Planetarium Science Center

newsletterth st 6 year | 1 edition Science For All!

1st SCHOOL SEMESTER 2012/13

In this edition... The Origins of the Four Elements 2 Four Elements: The Powers of the Four Elements 4 The Fifth Element on the Big Screen 5 By: Maissa Azab Journey to the Moon 6 Roots of Life Plasma: The Uncharted Element 7 The Four Elements; the Epitome of Life 8 The Elements’ Wrath 11 Here we start a new year for the PSC and how they can devastate life just as much as The Four Elements that Make Your Body 14 Newsletter; the fourth for the Newsletter as a they sustain it. Nano-Elements of Nature 16 popular science publication. In what has become In this new cycle, we re-introduce sections Lessons from the Lorax 17 a tradition, in the first issue of every new cycle, such as “ZoomTech”, where we discuss how Antimatter: Mirror of the Universe 18 we go back to the roots. Last year, we started by nanotechnology can change the four elements as we know them. In this issue, we also introduce The Marvels of the Elements 20 discussing Planet Earth; this year, we focus in this new sections and columns. In the newly-introduced Fire Breathing Dragons 22 issue on the classical Four Elements of Nature, which were the core of all humanities and sciences “Science in Sci-Fi” section, we have a column on for centuries, if not millennia of human history. the fantastical action motion picture “The Fifth Element”, and a fascinating film review on the Earth, Water, Air, and Fire are indeed the four surprisingly insightful animation movie “The Lorax”. The corners of life; life could not possibly flourish or On the other hand, in our new section “Top sustain itself without each and every single one of Ten”, we count down the top ten marvels of the these elements, which we can thus rightfully call elements of the periodic table from our perspective. Four Elements the Roots of Life. In “In-Depth Science”, we dive into the mystery that In this issue, we will discuss at length why is antimatter; and finally, in “Fact or Fiction”, we of Nature; the Four Elements are in fact the roots and investigate the possibility of fire breathing dragons foundations of life. We will delve into their origins, ever existing. For How Long? track them all the way to the Moon, explore their As always, we hope you will enjoy the selections powers, find out how they make up our bodies, we offer you; we also look forward to receiving your By: Prof. Boshra Salem discover how they shape and impact our daily life, feedback at [email protected]. Chair, International Coordinating Council of Man and Biosphere Program (MAB-ICC), UNESCO

A system can be described as “anything which This transformation of the planet has contributed takes its integrity and form from the ongoing interaction to substantial net gains in human well-being and of its parts”. Companies, nations, families, biological economic development. But not all people benefited niches, bodies, television sets, personalities, and from this process; in fact, many were harmed. atoms are all systems. What all of these systems have Governments and people must view the sustainability in common is that change in one part of the system will of ecosystems as essential to human life. There must affect another part or parts of the system. be a call for an approach to manage the world's critical Systems thinking is based on the idea that the resources, which means evaluating decisions on land forces in a system are complex, and their interaction and resource use in light of how they affect the capacity cannot be predicted in any mechanistic way. Systems of ecosystems to produce goods and services. thinking helps you think, and act more effectively In order to reach sustainability, all parts of the towards desired goals, no matter what problems and system have to change. In this quest, individuals are opportunities you may face in the future. Systems major leverage points. Being more efficient in engaging thinking is needed because over the past 50 years, them to act strategically towards sustainability is and humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and will be of critical importance for those who wish to extensively than in any other time before, largely to accelerate societal change. Human well-being can The ancient Greeks believed that there were four meet the rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, be enhanced through sustainable human interaction elements that made up everything: Earth, Water, Air, timber, fiber, and fuel. with ecosystems, with the support of appropriate and Fire. This theory was suggested around 450 BCE, The four elements of nature are in danger; instruments, institutions, and technology. and it was later supported and elaborated by Aristotle. environmental problems such as climate change, There are many examples from businesses, Let us add one more element; the ‘Systems’ energy crisis, water shortage, and pollution are NGOs, and other institutions showing possible paths element. We all depend on Earth's ecosystems jeopardizing the consistency of such elements in forward and the benefits of being proactive. But then, and the services they provide, such as food, water, supporting our livelihoods and wellbeing. Every why is not everyone engaged in taking action towards fiber, and wood, in addition to disease management, measure used by scientists to assess the health of sustainability? Why is change so slow? climate regulation, spiritual fulfillment, and aesthetic ecosystems indicates that we are degrading them at For change to take place, the commitment and enjoyment. The Five Elements function as a principal an accelerating pace. For too long we have focused on actions of individuals are critical. One way to accelerate structure for information, and as a guiding overview how much we can take from our ecosystems, with little the needed change towards sustainability is to find for aspects that should be considered when engaging attention to the services they provide, such as climate answers to the following question: How can individuals individuals to act strategically towards sustainability of control and nutrient recycling, which we cannot replace be engaged to take actions leading strategically the four elements. at any reasonable price. towards sustainability of the earth’s four elements?

