Constitution, Government and Politics in India Evolution and Present Structure

Biswaranjan Mohanty

NEW NC New Century Publications CENTURY New Delhi, India Contents

Preface vii

1. British Rule and Indian National Movement 1-62 1.1 British Conquest of India and Consolidation of Rule 1.2 Consequences of British Raj 1.3 British Attitude to Indian Way of Life 1.3.1 Caste System 1.3.2 Religious Beliefs 1.3.3 Indian Village 1.3.4 Oriental Despotism 1.3.5 Social Darwinism 1.4 Rise of Indian Nationalism 1.5 The Liberation Movement 1.5.1 Rebellious Spirit 1.6 Formative Phase of the Nationalist Movement 1.7 Organized Phase of the Nationalist Movement 1.7.1 Aims and Objective of Indian National Congress 1.7.2 Policy of Gradualism and Constitutionalism 1.8 Rise of Extremism 1.8.1 Causes and Circumstances 1.8.2 Objectives and Methods of the Extremist Group 1.8.3 Extremists' Programme of Action 1.8.4 Assessment of Extremism 1.9 Revolutionary Terrorist Movement 1.9.1 Outside Congress Terrorism 1.9.2 Ghadar Party 1.10 Gandhian Era in Congress 1.11 Non-cooperation Movement 1.12 Swaraj Party 1.13 Second Phase of Revolutionary Terrorism 1.14 Simon Commission 1.15 Civil Disobedience Movement 1.16 Round Table Conferences 1.17 Quit India Movement 1.18 Indian National Army (INA) 1.19 Cabinet Mission xx Constitution, Government and Politics in India

1.20 Rise of Communalism and Partition of the Country 1.21 Final Push towards Freedom 1.22 Attainment of Independence 1.23 Role of Women in the Freedom Struggle

2. India at the Dawn of Independence 63-98 2.1 Law and Order Problem 2.2 National Integration Task 2.3 State of the Economy 2.3.1 Agricultural Sector 2.3.2 Industrial Sector 2.4 Indian Social System 2.4.1 Stratification of Society 2.4.2 Caste System and Untouchability 2.4.3 Cultural Unity 2.4.4 Status of Women 2.4.5 Illiteracy and Ignorance 2.4.6 Westernization 2.4.7 Rise of Nuclear Family 2.4.8 Regional Imbalances 2.5 Social Movements 2.5.1 Backward Castes Movement 2.5.2 Peasant Movements 2.5.3 Trade Union Movement

3. Constitution of India: Historical Background 99-135 3.1 Developments under the East India Company 3.1.1 Battle of Buxar and Diwani Rights in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa 3.1.2 Regulating Act, 1773 3.1.3 Pitt's India Act, 1784 3.1.4 Charter Act, 1813 3.1.5 Charter Act, 1833 3.1.6 Charter Act, 1853 3.1.7 India's First War of Independence 3.2 Developments under the British Crown 3.2.1 Act for Better Government of India 1858 3.2.2 Queen Victoria's Proclamation, 1858 3.2.3 Indian Council Act, 1861 Contents xxi

3.2.4 Foundation of Indian National Congress 3.2.5 Indian Council Act, 1892 3.2.6 Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909) 3.2.7 Montague Declaration, 1917 3.2.8 Government of India Act, 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms) 3.2.9 Government of India Act, 1935 3.2.10 Cabinet Mission Plan 3.2.11 Mountbatten Plan 3.2.12 Indian Independence Act, 1947 3.3 Constituent Assembly of India 3.3.1 Evolution of the Idea of Constituent Assembly 3.3.2 Election to the Constituent Assembly 3.3.3 Procedure Adopted by the Constituent Assembly 3.3.4 Working of the Constituent Assembly 3.3.5 Objective Resolution 3.3.6 Criticisms

4. Constitution of India: Philosophy and Provisions 136-189 4.1 Philosophy of the Constitution 4.2 Sources of the Constitution 4.3 Ideological Basis of the Constitution 4.3.1 Socialist Commitment 4.4 Fundamental Values of the Constitution 4.5 Preamble of the Constitution 4.5.1 Significance of the Preamble 4.6 Salient Features of the Constitution 4.6.1 Written Constitution 4.6.2 A Unique Combination of Rigidity and Flexibility 4.6.3 Parliamentary System of Government 4.6.4 Blending of Federal and Unitary Features 4.6.5 Makes India a Secular State 4.6.6 Fundamental Rights 4.6.7 Directive Principles of State Policy 4.6.8 Independence of Judiciary 4.6.9 Universal Adult Franchise 4.6.10 Single Citizenship 4.6.11 Special Provision for Backward Classes 4.7 Federal Structure xxii Constitution, Government and Politics in India

