einrich Metzend ort, pro fessor of architec­ a wider block a g reen park. He widened the layout place is occasionally men­ ture at Darmstadt. Georg Metzendorf was engaged of the s treets a nd avoided by that a visual endless­ tioned in the same context as by the board o n January 1st, 1909. ness in the s treet design. He "decorated" streets the design of Riemerschmids The pri nciples of the time s uch as housing reform and squares with trees and did not permit build­ central square for H ellerau ideals, the revival of handicraft and aesthetic rules ings in the courtyard s o f t he newly designed block. Sicdlung Margarctlwnhohc. near Dresden, the first gar­ defined the layout of the plan and t he d esign of den city which was built by Schmidt also p romptly c riticised the building regu­ Metzendorf for any s ingle building and i nto e very lation of 1895 (published in 1903) with the conse­ Fig 3 Plan of the garden city (c1928) the German Garden City A s- d etail. The responsibility fo r the whole p lan and quences that a new building o rder was released in

6 7 Planning I hstory Vol 12 No 2 Planmng 1 hstory Vol 12 No. 2 Articles Articles

1qo7. Thts new version of the law divides the city later will be slightly altered). The plan shows srge in Essen, Essen 1956. area as a whole into seven different building areas besides the signature of Metzendorf also the signa­ wtth dtfferent densities and design of the build­ ture of Schmidt (as head of the planning depart­ Akten aus dem Historischen Archiv der Fnedrich mgs. In contrast to the first version of the building ment and deputy for buildings matters). Krupp AG, Essen. , htgher densities were then permitted in regulahon To me there is no doubt, that Robert Schmidt par­ the city centre. Thus the new law referred to the ticipated in the implementation of an idea and the new development to create more office space in the preparation of the relevant plan (even if he might ctty centre. At the same time its target was to not have liked so much the architecture itself), av01d htgher densities outside the city centre. Fur­ which fits into his vision about the development thermore, tt provided for the first time a different of a modern ci ty in the Ruhr Area - and especiall y, treatment between industrial and housing areas of course, the city of Essen. and proposed more or less the separation of func­ hon. Finally, a hierarchy of streets was intro­ It seems that the garden city MargarethenhOhe rep­ duced. Some years later Schmidt transformed this resents the ideal example of a housing estates on concept into a scheme which he published in 1913 the periphery of a modern city, surrounded by a in his memorandum about a regional plan for the green belt. It can be seen now in the context of the Ruhr Area. booming core of the city, which is going to become dominated by the middle class white collar em­ The new building regulation of 1907 might very ployee and which banishes more and more the well be influenced by the new building regulation working class into the 19th century parts of the for Munich which was formulated by Theodor Fi­ town, next to the mining pits and the steel works. scher, when he was head of the new office for town extension at Munich and which was adopted in It is a city model of the new century, in which the 1904 ("Staffelbauordnung"). new housing estate as garden city, garden suburb or satellite town resulting from the separation of Schmidt obviously was a passionate critic and inno­ the functions within the city area becomes the vator in the planning field, but this did not hinder place for neat and tidy middle class housing. the council from electing him as deputy in 1906. This nomination, by the way, took place during the Fig 7 New plan for the site at Essen West by In Robert Schmidt's own words: "Essen ... lets same council session at which the donation of Mar­ Schmidt (1901) emerge a new type of city. As each epoch created garethe Krupp was announced for the first time in its own type, it seems to happen here that two orig­ public. inally very contrary types of town, the industrial matters of modern town planning may be con­ town and the town for living have joined together Schmidt then became a member of the board- or at sidered". in one. A start has been made. The work has to be least he usually was present at the board's annual Schmidt is a lso at the meeting of the board when continued with the tools of the administration, en­ meetings. The first meeting took place in July two years later, in July 1909 Metzendorf presents gineering and economy, with the support of com­ 1907. During this meeting Schmidt presented a the definitive plan for Margarethenhohe (which mon thinking of private people and the sympathy first plan for the new es- of the citizens. The city has to become interwoven tate, which was to be con­ with the countryside and vice versa to let develop a structed outside the town sound and pretty settlement structure, without on the hills. The agenda "Mietskasernen" (blocks of renthouses) - a perfect of the meeting says, under (einwandfrei) organism of the modern metropolis" ttem 4: "Deputy Schmidt ,5I~N7 ,.,,/ 5~hn#JII6Dhh#n r:::::zj .7.rn:Y'v$k~' (Schmidt 191 2, 42). makes comments in ..... • t•:•:{J fHM/l<:~d>"" general on the plan (Ben­ . :..:• .. -L19li WS

8 9 Articles Planning History Vol 12~ Planntng I hstory Vo l 12 No. 2 Articles

u rban planning tradition. The development of the urbanisation and i nd ustrialisation of Helsinkt Foreign developments were closely followed tn Ftn­ Garden Suburb Planners nation's urban institutions was affected b y poli tical reached its peak, at the beginning of the 20th cen­ la nd at that time. In this matter the few but power­ (a non-war time), economic (mercantile), adminis­ tury. In comparison with other European coun­ ful ctty Liberals, often Swedish-speaking, 1900-1914: A New Middle trati ve (towns became centers o f local administra­ tries at that time, the ra te o f urbanisation was low. supported cosmopolitantsm and European con­ Class Liberalism in Con­ tion) and architectonic fac tors. At this time came In 1900 most Finnish, people (73%) earned their liv­ tacts; with respect to u rbanisation they introduced the final breakthrough o f the Renaissance urban ing in agriculture. However, Finnish reactions to to Finland many conttnental ideas of urban culture fli ct with the Centrally ideal and of the grid pattern. The characteristic fea­ urbanisation w ere surprisingly s trong at the begtn­ and value. Liberal-minded city planners, the ftrst tures of town planning were now those of rectangu­ ning o f the 20th century. The reasons for thts arc generation of architects educated at the Polytcchni­ Governed Town Planning lar or square town plots drawn up in advance, to be found at the political level. There were no cal Institu te in Helsinki, were famtltar with the plans t hat took very little account of the local topo­ real city people's parties in Finland. The Agrarian most important fo reign tendencies. Among these Tradition in Finland graphy, and the fact that the town was cu t off both Union (est. 1906) which concentrated in creattng new tendencies was a reaction against a centrally functionally a nd archi tecturally from the surround ­ and preserving rural cultu re brought out the nega­ governed city planning tradition, and an attempt ing coun trysid e. tive effects of u rbanisation. T he opinion that the to create a form of planning best-suited to an~wcr the needs of modern life and society These archi­ Laura Kolbe In 1906-1908 a private group of leading bankers, rura l was the strongest root of life for Finnish so­ ciety was widely shared. tects were generally interested in garden suburb architects, engineers and intellectuals in Helsinki companies. Many of them were share owners of University of Helsinki ral gard en suburb companies (AB established seve This was very clearly to be seen during the politi­ these companies and active members of the board Grankulla, AB Brando Villastad, AB Boxbacka, AB ca l crisis in Finland in 1905-06. At this time the Parkstad Vanda, AB M.G. Stenius). Almost imme· of directors. In the Fi nnish t own planning tradition the role of sudden and violent increase of working class dis­ diately, these companies purchased cheaper land central government has been dominant. Unti11809 content in Finland resulted in a general strike, on a northern or western rail way or on the archipe­ The garden suburb idea - a Finnish applica­ Sweden and Finland formed a single kingdom, for many demonstrations and riots. For the first time lago on t he eastern side of the Helsinki city line. several hundreds o f years (from the 13th century). in Finnish history social tension came to a climax, tion of the international experience The aim of these companies was to create outside The first stage of the Finnish t own system and when the red guard and the white civil guard met The garden suburb idea in Finland showed many the existing capital high-standard resid en tial areas lanning can be v iewed a s the so-called "Old in street fightings. Ten people were killed in Hel­ mtxed elements of both international experience town p wi th low-density housing, an intimate a nd modest Period" in the middle of the 16th century. At sinki. The emergence of socialism and vanous and national attitudes. It was not only a program Vasa scale of planning, and to guarantee to the inhabi­ e towns and ci ties become important instru­ forms of "collectivism" were new elements tn the of urban reform but also a manifestation of the that tim tants a c heap and modern transport system. A the policies of the newly established cen­ public consciousness. The old idea of the "true new planning ideology of the middle classes. A ments in common feature was that the members of these d r oyal power. The first attempts for and loyal Fi nnish peasants", which was created by young and productive Fmmsh architect and subur­ tralise companies belonged to t he circle of a new and e x­ regularised urban structure were evident when the romantic a nd national poets in the middle of ban planner, G. Strengell, wrote in 1915 about the pansive liberal-minded middle-class. Ki ng Gustav Vasa made a d etermined effort to con­ the 19th century, was now shown to have been two city planning systems, whtch he called a "ge­ centrate a ll commerce in the towns. The suburban planning indicates some novelties in superceded by urban, independent and revolution­ ometrical, regular system", versus "irregular pic­ the motives of city p lanners. This anti-urban plan­ ary workers. The d ivision of society into rich and turesque system". Finland, due to her political the consequences at this t ime was the estab­ One o f ning reflects a new historical situation and new poor, gentlemen and workers, was now a reality in history, followed the regular and thus "tmpenal" lishment of Helsinki (1550) on the south coast of socio-political motives which were foreign to the Finland. system. Strengell, as well as other young city plan­ Fi nland. It was to become t he rival of Reval, and ners, wanted to apply in the new historical situ­ planners of Helsinki of older times. What was the In Finland, as well as in other industrialised Euro­ would d raw to it traders from the other side of the ation new planning values. Irregular planning and situation in Finland at the beginning of this cen­ pean countries, political acts of violence produced Gulf of Finland. The construction of the town was the English "democratic" tradition were con tury, and h ow was it to be seen in planning terms? strong reactions within the upper classes of the so­ organised in advance. The renaissance ideal of an sidered to be exemplary for the new residential This paper examines how the values o f the middle ciety. One of the consequences was the increasing orderly laid-out town envisaged an economically communities- and they corresponded to the class town planners at the beginning o f the 20th activities of the urban middle class reform move­ significant role for the town. Its plans and architec­ middle class ideas regarding good planning and century differed from their pred ecessors. ment. It was sustained mainly by a moral impetus tural appearance would correspond to this status. living. In fact, Helsinki never became the great trade city; and it did not seek a political revolution, but tried its size a nd shape remained very modest for a long "Bloody years" of 1905-06 - reactions of the to solve the problems of society in an evolutionary In the planning of residential regions the new "libe­ process. The main aim was to create individual ti me. middle class ral" planners on the whole adopted new vtews. and social wellbeing and thus to increase national It is interesting to note that the p rivate garden sub­ Plannmg was now done mamly with a view to The 'great-power' period for Sweden-Finland wealth and power. This early-twentieth-century urb companies were established at a time when the demographic units such as "small and large (1617-1721) was a time of fo rmation for the Finnish "nationalism" in Finland must also be seen as a pol­ families" and their needs, not for social classes and itical reaction against the efforts of the Russtan hierarchical separation of functions as was done Czars to unite the Grand Duchy of Finland more ef­ earher. Here lies the main distinction between the fectively with the Russian Empire. planning ideology of "imperial" and "democratic" The urban reforming circles in Finland, whose im­ Helsinki. Imperial 19th century Helstnki was clear­ portance in the social debate grew stronger after ly a traditionally planned, beautiful and tmpostng 1905, belonged to the new liberal middle class. In residential city with administrative mstituttOns for the general reform debate it was generally believed the controlling bureaucracy at its core. The "auth­ that evolution, not revolution, would improve the oritarian" planners established limits for the city conditions o f the new classes in society. In addi­ areas by size of the plots and strict building regula­ tion t o the earlier reform efforts (such as the tem­ tions with differentiating effects. They moved low­ perance movemen t, women's-rights movement and class housing (in wood), and unhygienic and youth movement) the issue of housing and plan­ infla mmable workshops to the outskirts of the city. ning was raised as an equally important matter. The top residential types of houses with their own gardens were grouped around "squares" in the

10 11 Planning I hsto ry Vol 12 No. 2 Planntng I h'ltory Vol. 12 No. 2 Articles Articles

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12 13 Plilnmng Htstory Vol. 12 No. 2 Articles ~A~rtl=c=le=s______P_ Ia_n_n_ln~g~H-I s__ toryV ol 1 ~