1st School Semester 2012/13 By: Maissa Azab in cooperation with Sara Khattab & Reham Elbannan The Story Behind the Science The

he idea that the four Some 5 billion years ago, a The oldest rocks, dated by the During a period around 4 billion Telements—Earth, Water, Air, supernova exploded, pushing a uranium-lead method at about years ago called the “Late Heavy and Fire—made up all matter was the lot of its heavy-element wreckage 3.96 billion years old, show that Bombardment”, massive objects, cornerstone of philosophy, science, into a cloud of hydrogen gas and there were volcanoes, continents, probably from the outer solar and medicine for 2000 years. interstellar dust. The mixture grew oceans, crustal plates, and life on system, hit Earth and the inner Historians believe that Greek hot and compressed under its Earth in those days. While the eons planets. It is possible that these philosophers began formulating own gravity; at its center, a new that followed were full of strange objects were filled with water, and theories of the four elements as early star began to form, around which stories and far-reaching changes, that these collisions could have as the 8th century BCE. Although swirled a disk of the same material the Earth had taken on its basic delivered gigantic reservoirs of they believed the four elements were that grew white-hot from the great structure long before. water that filled the Earth. unchanging, everything was made compressive forces. The new star For a long time, astronomers up of these elements, held together became our Sun, and the glowing Where Water Came From thought that comets were the or pushed apart by forces of attraction disk gave rise to Earth and its sister The exact origin of our planet’s likely culprit. However, remote and repulsion, causing substances to planets. water, which covers about 70% of measurements of the water appear to change. This is similar to While the Sun grew in size and Earth’s surface, is still a mystery to evaporating off of several major what really happens with molecules energy, the hot disk slowly cooled. scientists. Many researchers think existing comets—Halley, Hyakutake, at an atomic level. This took millions of years, during that, instead of water forming at the and Hale-Bopp—revealed that their To the Greeks, the four elements which the components of the disk same time as Earth, objects in the water ice was made of a different outer solar system delivered water described not only physical began to freeze out into small type of H2O, containing a heavier manifestations of the material world dust-size grains. Iron metal and to Earth in violent collisions shortly isotope of hydrogen than Earth’s, after its formation.

