Waves of the Future

WavesWaves ofof thethe Future:Future: The first five years of the 4-H study of positive youth development

Richard M. Lerner, Jacqueline V. Lerner, Erin Phelps, and Colleagues Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development Tufts University

Acknowledgments

The Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development thanks the many contributors who have made this study possible. We especially thank National 4-H Council, under the leadership of Donald T. Floyd, Jr., for its vision, support, and dedication. We gratefully acknowledge the financial support from Philip Morris USA, an Altria Company. We are grateful also for the support we received from our colleagues at Tufts University and in the Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Development. We are thankful for the support and guidance of Drs. Joan and Gary Bergstrom. We appreciate greatly the numerous contributions of the members of the institute, both past and present, for sharing their skills, dedication, and spirit. Finally, and most important, we are grateful to the youth and families involved in the 4-H Study. They are creating a world wherein the strengths possessed by all young people are being used to promote positive development and contributions to civil society. Their energy and optimism are profound and impressive.

We acknowledge and value the contributions of faculty and staff from numerous land-grant universities in the Extension/4-H system who have been instrumental in gathering data and sharing the findings. They are:

University of Alaska University of Minnesota Rutgers University University of California Mississippi State University North Carolina State University Colorado State University University of Missouri North Dakota State University University of Delaware Lincoln University Texas A&M University Purdue University University of Nebraska Washington State University University of Massachusetts Oregon State University University of Wyoming

Message From Richard M. Lerner Director, Institute For Applied Research In Youth Development

I am pleased to share in this report the results of the first five waves of research in the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. I believe that this research embodies the goals of applied developmental science and of the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development, that is, to conduct good science that enhances the abilities of practitioners, parents, policy makers, and young people themselves to promote positive human development. The results of the 4-H Study to date provide strong evidence that when the strengths of youth are aligned with the resources for healthy development in families, schools, and communities, youth thrive.

The data set underscores that all of us—as individuals, family members, professionals, advocates for youth, or members of the nation’s diverse communities—have it within our power to enhance the lives of all young people. I believe this message is vital and timely. I am honored that National 4-H Council and the 4-H system have afforded my colleagues, students, and me the opportunity to ground this message in strong developmental science.

Richard M. Lerner, Ph.D. Bergstrom Chair in Applied Developmental Science Director, Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development

Message From The Advisory Board

The amount of research on positive youth development (PYD) is small, especially when compared to research about the problems of adolescents. The largest portion of research on adolescent development proceeds from the assumption that adolescents are broken or soon will be broken. A new perspective, that of positive youth development, counterbalances the assumption of broken youth with the perspective of youth as developing with many assets who can be guided to become positive and constructive contributors to society. While some problems may exist, the goal of the positive youth development perspective is to promote positive outcomes. This idea is in contrast to a perspective that focuses on punishment and the idea that adolescents are broken.

The 4-H Study of PYD is being conducted at the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development at Tufts University by Richard M. Lerner, Jacqueline V. Lerner, Erin Phelps, and their colleagues and students. This research constitutes a first, major step toward filling the research gap concerning PYD. The 4-H Study Advisory Board believes that the study constitutes a milestone in developmental research. The 4-H Study has shown, for the first time, that PYD exists, and that youth development programs can play a major role in promoting PYD. The methods that the researchers employ for design, data analysis, and interpretation of results are state-of-the-art.

The 4-H Study is a landmark investigation. If the researchers continue on their scientific path, they will have produced a study of truly historic importance. The study will provide compelling information about the special and vital role that 4-H may play in the lives of America’s young people.

Alexander von Eye, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, Michigan State University Chair, The 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development Advisory Board

7 Advisory Board Members

Dr. Dale A. Blyth Dr. Suzanne LeMenestrel Dr. Linda Jo Turner University of Minnesota U.S. Department of Agriculture University of Missouri Dr. Lynne M. Borden Dr. Daniel F. Perkins University of Arizona The Pennsylvania State University

Dr. Constance A. Flanagan Dr. Michael J. Rovine The Pennsylvania State University The Pennsylvania State University

8 Introduction

Early researchers on adolescent development started out with the wrong set of assumptions (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). Most, including the founder of the field, G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924), viewed adolescents in terms of what they lacked when compared to mature adults (Hall, 1904). For decades this perspective subtly influenced how researchers, teachers, parents, youth workers, and public policy makers looked at this period of development. It influenced what they thought they could expect from teenagers, and how they would interpret what teenagers said and did. Researchers and clinicians viewed adolescence as a time of “sturm und drang”—storm and stress— when emotional turmoil was a necessary step toward maturity. Hall drew upon Darwin’s writings on evolution for perspective (Hall, 1904). Hall interpreted each person’s maturation as a retelling of how mankind evolved from primitive beasts to civilized social animals, with the teenage years reflecting a critical point in that story of transformation. Anna Freud (1969) wrote of emotional upheavals within adolescents and their close relationships with family and friends. Erik Erikson (1959) described the adolescent’s identity crisis as he or she struggled to achieve a more mature state.