Engh sh manner, as the planners explicitly pointed from the old town and its way of living, its admin­ urban city planning. Informality, organic growth, countries a symbol for the regency, the army and o ut. istration and municipal control as well as the build­ picturesque landscapes and poetic, natural urban in general the authorities. Therefo re, fl aggmg and Ing regulations. This created a new opportunity scenes with public open spaces and social and cul­ the flag-pole, which became a general phenomenon Suburban hvtng at the beginning of the 20th cen­ fo r the suburbanites to participate in the building tural facilities were most likely to generate the har­ in suburban living, had an 1mpo rta nt role m em­ tury w as positively desired for the opportunities it of their environment. The main aim was to im­ monious society of which Sonck d reamed. Old phasising national identity. o ffered f or phystcal separation from the lower p rove the lifestyle of individuals and families by Porvoo, on the south coast of Finland, became at classes and the dirt, noise, disease and crime which emphasising s uch factors as non-political com ­ that time the leading residential ideal of the archi­ accompamed living in town centres. This was a References munity activities and patriotism at the local level. tects. Porvoo was one of the few Finnish m edieval talo, Riitta JalltnOJa, Tapa­ new attitude. The separation of residence and Risto Alapuro, Matti Ales towns, with a narrow and curved street network ni Valkonen, Tom Sandlund: Suomalaiset, Yhtezskun­ work place was a fact at the turn of the century, The issue of municipal ownership and its role in and artistic town scenes, which has grown without nan rakenne teollistumisen aikana . Juva, 1985. ( The wh1ch was not the case ten years earlier. One of building a nd planning was a very topical one the interference of the central government. Society Dun ng Indus­ the first private attempts to build a "villa colony in among Finnish intellectuals in the early years of Finns, The Construction of German s tyle" was carried out in Helsinki by archi­ this century. The different viewpoints are to be In Finland the garden city planners followed Brit­ trialisation). tect K.A. Wrede in 1890. The aim, which was not seen in the planning of the new garden suburbs. A ish urban traditions, where every family had its Sven-Eric Astrom : Samhiillspla nering och regionsbild­ realised, was to establish a modern villa area in a major subject in this discussion of planning was own house and garden, as opposed to the continen­ ing i kejsartidens Helsingfors, Studier i stadens inre dif cen tral ci ty p ark. The social differentiation of the public versus private initiative. Limited liability tal and traditional Helsinki model where most ferentiering 1810-1910. Helsing fors, 1957. ( Social town was in this case still traditional : the well-to­ companies, such as the garden suburb companies, urban families lived in flats. This British anti-auth­ Planning and the Formation of Social Areas in Im­ do citizens lived in the respectable core of the were based on business principles. The capital oritarian p ragmatism and bourgeois way o f living perial Helsingfors. S tudies on the I nner Differen­ to wn, while workers had their homes in over­ stock was s hared by private entrepreneurs who was supposed to suit better the needs of the new tiation of the City 1810-1 91 0.) crowded working class a reas at the periphery. also jointly participated in the management of sub­ middle class. In this sense, suburban planning had urban planning. In this respect the suburban a hidden social message: the peaceful evolution of Birger Brunila, Marius a f Schulten : "Asemakaava 1a of Ho wever, in the new situation at the beginning middle class builders identified themselves with British society should be preferred t o t he v iolent rakennustaide'' ("Town planning and ctty cons truc­ ­ the 20th century, it was the revolution in land com the English liberal tradition and laissez-faire continental - and Helsinki - u rban trad ition. tion") in Helsingin kaup u ngin histona IV 2, p 9- munications (especially the electric tram of 1900) 104. Helsinki, 1955. (History of Helsinki IV .2). policies: private enterprises can work more effi­ Non-political leisure acti vities in the suburbs with and the lack of building-sites for low-density hous­ and get better results than those of the tradi­ ciently their parks, gardens, tennis a nd yachting clubs John Burnett : A Social History of Housing 1815- mg, that fundamentally changed the pattern of the tional municipal building bureaucracy of Helsinki. geographical prerequisites in regard to planning in were a natural response to the changing economic 1970. Guildford, 1978. Helsinki. By the turn of the century a shift of atten­ structure of society. Equally important was the James Stewen Curl : European Cities and Socrety. A tiO n was occurring in reforming planning circles, Patriotic and non-authoritarian values of the possibility of every suburban landowner to build a Study of the Infl uence of Political Climate on Town De­ fo r the creation of attractive and freely expanding new planning generation house or a villa to suit different needs a nd income sign. London, 1975. subu rbs on peripheral land, outside the capital. The new trends in Finnish planning became appar­ levels. Individuality, privacy and d omestici ty Tekmkern, the leading building journal in Finland, ent in the early years of this century. The ideologi­ were the key words in suburban living. Thi s c ult jonas Frykman, Orvar Lofgren : Den kultwerade Etnologiska sa 11 - could w1th enthusiasm express already in 1899: cal basis for an alternative paradigm in planning of privacy and intimate family and social life be­ miinniskan . Skrifter utgivna av , 1987. ( The Culti ­ was imported. The vision of compact low-rise came a middle class phenomenon, which clearly skapet i Lund 11. Stockholm "The people who are longing for peace and silence, townscapes in green surroundings was taken from differed from the aristocratic and urban bourgeois vated Human Being). which Helsinki normally cannot provide, who the modern English, German and Swedish garden way of living, as well as from the traditional urban want to live in an individual, beautiful and com­ Thomas Hall : Planung europiiischer Hauptstiidte. city and garden suburb examples. Interest in old public world of work and representation. fo rtabl e environment, have only o ne possibility. Z ur Entwicklong des Stadtebaues im 1 9. urban culture and city construction was therefore They have to join together in order to purchase­ In suburban planning one of the main aims was to Jahrhundert. Kungliga Vitterhets Histone och lively also in Finland. Inspiration for planning not a house- but a large area in the countryside. create a democratic and harmonious milieu. The Antivitets Akademins Handlingar. Antikvanska was found in Camillo Sitte's book from 1889, "Der There they should establish garden suburbs of vari­ suburban companies themselves did very little Serien 35, Goteborg, 1986. Stadtebau nach seinen Kiinstlerichen Grundsatze" . building. They made a general plan for the area ous sizes and plant trees and shrubs as well as Ingrid Hammarstrom, Thomas Hall (eds): Grow th build an electric tram connection to the capital. It Si tte had a remarkable influence at the end of the owned by them, built streets and guaranteed trans­ and Transformation of the Modern City. Stockholm, etc. w11l be easy to find land for the garden suburb. 19th century in all Scandinavian countries. The port services, and constructed sewage systems, 1979. We should develop these important ideas so that young Finnish architect, Lars Sonck, introduced The enterprise was financed by selling building they can be fully realised." Sitte' s thoughts in Finland in 1898. Sonck was to sites and by supplying the new land owners with Kristiana Hartmann : Deutsche Gartenstadtbewegung become Finland's leading exponent of the new building materials and labour. In this sense, one - Ku lturpolitik und Gesellschaftsreformen. Miinchen, When, between 1900 and 1906, the echoes of urban planning. Sonck also participated in the had to become a landowner if one wanted to build 1976. fo reign examples were heard in Finland, the gar­ planning of the new garden suburbs of Helsinki in a suburban house; living in the suburbs had strong den c1ty 1dea became well known among young, Marjatta Hietala :"Urbanization: Contradrctory 1906-07. connections with patriotic and rural and therefore Views. Finnish Reactions to the Co ntinental Dr scus­ leading, liberal minded Finnish architects and buil­ s well as in other anti-urban values. In Finland, a sion at the Beginning of th is Century", Studia His ton ­ ders. In the p lanning of residential regions the Together with the change in planning attitudes Scandinavian countries, there was a lot of unculti­ ca 12, p .7-10. Jyvaskyla, 1983. new planners adopted the view that environmental there was an increasing national interest in rural vated land even very near the capital. Therefore, factors could override genetic ones to produce a de­ Finland, in its domestic and peasan t building tradi­ building o utside Helsinki, by the rough sea or at Marjatta Hietala : Services and Urbanisation at the clining quality of human stock from generation to tion and in the whole pre-urban landscape. This some other idyllic natural scenery, linked the Turn of the Century. Th e Diffusion of Innova tio n. Stu­ generation. It no longer seemed enough to reform was clearly to be seen in Sonck's interests, in his whole suburban movement to the romantic wri­ dia Historica 23, Jybaskyla, 1987. and rebuild the old town; the population as whole planning ideology and in his garden suburb plans. ters' and artists' patriotic landscape ideal of the Gareth Stedman ]ones : Outcast London: A Study in had to be transform ed to new areas. Sonck insisted that the "mechanical authoritarian 1860s. town p lanning of the 19th century had managed to the Relationship Between Classes in the Victorian So ­ The result of this principle was the movement of produce only boring city landscapes". Sonck, in­ The other indicator of patriotism, the flagging, be­ ciety. Aylesbury, 1984. of better-off residents to the anti-urban periphery stead, wanted to draw attention to the old urban, came more general in Finland through villa life. the capital area. By leaving the old city, the new Matti Klinge : Suomen sinivalkoiset viirit. Kansal­ 18th century milieu and to aesthetic values in pre- The flag was in Finland and in the Scandinavian middle class builders manifested a total separation listen ja muidenkin symbolien vaiheista ja merkitykses-

14 15 Planmng lli~tory Vol 12 No 2 Articles Articles Planmng I hstory Vol 12 No 2 ------~~------~ ta Keuruu, 1981. (The Blue-white Colours of Fin­ Letchworth might become a ha ven fo r second land The Stgntftcance of National and Interna­ 'Bolt-holes for Week­ home owners wishing to escape from the pressures tiOnal Symbols in History.) of urban living. In an article entitled " Bo lt-Holes enders' : The Press and for Week-enders", 'The Daily Mail' o f 12th January Laura Kolbe : Kulosaari - unelma paremmasta tulevai­ 1905 urged upon its readers hip the advantages of a suudesta. 1\.euruu, 1988. (The Garden Suburb Kulo­ the Cheap Cottages "Bolt-Hole" in the countryside in positively encour­ saan - a Dream of a Better Future.) Exhibition, Letchworth aging terms. lt stated: Tim Knudsen : "International Influence and Profes­ The agitation, however, in favour of cheaper cot­ swnnl Rivalry in Early Danish Planning". Planning Garden City 1905 tages has secured the powerful advocacy of the Perspectives, No.3, No.3, p .187-196, 1988. medical profession, and under their gu1dance will acquire a wider scope. Urging the necess1ty Pd.ka Korvenmaa: "Architecture of Lars Sonck 1905- of these retreats, or as he calls them "bolt-holes" 1945". Monographs by the Museum of Finnish Joe McGahey a well-known physician said yesterday: Architecture. Helsinki, 1981. The man who will survive is the man who Will Middlesex Polytechnic learn quickly ... The atmosphere of a London Henrik Lilius : The Finnish Wooden Town. Den­ home is so often the centre of bustle and stress mark, 1985. that rest is impossible there. Hence the necess1ty The Cheap Cottages Exhibition, held at Letchworth Rtitta Nikula : Yhteniiinen kaupunkikuva 1900-1930. of some 'bolt-hole' in the country where one can in Hertfordshire, during the summer of 1905 was ence, too, the fact that these re­ Suomalaisen kaupunkirakentamisen inhanteista ja fly for rest, and h staged at a crucial phase in the early history of the treats are started by men much earlier m life than paam

16 17 Planning I !Jstory Vol 12 No 2 ~lanmng I h'tory Vol 12 No. 2 Articles Ar ticles ------~~=: ttque_ pictures, clocks, chests and crockery, a de­ mensely successful in advertising the Garden City ti on and building law (another project begun be­ fore the war and continued under the Naz1s an the hghHul haunt for an artist, but hardly the place for Ideal at the national level. Of equal im portance Cities of Rubble to Cities 2 a weary mother and six children r eared on bread was the extent to which the Exhibition d rew atten­ German Academy for City Planning ) before be­ and drippmg 3 tion to inflexible Building Bye-Laws in r ural dis­ in Greenery: Postwar coming the chief planner for Braunschweag. He re tricts of England and Wales. In conclusion, the maincd active in the Germany Academy for City ln a cnttcal report of the Exhibition, 'The Epping Reconstruction Planning Cheap Cottages Exhibition played an important Planning and was on the building committee of the Gazette' of 16th September 1905 pointed out that role in launching Letchworth and keeping it afloat Deutscher Stadtetag (the German Cities' Associ­ the cottages were more suited to week-enders: in Germany during the early phase of the development of the ation), an indication of his continuing influence m They were dehghtfullittle shanties for gentlemen First Garden City at Letchworth in the first decade the postwar period. After the war, Hoffmann prac­ of means, seeking some dainty temporary abode of this century. ticcd architecture in Berlin, where he was a spokes­ m the country or on the river, but as workmen's Jeffry M. Diefendorf man for the revival of modernism in planning and dwellings they were- at least more of them were ­ architecture,3 while Rainer moved to Vienna, qu1te Impracticable. Moreover, quite seventy-five Notes University of New Hampshire per cent of those we examined must have been in where he became a highly influential architect and 1. Edward Cadbury wrote to Thomas Adams in a was for a brief time responsible for designing a direct contravention of the bye-laws of every letter dated 11th November 1904 in the most en­ 4 urban council in the land ... new general p lan for that city. couraging terms: It is widely recognised that the leitmotif of German ... We went to praise and remained to criticise. postwar reconstruction p lanning was "die orga­ yet it is possible to be deceived by first impress­ " .. .I very much appreciate the time and thought you have put into this matter and in fact nisch gegliederte, aufgelockcrtc Stadt," or "the or­ The "organically articulated and dispersed ions. We sincerely hope we were, but until it can much ap­ 1 preciate the way in which you are carrying on the ganica lly articulated and dispersed ci ty." This city" be proved that cheap workmen's dwellings can meant that the necessary functions of a city- hous­ be built anywhere, not on philanthropic but on affairs of the Company as a whole, and hope you The word to be stressed is organically, because it will commercial lines, the Garden City must remain a have the sympathy and support of the Direc­ ing, work, commerce, culture, recreation, and so has a d ual meaning. On one level it is used as the City of Utopia 4 tors. With regard to the Exhibition of Cheap forth - should b e physically separated from one an­ opposite of artificial. Organic cities would consist Houses I think this is an excellent idea and an op­ other and located in logical, spati al relationships, 'The Reynolds Weekly Newspaper' of 1st October of cell-like units that develop in a healthy, natural portunity that must on no account be lost." and that the dense metropolis s hould be broken up 1905 stated: fa shion, and illustrative sketches of such Cities Source: First Garden City Heritage Museum into smaller units where the desired articulated re­ 5 Archives, Letchworth. rather resemble dividing amoebas. Urban func­ The Exh1b1tors seem almost all to have had in lationships could be maintained without overbur­ view an attractive "week-end" cottage, rather tions are analogous to bodily functions; the trans­ 2. 'The Daily Mail' 12th January 1905. Garden dening human, natural, or financial resources. than a cheap dwelling for a rural labourer. In City Association Press Cuttings Book : Cheap Cot­ portation system is analogous to the carcu latlon nearly every case the designers have assumed These ideas, of course, were not new to the post­ system of the blood. But, beyo nd this, the o rgamc tages Exhibition Cutting 1904-05, p.19. Source: war period: in various ways they had been advo­ that water will be obtained from water works First Garden City Heritage Museum Archives, city is one intrinsically linked to nature, able to p1pes, a state of thin§s which hardly ever exists cated b y planners throughout much of this 6 Letchworth. "fulfill the biological needs of men." "The view in the rural districts. century, and they are part of the general critique of from a balcony or from a roof terrace down to a The extracts above clearly show that many ob­ 3. 'The Manchester Evening Chronicle' 25th July the overgrown, unplanned industrial metropolis. green area lying far below, one formed and main­ servers did not consider that these cottages were 1905. Garden City Association Press Cuttings In any event, in postwar Germany this leitmotif is tained by unknown persons, simply cannot be com­ suitably designed for agricultural labourers or Book: Cheap Cottages Exhibition Cuttings 1904-05, most clo sely associated with a book published by pared with direct contact with nature, which the other manual labourers in terms of their design. It p.62. Source: First Garden City Heri tage Museum Johannes Goderitz, Roland Rainer, and Hubert ownership of the smallest house garden invites seems apparent that the promoters of the Exhibi­ Archives, Letchworth. Hoffmann entitled Die gegliederte und aufgelockerte and indeed requires and which awakens the crea­ tion did Stadt. Published in 1957, it was in fact written dur­ 7 nothing to discourage the affluent sectors 4. 'The Epping Gazette' 16th September 1905. Gar­ tive forces in people." Green belts or outlying of society from seeking homes at Letchworth. ing the war, when its authors were employed by parks are of course better than nothing, but they den City Association Press Cuttings Book: Cheap the German Academy for City, Reich and Regional From the evidence p resented in a more extensive Cottages Exhibition 1904-05, p.171. Source: First arc artificial (ki.instlich) and entail high administra­ Planning in Berlin, an organisation which after the tive costs and expensive and time-consuming Study- of which this article is an extract- it is diffi­ Garden City Heritage Museum Archives, Letch­ war became the German Academy for City and Re­ cult to see that the Cheap Cottages Exhibition worth. travel to visit them. Goderitz, Rainer and gional Planning. The ideas contained in this book, Hoffmann acknowledged that the Garden City achieved its ostensible claim of presenting an ob­ along with related essays by Rainer, are worth JeCt-lesson in providing cheap cottages at economic 5. 'The Reynolds Weekly Newspaper' 1st October Movement earlier in the century offered a solution close examination because we can sec here that the to this problem, but they believed that an practice rents to landlords and at affordable rents to agricul­ 1905. Garden City Association Press Cuttings Garden City ideal was not simply a part of the the garden settlements fell far short of the idea be­ tural labourers and other categories of manual wor­ Book: Cheap Cottages Exhibition 1904-05, p133. thinking of these men but in fact central to it. kers. The claim that such cottages could be built Source: First Garden City Heritage Museum cause they became mere "Schlafstadte," bedroom for £150, even allowing for the fact that architects' Archives, Letchworth. Although Goderitz, Rai ner and Hoffmann de­ communities without work places and cultural fa ­ fees, builders' profit, and the transportation of veloped their ideas during the war, I would stress cilitics.8 buildmg materials and some smaller sundry items that none of these men, by background or ideo­ What was needed was to design cities following logy, can be considered real spokesmen for particu­ were excluded from the exhibitors' costings was the logical progression from elementary, biological larly Nazi positions. They felt they were simply far too spurious. On the contrary, rather than pro­ needs. One should start with families bearing and architects and planners working to find technical, ducing agricultural labourers' cottages the style raising lots of children, which means starting with value-free solutions to o bvious, real urban prob­ and type of dwellings built- which were con­ ideal housing forms and moving from there to lems of long s tanding. God eritz, for example, was Sidered to be like little villas on mainly detached other urban functions and structures. In Rainer's unable to work as a planner during the Third Rcich plots- had an appeal to higher social classes as the view, the healthy d evelopment of children was because he had earlier b een associated with the pro­ contemporary evidence of the Press above sug­ only possible if they grow up with a garden; thus gressive town p lanning o f Ernst May, and he found gested. "the question of housing is a question of town plan­ unobtrusive employment in the German Academy. 9 ning and b iology." Houses with gardens, in other However, on the positive site, the Exhibition pro­ After the war, God eritz first worked for the British words, constitute the foundation upon which town vided an impetus to the flagging fortunes of First occupation forces preparing a d raft of a reconstruc- Garden City Limited at Letchworth, and was im- planning and reconstruction planning s hould be