History of Science Museum but essential qualities of human compounds of silicon, magnesium, suggesting that these comets could nature as well: Earth, solid and aluminum, and oxygen came out Researchers speculate that any not be the source of our water. substantial, was associated with the first in that fiery setting; bits of water conglomerating on the surface With major comets crossed physical and sensual aspects of life. these are preserved in chondrite of the planet as it formed would off the list, astronomers began to Water, flowing and ever-changing, meteorites. Slowly, these grains have most likely been evaporated wonder if clues to our water’s past denoted emotion and empathy. Air settled together into clusters, then away by the young, blazing Sun, may lie in the asteroid belt. This was not only the air we breathe and lumps, then boulders, and finally which means that water probably region of hundreds of thousands of the atmosphere, but signified the bodies large enough to exert their came here from somewhere else. asteroids orbiting between the inner mind, intelligence, and inspiration. own gravity. The inner planets were probably too and outer planets was believed by Fire meant the Sun and flame; it As time went by, these bodies hot to house water during the Solar astronomers, to be too close to the also indicated creative passion and grew by collision with other bodies, System’s formation; outer planetary Sun to house water, but astronomers destructive zeal. producing a lot of melting and bodies however were far enough found the first evidence of ice on the Before digging into the myriad of vaporization. Materials, which we away from the Sun to retain ice. asteroid 24 Themis. aspects of how the Four Elements can call rocks and iron metal, began shape and affect our life, this is the to sort themselves out; the dense story of how they originated. iron settled in the center, while The Birth of Mother Earth lighter rock separated into a mantle Ten billion years before the Earth around it, in a miniature of Earth and was born, the universe started out the other inner planets today. with only two elements: hydrogen At some point, the Sun ignited; and helium, which formed stars that the process of ignition was energetic burned these elements in nuclear enough to blow away most of the fusion reactions. Generations gaseous part of the protoplanetary of stars were born in gas clouds disk. The chunks, boulders, and and died in explosive novas that mini-planets left behind continued produced the heavier elements we to collect into large, stable bodies in have today. well-spaced orbits.

2 newsletter 1st School Semester 2012/13 This discovery and others of solar energy conversion process is Symbolic and superstitious uses ice on asteroids suggest that there known as photosynthesis. Some of of fire have been common. At an early might be far more ice in the asteroid the created oxygen combined with period, altar fires were kept sacred; belt than originally thought and organic carbon to recreate CO2 as time went by, the significance provide another possibility for the molecules; the remaining oxygen gradually lessened. When possible History of Science Museum origin of ocean water. Probes sent accumulated in the atmosphere. the communal fire was placed in to explore asteroids, such as the As oxygen in the atmosphere front of a rock shelter or cave; in a Visitors INFO DAWN spacecraft, in the coming increased, CO2 decreased. place safe and convenient for the years will reveal more about their High in the atmosphere, some use of everyone. The necessity for a Opening Hours mysterious water ice, potentially oxygen (O2) molecules absorbed screen to protect the early bonfires Saturday to Thursday help us understand the beginnings energy from the Sun’s ultraviolet from the wind may have been the [from 10:00 to 15:00] of Earth’s water. (UV) rays and split to form single reason for the round form of house Guided Tours Schedule On the other hand, evidence oxygen atoms, which combined thought to be the earliest. Saturday to Thursday that water came to Earth during its with remaining oxygen (O2) to form Later, individual fires were built [10:30 + 11:30 + 12:30 + 13:30 + 14:30] formation from cosmic dust, rather ozone (O3) molecules that are very in the center of the family shelters, than following later in asteroids, has effective at absorbing UV rays. where the hearth became known as • Museum entry fees are included in been shown by a group of scientists. The amount of ozone required to the chimney. The term was then used all Planetarium show tickets. Nora de Leeuw at University shield Earth from biologically lethal to include the hole or flue that carried College London and colleagues UV radiation, wavelengths from 200 off the