4.7.1 Working of Federal System 4.7.2 Division of Powers 4.7.3 Dual System 4.7.4 Supremacy of the Constitution 4.7.5 Parliamentary System 4.7.6 Two Heads 4.7.7 Leadership of the Prime Minister 4.7.8 Membership of the Parliament 4.7.9 Responsibility: Collective and Individual 4.7.10 Individual Responsibility 4.7.11 Political Homogeneity 4.7.12 Sound Opposition 4.7.13 Homogeneity of People 4.7.14 Caste Association 4.7.15 Panchayat and Tradition 4.8 Amendment Procedures of the Constitution 4.9 Amendments of the Constitution 4.10 Judicial Review 4.11 List of Schedules to the Constitution 4.12 Review of the Constitution 4.13 National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution 4.13.1 Recommendations of the National Commission

5. Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Duties 190-250 5.1 Meaning of Fundamental Rights 5.2 Nature of Fundamental Rights 5.3 Importance of the Fundamental Rights 5.4 Categories of Fundamental Rights 5.4.1 Right to Equality (Articles 14 to 18) 5.4.2 Right to Freedom (Articles 19 to 22) 5.4.3 Right against Exploitation (Articles 23-24) 5.4.4 Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28) 5.4.5 Cultural and Educational Right (Articles 29-30) 5.4.6 Right to Constitutional Remedies 5.4.7 Rights outside Part III 5.4.8 Inferred Rights 5.4.9 Human Rights Contents xxiii

5.4.10 Present Position of Right to Education 5.5 Salient Features of Fundamental Rights 5.5.1 Detailed and Comprehensive 5.5.2 All Citizens Equally Enjoy Fundamental Rights 5.5.3 Fundamental Rights are not Absolute 5.5.4 Fundamental Rights Place Certain Limitations on the State 5.5.5 Fundamental Rights can be Suspended 5.5.6 Fundamental Rights are Justiciable 5.5.7 No Natural and Unenumerated Rights in the Indian Constitution 5.5.8 Fundamental Rights can be Amended 5.5.9 Special Constitutional Provisional for the Enforcement of Fundamental Rights 5.6 Judicial Review of Fundamental Rights 5.7 Important Writs for the Enforcement of Fundamental Rights 5.7.1 Habeas Corpus 5.7.2 Mandamus 5.7.3 Prohibition 5.7.4 Certiorari 5.7.5 Writ of Quo Warranto 5.8 Critical Assessment of the Fundamental Rights 5.9 Fundamental Duties 5.10 Relation between Fundamental Right and Fundamental Duties 5.11 Directive Principles of State Policy 5.11.1 Objectives of Directive Principles 5.11.2 Categories of Directive Principles 5.11.3 Nature of the Directive Principles 5.11.4 Significance of the Directive Principles 5.11.5 Utility of the Directive Principles 5.11.6 Criticism of the Directive Principles 5.12 Difference between Directive Principle and Fundamental Rights 5.12.1 Primacy of Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights 5.13 Minority Rights in India 5.14 Enlargement of Fundamental Rights Proposed by National Commission to Review the Constitution

6. Structure of Union Executive 251-290 6.1 President 6.1.1 Qualifications of the President xxiv Constitution, Government and Politics in India

6.1.2 Election of the President 6.1.3 Term of Office and Vacancy 6.1.4 Impeachment of the President (Article 61) 6.1.5 Powers of the President 6.1.6 Position of the President 6.1.7 Discretionary Powers of the President 6.1.8 Veto Powers of the President 6.2 Vice-President 6.2.1 Election of Vice-President 6.2.2 Term of Office 6.2.3 Powers and Functions of Vice-President 6.3 Prime Minister 6.3.1 Appointment of the Prime Minister 6.3.2 Powers and Functions of the Prime Minister 6.3.3 Position of the Prime Minister 6.4 Council of Ministers (Article 163) 6.4.1 Formation of the Council of Ministers 6.4.2 Kinds of Ministers 6.4.3 Cabinet 6.4.4 Distinction between Council of Ministers and Cabinet 6.4.5 Collective Responsibility vs. Individual Responsibility 6.4.6 Functions of the Council of Ministers and the Cabinet 6.4.7 Coalition Government 6.5 Bureaucracy

7. Structure of Union Legislature 291-317 7.1 Parliament: Powers and Functions 7.1.1 Legislative Powers 7.1.2 Financial Powers 7.1.3 Control over the Executive 7.1.4 Judicial Powers 7.1.5 Constituent Powers 7.1.6 Deliberations over Public Matters 7.1.7 Miscellaneous Powers 7.2 Position of the Indian Parliament 7.3 Working of the Parliament 7.4 Legislative Procedure 7.5 Parliamentary Privileges in India (Article 105) Contents xxv