18 19 Planmn~ H1~ t ory Vol 12 No 2 Articles Articles Planning I hstory Vol 12 No 2 ------~ ~~------based ing about housing in gardens. Goderitz, Rainer, ning essays was the need t o o pen up the inner city Proposals like these remamed part of the discus­ and building density. sions abou t how to rebuild Cologne, even tho ugh But w hat l..tnd of house with garden? The d e­ and Hoffman calculated that in a neighbourhood by reducing both population dwelling) ued that the central in the end most of the s uggestiOnS for the central tached s mgle-family house sited on its o wn plot of 1000 dwellings (with four persons per Kart Band, a local architect, a rg and a density of from 30 to 80 dwellings per hec­ ci ty should be reserved f or pedestrians. The major city were not followed. For example, the tdca of was "b t o l og i ca ll ~ superior" for the family, but this tare net building land, all residents could reach cultural monuments in the center should be re­ using roof gardens was c nticised by one o f the "'as tmp racttcal. 0 To disperse the bulk of the the trod uction of new local social hous mg associations on the grounds population of the metropolis into detached single­ communal facilities, auxiliary gardens, and built, but he also called for the in ing parks a long the Rhine, on the Neumarkt, the Crie­ that it was precisely such common areas that had tamtly homes would require too much land and be open landscape in ten minutes by foot. Putt four such neighbourhoods together, w ith a density chenmarkt, and around St. Pantaleon. The rail been the source of confhct tn the progressive social too expenstve, and the necessary scale would move land, lines through the central area should be removed, housing p rojects of the 1920s. The tdeal houstng too many families too far away from the central cul­ of 30 dwellings p er h ectare net building ith a botanical gar­ form was the small, single-family homes with 1ts tural facili ties. However, it could be shown that would result in a city cell about 2.4 km in circum­ and the train station replaced w such den. New housing s hould be b uilt around the own garden, but the Gemeinni.itzige Aktiengescll two-storey, single-family terraced row h ouses ference and still reachable on foot. Three density of monuments, but they should generally be small, schaft fii r Wohnungsbau Koln cautioned that at would p rovide almost a s ideal conditions for gar­ cells in an urban district with an average 2 km three-storey single-family houses on comparatively best only 40 per cent of the population could event­ den settlements. In a settlement with thirty dwell­ 60 dwellings per hectare would be up to broad and 2.7 km long, but since communal fa ­ small plots of land. Transportation services as well ually be housed in such dwell ings. In practical mgs per h ectare net building land, the gardens cilities would be in the center, s till no public trans­ as larger businesses should be relocated to the terms, considerable high-rise rental housing was attached to or very nearby the homes would range 17 22 portation would be need ed, though some persons Ri ngstra f'S e or even further ou tward. The model still necded. In spite of such criticism, however, from 218 to 275 square meters. If it proved finan­ would need to use bicycles. Thus one could have a here is a revised version of the medieval city, with single-family garden houses continued to be the Cially necessary to i ncrease the density o f a settle­ city of nearly 50,000 inhabitants that would still be the separati on of urban functions and the greening ideal, and the enthusiasm for housing in gardens ment to 80 dwellings per h ectare, one would have biologically sound: "healthy, articulated , and dis­ of the central core. The town conservator Hans and for the greening of the inner city is c learly evi­ to butld m ultifamily row houses up to fi ve stories persedg ." The reat majority of the houses would Vogts advocated m any of the same ideas, though dent in the thinking o f Rudolf Schwarz, Cologne's tn hetgh t, and this would g reatly reduce garden be single-family homes with gardens of about 100- he also argued that the interiors of housing blocks firc; t postwar town planner. stze. A development of this d ensity would mean 15 150 square meters. be keP.t open for gardens and parks for the resi­ if it consisted of single family terrace houses, Schwarz's commitment to li ving in greenery was that, dents.18 the gardens would be only fi ve square meters in Finally, because all of the dwellings would be con­ very deep. Dunng the war, he worked on the rec­ size, but five-storey multifamily build ings would nected t o g reenery, or, in the case of multistorey Wh ile rejecting any romantic recreation of a medte onstruction of small war-damaged towns in Alsacf! still allow for acceptable gardens up to 66 square buildings, surrounded by g reenery, the relation­ local critic Hans Schmttt al so and hts designs for Alsace reappeared in his later va t era long past, 23 meters per dwelli ng because less land would be ship to nature would be o rganic rather than artifi­ called fo r a t raffic-free center built on a human proposals for Cologne. In the primary publtshcd covered by buildings.11 Apartment buildings with cial. In Rainer's words, "greenery would fl ow into scale without monumen tal buildings, large-scale version of h1s plans for Cologne Schwarz wrote more than five stories, however, would only bring the city, rather than be closed off in individual businesses or government offices, or mass trans­ that as a prisoner of war he found that among the dimmished returns. There would be no gains in courtyards or limited t o public parks." It would portation. For the most part the center should be prisoners the desire for a house w1th tts own gar­ free land fo r gardens, and they w ould cost more to constitute "a coherent, borderless spatial land­ an intimate a rea of single-family houses on small den was the "only" thing that penetrated thetr "suf­ build. Still greater densities would of course also scape" that would give residents "an entirely new streets. In addition t o parks, greenery should be in­ fering and deprivations" and reached "the mner have equally negati ve consequences; they would spatial feeling"16 Flowing greenery and landscape, troduced b y constructing new houses in the fo rm hearts of these disillusioned m en." Schwarz aho begin to approximate the much-despised "sterile and not just transportation arteries, would articu­ of fl at-roofed t erraces with gardens on the took note of the extraordinary number of truck gar­ 12 desert or steppe" of the metropolis of stone. late and ti e together the neighbourhoods, urban rooves.19 Theo Nussbaum, a former Stadtbaurat dens maintained by Cologne residents, even apart cells, and districts into a larger city, a biologically (the o ffi cial responsible for planning a nd building), from times of economic necessity: perhaps one Free-stand ing s ingle-family houses could, of healthy city but free of the evils of the metropoli s observed that the reduction of population d ensity fourth of the city's families had such gardens, even course, be sited virtually anywhere on the building of stone. in the inner ci ty meant relocation of much of the though they often had to go a long distance to plot, but this is not the case with attached row or 24 population to new housing in green areas on the work in them. terrace hou ses, especially when they rose above The ideas expressed by Goderitz, Rainer, and outskirts. Ex tensive parks, however, were needed ories. If li ving in nature meant living in gar­ Hoffmann had very wide currency in pos twar Ger­ For example, in April 1947, in preparation for the two st in the core area, and those houses that were to be dens, it meant living with maximum exposure to many. This is not to say that p lanners everywhere visit of the Lord Mayor of Birmmgham, Schwarz m ­ built there should stand in their own tree-shaded sunlight. It was also necessary to pay close atten­ d erived their ideas from the writings o f these three dicated his intention to build new suburbs consist­ gardens. The new green areas, whether public tion to the s hadows cast by large buildings, since men; similar ideas abound in the architectural and ing of single-family homes or duplexes wtth parks or private gardens, could be prepared by sim­ shadows would be harmful to garden areas. Site planning journals of the period and were discussed gardens for 2500 inhabitants, all tht. whtle admtt­ ply filling in the cellars o f bombed buildings with planning thus required careful calculations o f the at many professional conferences in Germany and ting that this might seem utoptan when only forty a mixture o f rubble, humus, and topsoit. 20 Eugen angles of sunlight at d ifferent times of year, and abroad . As an example of the attraction of the gar­ new buildings were in fa ct planned for the city for Blanck, who served briefly as one o f the first post­ such calculati ons, particularly in the work of den city model generally and the English variant in all of 1947. Nevertheless, Schwarz behcved that war town planners, stressed that the new residen­ Rainer, led to the rather schematic, linear layout of particular, we can consider a sampling of propo­ such garden settlements were essential for the 13 tial suburbs must be "genuine ci ties" (wirkliche p roposed gcuden suburbs. Nevertheless, Gode­ sal s from Cologne. The city archives there contain working class so that it could "plant for Itself SUidte) in their own right. They should have some ritz, Ra iner, a nd Hoffmann argued that the garden numerous essays by both planning officials and pri­ necessary vegetables, fruit, and flowers," so that close relationship with the central city, bu t they ci ty settlement demons trated that such residential vate individuals who submitted their ideas to the "in this beau tiful, meaningful activity their child­ should have sufficient independent identity that eed n ot be "monotonous", even when made city for consideration. Many of these essays were ren could learn and prepare themselves for a ltfe areas n residents would have "the feeling o f a true home up of "more or less identical, standardised small in fact written or begun during the latter years of that would have a more valuable content than that (Heimat)." Housing in these suburbs s hould as ses." 14 Both in a book on housing published the war by individuals working in complete isola­ of the li fe of a worker currently living in a great hou much as possible be single-family units s ituated in er in 1947 and in the joint publication of tion. city." Thus Schwarz expected "eventually to trans by Rain gardens. In response to a question asked b y a Lt. the garden city of Vreewijk was held up as a 1957, Colonel White of the British occupation forces, plant the g reater part of the working population mod el. In 1957, they a lso pointed to the new town into s uch n ew settlemen ts."25 Gardens in Cologne's Reconstruction Plan­ Blanck stated that "the strongest impulses for town of Harlo w in England as a successful example. ning planning efforts in Germany were a ctually stimu­ Schwarz's a ttraction t o the garden city model was The e ntire design of the organically articulated and One theme present in a g reat many of these plan- lated by English models," namely the garden city reinforced by a t rip he took i n February and March 21 d ispersed city, therefore, was derived from think- concepts of Howard. 1949 to Britain. This "study trip" was organised by