In short, early researchers and clinicians based their observations and theories on the underlying assumption that adolescents are inherently “at risk” for behaving in uncivilized or problematic ways; they were “broken” in some way and needed repair. Given that premise, that is largely what they saw.

9 The Emergence of the Positive Youth Development (PYD) Perspective

This frame of reference shifted spend much more time with their in the early 1990s as growing peers than with their parents numbers of researchers viewed and may, sometimes for the first adolescence through the lens time, openly challenge their of systems theories that look at parents’ actions and beliefs, they development throughout the life value their relationships with span as a product of relations their parents tremendously. They between individuals and their also tend to incorporate their world (Lerner, 2005). One key parents’ core values in such areas aspect of this new focus was as social justice, spirituality, and plasticity: the potential that the importance of education into individuals have for systematic their own values. Indeed, most change throughout life. This adolescents select friends in part potential is critically important because they share these core because it says that adolescents’ values and similar perceptions of trajectories are not fixed and can the world. be significantly influenced by Integrating the theoretical factors in their homes, schools, ideas about the plasticity of and communities (Lerner, 2006). adolescent development and Despite the manifold problems the practical findings about the often seen during adolescence— multiple pathways children take drug and alcohol use and abuse, through adolescence led to the unsafe sex and pregnancy, school framework now known as Positive failure and dropping out, crime Youth Development (PYD), which and delinquency, depression and views young people as resources self-destructive behaviors—most to be developed rather than as young people do not have a problems to be managed (Lerner, stormy adolescence (Lerner, 2005; Damon, 2004). 2005). Similarly, while teenagers

10 Features of Positive Youth Development (PYD)

The PYD approach builds Researchers theorized that a civil society. In addition, young upon what have become known young people whose lives people whose lives contained as the “Five Cs”: Competence, incorporated these Five Cs lower amounts of the Five Cs Confidence, Connection, would be on a developmental would be at higher risk for a Character, and Caring (Lerner, et path that demonstrates a Sixth developmental path that included al., 2005). C: Contributions to self, family, personal, social, and behavioral community, and the institutions of problems and risks (Lerner, 2004).

The “5 Cs” of Positive Youth Development “C” Definition Positive view of one’s actions in specific areas, including social, academic, cognitive, health, and vocational. Social competence refers to interpersonal skills (e.g., conflict resolution). Cognitive competence refers to cognitive abilities (e.g., decision making). Competence: Academic competence refers to school performance as shown, in part, by school grades, attendance, and test scores. Health competence involves using nutrition, exercise, and rest to keep oneself fit. Vocational competence involves work habits and explorations of career choices. Effective entrepreneurial skills may be one instance of vocational competence.

Confidence: An internal sense of overall positive self-worth and self-efficacy.

Positive bonds with people and institutions that are reflected in exchanges between Connection: the individual and his or her peers, family, school, and community in which both parties contribute to the relationship.

Character: Respect for societal and cultural norms, possession of standards for correct behaviors, a sense of right and wrong, and integrity.

Caring/Compassion: A sense of sympathy and empathy for others.

11 This relationship between The contexts in which they live, • Positive and sustained PYD and risk/problem behaviors, learn, and play have resources relationships between youth however, was not seen as simple to promote positive youth and adults or uniform. The plasticity of development. The resources can • Activities that build development meant that some become the “social nutrients” important life skills children from some homes, young people need for healthy • Opportunities for children schools, and communities that development. Researchers and to use these life skills as lacked resources and supports practitioners agree that this both participants and as were resilient and resistant to concept of developmental assets leaders in valued community problems. A few who came is key to understanding how to activities from environments filled with foster PYD in homes, classrooms, Programs having these resources and supports were and community-based programs features may be termed youth drawn nevertheless into numerous (Benson, et al., 2006). development (YD) programs troubles. But on the whole, PYD Studies suggest a link between (Lerner, 2004; Roth & Brooks- researchers hypothesized that the PYD and the developmental Gunn, 2003). Key questions are: availability of activities supporting assets associated with youth the Five Cs would help steer • How can PYD theory be programs, especially programs translated into specific young people toward a life of that go beyond simple successful contributions (Lerner, practices that will help extracurricular activities to focus young people thrive? 2005; Benson, Scales, Hamilton, & on promoting youth development. Sesma, 2006). • Do YD programs do this The “Big Three” features of successfully? The potential for change is effective youth-serving programs a core strength of all youth—a To help address these (Lerner, 2004; Blum, 2003; Roth & questions, National 4-H Council strength that can be built Brooks-Gunn, 2003) are: upon. This strength is cause for sponsored research to understand optimism, for it means that the the developmental assets life paths of all children can be already or potentially present in influenced in a good direction. youth programs, especially the programs lead by 4-H.