7.6 Types of Majority in Parliament 7.6.1 Simple Majority 7.6.2 Absolute Majority 7.6.3 Effective Majority 7.6.4 Special Majority 7.7 Joint Sitting of the Parliament (Article 108) 7.7.1 Constitutional Provisions for Joint Session 7.8 Sessions of Parliament 7.9 Rajya Sabha (Council of States) 7.9.1 Qualifications 7.9.2 Term of the House 7.9.3 Presiding Officer 7.9.4 Quorum 7.9.5 Powers of Rajya Sabha 7.10 Lok Sabha (House of the People) 7.10.1 Qualifications 7.10.2 Term of the House 7.10.3 Composition (Article 81) 7.10.4 Disqualification from Membership 7.10.5 Defections 7.10.6 Motions Moved in Parliament 7.10.7 Speaker (Presiding Officer) of the Lok Sabha 7.10.8 Secretary-General of Lok Sabha 7.10.9 Committees of Lok Sabha 7.11 Rajya Sabha versus Lok Sabha 7.11.1 Lok Sabha overpowers Rajya Sabha in Certain Matters 7.11.2 Rajya Sabha overpowers Lok Sabha in Certain Matters

8. State Executive and Legislature 318-343 8.1 State Executive 8.1.1 Governor (Article 153) 8.1.2 Chief Minister 8.2 State Legislature 8.2.1 Bicameral and Unicameral States 8.2.2 Composition of the Houses: 8.2.3 Duration of the Houses 8.2.4 Qualifications and Disqualifications for Membership 8.2.5 Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly) xxvi Constitution, Government and Politics in India

8.2.6 Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council) 8.2.7 Passing of Bill in a State

9. Local Governments in India 344-373 9.1 History of Decentralized Administration in India 9.2 Panchayati Raj in Post-Independence India 9.2.1 Significance of Panchayati Raj 9.2.2 Shortcomings of Panchayati Raj 9.3 Balwant Rai Mehta Committee 9.3.1 Three-tier System 9.4 Ashok Mehta Committee 9.5 Sixty-fourth Amendment Bill 9.6 Seventy-third Constitutional Amendment 9.6.1 Panchayati Raj Structure and Functions 9.6.2 Effectiveness of Seventy-third Amendment 9.7 Urban Local Governments 9.7.1 Municipal Corporations 9.7.2 Municipal Councils 9.7.3 Notified Area Committees 9.7.4 Town Area Committees 9.7.5 Metropolitan Organizations 9.8 Seventy-fourth Constitutional Amendment 9.9 Local Services 9.9.1 Urban Services 9.9.2 Rural Services 9.10 Panchayati Raj Institutions: Task Ahead

10. Indian Judicial System 374-426 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Role of the Judiciary 10.1.2 Three-tier Judicial System 10.1.3 Sources of Law 10.1.4 Enactment of Laws 10.1.5 Applicability of Laws 10.1.6 Doctrine of Eclipse 10.1.7 Doctrine of Colourable Legislation 10.1.8 Doctrine of Pith and Substance 10.2 Supreme Court of India Contents xxvii

10.2.1 Composition 10.2.2 Constitution of Supreme Court 10.2.3 Jurisdiction and Powers of the Supreme Court 10.2.4 Role of the Supreme Court 10.2.5 Supreme Court as the Guardian of the Constitution 10.2.6 Supreme Court as a Court of Record 10.2.7 Supreme Court and Public Interest Litigation 10.2.8 Independence of the Supreme Court 10.3 High Courts 10.3.1 Advocate General 10.3.2 Lok Adalats 10.4 Administrative Tribunals 10.4.1 Reasons for Growth of Administrative Tribunals 10.4.2 Tribunals and Commissions in India 10.4.3 Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) 10.5 Public Interest Litigation (PIL) and Judicial Activism in India 10.5.1 Public Interest Litigation 10.5.2 Judicial Activism 10.5.3 Important Cases and Judicial Activism 10.5.4 Judicial Activism under Attack 10.5.6 Judicial Activism and PIL 10.6 Judicial Reforms in India 10.6.1 Aspects of Judicial Reforms 10.6.2 Judges Inquiry Amendment Act, 1968 10.6.3 E-justice System 10.7 Law Commission's 170th Report 10.8 Draft National Policy on Criminal Justice 10.8.1 Objects and Terms of Reference 10.9 Judges Inquiry Bill 2006

11. Statutory Institutions of National Importance 427-450 11.1 Union Public Service Commission 11.1.1 Composition 11.1.2 Term of Members 11.1.3 Powers and Functions 11.1.4 Annual Report of the Commission 11.2 State Public Service Commissions 11.3 Election Commission xxviii Constitution, Government and Politics in India