20 21 Pla nning lllsto ry Vol 12 No 2 Plannmg 1 hsto ry Vo l. 12 No. 2 Articles Articles

small homes H. Hinchcliffe-Davics to acquaint German planners 250,000 (excluding West Berlin), an average of 45% in the suburbs. It was costly because cities had to ily homes were dis played . T hese that would fur­ wtth the latest in British town planning. Schwarz of the housing s tock was destroyed . The damage pay for roads and other improvements for proper­ were to be surrounded by ~ard cn s 4 ecause of the rela t1 ve came back disillusioned about what he perceived was worse in the inner cities, where total destruc­ ties that were tax-exempt if they were social ho us­ nis h vegetables and fruit. B as a lack in Britam of an "authoritatively d irected tion ranged from 50 to 90%. In Munster, for in­ ing. It was harmful because resources were isolation of Berlin, the mod els d id n ot r ecctve much attention. Moreover, there was scertJCts m wtll to rebutld" (nichts von einem maBgeblichen ge­ stance, only 3.1% of the housing stock had escaped d iverted away from r econstruction in the inner 1 lenktc Bauwillen zu spuren ist), but he was highly any d amage, while 62.7% was uninhabitable. Only city, resulting in abandoned damaged buildings or about the value o f prefabrica ted h ousing . Con­ tmpressed b y the garden city of Bournville, with its .4 million dwelling units nationwide- about 40% ugly o pen spaces were the rubble had been cleared structa, however, drew the attention of p lanners, 6 33 small houses situated in ample gardens and with of Germany' s total stock- were undamaged, and but where no one could afford to build . Further­ housing officials, architects, and cons tructto n firms every thing o n an attractive, human scale.26 many of these were in rural areas. more, a study of population trends would show from all over the Federal Republic. that there was growing demand for small housing completed proposal fo r a new, rebuilt Co­ Constructa was o riginally p roposed by Hannover's In his Moreover, there was an enormous influx of refu ­ units for single persons, and such housing was bet­ 42 34 new city planner, Rudolf Hillebrecht, in 1949. lt logne, the influence of the garden ci ty ideal is ob­ gees from those eastern parts of Germany now ter located within the cities than the suburbs. So­ Schwarz rejected the historic radial pattern bears the imprint of the g roup of m en invo lved in vious. under Soviet or Polish administration, and these cial housing firms, which had long invested in logne in fa vour of dispersing the city into wartime recons tructi on planning. The exhibition of Co population shifts made the housing shortage even inner ci ty housing, also argued that the inner ci ties esidential neighbourhoods set in greenery. was divided into several sections in the exh ibition new r worse. Finally, the administrative and military per­ could be made liveable. Indeed even under id eal The new "urban landscape" (Stadtlandschaft) sonnel of the occupying armies confiscated h ous­ grounds; there were also d emonstration building conditions a majority of the p opulation would pro jects in Hannover. A visito r could s tudy dis­ would be s haped by the natural landscape of the ing for their own purposes. In Frankfurt and rather live in the inner city or close to the inner river b asin, rather than determined by "heaps of Mannheim, around 4.5% of the available housing 35 plays on regio nal and town pla nning, construction 29 city, than in distant suburbs. Finally, there were techniques and materials, a nd housing, but clea rl y stone" as in the past. The sketch of the new city was taken over by the Americans. One authority some who argued that inner city housing was closely resembles the proposals for "organic" cities estimated in 1949 that there was a housing short­ housing was the primary focus. Plan ning exhibits necessary to restore the vitality that the ci ty had d iscussed the location of housing; the technical ex­ produced b y Hans Bcrnhard Reichow; in this case fall o f 6.5 million dwellings, and he thought it had in centuries past. Middle class town houses, the ma ny g arden suburbs w ere to be roughly would take over three decades to make up the hibits presented means of furthering i ndus­ presumably with middle class residents would trialised, s tandardised cons truction o f ho us•ng; oriented around two central areas (the second was shortage, even a ssuming that none of the existing stimulate a rejuvenation of civic spirit? 6 to be a counterpoint to the historic core), with the (and often damaged) housing stock was taken out model houses and the d emonstration p rojects were Rhine lending a meandering sense to the whole. of service.30 Over the long term, of course, it was possibl e to to show what could be d one. and Even in the inner cores, families should live in build both new housing settlements in suburbs Ko nstanty G utschow, who d uring the war had Where was new housing to be built? Planners and two­ their own h om es- not "free-standing villas in large new housing in the inner cities. Single-family, been the a rchitect responsible for redestg mng Ham­ developers had to choose between building on d parks, bu t rather in the form in which our parents storey row houses were built on newly-improve burg as a representative Nazi city and had also new, sometimes unimproved land on the edges of ks had i t: three-story row h ouses with a terrace look­ land, while mostly multi-story apartment bloc been the e ffecti ve leader o f the reco nstruction plan­ 27 the cities o r on t he sites of buildings within the ­ ing towards the s mall garden in the rear.'' were erected in the cities proper. With the excep ning s taff in Albert Speer' s m inistry after late 1943, cities demolished in the war. Since unbuilt land tion of the 15-storey Grindelhochhauser in Ham­ did not have to be cleared of rubble, and since pat­ designed d emonstration h ousing p ro jects that burg, begun by the British for their own 43 The Postwar Housing Crisis manifested an openness to d ifferent ap proaches. terns of land ownership were often simpler than in occupation administrati on personnel in 1946 and The abstract planning mod els proposed by Gode­ inner cities, it was easier t o plan large-scale pro­ The most interesting a nd memo rable was an inner the then turned over to the Germans for completion ner and Hoffmann and the more particular city project, the area around the reconstructed ritz, Rai jects and begin construction in outlying areas, and when it became clear that Hamburg was no t going roposed for Cologne are part of a broad con­ Kreuzkirche. Here new three to five-storey apa rt­ plans p the very absence of war damage made the loca­ to become a major political and administrati ve cen­ sensus that ca n be found in the citi es and Uinder of s more aestheticall y attractive than the rubble­ ment blocks s urrounded a grou p of two-storey r o w tion ter for Germany, the multi-story projects were tern occupation zones and subsequently in 7 houses with small gardens. Thi s was a m od el of the wes filled cities. These were ideal sites for the desired usually three to six stories.3 Moreover, until1954, the Federal Republic. In practice, however, these cities. Moreover, property owners in the low d ensity, inner-ci ty hou sing w ith good light, garden the majority of the new housing units a ll over Ger­ els proved difficult to realise. On the one ai r, and landscaping, and it is s till much admired mod inner cities were often impoverished by the de­ many were three room apartments, a reflection of neither the citizenry nor the politicians were tion and the costs of rubble clearance and today. Seven kilometers o ut, a t Am Mittelfeldc, hand, struc the s trong demand from single persons, especially g to disperse the his toric cities in the way 31 there was a s mall new settlem ent o f two to three­ willin were thus unable to start any new construction. single women.38 Even the fifteen settlements s pon­ d f or by the planners. On the other, the ur­ storey row houses. Hillebrecht described the settle­ calle Further, some inner-city areas were placed under a sored by the Marshall Plan, which, with the excep­ of the housing crisis mean that housing con­ onstruction ban while new planning was carried ment's a rchitectural form in terms of its "harmless­ gency c tion of a project in Bremen, were row h ouses on struction could seldom comply with the p lanning out. ness"; the designers sought a "clean and simple the edges of cities, were small dwell ings, mos tl ~ 4 ideals. 9 build ing a nd had n o a mbitions fo r ex travagan ce." ~ At the same time, there were also good arguments with 40 to 50 square meters of total fl oor space. It is impossible to overestimate the extent of the for rebuilding housing in the inner cities. In spite Hillebrecht's choice of words is revealing, because housi ng c risis in Germany at the end of the war. o! the destruction, it was practical. Some of the Living in Greenery: Postwar Building Exhibi­ they suggest both the modesty a nd the conciliatory nature of this most important exhibition since the The avail abl e fi gures u sually refer to dwelling damaged inner city housing was in fac t relatively tions u nits, no t buildings or individual houses, since modern in terms of siting and basic structure. end of the war. In the introductory s tatement fo r most urban dwellings contained multiple housing Where the walls and foundations were usable re­ The questions of the location of housing, ideal the exhibition catalog, Federal President Theodo r units. Estimates vary, but Germany in her 1939 building could produce rather quickly a large num­ form, and means of construction all came together Heuss indicated that h e hoped the exhibition could borders had about 16 million housing units for a ber of housing units at relatively m odest most visibly at the Constructa Building Exhibition help overcome "the gulf between the ' technical' population of about 60 million inhabitants. By the expense.32 Much of the urban utility system and in Hannover in 1951, which, like its predecessors [lngenieurhaften) and the ' artis ti c' [Ku nstleri­ war's end around 2.5 million of these units were the streets were ei ther undamaged or easily re­ in Weimar and under the Nazis, made the planning schen]" that had caused so much trouble classified as heavily damaged, meaning that 50- paired ; this was too great an investment for an im­ and constructi on of housing its central theme. This throughout the century.45 In fa ct the exh ibition 80% of each dwell ing was in ruins, uninhabitable poverished country simply to abandon in favour of was not the first postwar building exhibition. In demonstrated that, whatever their political and ide­ except fo r perhaps the cellar, and beyond any the construction of wholely new suburbs. 1946, Hans Scharoun, Berlin's first p ostwar plan­ ological backgrounds, planners and architects in simple repair. In all, about 25% of the housing ner, staged an exhibiti on of plans for the rebuild­ West Germany could come together in a relatively It was also argued that it was both costly and harm­ exhibition five stock was totally destroyed or h eavily damaged, ing of the capital, and for the value-free discussion of solutions to reconstruction fu l to the cities to begin with housing construction and in cities with prewar populations greater than models of prefabricated, s tandardised, single-fa m- and the housing p roblem.

22 23 Planning llisto ry Vo l 12 No. 2 Plannmg I h~tory Vol 12 N o. 2 Articles Articles