12 The 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development What We Did And Why We Did It

There are several ways to Participants volunteered to We gathered data through answer the question of whether get involved with or to skip out- a student questionnaire and a involvement in specific out-ofof-school programs; they were parent questionnaire, and from school activities predicts positive not assigned to a program by school and government sources growth and decreased risk the researchers. This distinction such as the U.S. Census (Lerner, et during adolescence. The most is important. We wanted study al., 2005). We explored whether powerful approach is to conduct participants to mirror youth each young person could select a longitudinal study—research who were not part of the study, positive life goals, optimize what that follows young people over who chose their own levels of he or she needed to achieve a significant period of time and participation in such programs. those goals, and compensate records important changes within To look for possible relationships for obstacles that stood in individual participants, as well between involvement in 4-H and the way. This Selection (S), as critical differences between positive youth development, we Optimization (O), Compensation participants at any given age. We matched 4-H participants with (C) triad yielded what we call an used this approach in this study, non-participants on a variety of SOC score that allowed us to which is funded by National 4-H variables. predict important future positive Council through funds provided Wave 1 included 1,719 fifth- behaviors and risk/problem by Philip Morris USA, an Altria graders and 1,137 of their parents behaviors. We also examined the Company. (Lerner, et al., 2005). They came youth activities outside of school, In The 4-H Study of Positive from 13 states in rural, suburban, not only in 4-H but also in: Youth Development we used a and urban areas in different parts • sports longitudinal sequential design of the country and represented • arts (Lerner, et al., 2005). We began a variety of racial, ethnic, and • school clubs with fifth graders in the 2002– religious backgrounds. By the end • religious groups 2003 school year, a time period of Wave 5, we had collected data • community service labeled Wave 1. Since we knew from a total of 4,701 adolescents that, as in all longitudinal studies, from 34 states. The following • other organizations. we would lose some participants figures provide more details We looked as well at risk/ over time, we added participants about the youth comprising the problem behaviors, such as: at other waves so that our 4-H Study sample. • smoking statistical analyses would maintain • drinking their power. • bullying • depression

13 RACE/ETHNICITY IN THE TOTAL 4-H SAMPLE, WAVES 1-5

Changing racial/ethnic identity* 2% African American 7% Native American 2% Multiracial 5% Asian American 2% Latino/a American 13%

European American 69%

LIVING ENVIRONMENTS IN THE TOTAL 4-H SAMPLE, WAVES 1-5

Urban 21%

Rural 43%

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION IN THE TOTAL 4-H SAMPLE, WAVES 1-5

West 18% Northeast 21% Suburb 36%

North Central 28%

South 33%

*Some youth change, from one wave to another, the racial/ethnic label they use to describe themselves. The variation may reflect the developmental nature of racial/ethnic identity.

14 Longitudinal Findings Waves 1 through 5

The first Annual Report from Youth who had participated Grades 5 to 8, we found that, the 4-H Study was issued in spring in 4-H at some point during through Grade 9, 4-H youth are 2008 and summarized findings Grades 5 through 9 were substantially more likely than published or in press through significantly more likely to show other youth to make contributions eighth grade (Wave 4 of the the optimal trajectories for all to their communities! study). The complete report can four of the variables we assessed: During Grades 5 through 9, be accessed at: http://www.4- high trajectories for PYD and youth show different levels of hbrandnetwork.org/. To prepare Contribution; low trajectories for contribution. While almost three- the data for these longitudinal depressive symptoms and risk/ quarters of young people move analyses, we used information delinquent behaviors. In fact, from low to moderate levels of from students who participated children who had participated in contribution, only about 9% show in two or more years of the 4-H for at least one year by ninth the highest levels of contributions. study. We developed models for grade were about 1.1 times more The course of depression across several long-term trajectories likely than children in other out-of- Grades 5 through 9 takes several (optimal, problematic, and school-time (OST) programs to be forms. Some youth (about 64%) gradations in between) involving in the highest PYD trajectory and show low levels, but substantial PYD, Contribution, depressive more than 2.1 times more likely numbers of youth show variations symptoms, and risk/delinquent to be in the highest Contribution from this optimal trajectory. behaviors. trajectory. As in the results from

4-H youth are more likely than other youth to show the highest trajectories o f PYD.

15 4-H youth are more than twice as likely as other youth to be in the highest trajectories o f contribution to their communities.