smoke of the fire burning in a • For non-audience of the Planetarium, used molecular-level calculations to 300 nanometers (nm), is believed pit in the center of the floor. Museum entry fees are 0.50 EGP. to prove that when mineral dust to have been in existence 600 million History has failed to record the • Museum Tours are free for ticket particles came together during Earth years ago. At that time, the oxygen inventor, or to state the place where holders. formation, gas-solid interactions level was approximately 10% of its chimneys as we might recognize could have resulted in water being present atmospheric concentration. them were first used, but they seem adsorbed onto the surface of the dust Prior to this period, life to have been common in Venice ALEXploratotrium particles, meaning water could have was restricted to the ocean; before the middle of the 14th century, been part of the Earth from the very the presence of ozone enabled for a number of them were destroyed beginning. organisms to develop and live on by an earthquake in 1347. Visitors INFO The Atmosphere, History of the land. Ozone played a significant Discovery Zone The four elements are indeed the In the first 500 million years of role in the evolution of life on Earth, Opening Hours Earth’s history, a dense atmosphere and allows life as we presently essence of life. All animals, plants, Saturday, Sunday, Monday, Wednesday and Thursday: emerged from the vapor and gases know it to exist. non-living objects, and energies are [From 09:30 to 15:30] combinations of these elements as, Tuesday: [From 09:30 to 12:30] that were expelled during degassing And then there was Fire of course, are we. Everything has Guided Tours Schedule of the planet’s interior. These gases Logically, we may assume there Saturday, Sunday, Monday, Wednesday and Thursday: its own unique blend of the four may have consisted of hydrogen was once a time when man had no [09:30 - 11:00 - 12:30 - 14:30] elements in it: everything that has Tuesday: [09:30 - 11:00] (H2), water vapor, methane (CH4), fire; however, very early he must substance has Earth in it; everything and carbon oxides. Prior to 3.5 billion have become acquainted with fire Entry Fees that flows and/or has feelings has Students EGP 2 Non-students EGP 4 years ago, the atmosphere probably derived from natural sources, and Water in it; everything that involves Listen and Discover consisted of carbon dioxide (CO2), made use of it, for no remains of sound, thinking, or communication • For the list of shows available at the “Listen and carbon monoxide (CO), water (H2O), man’s art show him without fire has Air in it; and everything that has Discover” and the schedule, please consult the nitrogen (N2), and hydrogen (H). as his companion. Much later in Center›s official website: www.bibalex.org/psc. energy has Fire in it. The hydrosphere was formed the scheme of things he invented • For reservation, please contact the PSC Administrator Let us then leaf through this at least one week before the desired date. 4 billion years ago from water vapor processes for making fire artificially. issue to discover how the Four Show fees condensation, resulting in oceans The discovery of fire, or more Elements shape and affect our life. DVD shows: of water in which sedimentation precisely the controlled use of fire, Students EGP 1 Non-students EGP 2 occurred. The most important was a necessity. The control of References 3D shows: feature of the ancient environment fire by early humans was a turning www.lifeslittlemysteries.com Students EGP 2 Non-students EGP 4 was the absence of free oxygen. point in the cultural aspect of human www.rsc.org Evidence of such an anaerobic geology.about.com evolution, allowing humans to cook teachertech.rice.edu reducing atmosphere is hidden in food, as well as obtain warmth and csep10.phys.utk.edu early rock formations that contain protection. Making fire allowed the hearth.com many elements, such as iron and expansion of human activity into uranium, in their reduced states. the colder hours of the night, and Elements in this state are not found provided protection from predators in the rocks of mid-Precambrian and and insects. younger ages, less than 3 billion With the acquisition of fire came years old. the problem of preserving it; interesting One billion years ago, early examples of the ingenuity of man were aquatic organisms called blue- presented. First, the fire was buried; green algae began using energy preserved in the ashes of the fire itself. from the Sun to split molecules Next, a type of slow-match or fire-stick of H2O and CO2, and recombine was developed, and later, when man them into organic compounds worked with metals, the curfew, or and molecular oxygen (O2). This “fire-cover” was invented.