If the demonstration housing projects at Construe­ alte Stadt 14 (1987). the argument of the book. Presumably these build­ on assumed conquests in the East and rap•d expan­ la reflected prewar and wartime thinking about the ings are a response to the general emphasis in the sion of the German population. See Tilma Harlan­ 2. See Jeffry, M. Diefendorf, "Reconstruction law 1mportancc of housing in greenery, a second great exhibition on the modern high-rises that were built dcr and Gerhard Fehl, eds. Hitlers Sozial1er and building law in post-war Germany", in Plan­ bu1ldmg exhibition, the Internationale Bauausstel­ in the Hansaviertel, and they may also perhaps re­ Wohnungsbau 1940-1945, Wohnungspolitik, Baugestal ning Perspectives 1 (1986). lung W1cdcraufbau Hansaviertel in Berlin (the In­ fl ect an awareness of the great demand for small tung und Siedlingsplanung (Hamburg, 1986), p.180. terbau) of 1957 showed that modernist, high-rise 3. For example, Hubert Hoffmann, "Zur Charta apartments for single individuals and older, child­ 31 . Hochbauamt Direktor Tralau, Jan 23 1951, tn houstng should also enjoy a green setting. The In ­ von A then", in Neue Bauwelt 4 (1949). less couples. HASK/171/ 426/pp.2-3. terbau was first proposed in 1951, and several 4. Sec Jeffry, M. Diefendorf, "Berlin, Vienna, and 16. Roland Rainer, Die Behausung years were devoted to site planning and organisa­ sfrage (Vienna, Zu­ 32. For example, see Begriindung und Erliiuterung 46 Budapest: Rebuilding Capital Cities", in tiOn of the cxhibition . In 1953, Berlin Bausenator Central Eu­ rich, 1947), p.19. der 12 Forderungen des Deutschen Stadtetages zum ropean Capital Cities: Twentieth-Century Culture and Karl Mahler declared that the exhibition "should 17. Kart Band, "Gedanken zum Wiederaufbau un­ Wohnungsbau, (Cologne, 1949), p.3. Society in Vienna, Budapest, Prague and Berlin, ed. not be a building fair [presumably like Constructa] serer Stadt", (29 June 1945), ms. in Historisches John Lampe (Washington, D.C., 1990). 33. Archiv des Deutschen Stadtetags 6/22-15, Band but rather a clear Archiv endorsement of the architecture d er Stadt Koln (henceforth HASK)/2/1313. 1, doe. A1012, minutes of DST committee with of the Western world. It should demonstrate what 5. Goderitz, Rainer, Hoffmann, p.8. Hans Bern­ 18. Vogts. 7.1.1948 in HASK, Bestand 171, nr.426. Baudirektor Or Doscher in Bundesminis terium fur we consider to be modern city planning and hard Rcichow in particular created the model for Wohnungsbau, 8 July 1950; and A2080, s umma ry proper housing, in such illustrations 19. Hans contrast to the false ostentation with his Organische Stadtbaukunst Schmitt, Der Neuaufbau der Stadt Koln (Co­ of meeting of 19 January 1951, where the repre­ of the Stalinallec [in East Berlin]."47 The result (Baunschweig, 1948), logne, 1946), esp. pp.62-3. This was written in 1944. another work begun during sentatives of the cities urged the minis try to help was nearly fifty buildings, almost all social hous­ the war. See also Lammert, p.356. 20. Die Neugestaltung Kolns", ms. sent by Thco concentrate reconstruction on inner city housing, tng but also mostly from seven to eighteen stories 6. Godcritz, Rainer, Hoffmann, p.23. not new suburbs. h1gh, built by some of the most important modern­ Nussbaum to Oberburgermeister Punder, 1 January 1946, in HASK/2/1312. ISt architects from the Western countries. The 7. !bid, p.14. 34. Hochbaumat Direktor Tralau, Jan. 23, 1951, in housing ministry was critical of the size of the 21. "Ausfiihrungen des Architekten Blanck uder HASK/171 I 426/Section 2. 8. Ibid, p.22. buildings, and Theodor Heuss felt there was too die Stadtebauliche Planung Kolns am 11.11.1946", 35. For example, Gemeinnutzige Akhengesellschaft much devotion to pure fo rm and the technical mas­ 9. Roland Rainer, Die zweckmiissigste Hausform fiir dated 12.11 .1946, in HASK 2/137. fiir Wohnungsbau Koln, "Grundsatzliche E rwagun­ tery of modern materials. Clearly the Interbau was Erweiterung, Neugriindung und Wiederaufbau von 22. "Grundsatzliche Erwagungen zur Neubau-Pla­ gen zur Neubau-Planung", sent to Cologne's plan­ devoted more to architecture than to housing but it Stiidten (Breslau, 1944). Rainer comes close to the nung", signed by Friedrich Schmidt and Fcrdinand ner Rudolf Schwarz, 8 March 1947. HASK/30/66. IS also true that the Hansaviertel was designed as racial Blut und Boden ideology of the Nazis in this Schunk, eo-chairman of the Gemeinnutzige Ak­ housing in a park-like setting. That this was hous­ work when he uses such phrases as "Die volksbiol­ 36. Car! Oskar Jatho, Urbanitiit, ilber die Wiederkehr ticngescll schaft fur Wohnungsbau Koln, submitted ing in nature was not so apparent to viewers in the ogische Bedeutung der Wohnung" and writes einer Stadt (Dusseldorf, 1946); Schmitt, Der Neuauf toR. Schwarz, 8 March 1947, in HASK/30/66. late 1950s, when the landscaping was small and the about "bevolkerungspolitische Auswirkungen" of bau der Stadt Koln. Jatho's argument, which IS di­ trees of the Tiergarten not yet recovered from the different types of cities and housing (pp.7, 9). 23. Sec Hartmut Frank, "Die Stadtlandschaft rected at the rebuilding of Cologne, presages the war, but today the impression of foliage is quite Proper housing will lead to greater numbers of Diedenhofen", in Jean-Louis Cohen and Hartmut arguments of Hans Paul Bahrdt, "Nachbarschaft powerful. One should also note that the Interbau healthy children, but Rainer does not suggest that Frank, eds. Deutschfranzosische Beziehungen 1940- oder Urbanitat", in Bauwelt (1960), and Janc Jacobs, included the display of site plans for new suburbs, any specific housing system is "Aryan". Goderitz, 1950 und ihre Auswirkungen auf Architektur und The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New like the one proposed for Berlin-Moabit by Hubert Rainer, and Hoffmann cite Bavarian statistics of Stadtgestalt, forthcoming 1991. My thanks to Hart­ York, 1961), which helped launch a movement Hoffmann and the one for Vienna by Roland 1939 to argue that families owning land had more mut Frank for sharing this essay with me. against functional zoning in American and Europe. Rainer, both discussed earlier. These were garden children than those not owning land. (p.33). 24. Rudolf Schwarz, Das neue Koln - Ein Vorentwurf 37. The British withdrew from the project in Aprtl settlements fully in keeping with the wartime 10. lbid, p.15. (Cologne, 1950), p.8. 1948 because the administration of the combined thinking about the dispersed, decentralised city.48 Western zones was to be in Frankfurt. Construc­ 11. Goderitz, Rainer, Hoffmann, p.56. 25. Rudolf Schwarz, "Die Wiederaufbau von Koln", As we have seen, in the decade or so after the war, tion continued until1956 under a team of Ham­ 18 April1947, in HASK30/66. the model of the garden city was much more than 12. Ibid, p.25. burg architects for the city. The project was one alternative among many for the rebuilding of 26. Rudolf Schwarz, "Bericht zu Stadtvertretung successful in the end, but the housing 13. For example, Rainer's proposal for a Vienna u. was too ex­ German's cities. Housing in greenery in fact lay at suburb of 10,000 inhabitants in two and three-sto­ Stadtverwaltung uber eine Studienreise durch Eng­ pensive for workers, and most tenants were white the core of much of the thinking about reconstruc­ land", in HASK 2/1315. collar employees and bureaucrats. See rey, single-family homes. Goderitz, Rainer, Sylvaine tion, and this was true whether one was talking Hansel, Michael Scholz and Christoph Bilrkle, " Die Hoffmann,pp.80-81. This model was prepared for 27. Swartz, Das neue Koln, pp.18-19, 27. about reconstructing the bombed inner cities or the 1957 International Building Exhibition in Ber­ Grindelhochhauser als erste Wohnhochhauser in constructing 28. Dokumente deutscher Kriegsschiiden, Peter new housing settlements. German lin. Rainer's drawings of model housing in his Die Paul Deutschland," in Zeitschrift des Vereins fur Ham bur­ planners Nahm, ed., for the Bundesminster fur Vertricbene, wanted to replace their ruined cities of zweckmiissigste Hausform show remarkably unin­ gische Geschichte 66 (1980). stone with cities permeated by nature. Living in Fluchtlinge und Kriegsgeschadigtc (Bonn, 1958ff) spired, barracks-like buildings. 38. Elke Pahl-Weber, "Im fliessenden Raum. gardens was to be the basis fo r a regeneration of vol.I: 54, 57, and voi.II, part 2: 13; E. Wagenmann, Wohnungsgrundrisse nach 1945," in Bernhard Germany. 14. Goderitz, Rainer, Hoffman, p .86. "Grundlagen zum Hauptstaatsarchiv Dussel­ Schultz, ed. dorf/NW 177/109/51-65. Grauzonen, Kunst und Zeitbilder, Farb­ 15. lbid, pp.68-72. This book contains a reproduc­ welten 1945-1955 (Berlin, 1983). Notes tion (pp.78-79) of Hoffmann's plan for a housing 29. Joachim Irek, Mannheim in den fahren 1945-1949, 39. U. Hohns, "Neuaufbau' als Hoffnung", in 1. Johannes Goderitz, Roland Rainer, and Hubert project for 10,000 inhabitants for Berlin-Moabit, Darstellung Veroffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Grau ­ Hoffmann, Die gegliederte und aufgelockerte Stadt p repared fo r the 1957 International Building Exhibi­ Mannheim, vol.9 (Stuttgart, 1983), p.202. zonen, pp.88-91. (Tiibingen, 1975), p.23. An example of the scholar­ tion in Berlin, foresaw 6200 residents in single-fam­ 30. Wagenmann, p.735. This estimate is 40. Hans Scharoun, "Zur Ausstellung 'Berlin ly assessment of this is Peter Lammert, "Die ge­ ily homes, 500 in multifamily homes, and 3300 in close to that made by Hans Wagner, the Gcschaftsfuhrcr Plant'," and Kart Bottcher, "Von der Retorte zum glied ertc und aufgelockerte Stadt vor und nach high-rise apartments of 12-22 storeys. There is no des Reichskommissars fur den sozialen W Kunststoff-Montagehaus," both in Neue Bauwelt 1 1945: Eine Skizze zur Planungsgeschichte," in Die commentary on the high-rises, which contradict ohnungs­ bau, in March 1941, though his estimate was based (1946); Scharoun, Bauten, Entwiirfe, Texte, ed. Peter Planning History Vol 12 No 2 Planning H1 sto ry Vol 12 N o. 2 Articles Research

Pfankuch, Schriftenreihe der Akademie der Ki.in­ ste, vol.lO (Berlin, 1974). The Neue Berliner Illus- t nerte, Heft 2 (Sept. 1946) carried pictures of the Research five model houses- an American, Russian, English, French, and Germany type, named for each of the occupation powers. Bottcher, who d irected the pro­ industrialisation till the early 20th century; and sec­ gram, designed the five houses. City Plans and their ond, the steps that were taken t o secure the devel­ opment of urban centres along desirable lmes, 41. Karl Bottcher, who developed one of the mod­ Implementation in 19th while the modern Greek s tate was forming itself. els, told the author in an interview on October 28, 1981 , that even at the time he felt a skilled mason Century Greece The first is related to the establishment of new na­ could raise a wall as fast and as economically as it tional frontiers, new economic, political and cultu­ could be done with prefabrication. In Hamburg, ral links with foreign countries, and new patterns one of the firms (Phillipp Holzmann AG) asked by Vithleem Hastaoglou-Martinidis, of economic activity throughout the country. The Gutschow to study a hou sing block for immediate long-established local economics had to be aban­ reconstruction also questioned prefa brication. See Kiki Kafkoula, Nikos Papamihos doned to meet the demands o f international trade. Hamburger Architekturarchiv /NachlaG Konstanty So the diversity of the means o f producti on, end­ Gutschow I A45/ E9/Wiederherstellungsge­ products, and places gradually had to give way to biete/Jan 30, 1946/ Beurteilung d er bauwirtschaf­ School of Architecture, Aristotle a more homogeneous and advanced market, in tlichen Durchfi.ihrung nach den VorschUigen der University of Thessaloniki order t o cope more effectively with competition on Firmen. A building exhibition was staged in Darm­ an international scale. stadt in 1951 to establish continuity with the pion­ The second aspect is related to the emergence of a eering Darmstadt exhibition of 1901, but the eleven Why plans were made planning policy, which was intended to dtmmtsh solicited proposals were all fo r public buildings The modern city, i.e. the city that emerged after the the gap between Greek society and the advanced like schools, clinics, and theatres, and none were in end of Ottoman rule (c. 1828), can be seen as the re­ European countries. The need to address the fact built at the time. See Johannes Cramer and sult of two generic processes: first, the general pro­ numerous problems the country faced 1n the after­ Niels G utschow, Bauausstellungen: Eine Archi­ cess of urbanisation, which was not matched b y the War of Independence resulted tn an tekturgeschich te des 20. ]ahrhunderts (Stuttgart, math of 1984), pp.208-212. 42. See Cramer and Gutschow, Bauauss tellungen pp.213-222; Amtlicher Katalog der Constructa 1951 (Hannover, 1951); and "A us Bauausstellung fhe tovna vhtch vere plenned dem Berlicht des Preisgerichts i.iber den Constructa­ from 1828 to 191 2 Wettbewerb N r. 1," in Baurundschau (1950): 357-70. 43. For these projects the most valuable source is Konstanty Gutschow, "Au fbau zerstorter Wohnviertel: Untersuchung an 5 Beispielen in Han­ nover," 1 Ju ly 1951 , in Hamburger Architekturar­ chiv / NachlaG Konstanty Gutschow I A45.

44. Cramer and Gutschow, Bauaustellungen, p.221. liXOUII 45. Heuss, Amlicher Katalog, p.2. In 1948 Gropius made a trip to Germany. He came away with doubts about the value of prefabrication. In par­ ticular, he was put off by the fact that Ernst Neu­ e> fert, his former o ffice employer before leaving for ~ 1} HEilKOUPOUS America, continued to be the spokesman fo r stand­ ardisation, even after his years of working fo r 0 \> ce() Speer. Gropius, "Reconstruction: Germany," in .£ Task, nr. 7-8 (1948). ,# ~ 46. For a discussion of the Interbau, Die Interbau wird diskutiert: Die ersten Ergebnisse (Wiesbaden oJJ LEG£1«> and Berlin, 1960). llatlonal frontt«-s --- 1832 47. See Cramer and G utschow, Baua ustellungen, --·- 1864 pp.226. · ·-· - lk1Mn1881 plans 11 Capodistn*' period 1828-183 6 OU'O'll¥1 J)l!riod 1833-186 48. Goderitz, Ra iner, Hoffmann, p p.75ff . 0 Klrg Geo-"~ A' pe.-iod 1863- 19 1