Across grades, more than The true value of 4-H programs 90% of youth reported no or comes not from short-term results very low levels of risk behavior. or even the effects over a few This finding counters the youth years. It comes from the programs’ stereotype of storm and stress. influence on lifelong pathways Only about 3% of youth appear to of development. Extension of be on a trajectory of increasing the 4-H Study beyond the high risk behaviors. While this group school years will be needed to is small, it is important to pay assess whether such longer-term particular attention to them in influences exist. the upcoming waves. 4-H youth Nevertheless there is great were 1.1 times more likely to be value in ascertaining if, during in the lowest trajectories for both middle and high school, youth depressive symptoms and risk/ with a history of 4-H participation delinquent behaviors. appear to be on a healthy trajectory and, if so, whether and how they differ from other youth.

4-H youth are more likely than other youth to show the lowest trajectories o f depression.

16 PYD Trajectories -- 5 Waves Contribution Trajectories -- 5 Waves 100 100 26.1% 80 35.9% 7.9% 80

8.5% 60 24.4% 60 24.5% 5.5% 51.1% 40 40 15.9%

20 20

0 0 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 Grade Grade

Risk Behaviors -- 5 Waves Depression Trajectories -- 5 Waves 30 60

25 50

20 40 4.0% 3.2% 30 15 9.9% 7.6% 2.8% 10 20 14.4%

10 5 42.1% 64.1% 51.9% 0 0 5 6 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9 Grade Grade

Lines represent trajectory over time.

17 Effects of 4-H Participation Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Findings

In the first Annual Report 4-H youth (N = 215) matched with Among ninth graders, we covering Waves 1-4, we presented 215 youth who are not 4-H youth. found that, in comparison to the the results of analyses aimed at Matching was based on gender, matched sample, 4-H participants ascertaining the relations between race/ethnicity, rural/suburban/ had consistently higher scores PYD and participation in 4-H clubs urban community, number of on each of the developmental and 4-H after-school programs, parents in the home, family outcomes—PYD, Contribution, compared to participation in other per capita income, mother’s and SOC—and lower scores out-of-school-time (OST) activities. education, and region of the on measures of risk/problem We made this comparison by country. For the longitudinal behaviors. All the differences matching youth who participated analyses, we report the results were statistically significant, at least twice per month in 4-H of analyses across Grades 5 to except for depression. Notably, programs to other youth who 9 (Waves 1 to 5). These analyses the 4-H youth were 25% higher regularly participated in other involve 481 youth in the 4-H on the Contribution measure than OST activities. Matching was sample and the same number of were youth who participated in based on gender, race/ethnicity, youth in the matched, comparison other OST activities. In addition, rural/urban/suburban community, group sample. the 4-H participants were 41% parental participation in the lower on the risk/problem study, family per capita income, behavior measure than were the mother’s education, and region of comparison youth. the country. These comparisons were made both cross-sectionally, among youth in Grades 6 and 8, GRADE 9: DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOMES OST 4-H 100 and longitudinally, across Grades 5 to 8. In this Annual Report covering Waves 1-5, we again present the results of both cross-sectional 50 and longitudinal analyses. For the cross-sectional analyses, we use the Grade 9 (Wave 5) sample of

0 PYD* Contribution* Risk Behaviors* SOC* Depression Statistically significant differences: *p<05

4-H youth were 25% higher on the C ontribution measure and 41% lower on the risk/problem behavior measure than youth who participated in other OST activities. Statistically significant differences: *p<.05

18 On the educational measures, other youth and may be more that 4-H participation inoculates the 4-H participants had better likely to see their future as youth against dropping out of grades, were more behaviorally involving college than do other high school at rates greater than and emotionally engaged with youth. What is the importance other OST programs. Given the school, and were more likely to of these differences? We believe importance of understanding how see themselves going to college. that greater achievement, to prevent high school students Specifically, the respective odds engagement, and motivation for from dropping out, continuing the that 4-H youth have “B and above” further education should combine 4-H Study so that this hypothesis grades, have high academic to enhance the likelihood that 4-H can be tested is critical. competence, and expect to go to youth, more than other youth, will Why do these advantages college are 2.05, 1.58, and 1.43 remain in high school, graduate, exist for 4-H youth? Several times higher than for comparison and go to college. We will be able explanations are available but youth. to test this hypothesis only if the one, we believe, is key: 4-H youth This difference may occur 4-H Study is extended beyond appear to have higher levels because 4-H youth are more the 12th grade, when it currently of the developmental assets engaged with school than are is scheduled to end. It may be

GRADE 9: EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES OST 4-H 4-H participants had 100 bet ter grades, were more behaviorally and emotionally 50 engaged with school, and were more likely to see

themselves going to 0 Grades* Academic Competence Behavioral Emotional Expect School School to go to college. Engagement* Engagement* College*