1st School Semester 2012/13 newsletter 3 By: Hend Fathy Discover Life Discover ependant as we are on Consequently, electricity generation Solar energy heats surface water, A common type of wave power it, it is literally impossible power plants are generally built leading to evaporation; water vapor devices consists of a part floating on Dto unplug electricity from where geothermal reservoirs coming condenses into water droplets that or below the water surface connected human life. Electricity is responsible from either dry steam wells or hot form clouds, then falls back in the to another fixed to the ocean floor; for operating almost all kinds of water wells are located within a mile form of rain or snow; the falling water electricity is generated from the machinery and lighting systems you or two of the surface. The pouring flows through rivers into oceans for vibrating action the floating part can think of; yet, it is a secondary steam spins a turbine that activates a the cycle to repeat. As early as the produces when resisting the motion energy source generated through the generator to produce electricity. last decades of the 19th century, Man of the waves. Wave power is said conversion of other energy sources; There are three types of has managed to use this energy to to have less environmental impacts such as coal, natural gas, nuclear or geothermal power plants: dry steam, generate electricity, or hydroelectric than dams; however, scientists have solar energy. flash steam, and binary cycle. Dry power. raised problematic issues such as The imminent depletion of non- steam plants directly use the steam A common type of hydroelectric electromagnetic pollution, whale renewable energy sources has piped from geothermal reservoirs power stations is dams; they are built entanglements and altering bottom ALEXploratotrium pushed humans to invest more to turn the electricity generating on river beds to store water behind. structures of the seabeds. on research and implementation turbines. The most common, flash When water is released from the of projects that aim to generate steam plants, on the other hand, reservoir, it flows through a turbine Wind Power electricity from renewable energy convert water from hydrothermal causing it to spin; the spinning Wind is the motion of air resulting sources. Luckily enough, the resources into steam to rotate the turbine, in turn, operates a generator from the uneven Sun heating of the sustainable powers of Earth, water, generator’s turbines. Remaining to produce electricity. Earth’s surface; daily and seasonal wind, and the Sun, representative of water and condensed steam are Though dams generate a changes in temperature consistently the four elements of nature, provide injected back into the ground to be clean source of energy and do not cause wind to blow, securing a-never- us with a wide set of renewable used again, making it a sustainable produce any polluting emissions, depleting energy source. Wind power energies readily available for energy resource. their operation has serious is, thus, inexhaustible because wind generating electricity. As for binary cycle plants, environmental impacts. Dams can will keep blowing as long as the Sun shines. Geothermal Power they use the heat of geothermal obstruct fish migration, change water to boil another organic water temperatures and silt loads, Nowadays, wind power is mainly Geothermal power, as suggested liquid with a low boiling point; which could upset the ecological used to generate electricity; actually, by the name, is a sustainable energy the resulting vapor is used to system of the area. it is the world’s fastest growing and generated from the heat produced in drive the generator turbine. The Moreover, reservoirs behind least expensive renewable electricity the Earth’s core. The ongoing process water is then injected back into dams may drown significant areas generation technology. Moreover, its of decaying radioactive particles that the hydrothermal reservoir to be including agricultural lands and cost is expected to continue falling to occurs in rocks produces extremely reheated, and eventually reused. archeological sites, and may become the cheapest of all electricity hot temperatures exceeding that of Geothermal power is a clean necessitate relocating communities; source options by 2020. But, how the Sun’s surface. source for electricity generation as it for example, Egyptian authorities is electricity generated from wind Generally speaking, geothermal does not burn fuel in the generation had to relocate the Nubians and power? energy reservoirs are deep process; it has very low emission Abu-Simbel temples when building Like old-fashioned windmills, underground with no visible signs levels. Power plants incorporate the High Dam in Aswan. modern wind turbines have propeller on the surface, but it could find its scrubber systems to purify air from Wave power is another form blades that collect the wind’s kinetic way up in the form of volcanoes, energy. Though they resemble fans, fumaroles or hot springs. Most of the hydrogen sulfide existing in steam of hydropower used in generating and hot water. Most importantly, used electricity. Waves result from the wind turbines work the opposite Earth’s geothermal activity occurs in way; instead of using electricity to the “Ring of Fire”, an area encircling water and steam are injected back continuous interaction of wind into the Earth to be reused over and with ocean surfaces, providing generate wind, they use wind to the Pacific Ocean representing the produce electricity. The blowing winds core of earthquakes and volcanic over again. an unlimited source of renewable energy. Different types of wave cause the turbine’s blades to lift and activities. Hydropower Generating electricity from power machines that can be eventually turn; the spinning blades geothermal power relies on steam or Hydropower is the energy of deployed on the shoreline or are connected to a drive shaft that water geothermal resources at very moving water, which basically offshore convert the power of turns an electric generator to produce high temperatures; 150°C to 370°C. relies on the water cycle on Earth. moving waves into electricity. electricity.