26 27 Planning lllstory Vol 12 No_: Pl.1nmng I hstory Vol 12 No. 2 Research Research ~~~------~-- authontative state structure, in which central deci­ nian islands in 1864, where p lans were made for and led to the foundation of new towns on the sites ing the departure of the foreign engineers and SIOn making took the place of the formerly semi-au­ Lixouri (1867), Korfu and Ithaka (1868), Zante of famous towns of antiquity. Krissa (1831), Sparta architects in 1842, the lack of lower technical staff tonomous local administration. Central (1871), etc, and Thessaly in 1881, where plans in­ and Heretria (1834), and, of course, Athens (1835) at local adminis tration level, the low standard o f admsntstrattOn was organised according to the cluded Kardhitsa (1882), Volos and Larisa (1883), arc typical examples. Foreigners also showed con­ the majority of Greek technicians, and the m1htary masnstream of European tradition, whereas new and Arta (1884). siderable interest in creating colonies in Greece. attitude which characteri sed t echnical trammg. lcgtslahve imtiatives were meant to guide urban Their proposals which were usually connected The most important reasons, however, seem to 3. Mining and other centres, when no nearby settle­ development along uniform lines. Soon after the with programmes of industrial development, did have been the economic and social constraints Im­ ment provided housing for workers. Three of modern Greek state was established, the Greek gov­ not materialise, as neither side was prepared to ac­ posed by the scanty financial means available to these plans facilitated the creation of company ernment had a number of plans drawn up by the al ­ cept the full implications of the schemes. So the the s tate, and the inhabitants' reacti ons to the way towns. The first one was Lavrion (plans drawn up hed foreign military missions, and later by Greek only "colony" known up to now is New Heraklion, the cost of urbanisation was distributed. in 1867 and 1897) near the iron mines (the same established in 1834 to house King Otto's Bavarian technicians trained either at European universities mines that had operated in ancient Greece). Two Two points should, perhaps, be emphasised here· or at newly established academic institutions in At­ soldiers, on the o utskirts o f Athens. Land was first, Greek planning was mainly concerned with others were established near the excavations for given free to each of the 60 soldiers concerned, as hen s. physical planning (in fact it continues to be so even the Corinth Canal (1 883-93) for the workers who well as materials to build their own houses. were mainly foreigners, - Italians, Armenians, and now); second, the plans were supposed to be im­ The towns which were planned Montenegrenins. The arrival of the railway led to To sum up, from 1828 to the start of the Balkan plemented, not by massive publi c inves tment, but The preparation and approval of plans by the Min­ the planning of a few small settlements, though it Wa rs in 1912, 174 new plans were approved for by small private capital. As contractors' firms did istry for the Interior, which was formed in 1833, had no particular effect on them. towns and ci ties on the mainland. This figure ac­ not exist, the urban land was to be developed b y continued throughout the 19th century, ceasing counts for Greece's only 2 towns with a population the numerous s mall land buyers building the1r 4. A number of p lans were made for towns and vil­ only in wartime. Urban plans were made for a of over 20,000 (Athens and Piraeus not included), own h ouses. The urban land was unifo rmly lages which were destroyed by earthquakes in vari­ great many towns, both large and small. all 8 towns of 10,000-20,000 inhabitants, all 22 divided into small plots in antic1pat1on o f sub­ ous parts of the country in 1858, 1861, 1867, 1870, towns of 5,000-10,000 inhabitants, 110 towns and sequent development, which did not have to wa1t 1. All towns o f considerable economic importance, 1886, 1894, and 1909. In these cases land was given villages of 500-5,000 inhabitants (out of a total of for the necessary infrastructure and communal fa­ mcluding ports, commercial centres for the agricul­ free to the people to move away from the old settle­ 1094), and, finally, 32 of the numerous vi llages cilities, as these sometimes took a l ong lime to ma­ tural hinterland, manufacturing and early indus­ ments, and a plan was provided to serve as a frame­ with fewer than 500 inhabitants (data taken from terialise. It was in this way tha t all urban d es1g n tnal towns, important points on the road network, work for the new development. The new "urban" the population census of 1907). plans, ambitious or not, were carried out spas, and, finally, the seats of the newly formed land was subdivided into individual lots and the municipalities (i.e. the administrative centres). owners received partial subsidisation to build their The planning models tended to be drawn up and The very first ones were the plans for Nauplia houses. The aims of the plans elaborated upon in certain distinct p en ods In the (1828), Patra, Aigio, Argos, Corinth, Methoni, and City planning on such a scale put an end to what Capodistrian period (1828-32), the pnnc1ples of Eu­ 5. Several plans were made to faci litate the forma­ Tripoli (1829), and Navarino (Pylos) (1830). By was regarded as haphazard development and ad­ ropean "art urbain" were introduced and Im­ tion of new communities by Greeks who wanted to 1845 all of the country's important centres had dressed the problem of urban growth in an entirely plemented in a spirit of pragmatism, wh1 ch move from still unliberated Greek territory, or by new manner. Urban space was prepared, either in nonetheless embraced distinct morphological ele­ been designed. who were looking for a better place to live. locals advance or in retrospect, to receive, facilitate, and ments of late eighteenth-century clas:> ici s m. In the 2. All major towns, ports etc of the new territories In some cases the endeavour was also connected sometimes induce the appearance of an urban way early Othonian period (1833-42), the model was a desire to develop national consciousness subsequently annexed by the Greek state: the Io- with of life, which became daily more complex; and legislated for and designed in its most complete also to proclaim the existence of a central state and and idealised form, culminating in the revival of a society which had to be brought up to date by some of the ancient towns. After 1865, the mod el casting off its "oriental" image. Special legislation was presented rather more reali stically, adapted introduced the concept of urban reform, based on and scaled down to Greek capabilities; while it was the principles of sanitation, regularity, geometry, the last decade of the century which produced the and aesthetics. most elementary and impoverished versio ns o f the The new morphology of the town was based on original model. regularity, repetition, alignment, the accommoda­ However, in the context of profound and all-cm­ tion of the traffic in accordance with functional bracing change, from 1828 onwards, new settle­ principles to serve the town's sanitation; the basic ments were established and old ones restored , allocation of urban land uses; the creation of large redesigned, and extended. From the ambttlous public spaces, buildings, squares, and communal early designs to the indifferent late gnd-1ron plans, faci li ties; and finally the enforcement of build ing one can trace the dedication to a p redominant prin­ regulations and controls. These models were in­ ciple, whether explicitly acknowledged or not. In spired by the European r omantic movement, par­ the end, the Greek city acquired its modern urban ticularly its neoclassical aspect, and were brought identity and the planned town replaced the sponta­ to Greece by the foreign technicians and architects neous historical settlement. who worked i n the country. In practice these principles varied to a certain ex­ Achnowledgements: tent and in di ffering degrees, as reflected in the This project was commissioned by the Greek Minis­ plans drawn up throughout the period . The rea­ try of Research, Industry and Technology, and was Hrf'rtrla (EI.ClOta) 183-4 l~ plcal tx*"C>lt of ~ first tr• of q'ftl< plIonization of t1>t tO\o'l'l, """"'9 'o!ll i<.lo fr~ 1..-.d to tilt rvtiTt W\obltants Ho-wtvtr, 0.0. mainly to tr... ll't'otaltnj >11<, • specialised technical personnel, particularly follow- viable c.orm'

while occurring in an extremely condensed hi stori­ Transformations of cal period. Urban and Regional These major transformations are analysed from two interlinked points of departure: a. The settle­ Space in Northern ment structure and its association with regional space, and b. the internal structure and urban Greece before and after tissue (fabric) of settlements directly referring to 1912 urban space. a) The settlement structure The settlement structure of European Turkey up to C. Hadjimihalis, N. Kalogirou, A. 1870 was characterised by some large-for-the-time urban centres (20-100,000 people) with important Yerolympos commercial and manufacturing activities, open to School of Architecture, Aristotle international markets (Fig. la). Later on, European University of Thessaloniki e €) • {) The integration of Northern Greece into the Greek ~I · • State in 1912, after five centuries of Ottoman rule, f) • G) coincides with a complete and abrupt restructuring 00 C) of its human potential and its geographical and • 0 producti ve structure. Cities and regions were af­ fec ted by this process, which was a direct outcome of major geopolitical changes in the Balkan penin­ sula and planned state intervention. These trans­ fo rmations are of great importance not merely as a case for hi storical research, but also for their in­ fluence on the formation of modern development policies, especially since Greece has been admitted into the EEC and has also renewed its economic, political and cultural relations with the neighbour­ Fig la. Urban hierarchy in European Turkey, 1876 ing Balkan countries. capital penetration, faci litated by Ottoman modern­ The turning point for the development of Northern isation, affected the urban hierarchy: larger settle­ ---- Accordmg t0 off icial Greek sources, 19 10 Greece was the ten years between 1912 and 1922, ments, particularly those in the plains or by the According to our research for 191 0 during which Greek sovereignty was solidly coast, were favoured while towns of the interior -·-·- Frontierhnes 1905 rooted and reinforced in the midst of crucial politi ­ were condemned to stagnation. Thessaloniki re­ Frontterlines cal events, such as the First and Second Balkan claimed itself as the 'gateway of the Balkan penin­ 1913-1922 Wars, the national schism of 1915-1917, the First sula', as one of the most modernised cities of the Independent state of Thessalom~t, as proposed by World War, the Asia Minor military campaign and the Hebratc corn mum ty tn 191 2 disaster. The latter was responsible for the massive migration movement of Greek population Fig 2. Changes in the Thessalonika hinterland, 1900-1913 fo rmerly established in Asia Minor, who were pur­ posely directed t o Northern Greece, to replace the Empire in terms of production of goods, culture over-supply of cheap and skilful labour fo rce and leaving Turks, according to the terms of the Popula­ and political ideology. Other cities such as Yeria, helping industrial and commercial capital with a tion Exchange Agreement of 1922. Moreover from ~I Naoussa, Serres and Cavala showed, to a lesser ex­ quick recovery. At the same time, reforming the turn of the century till 1922, all newly formed at­ tent, similar dynamic trends (Fig. 1b ). tempts put forth in the previous years materi­ Balkan states acquired the approximate boundaries alised, and new development processes that they have today. And each one, in its own New national frontiers after 1912 affected greatly were projected and carried out, s uch as improvement way, undertook projects in a spirit of reform, at­ spheres of influence and economic relationships of plans, sanitation campaigns, construction of mod­ tempting to promote its social and economic devel­ a~o ng cities (Fig. 2), some changing from intra-re­ ern communications and transportation networks, opment and reinforce its sovereignty against future giOnal to international/ interstate ones, others and planning of all cities of over 3000 inhabitants. claims. Thus the study of the development trends breaking down for long periods (important settle­ The planned geographical distribution of before and after those changes reveals the role, the ments such as Skopia, Monastir, Koritsa, Meleniko popula­ tion generated conditions of limitations and the potential which Northern remained outsid e the Greek territory). Further­ a synchronic urbanisa­ ti on and ruralisation, a unique phenomenon of the Greece had. At the same time it illustrates how more, population exchanges and the influx of refu­ time, which transformed productive geographical and social changes can be interrelated gees invaded the larger cities offering an acti vities in Fig lb. Urban hierarchy in European Turkey, 1905 rural as well as in urban areas (Fig. l e, 1d, 3).

30 31 Pl01nmng H1 story Vol 12 No. 2 Research Research Planning I h !.t1or y Vol 2 N o 2 ~------~

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Fig l e. Urban hierarchy in Northern Greece, 1928 Fig 1d. Urban hierarchy in Northern Greece, 1940 Fig 4. The city of Serres before 1913 Fig 5. Redesigned Serres 1918-1920 ation of neighbourhoods ( the ' mahala'), with dis­ tinct cultural and ethnological characteristics. Otto­ CAR T£ ltrt UUnA11 U: M. '"' """'"'" 0( KAU.IfiK man modernisation and the 'westernisation' consisted of a dense and irregular ped estrian net­ IJI Ht Gtctwu n llf U,IU r AA COl.OHil'\. uch as new ( C..""'M•U4•"' ~•h•h u t.,..41 n\ ._. r•efu, 14 ~ ) process had introduced some changes, s work, of d is tinctive urban cl us ters, and introverted Llsu,.ot in frastructure, public buildings, factories etc, and socio-spatial organisation of neighbo urhoods to­ v~w., .. 4 • ,..,... , .t. . ___ _l ....,. • • .,. , ...,._ ...... ~. .._ .... t.., ..... had also permitted the implementation of exten­ 1 wards collecti ve spaces and religio us butld tngs. Es­ """ '•'•• ...... sion schemes. However, planning o perations had pecially after 1922, under the pressure to not affected the medieval ci ty structure, their objec­ accommodate the refugees, new plans took an ad tive being to adapt new functions in the existing hoc and poorly o rganised fo rm. Moreover, the dtf­ urban fabric rather than to reorganise the city as a ficulties inherent in su ch a large scale programme, whole. and the concu rrence o f very u nfa vourable ht:.tori­ After 1912, the incorporation of the region into cal events (continuous poli tical crisis, economic Greece and the rapid capitalisation of prod uctive crisis o f the 1930s) did not allow the elaboratiOn of relati ons transformed substantially the internal more d etailed procedures and left no room for var­ urban structure. Greek administration placed a iety and special requirements. T he implementatio n major emphasis on the planning a nd red esign of of standard ised and oversimplified plans appears .... ci ties. With the help o f the most u p-to-d ate plan­ to be at the origin o f serious urban p roblems identi­ fiable today. 0 ning policies and tools imported from abroad, the • government aimed at the 'homogenesisation' o f the polyethnic city; the urban space was to be arranged Acknowledgement: .. in such a w ay that the existing spatial patterns o f . ethnic-religious groups wou ld n ot be allowed to The above research was commissioned b y the persist. Actually, p lanning techniques w ere a Greek Ministry o f Industry, Research and Technol­ means to 'hellenize' the cities. Social and func­ 1 ,. ogy, 1986-1 988. tional zoning was introduced, along w ith b u ild ing regulations, while oriental features were e limi­ Fig 3. New and existing rural settlements in Macedonia, 1926 nated under the pretext of, as well as through t he need fo r, health and fire safety regulations, techno­ This planned ruralisation had immed iate positive 'Old Greece' (comprising the Southern provinces logical mod ernisation and the upkeeping o f land resu lts in agricultural production and producti vity and the islands), and of the 'New Lands' soon be­ valu es. In this way, a n ew urban m orphology was but, in a contradictory way, it eliminated in the came a clear political d ivide between a royalist ma­ imposed which broke with the variety o f local long term the industrial dynamism of Northern jority in the south and a democratic one in the architectural and cultural traditions and adopted a Greek ci ties, keeping the necessary labour force in north. kind of international style, confusedly thought of the fields. Only after World War 11 and the Civil as 'modern', 'eclectic' or 'neo-hellenic' (Fig. 4, 5). War d id internal migration to cities create again an b) The internal structure of cities. Planning initiatives were always introduced by the adequate reserve for industrialisation. Up to the end of the 19th c. Northern Greek settle­ central state while local authorities had limited if e ' longue The process of national integration and organisa­ ments had developed as products of th any opportunity to express opinions. The ineffi­ dun~ e', self-adjusting internal tion of the national market generated considerable with an almost ciency of the state bureaucracy and the consciou s r l ocal inter­ social conflicts, which also acquired t erritorial urban structure, i.e. with limited state o attempt to ' d e-orientalise' Northern Greek cities clear separ- di mension: the antithesis between the interests of vention. The urban fabric illustrated a often destroyed their particular character, which