Statistically significant differences: *p<.05

19 that the 4-H Study has found GRADE 9: TIME WITH ADULTS OST 4-H most important in promoting 100 PYD—other individuals and, in particular, caring, competent, and committed adults, including parents, teachers, and mentors 50 (Theokas & Lerner, 2006). The longitudinal participants showed a similar pattern. 4-H 0 participants in the longitudinal Dinner with Family* Number of Mentors* sample reported significantly higher levels of contribution than among the matched comparison In grade 9, most measures o f the positive group. The 4-H youth reported significantly better grades developmental and educational outcomes were than youth who were involved in other OST activities and significantly higher among 4-H participants. were more significantly likely to expect themselves to go to The advantages of 4-H not evident when change across college. The respective odds participation for contribution, Grades 5 to 9 was considered. that 4-H longitudinal youth have educational achievement, and One reason for this difference better grades, higher levels motivation for further education may be that different sub-samples of academic competence, and are robust across the cross- of youth were involved in the expect to go to college are 1.76, sectional and longitudinal two sets of analyses. In turn, 1.68, and 1.70 times higher than samples—and speak to the some of the advantages of 4-H for comparison youth. In turn, continuity of advantages enjoyed participation for youth may only the odds that longitudinal 4-H by 4-H youth in the key domains be emerging in mid-adolescence. youth are involved in risk/problem of individual thriving and Future analyses from subsequent behaviors were 0.63 times lower community contribution. waves of data from the 4-H Study than for youth who participated in will be aimed at testing this other OST activities, a significant Some of the differences interpretation. difference. between the 4-H and other youth that were found in Grade 9 were

The advantages o f 4-H participation for contribution, educational achievement, and motivation for further education are robust across the cross-sectional and longitudinal samples. Statistically significant differences: *p<.05

20 4-H youth appear to have higher levels o f the developmental assets that the 4-H Study has found most important in promoting PYD.

LONGITUDINAL SAMPLE: DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOMES OST 4-H 100

0 PYD* Contribution* Risk Behaviors* SOC* Depression

Statistically significant differences: *p<05

LONGITUDINAL SAMPLE: EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES OST 4-H For the longitudinal 100 sample, 4-H youth had higher

50 contribution scores and higher grades than comparison

0 Grades* Academic Competence Behavioral Emotional Expect School School to go to youth. Their Engagement Engagement College* expectations to go to college were also higher. Statistically significant differences: *p<.05

21 In regard to youth civic • Adult social capital/social • Civic helping – time spent identity and civic engagement trust – mutually beneficial helping others in informal (CICE), Grade 9 youth in 4-H relations, trust, and bonding settings, such as helping a scored higher than comparison with adults and teachers neighbor youth on all eight factors of the • Civic duty – a sense of • Civic activities – time civic identity and engagement obligation to something spent in formal activities construct and overall CICE larger than oneself giving back to others, Civic duty* with only one non-significant • Civic information – a such as volunteering, difference. For the longitudinal commitment to gathering tutoring, serving in a civic sample, participants in 4-H political and civic knowledge organization, participating in programs had significantly higher • Civic voice – the ability student government scores on five of the eight factors, to express oneself about Civic voice* as well as on the overall CICE, community issues compared to youth who were involved in other programs. (For Neighborhood* the remaining two factors, 4-H GRADE 9: CIVIC ACTIVITIES AND IDENTITIES OST 4-H youth had higher scores but the Peer 100 differences were not statistically significant.) Civic information* The eight different factors in an overall CICE score are: Helping* • Neighborhood social capital/ social trust – mutually beneficial relations, trust, Activities* and bonding with other 50 people in the community • Peer social capital/social Adult* trust – mutually beneficial relations, trust, and bonding with friends and classmates CICE*

Statistically significant differences: *p<.05

22 LONGITUDINAL SAMPLE: CIVIC ACTIVITIES AND IDENTITIES OST 4-H

100

Coupled with our findings From early adolescence through that 4-H participation in Grades at least initial portions of mid- From grades 5 through 5 to 9 is linked to greater youth adolescence (Grade 9), 4-H community contributions, youth are more civically active 9, 4-H youth are both cross-sectionally and and make more community longitudinally, these findings with and civic contributions than do more civically active CICE tell a powerful story about youth participants in other OST the civic lives of 4-H participants. activities. and make more community and civic contributions than youth in other OST activities.

Statistically significant differences: *p<.05

23 ® Effects of Health Rocks!