4 newsletter 1st School Semester 2012/13 Wind technologies are green; Solar-thermal systems, also unlike conventional power stations, known as Concentrated Solar Power wind turbines do not release (CSP), use the Sun’s heat, rather polluting emissions, neither do they than light, to generate electricity. Most require water for cooling. Moreover, solar-thermal systems use a mirrored- compared to the small physical area surface collector to concentrate they engage, they produce large sunlight onto a receiver that heats a amounts of electricity; thus, they have liquid to boiling degrees, and uses a small physical footprint compared to the resulting steam to power electric the amount of electricity they produce. generators. However, solar-thermal They can even be located on lands plants require significant amounts also used for grazing or farming. of water for regular cleaning and However, implanting a wind farm cooling. Also, birds and insects can is not as simple as building a windmill perish if they fly into the concentrated in a windy place; it necessitates in- beam of sunlight. depth studies and smart decisions. Solar energy has great potential Wind technology investors are for the future; it is for free and advised to consider how fast and how presents unlimited clean energy Science in Sci-Fi much the wind blows at the chosen supplies. However, the cost of building site. Recommended sites for wind solar power plants nowadays is still power stations generally include tops relatively high compared to the amount By: Hend Fathy of hills, open plains, coastal areas of electricity they produce. They can and mountain gaps representing wind also harm desert ecosystems due funneling. to the significant land they require. Having always occupied the minds of philosophers, astrologers, Solar Power It is also important to remember that scientists and inventors, the four elements of nature: earth, water, air, and Solar energy is the primary solar energy, evidently, will not work fire; inevitably invaded the minds of movie makers. The mysterious powers source of renewable energy on at night, and that its production is and connotations of the elements inspired screen writers and directors to Earth; it is from within the inner subjected to climate conditions, such create a number of remarkable works, one of which is Luc Besson’s 1997 core of the Sun through a process as clouds or fog. production “The Fifth Element”. known as nuclear fusion. Though The plot of the American movie starring Bruce Willis, Gary Oldman it is 150 million kilometers away, and Milla Jovovich takes place in a comic Sci-Fi action setting, dated the Sun is amazingly powerful; Once again, the four elements around 250 years in the future. The storyline of the movie revolves scientists claim that the amount unite and cooperate to grant us a around “a mission to save humanity”, involving conflicts between different of solar energy arriving to Earth in means of life; waves acquire their parties including humans, aliens, monsters, among others, ending with a one minute is sufficient to meet our power from the wind, and wind from breathtaking triumph of good over evil. demands for a whole year, if only the Sun, so does water and Earth; In the movie, a secret fifth element that visits Earth every 5000 years to we could harness it in a proper way. that is how it always went, goes and protect it from Evil through stones that represent the four elements of nature Among the incalculable benefits will continue to go. These powers, is unveiled in an archaeological excavation during the 1910s. The alien and roles it plays in sustaining life compared to the dominating fossil human-friend Mondoshawans take the stones away, promising to return with on Earth, solar energy can also be fuels, neither pollute nor damage them before the coming Evil attack expected in the 23rd century. The secret, used to produce electricity. There are our environment; they cannot be carved on the walls of an ancient Egyptian temple, is passed from one priest two different approaches to generate controlled by any one nation or to a successor throughout time, ending up with Father Vito Cornelius and his electricity from the Sun: Photovoltaic industry, and are readily available student David. (PV) or solar cells, and solar-thermal for free for each human being on the The Mondoshawans keep their promise; however, during their journey back technologies. surface of the Earth. to Earth with the stones and the fifth element, Evil uses the greedy Dr. Zorg and Photovoltaic devices or solar the mercenary alien Mangalores to bomb their spacecraft. A team