32 33 Planning llls tor y Vol 12 No 2 Planmntt Htstory Vol 12 No. 2 Research Research

the largest, such as Atlantic City and Coney ls­ 3. Franziska Bollerey, 'The u rbanisation of the 13. Stamp, op cit; Roger Kain, ' Deauville/Trou­ The Seaside Resort as land8, histories of smaller foreign resorts are now shore, from fi shing v illage to sea-side resort', Daida­ vi ll e', Connoisseur, June 1980, Vol.204, No.820, becoming more widely available; the New Jersey /os, 15 June 1986, No.20, pp.88-97. pp.140-7. an International coast has been particularly well covered , for 9 4. John Towner, 'Developments in Tourism His­ example Cape , 14 . Serge Santelli, 'Les hotels d e la Transa tlan­ Phenomenon: May and Ocean Grove and there tory', Planning History, 1989, Vol.11, No.3, pp.26-7; are u ndoubtedly many more small-scale local his­ tique', Monuments Historiques, Dec/Ja n 1983/4, P. Bailey, 'Leisure, culture and the historian: re­ tories of both No.130, pp.67-70; Schalk le Roux, 'Still Bay: A case A Bibliographical Note American and European individual viewing the first generation of leisure historio­ resorts in existence. for conservation', Architecture SA, March/ Apnl graphy in Britain', Leisure Studies, May 1989, Vol.8, 1985, No.3/4, pp.35-8. No.2, pp.107-127, see p.119. Resort Facilities Lynn F. Pearson 5. Sarah Howell, Th e Seaside, Studio Vista, 1974; Entertainment and other resort facilities are often John Pemble, The Mediterranean Passion, OUP, 1987; Architectural Historian , Newcastle considered in more general works on building Simona Pakenham, Sixty miles from England: Th e types (eg theatres), but European p iers have been English in Dieppe 1814 -191 4, Macmillan, 1967. Upon Tyne the subject of recent research and amusements arc a continuing interest, Snow and Wright's article o n 6. For example C. Amory, The Last Resort, Harper, Coney Island being the most notable example.10 1952; Patrice Boussel, Histoire des Vacances, Berger­ The social history and to a lesser extent the archi­ Levrault, 1961; Guy de Frondeville, Les Visiteurs de tecture and development of the English seaside re­ la Mer, Centurion, 1956. Exhibition on the Belgian sort have become subjects of academic study in the Resort Architecture and Architects seaside mentioned in Gavin Stamp, 'Take the la te 1970s and 1980s, as part of the rising interest American Atlantic coast resorts and the architec­ Tram', Landscape, April1988, No.7, pp.86-91 . m the hts tory of leisure. Although the English re­ ture of Florida (Victorian and 1930s) have been the sorts were the precursor of European and Ameri­ subjects of recent studies, several concerned with 7. Dennis Hardy and Col in Ward, Arcadia fo r All, 11 can r esorts o f a similar nature, there has been little the restoration of specific resorts. The work of Mansell, 1984. Briti sh interest in comparative studies of interna­ architects S.F. Pratt and Addison Mizner h as also 12 8. Charles F. Funnell, By the Beautiful Sea, Knopf, tional resort architecture and development, and been described in detail. European resorts have 1975, on Atlantic City; Edo McCulloug h, Good old until recently little foreign interest in studies of not benefited from this type of work; o nly Stamp' s Coney Island, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1957. fo reign resorts. It is possible to ci te o nly two article on Le Coq-sur-Mer and Kain's on Deauville papers o n comparative resort development, and Trouville can be cited, although much more is 9. George E. Thomas and Carl Doebly, Cape May: Lewis's 1980 review article (US/Britain)2 and Bolle­ available o n modern development at European re­ Queen of the Seaside Resorts, Art Alliance Press, rey's 1986 study largely concerned with the North sorts.13 Santelli has written on the hotels built in 1976; Charles A Parker, 'Ocean Grove, NJ', Nine­ 3 Sea coast. This situation mirrors that to be found North Africa in the 1920s by the Compagnie Gcncr­ teenth Century, Spring 1984, Vol.9, Nos.1-2, pp.19- in b oth tourism research and leisure studies gener­ ale Transatlantique, and Still Bay, a South African 25. See also Nineteenth Century, 1982, Vol.8, ally, as has been pointed out in 1989 articles by r eso rt ~ was considered in a 1985 articl e by le Nos.1-2, whole issue o n American resorts, and Jef­ 4 To wner in Planning History and Bailey in Leisure Roux. frey W. Li merick et al, America's Grand Resort Ho ­ Studies. 4 tels, Pantheon, 1979. As a fi rst step towards the production of a wider Conclusion 10. European piers: see for example Steve Craig­ view of international resort architecture and devel­ Although studies of individual and particularl y Smith, 'Piering abroad', Piers, December 1988, opment, a literature search was therefore under­ American resorts are becoming more common, al­ Vol.l, No.9, pp.5-9, on Scheveningen and Steve taken in order to establish a basis o f work on most no consideration has yet been given in any­ Craig-Smith, 'Blankenburg', Piers, June 1989, Vol.l, foreign resorts. (This s tudy was funded by a grant thing but general terms to the overall pattern of No.11 , pp.3-8. Robert E. Snow and David E. from the Twenty-Seven Foundation.) The resulting resort development, the variations and similarities Wright, 'Coney Island: A case study in popular cul­ bibliography can be divided into five main groups: of architectural style within and between r esorts, ture and technical change', Journal of Popu lar Cul­ general works covering the history of several re­ or even the existence of common elements of resort ture, Spring 1976, Vol.9, pp.960-75. sorts, resort histories, resort facilities, resort archi­ architecture and planning which m ight give 11. Andrew D. Borja, ' Restoring the resort: Cape tecture and specific architects. meaning to the umbrella term 'seaside architec­ ture'. It is hoped to continue the study in the near May', Urban Land, March 1984, Vo1.43, No.3, pp.22- future, and perhaps this note may act as a stimulus 25; Russell E. Chappell, 'An exuberant heritage', General and Specific Resort Histories to further work in this fi eld. Cou ntry Life, 26 April1979, Vol.1 65, No.4268, A good survey of the international development of pp.1280-1 on Cape May; Christina Orr-Cahall, resorts is contained in Howell's The Seaside, while 'Palm Beach: The predicament of a r esort', Historic the English 'invasion' of Europe is dealt with by References Preservation, Jan/March 1978, Vo1.30, No.1, pp.l 0- Pemble (the Med iterranean) and Pakenham 1. John K. Walton, The English Seaside Resort, Lei­ 15; Doris Dickson, 'The Tampa Bay Hotel', Nine­ (Dieppe).5 The general history of American and cester U.P., 1983, g ives comprehensive coverage of teenth Century, Autumn 1979, Vol.5, No.3, p p.50-53; French resort development has been well known social history and developmen t, while Kenneth Lin­ Arlene Olson, ' Miami Beach: Resort style mod­ fo r some time, but newer sources include the ex­ dley, Seaside Architecture, Hugh Evelyn, 1973, is erne', Florida Architect, Jan/Feb 1977, Vol.21, No.l , hibition 'Histoire d 'Eaux' on the Belgium seaside one of the few sources fo r architecture. pp.19-21. held at Spa.6 Shanty town or plotland develop­ 2. Robert Lewis, 'Seaside holiday resorts in the 12. Ellen Weiss, 'Introducing S.F. Pratt', Nineteenth ment around some resorts is d ealt with in Hardy United States and Britain: a review', Urban History Century, Autumn 1978, Vol.4, No.3, pp.89-93; Do­ and Ward's Arcadia fo r All? After a period in Yearbook, 1980, pp.44-52. nald W. Curl, Mizner's Florida MIT, which the o nly works on specifi c resorts concerned , 1984.

34 35 Planmng I hstory Vol 12 No. 2 Research Planning lllstory Vol 12 No 2 ~Re~p~o~rt~s------

New Sou th Wales legislation fo r controlling land­ Landscaping Control scape matters and in the powers bestowed u p?n local councils fo r such purposes. It also descn bes the role of the State Department o f Environment Reports Warwick Mayne-Wilson and Planning in fostering landscape plannin!?. In it addition, traces the emergence of the teachmg Germany's diploma winners incl~d ed a former Brian Clouston &Partners , Land­ and practicing of the profession of landscape archi­ Europa Nostra Awards judge's hot:se at Solingen and a tithe barn at WeJlt­ tecture in that State. scape Architects &Urban Planners, ingen. To add to the contrast, a. third di~l o m~ wa ~ The information and assessment gained as a result for 1989 awarded for canal lock restoratiOn at Klem-Kontgs­ Sydney of the historical research was then applied t o a n forde. Italy won recognition for resto ratiO n o f the An average of 35 awards are made annua examination of the utility of present controls a nd lly by Eu­ ancient Villa Campolieto at Ercolano, near Naples, ropa Nostra for projects which make recommendations fo r the design of future controls. a distin­ and France for the village of Val Ri chard, Li zio, a The objectives of my thesis were fo urfold, namely guished co ntribution to the conservation and former salt store at Avignon, and the C hatea u of enhancement of Europe's architectural to A series of four a rticles based on these themes will and natural Bcnouville. heritage. The awards are commem appear in Landscape Australia, commencing in Au­ orated by a wall a) trace the emergence of planning controls in plaque and a certificate, the Diploma o f Merit. The New South Wales over the design and landscaping gust 1990. Acknowledgement: A fuller report o f the a wards most outstanding entries received the s ilver Med al was first published in Europa Nostra Magazine, of external spaces; of Honour. For last year, Europa Nostra an­ No.1, Spring 1990. b) assess the relative roles of planners and land­ nounced the names of 42 diploma-winners, and 8 scape architects in the development and implemen­ Medals of Honour. tation of these controls; The Medals of Honour were awarded for the fol ­ c) assess the desirability and utility of previous lowing: and existing control over landscape design and works; and • restoration by the National Trust of a me­ diaeval packhorse route, Sty Head Footpath, in d) propose both a schema fo r the development of the Lake District (UK); townscape strategies and the structure of a 'model' landscape code to help implement the landscape • creation of a regional park on the Cantabrian component of those strategies. Coast (Spain); In the first two chapters of the thesis I have exam­ • restoration of the Monastery of Santa Ma ria la ined the origins of attempts to improve the design Real d e Oseira, in Cea-Orense (Spain); of the urban environment (i.e. external to build­ ings). In New Sou th Wales the public parks move­ • conservation of thirteen peasant houses, ad­ ment in the 1880s refl ected the need t o provid e ja cent to a Greek Orthodox Serbian Curch open spaces for city dwellers living in largely un­ (Hungary); planned and congested cities. This w as followed • restoration by the Gelderland Castle Trust of by advocates of the 'garden city' and 'city beauti­ six country houses (Netherlands); ful ' modes of urban d esign, whose principles in­ spired and were eSpoused by founders o f .the town • conversion of a former military building at Bil­ planning movement in New South Wales m the sec­ zen, Alden Biesen (Belgium); ond decade of this century. Subsequent ap­ proaches to controlling t he d esign of external • conversion of a 500 year old building in Diede- spaces, precincts and townscapes- such as thr? ugh sheim (Federal Republic of Germany). zoning, neig hbou rhood units, the ' Radbum Pnn­ Of the 42 Diplomas, the highest number Europa ciple' and the 'city functional' approach w ere also Nostra has ever given, no fewer than 19 recognised examined. Ea rlier r esearch b y Or Robert Free­ the large and outstanding UK entry. The recipients stone, E. Relph, and Paul Ashton and Kate Black­ included the National Trust for Scotland, for resto­ more was particularly helpful in this regard. ration of a country house, The House of Dun, near Htswn c Ches!A!r streets now opened up to pede,tnam. All of these 'movements' or concepts had a seminal Montrosc. At the other end of the scale of gran­ influence in shaping the approach to planning and deur is the restoration of a little folly, the Chinese Summerhouse at Amesbury, Wiltshire controlling t he landscape e lements of urban d esign . UK urban conservation was by no means overlooked which began t o occur in the late 1970s. Other ele­ either. ments were the e mergence o f the environment and The market place at Bolton, Lancashire, and White­ conservation m ovements, McHarg' s ecological ap­ leys of Bayswater, London, provide what might be called d istinguished historically-associated proach t o landscape analysis and p lanning, and the shop­ ping. The coninuing restoration o d evelopmen t of landscape architecture and p lan­ f the Regency town of Cheltenham also gained the UK a diploma. ning a d ecad e earlier. The thesis also traces the e volution of provisions in

36 37 Planmng ~hstory Vol 12 No. 2 Networks Planning lllstory Vol 12 No 2 ~N~c~tw~o~r ~ks~------~

Promotion of Research LRG has been involved in the promotion and spo n­ Networks sorship of research in its almost completed Nature­ Experience Research Programme. It is also undertaking a review of current research into the A supplement to Landscape Research includes land­ relationships between people, nature and land­ Landscape Research scape news, a diary of events, conference reports, scapes by means of a 'State of the Art' Review, Group and sections on r ecently published articles, jour­ which aims to identify usefu l areas for future re­ nals and books on subjects relating to landscape. search.

Conferences Membership Aims and Objectives LRG now organises two conferences each year; Any person, group or institution supporting the generally, one a single day seminar, the other a aims of LRG, may become an ind ividual or corpor­ Background two or three day residential event. By means of ate member of the Group. All members receive The Landscape Research Group is a registered these conferences LRG has played a leading role in free issues of Landscape Research and may be of­ Charity and a Company limited by guarantee. It bringing together artists, scientists, academics and fered reduced rates for attendance at conferences was founded in 1967 and now has more than 500 practitioners. and for purchase of LRG publications. m embers, both individual and corporate, in Sritain The following are some of the conferences that For further information or membership queries and throughout the world. When the Group was have been held: please contact the Secretary at the foll owing ad­ formed it was ahead of its time in anticipating con­ dress: cern for landscape. Now its interests are seen to be Theatre and La ndscape 1987 increasi ngly relevant. Nature and Landscape: The Great Divide 1987 Mrs Carys Swanwick, Secretary LRG Ltd., Leuric, North Road, So Australian Landscapes 1987 uth Kilworth, Nr Lutterworth, Lei­ Objectives cestershire LE17 6DU The Group's main purpose is to advance education Nature, Landscape and the Community 1986 and research, encour age interests, and exchange in­ Views about Views 1985 formation for the public benefit on the subject of landscape and related fields. It aims to do this by: Integrated Ru ral Development 1984 • the d evelopment and exchange of ideas about Meanings and Values in Landscape 1984 landscape in its w idest sense; Landscape and Painting 1983 • encouraging coll aboration b etween disciplines Upland Landscapes 1983 and between r esearchers and pra ctitioners; Politics and Landscape Protection 1982 • faci lita ting the exchange of information and Inner City Parks 1982 ideas between those who may be separated by distance or organisation; Literature and Landscape 1981 Lowland Small Woods 1981 • initiating research and seeking out funds for re­ search work; English Landscape Parks 1980 • organising educational and promotional acti­ Coun tryside Heritage 1980 vities. The Northfield Report 1979 Ecology and Urban Renewal 1979 Mai n Activities Landscape Under Pressure 1978 Research Needs and Priorities 1977 Publication of Landscape Research Aesthetics of Landscape 1976 The journal Landscape Research comes out three times a year and is the main means of communica­ Recreation in Scotland 1975 tion between members of the group. It offers the Nature in Cities 1974 opportunity for those involved in different fields of interest to publish their works, and reaches the Urban Fringe Problems 1973 libraries of many Universities, research organisa­ Unproductive Land 1972 tions and public authorities as well as the desks of researchers, professionals and practitioners. Each Landscape Quality 1971 issue contains a range of papers, correspondence National Classification 1970 and reviews.