To follow up on the first Annual and the potential influence of their In sum, although HR! Report of our findings in regard to peers to elicit greater levels of youth indicate they may feel Health Rocks! (HR!) participation engagement in smoking behaviors, more pressure to smoke, HR! among youth in the 4-H Study, we HR! youth show no greater participation enables them to compared ninth grade youth who propensity for smoking-related behave comparably to youth had participated in HR! at some behaviors than do the youth in the whose peer pressure to smoke is point in Grades 5 to 8 (N = 426) matched sample. It may be, then, lower. Will this inoculation effect with a matched sample of youth that HR! participation provides a exist throughout adolescence? who had never participated in continuing “inoculation” against What long-term health benefits HR! (N also = 426). Matching was such risky behaviors, even into the of HR! participation may exist at based on gender, race/ethnicity, ninth grade. the end of adolescence and into rural/urban/suburban community, Moreover, the resistance of the young adult years? Future parental participation in the HR! youth to peer pressure to analyses of data from the later study, family per capita income, smoke exists even though these waves of the 4-H Study will enable mother’s education, and region of young people show evidence of us to address these questions. the country. greater internalizing problems As shown in the first table, the (depression) than do comparison two groups of youth do not differ youth (see Developmental in regard to smoking-related and Educational Measures behaviors, except in regard to one table). Resisting their peers key variable: HR! youth are more might take a toll on the HR! than twice as likely to have friends youth. Nevertheless, on other who pressure them to smoke. developmental and educational Given the increased salience of measures the HR! youth do not the peer group in adolescence differ from the comparison youth.

® Health Rocks! may inoculate youth against peer pressure to smoke: Despite being twice as likely than comparison® youth to have peers who pressure them to smoke, Health Rocks! youth do not differ from comparison youth in smoking-related behaviors.

24 Smoking Attitudes and Behaviors No HR! Had HR! Smokers in the home 34% 29% Expect to smoke in the future 7% 6% Approve of peers smoking 24% 30% Have pressure from peers to smoke* 10% 22%

Have close friends who smoke 97% 97%

Smoke yourself 6% 8%

Developmental and Education Measures No HR! Had HR! No risk/delinquency 42% 36% Low depression* 72% 60% High grades 64% 56% High academic competence 71% 61% Expect to graduate from college 67% 61% High school engagement 2% 1% High SOC 48% 52% No substance use 73% 64% Optimal contribution trajectory 29% 29% Optimal risk/delinquency trajectory 56% 57% Optimal depression trajectory* 77% 65% Optimal PYD trajectory 71% 66%

* Indicates significant difference between youth who have never had HR! versus those who have had HR!

25 Additional recent findings from the 4-H Study

Since publication of the first More Than Child’s Play: Annual Report in spring 2008, several additional findings have Variable- and Pattern- been published or placed in press. Centered Approaches for In this section, we summarize Examining Effects of Sports these new contributions to the Participation on Youth literature of youth development. Development

In an article forthcoming in along with sports. In particular, Developmental Psychology, Nicole participation in a combination of Zarrett, Kristen Fay, Jennifer sports and youth development Carrano, Yibing Li, Erin Phelps, (YD) programs was related to and Richard M. Lerner used data PYD and youth contribution, from Grades 5 through 7 of the even after controlling for the 4-H Study to assess the relations total time youth spent in OST among sports participation, activities and the duration of their other out-of-school-time (OST) sports participation. Adolescents’ activities, and indicators of youth total time spent participating development. These relations in OST activities, duration of were assessed through a mixture participation in sports, and of variable- and pattern-centered activity participation pattern analyses. The statistical approach each explained a unique part was aimed at disentangling of the variance in some of the different features of participation indicators of youth functioning. such as intensity and breadth. The These findings suggest the need benefits of sports participation for future research to assess were found to partially depend simultaneously multiple indices of on specific combinations of OST activity participation. multiple activities included

26 Use of Missing Data Academic Competence for Positive Development Methods in Longitudinal Adolescents Who Bully and in Adolescence: The Studies: Current Practices in Who are Bullied Development and Role of Developmental Psychology Intentional Self-Regulation