11.3.1 Powers and Functions of the Election Commission 11.4 Finance Commission 11.4.1 Constitution and Functions of the Finance Commission 11.5 Comptroller and Auditor General of India 11.5.1 Appointment 11.5.2 Term of Office 11.5.3 Salary and Allowances 11.5.4 Power and Functions 11.5.5 Accounting Functions 11.5.6 Auditing Functions 11.6 National Commission for Women 11.6.1 Functions of the Commission 11.6.2 Procedure of Working 11.6.3 Evaluation 11.6.4 Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) 11.7 National Human Rights Commission 11.8 Minority Commission 11.8.1 Sachar Committee Report 11.8.2 Prime Minister's 15-Point Programme for Welfare of Minorities

12. National Development Council and Planning Commission 451-473 12.1 Pre-Independence Thinking on Economic Planning 12.2 National Development Council (NDC) 12.2.1 Objectives and Functions 12.2.2 Composition of NDC 12.2.3 Evaluation 12.3 Planning Commission 12.3.1 Functions of the Commission 12.3.2 Working of the Commission 12.3.3 Planning Commission: An Evaluation 12.4 Planning Machinery at the State Level 12.5 Planning Machinery at the District Level 12.5.1 District Planning Boards/Committees 12.5.2 Evaluation of District Planning 12.6 Planning in the Era of Liberalisation 12.6.1 Goals of Liberalisation 12.7 Privatisation Moves 12.8 Towards Globalisation Contents xxix

12.9 Political Dimensions of Economic Reforms

13. Political Parties and Their Politics 474-487 13.1 Main Features of Indian Political System 13.1.1 Multi-Party System 13.1.2 Dominance of the Congress Party 13.1.3 Frequent Alliance Mergers and Disintegrations 13.1.4 Defections 13.1.5 Personality Cult 13.1.6 Lack of Ideology 13.1.7 Absence of Effective Opposition 13.1.8 Communalism and Regionalism 13.2 Ideology and Social Base of Parties 13.2.1 Congress Party 13.2.2 Bhartiya Janata party (BJP) 13.2.3 Communist Parties 13.2.4 Janata Party 13.2.5 Lok Dal 13.3 Changing Political Dynamics in India 13.4 Centre-State Ties 13.5 Political Elite 13.6 Pressure Groups

14. Federalism in India: A Review 488-511 14.1 Essential Features of Federalism 14.1.1 Existence of Dual Government 14.1.2 Division of Powers between the Centre and the States 14.1.3 Division of Powers through a Written Constitution 14.1.4 Federal System Envisages an Independent Judiciary 14.2 Origin of Federalism in India 14.3 Features of India's Federal Polity 14.4 Supremacy of the Union Parliament 14.5 Reasons for a Strong Centre 14.5.1 Partition of the Country 14.5.2 Concern for Unity of the Nation 14.5.3 Need for Economic Development 14.5.4 Experience of Other Federations 14.5.5 Lessons from Indian History xxx Constitution, Government and Politics in India

14.5.6 Dominance of Congress Party 14.6 Relation between the Union and States 14.6.1 Legislative Relations 14.6.2 Administrative Relations 14.6.3 Financial Relations 14.7 Criticism of Indian Federal System 14.8 Need for Cooperative Federalism 14.8.1 Consultative Machinery 14.8.2 Adjudicative Mechanism 14.8.3 Full Faith and Credit Clause 14.8.4 Delegation of Executive Functions 14.8.5 Immunity from Mutual Taxation 14.9 Tension Areas in Indian Federation 14.9.1 Role of Governor 14.9.2 Article 356 14.9.3 Maintenance of Law and Order in States 14.9.4 Centre's Encroachment on State List 14.9.5 Financial Weakness of States 14.10 Issue of State Autonomy

15. Emerging Trends in Indian Polity 512-534 15.1 Resilience and Endurance of Indian Democracy 15.2 Regionalism and Fragmentation 15.2.1 Geographical Component 15.2.2 Historical-Cultural Components 15.2.3 Economic Component 15.2.4 Politico-Administrative Component 15.2.5 Psychic Component 15.2.6 Types of Regionalism 15.3 Pluralism and National Unity 15.3.1 Geographical Unity 15.3.2 Cultural Unity 15.3.3 Religious Unity 15.3.4 Emotional Unity 15.3.5 Political Unity 15.3.6 Racial Unity 15.4 Caste and Politics 15.5 Trends in Electoral Behaviour Contents xxxi

15.5.1 Factors Affecting the Voting Behaviour 15.6 Hung Parliament and Government 15.7 Secularism in India 15.7.1 No State Religion 15.7.2 All Religions are Equal 15.7.3 Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs 15.7.4 No Religious Instruction 15.7.5 No Financial Aid to Religion 15.7.6 Absence of Discrimination on Grounds of Religion

Bibliography 535-566

Name Index 567-572

Subject Index 573-580