38 39 Planning His tory Vol 12 No 2 Planntng t h ~ t ory Vo------l 12 No. 2 ------~P~u~bl~ic~a~t i~O I~I S Publica tions

li vcred on various occasions. They arc chiefl y con­ cerned with advancing c omparative research Bibliography studies in the field of urban planning between Publications Japan and Europe, except for the first paper which 'British Architectural Biography' - Two Years attempts, very briefly, to introduce the planning On cago architecture and especially its connection system of Japan to readers unfamiliar with it. The The British Arch itectural Library project to compile Abstracts with Northern Europe. The volume also unravels last paper is, in effect, the histori cal backbone for a database of Victorian and Ed ward ian architects, the myseries of the new metropolitan form which the relationship between European planning sys­ ' British Architectural Biography 1834-191 4', is no w Dogan, Mattei, and Kasarda, John D . eds., Th e Me­ appeared between 1870 and 1920 when American tems and that of Japan. It attempts to understand in its second year and contains over 5000 records. tropolis Era , Volume 1. A W orld of Giant Cities, Vol­ ci ties underwent extraordinary e xpansion and reor­ the complex process of tranferring a system of plan­ The project, funded b y the Getty G rant P rogram o f ume 2, Mega Cities. Newbury Park, California: ganisation. ning, and legitimising it after that operation. The Sage Publications, 1987. Volume 1, 594pp, ISBN 0- Japanese system was largely based on German the J. Paul Getty Trust, was set u p two years ago 3039-2602-2, $40 cloth; Volume 2, 322pp, ISBN 0- planning, and as such it is interesting to trace the and is due for completio n in September 1991. At 3039-2603-0, $40 cloth elements fa cilitating such an adoption. The titles the time o f writing, records e xis t for m em bers Siman, B.B., Land Readjustment in japan: An Histori­ of the papers are as follows: Land Use Pl anning in elected as Fellows or Associates up to 1900, cal Analysis, 1868-1985. Research Report No.90-PT- This two-volume set p rovides a thought provoking Japan; Comparative Planning Studies: Japan and together with brief records fo r n on-RIB A m embers. 02, Department of Civil Engineering, Kyoto and often d isturbing view o f the urban state o f the Europe; Comparative Land Use Planning: Eu rope e mainly in skeletal University, Japan. The record s created to da te ar world. The books' twenty-five contribu tors (in­ (Britain and Belgium) and Japan; Infrastructu re form but are continually being expanded as more cluding sociologis ts, geographers, planners, The Meiji restoration in Japan, in 1867, and the Provision: A Comparative Analysis Between Japan details are found. The aim is that each will in­ political scientists a nd historians) d eal with a spirit of reform held b y the enlightened elite of the and the United Kingdom; Comparative Overview clude, as far as possible, details o n: addresses, senes of common i ssues regarding the economic time, opened the w ay to what has come to be of Local Land Use Planning: (Japan and Belgium) dates, education and training, professional career, role of the ci ty, urban p athology, and its remedies. known a s ' the Modernisation of Japan'. This mod­ (Chiku Keikaku Seido and APA and BPA); bibliographical references and obituaries. The in­ Volume 1 offers a comparative analysis of the ernisation engulfed many aspects, ranging from Japanese New Towns Re-examined: Historical Les­ fo rmation i s g leaned fro m RIBA Nomination world's ci ties and t heir numerous problems w hile the economy to the military. It is obvious that the sons from Three New Towns- Senri,a Senboku nd Papers and s upplemented b y o ther m aterial, no t­ Volume 2 contams ind ividual case s tudies of ten greatest impact was created b y industrialisation, Tama (with a review of the British influence); The ably 'Build er' and the ' RIBA Journal' as well as Ctttes, four from d eveloped and s ix from develo­ and s ubsequent migration movements and demo­ Li near Motor and Its Application in Mass Transit existing bibliographical files. ptng countries. graphic shifts in society generally, and in the s truc­ Systems in Japan- Shaping the Fu ture of Metropoli­ ture of the labour force and the urban fabric in tan Settlement; Legitimacy and Transferabili ty of The project is compiled in a standa rdised format particular. Planning Systems in Europe and Japan: A Critical using the SAL's STATUS soft ware a nd powerfu l Historical Analysis. Proudfoot, Helen, Gardens in Bloom: ]ocelyn Brown search soft ware enables a v ariety o f com plex sear­ and her Sydney Gardens of the '30s and '40s. Kanga­ This s tudy traces land readjustment, w hich is often ches to be perfo rmed. Plans are in hand to make roo Press [PO Box 75, Kenthurst, NSW, 2156], called 'the Mother of Japanese Planning', from the the d atabase available outside the BAL through t he trialisa­ 124pp, $A29.95, ISBN 0-8641 7-238-9 last century, through the shocks of indu s internati onal d atabase h ost DTALOG. In the mean­ ti on, and the turmoils of disasters a nd wars, until time, written or t elephone e nquiries can b e frastruc­ Jocclyn Brown (1898-1971) married Alfred John the present period.e It ncompasses the in addressed t o the Project Editor, Alison Felstead at Brown (1 893-1976) in England in 1920. They li ved tural aims o f the period of high economic g rowth the BAL, RIBA, 66 Portl and Place, London W1 N centration at Wclwyn Garden City for three years when A l­ and subsequent suburbanisation and con 4AD, England (Tel:071-580-5533, Ext.4320). fred was an assistan t architect to Louis de processes. The study also a ttemp ts to ans wer ques­ to host Sotssons. They returned t o Sydney in1930. Alfred tions of transferability of planning tools established his reputati on a s a leading town plan­ societies, and related problems of legitimacy. The stment of­ nmg advocate. Jocelyn, a s killed a rtist, developed German origins of Japanese land readju ments o f her nascent interest in landscape a rchitecture and fered a unique tool to s tudy the require an became very active as practitioner and writer in legitimacy in the process of transferring urb which the 1930s and 1940s. In 1952 she w as e lected the planning concepts, tools a nd t echniques, could serve as an his torical lesson for futu re a t­ ftrst Australian Fellow of the English Institute o f other Landscape Arhcitects. Thi s well-illustra ted b ook tempts aiming a t such operations. In an sense, this s tudy attempts to trace English transla­ descnbcs her life a nd gently analyses her articles, h t he gardens, and relationship to her con temporaries. tions o f titles of Acts and projects throug exi sting literature, and to present a unified set of those ti tics.

Zuk owsky, John, ed., Chicago Architecture, 1872- 1922: Birth of a Metropolis. Munich: Prestci-Verlag, Siman, B.B., Comparative Urba n Planning Issues Be­ 1937, 480pp, ISBN 0-7913-0837-8, $60.00 cloth tween japan and Europe. Research Report No.90-PT- 01, Department of Civil Engineering, Kyoto Published simultaneously in English, French, a nd University, Japan. German, this volu me complements the e xhibition of 250 original drawings and artifacts in Chicago, This volume represents a collection of papers, Paris, and Frankfurt. Both the e xhibitions a nd the presented at various conferences, and lectures de- essays explo re t he international dimensions o f Chi-

40 41 Planmng I hstory Vol 12 No 2 Planning History Group Planning Jlistory Vol I 2 No 2 Planning llisto ry Group

Dr M. van Rooijen, Department of Urban and In­ dustrial Studies, University of Utrecht, P.O. Box Membership Report Planning History Group 801 40, 3508 TC Utrecht, Netherlands August1990 • Dr C. Silver, Department of Urban Studies and Planning, Virginia Commonwealth University, 812- With this issue of Planning Hzstory you will have re­ Election of Executive PHG Executive Commit­ 14 West Franklin Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284, ceived a copy of the current membership li st It USA seemed an appropriate moment to take stock and Committee 1990-1992 tee 1990-92 to review the health of the Plannzng History Croup • Prof S. Watanabe, Department of Architecture, Fa­ as revealed by the membership. culty of Science and Engineering, Science Uni ver­ Notice of the arrangements for the election of the UK sity of Tokyo, 2641 Yamazaki, Noda-Shi, We have a total membership of 318 made up of 130 Executive for the two-year period 1990-1992 was Prof G.E. Cherry, School of Geography, University Chiba-Ken, 278, Tokyo, Japan UK members and 188 overseas members. Of th1s given in Planning History Vol.12, No.1, (p.35). of Birmingham B15 2TT total, 10% of the UK members and 15% of the over­ Prof M. Weiss, The Graduate School of Architec­ seas members have joined in the last 12 months. I There were three retiring UK members: G.E. Dr P.L. Garside, Department of Environmental ture, Planning and Preservation, Columbia Univer­ J. beli eve that this is the first time that membership Cherry, J. Sheail and A. R. Sutcliffe. ln the event Health and Housing, University of Salford, Salford sity in the City of New York, A very Hall, New Sheail chose not to stand again; G.E. Cherry and of Planning History Group has passed the 300 mark M54WT York, NY 10017, USA A.R. Sutcliffe offered themselves for reelection; It clearly reflects the continued growth of interest there were no new nominations; and Pat Garside, .. Dr G. Cordon, Department of Geography, Univer­ Prof W.H. Wilson, Department of Hi story, College in the aims of the Group. who as Membership Secretary, has so far been ex-of­ sity of Strathclyde, Livingstone Town, Richmond of Arts and Sciences, University o f North Texas, It is noticeable that membersh1p IS boosted by fic io chose to stand as an elected member. The re­ Street, Glasgow G12 8QQ Denton, Texas 7603-3735, USA events such as the British RegiOnalism Conference the sult IS that there are now nine UK members on • Prof D. Hardy, School of Geography and Plan­ Prof T. Zarebska, Faculty of Architecture, Wa rsaw and the Bournville Conference and thts must be en­ Executive (out of 12 possible places). ning, Middlesex Polytechnic, Queensway, Enfield, Polytechnic, Koszykowa 5500-659, Warsaw, Poland. couraging for those who orgamse such events. There were four retiring non-UK members: J.B. Middx EN3 4SF More members means a greater spread of interests Cullingworth, R. Freestone, M. Smets and M. and more potential links between practitioners and Or D.W. Massey, Department of Civic Design, academics interested in the development of plan­ Weiss. J .B. CuiHngworth and M. Smets chose not University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX • to retire in 1992 (may s tand again) to stand again; R. Freestone and M. Weiss offered ning. It tS good to see more international mcctmgs themselves for election. There was no need for an .. Or H. Meller, Department of Social History, envisaged for the 1990s especially as global con­ election: 12 names fill the 12 p laces available. University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottin­ cerns with the environment deepen and planntng gham NG72RD seeks to re-evaluate its role at the continental scale. The PHG Executive Committee composition for We will be looking for ways of Identifying com­ 1990-92 is therefore: • Or M.K. Miller, 11, Silver Street, Ashwell, Ba t­ mon interests among members that would provide dock, Hertfordshire SG7 5QJ UK Non-UK the basis for future meetings and we would wel­ Prof A.R. Sutcliffe, Department of Social and Econ­ come your ideas. G.E. Cherry B.A. Brownell omic History. University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 In common with most professional and academ1c P. Garside E.L. Birch 7RH groups, it is reasonable to suppose that the mem­ G. Cordon R. Freestone • Dr S.V. Ward, Department of Town Planning, Ox­ bers hip is weighted towards the middle age (or ford Polytechnic, Headington, Oxford OX3 OBP even as the market researchers would say 'the D. Hardy L.C. Gerckens young elderly'). As membership secretary, I have D.W. Massey Y. Ishida Non-UK been aware of young researchers who join for a arc forced to find • Prof B.A. Brownell, 4401 Overlook Road S., Birm­ few years but then lapse as they H. Meller R. Montgomery employment in other spheres because of a lack of ingham, Alabama 35222, USA M.K. Miller M. van Rooijen academic posts. This situation must be a threat in • Prof E.L. Birch, Department of Urban Affairs, the long term to the viability of thts and other spe­ A. R. Sutcliffe C. Silver Hunter College, 695 Park Avenue, New York cialised groups. Meanwhtle we can be pleased that S.V. Ward S. Watanabe 10021, USA at least we are increasing our membershtp tn other ways. M. Weiss Dr R. Freestone, 20 Victoria Street, North Sydney, New South Wales 2060, Australia W.H. Wilson • Prof L.C. Gerckens, 3655 Darbyshire Drive, Hil­ T. Zarebska liard, Ohio 43026-2534, USA Patricia Garside Membership Secretary The officers of the PHG will be elected/confirmed .. Prof Y. Ishida, Center for Urban Studies, Tokyo in office by the Executive over the summer months. Metropolitan University, Yakumo 1-1-1, Meguro­ ku, Tokyo 152, Japan • Prof R. Montgomery, Department of City and Re­ G E Cherry, Chairman gional Planning, University of Cali fornia, Berkeley, 24 July 1990 Ca 94720, USA

42 43 Planning History Group ••••••• • • '· . + ...... •:· '~ .." •.. ... t . '

The Planning llistory C roup, inaugurated in '1974 , is an international body. Its members, drawn from many disciplines, have a working interest in history, planning and the environment.

Chainnan Professor C.l:. hcrry Department of eography University of Birmingham PO Bo' 363 Birmingham 81 5 2fT 021-..J I..J "i"i37

Membership lembcr-,hip of the group i'> open t o all who have an interest in planning hi tory. The annual subscription is £10 (currency equivalents available on reque'>t) . M embership Secretary: Or Pat Carsidc Planning I fistory .roup Department of Civil Engineering Salford University The Crescent ' Sa l ford MS ..JWr 061-736 SH..J 3

Professor Cordon hcrry is Joint Editor with Professor Anthonv utcliffe of an international journal concerned' with hi'>tory, planning and the environment: Planning Perspectives. There is a linl-. between Planning History and Planning Perspectives and member'> of the Planning Hi tory C roup arc able to '>ubscribe to the latter journal at very favourable discount rate .