In an article forthcoming in In an article forthcoming in In an article published in Developmental Psychology, Helena the Journal of Early Adolescence, Human Development, Steinunn Jelicic,ˇ ’ Erin Phelps, and Richard M. Lang Ma, Erin Phelps, Jacqueline Gestsdóttir and Richard M. Lerner Lerner note that developmental V. Lerner, and Richard M. Lerner discussed the role of intentional science rests on describing, used fifth and sixth grade (Wave self-regulation in the positive explaining, and optimizing intra- 1 and Wave 2) data from the 4-H development of adolescence. They individual changes and requires Study to bring new information noted that adolescence is a period longitudinal research, such as the to the relation between school of marked change in cognitive, 4-H Study. However, problems bullying and adolescent academic physical, psychological, and social of missing data arise in most competence, making it important development and in relations with longitudinal studies, creating to explore what factors promote the people and social institutions, challenges for interpreting the such competence for adolescents and that these changes place substance and structure of intra- who bully and who are bullied. The demands to adapt on adolescents. individual change. Using a sample role of contextual and individual Adaptation involves developmental of reports of longitudinal studies variables linked to academic regulation, in which relations obtained from three flagship competence were examined between the adolescent’s action developmental journals — Child in the context of bullying by and the context flow back and forth. Development, Developmental computing longitudinal random The attributes and means through Psychology, and Journal of effects hierarchical regression which the adolescent contributes Research on Adolescence — the analyses with a subsample of to such regulation may be termed authors examined the number of 620 adolescents. The results self-regulation. This article longitudinal studies reporting indicated that being a bully differentiates between organismic missing data and the missing negatively impacted academic and intentional self-regulation data techniques used. Of the 100 competence above and beyond and examines the development longitudinal studies sampled, 57 the adolescents’ demographic of intentional self-regulation in either reported having missing data background, including sex and adolescence, and the individual or had discrepancies in sample sizes maternal education, and prior year and contextual contributions reported for different analyses. academic competence. Concurrent to its development. The model The majority of these studies (82%) random effects hierarchical of Selection, Optimization, and used missing data techniques regression analyses of a subsample Compensation (SOC), developed that are statistically problematic, of 250 adolescents suggested by Paul Baltes, Margaret Baltes, either through listwise deletion that educational expectations and and Alexandra Freund, is used to or pairwise deletion, and are not school engagement interacted in conceptualize and index intentional recommended by statisticians (i.e., fostering academic competence self-regulation in adolescence, and the direct maximum likelihood for bullies and victims. These the relation between intentional method and the multiple imputation findings highlight the importance self-regulation and positive method). The authors discuss of addressing the issue of development of youth is discussed. the need for understanding the academic competence in bullying This relation is subsequently tested consequences of using statistically interventions, and the utility in several studies conducted with inappropriate missing data of capitalizing on educational the 4-H Study data set. techniques with actual longitudinal expectations and school data sets, such as the 4-H Study. engagement in promoting academic competence among adolescents who bully and who are bullied.

27 Intentional Self-regulation Positive and Negative Patterns of Early in Early Adolescence: Developmental Trajectories Adolescents’ Participation Assessing the Structure of in U.S. Adolescents: Where in Youth Development Selection, Optimization, and the PYD Perspective Meets Programs Having Positive Compensation Processes the Deficit Model Youth Development Goals

In an article published in the In an article in Research in In a paper forthcoming in the European Journal of Developmental Human Development, Stacy M. Journal of Research in Adolescence, Science, Stacy M. Zimmerman, Erin Zimmerman, Erin Phelps, and Aida Balsano, Erin Phelps, Phelps, and Richard M. Lerner Richard M. Lerner used data from Christina Theokas, Jacqueline used data from Grades 5, 6, and Grades 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the 4-H V. Lerner, and Richard M. Lerner 7 of the 4-H Study to assess the Study to assess the patterns of noted that theory and research role of intentional self-regulation change associated with indicators suggest that structured, out-of- in the positive development of of PYD, contribution, and risk/ school-time (OST) activities, and young adolescents. These relations problem behaviors among 1,909 in particular youth development were examined through use of youth. In addition, the role of programs aimed at promoting the Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) measure, intentional self-regulation — as positive youth development (PYD), developed by Paul B. Baltes and indexed by the Selection, are key developmental assets Alexandra Freund. Consistent Optimization, and Compensation for such development. Using with findings published in (SOC) measure of the Freund and longitudinal data from 945 fifth Developmental Psychology in Baltes (2002)— in determining and sixth graders participating 2007 by Steinunn Gestsdóttir and which developmental paths in the 4-H Study, initial Richard M. Lerner, the results of youth follow was examined. descriptive information about confirmatory factor analyses of Results indicated that five PYD early adolescent participation SOC scores suggested the use of trajectories represent change in youth programs having or a global, nine-item index. Results across grades, four trajectories not having PYD goals was of hierarchical linear modeling were associated with indicators presented. Within each grade, indicated that statistically of youth contribution, four early adolescents participated significant but substantively minor trajectories were associated in multiple programs (overall changes in SOC scores existed with indicators of depressive mean for Grades 5 and 6 are 3.8 across the three grades. These symptoms, and three trajectories and 2.9, respectively). In Grades findings support the use of the were associated with indicators of 5 and 6, 44.1% and 35.8% of Grade 5 SOC scores as predictors risk/problem behaviors. Binomial youth, respectively, participated of subsequent development. logistic regression results in PYD-related programs, but Accordingly, Grade 5 SOC scores indicated that youth with higher typically in combination with other positively predicted Grade 7 SOC scores were significantly program types. Researchers and scores on the Five Cs of PYD— competence, confidence, character, more likely to be in the most practitioners should consider connection, and caring— and favorable trajectory for each of implications for healthy early negatively predicted Grade 7 the outcome measures. adolescent development of depression, delinquency, and risk participation in multiple programs, behaviors. No gender effects were only some of which seek to found in regard to changes in SOC promote PYD. scores.

28 Out-of-School-Time Activity We’re Here, We’re Problematics of Time and Participation, School Hopeful, and We Can Do Timing in the Longitudinal Engagement and Positive Well: Conceptions and Study of Human Youth Development: Findings Attributes of Positive Youth Development: Theoretical from The 4-H Study of Development among and Methodological Issues Positive Youth Development Immigrant Youth

In an article published in the In a forthcoming issue of the The study of human Journal of Youth Development, Journal of Youth Development, development involves the Yibing Li, Neda Bebiroglu, Erin Yulika Forman, Megan Kiely, description, explanation, and Phelps, and Richard M. Lerner Dan Du, Jennifer Carrano, and optimization of intraindividual studied the relations in early Richard Lerner used qualitative change and of interindividual adolescence among out-of- and quantitative information differences in such change and school-time activities and from Grades 8 and 9 of the requires the use of longitudinal indicators of youth development 4-H Study to describe the research. Several types of by using eighth grade data conceptions of thriving youth longitudinal research can be from the 4-H Study. Hierarchical present within adolescent used, and the selection of the multiple linear regressions immigrants to the United States, appropriate instance of such indicated that “hanging out” and interrelate these conceptions designs requires both the use of with friends without set plans with quantitative scores for the design that best addresses and excessive media use were PYD, contribution, and positive the theoretical questions associated with lower behavioral future orientation. Conceptions about developmental process engagement with school, lower of thriving that included positive and the use of appropriate academic achievement, and future orientation were associated statistical procedures to best higher rates of risk behaviors. with higher quantitative scores exploit the data derived from Youth who ate dinner with their for PYD and Contribution. theory-predicated longitudinal families reported higher levels Conceiving of thriving as making research. In a paper published of emotional engagement, lower contributions to themselves or in Human Development, Richard depression and risk behaviors, their communities was associated M. Lerner, Seth Schwartz, and and better grades. Engagement with higher quantitative scores Erin Phelps focused on issues in civic activities was associated for Contribution. These findings pertinent to theory-design fit, with higher levels of emotional suggest that immigrant youth and noted that, to create such fit, engagement. Behavioral and whose qualitative definitions several interrelated problematics emotional engagement both were of thriving include the U.S.- involving the treatment of time associated with better grades based conceptions of PYD show and the timing of observations are and lower depression. Emotional quantitative evidence of positive faced by developmental scientists school engagement also was functioning. The limitations of the seeking to chart changes in associated with lower rates study and directions for future developmental processes of risk behaviors. Implications research were discussed. throughout life. Using data from of the findings for evaluating the 4-H Study, they discussed the the role of out-of-school-time ways in which these problematics activities and behavioral and/or may be addressed in order to emotional school engagement in advance theory-predicated academic achievement and youth understanding of the role of development are discussed. time in processes of individual development.

29 Next steps for the study of PYD

In its first few years, this We are excited about the first-of-a-kind longitudinal study possibility of continuing this study has already yielded important through Grade 12 and beyond so information about how PYD that we can gather and analyze can launch young people into additional information to help the healthy and productive lives youth of today and tomorrow. By (Lerner, et al, 2005; Jelicic,ˇ ’ Bobek, building upon and extending this Phelps, Lerner, & Lerner, 2007). longitudinal study, we will gain The findings have profound powerful and practical insights implications not only for the into what guides an adolescent programs themselves, but also for into a productive and successful public policy (Lerner, 2004). adulthood. We also will be able to From this study we have determine which PYD assets are learned that youth programs related to critical life events, such cannot remain static; they must as completing high school, going expand and change to address to college, and successful entry the diverse and changing needs into the workforce (Lerner, 2007). and interests of adolescents and If we are able to extend the their families (Balsano, Phelps, 4-H Study beyond the high school Theokas, Lerner, & Lerner, in years, we will provide previously press; Theokas, Lerner, Lerner, & unavailable information on how Phelps, 2006; Zarrett & Lerner, youth development programs 2008). Youth programs must such as 4-H can move adolescents address both prevention and onto a productive and healthy promotion; contrary to popular adulthood that benefits both belief, focusing on one does children and their communities. not necessarily affect the other Such knowledge would be of (Phelps, et al, 2007). inestimable value for science, for practitioners, and for developing effective social policy.

30 References

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