of scientists cells directly convert sunlight into References www.eia.gov use the DNA of the remains of the Fifth Element to rebuild the perfect being electricity. The term “photovoltaic” www.powerscorecard.org Leeloo, who escapes and stumbles upon the taxi of Korben Dallas. comes from the Greek word www.renewableenergyworld.com Dr. Zorg, who seeks to profit from the chaos that Evil brings, and his alien “photos”, meaning light; and “volt”, a www.nrel.gov mercenaries fight to retrieve the stones and avoid the protection of Leeloo. Having measurement of electricity. Solar cells renet-eu-india.com windeis.anl.gov become unwittingly involved in the battle, the skilled taxi driver and former elite are made up of silicon, one of the Commando Major Korben Dallas falls in love with Leeloo and decides to help her most common substances on Earth; www.darvill.clara.net cell.html find Father Cornelius and retrieve the stones to save the planet. the one that makes up sand. The movie highlights the importance of the four elements of nature When sunrays strike a representing matter in our life through their symbolic role in fulfilling the photovoltaic cell, they may be mission of saving humanity. However, it also stresses that they are worth reflected or absorbed. Only absorbed rays provide the energy needed to nothing without goodness and love. Leeloo, the perfect being representing generate electricity as they become the Fifth Element, fails at the beginning to play her role in protecting Earth; capable of initiating a chemical during the short period she spends on Earth, she realizes that “everything reaction. When rays strike solar [humans] create, [they] use to destroy”. Only when empowered by the good cells, they move the electrons deeds and feelings of Major Korben Dallas, she manages, alongside him, to around, starting an electric current. fulfill the mission and save life on Earth. Unfortunately, photovoltaic systems Although the movie was not a major hit at the box office, ranking 26 in a are not economical compared to other sample of 100 movies shown in 1997, it was nominated for an Oscar. electricity generation technologies, as References a single cell only produces one or two http://www.imdb.com/media/rm850107904/tt0119116 watts. http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=fifthelement.htm

1st School Semester 2012/13 newsletter 5 By: Hend Fathy Water Water, a major source of life on Earth, has long been suspected to exist on the Moon; however, scientists have struggled for many decades to prove that until they finally did. The suspicion was proven true in 2009 when NASA deliberately crashed the two-ton rocket Centaur accompanied with LCROSS (Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite) into the Cabeus crater near the Moon’s south pole, discovering dozens of liters of water ice. Findings of later exploration of lunar water reservoirs reached about 600 million metric tons distributed among polar craters that remain in permanent shadow. There are different scientific hypotheses regarding the source of lunar water. One theory suggests that hydrogen molecules carried to the Moon by solar wind reacted with compounds containing oxygen in the Moon rocks

producing H2O. Another proposes that it resulted from meteors crashing into the Moon’s surface, because these bodies contain hydrated minerals and their cores are nearly pure ice. A third theory claims the Moon has a water cycle through which it migrates to the poles from lower latitudes; this hypothesis also suggests that water could have emerged from underground water-rich reservoirs to the surface through volcanic eruptions. A Cosmic Point ofA Cosmic Point View Scientists think of water discovery on the Moon’s surface as a step towards a better understanding of the origin and evolution of the Solar System as a whole, in the same way samples from Earth surface reveal facts about ancient geological events. They believe that if water exists in sufficient quantities, it would turn the Moon into a permanent space station, a lunar base that supports manned explorations of farther celestial body; it could be drunk by astronauts and turned into oxygen to make the Moon habitable. Moreover, the presence of water besides hydrogen gas, ammonia and methane could be exploited to produce fuel. Air Planetarium Extremely tenuous as the lunar atmosphere is, astronauts need not worry about wind should they decide to play golf on the surface of the Moon! According to Anthony Colaprete, NASA Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California, the lunar atmosphere is so fragile that “it is technically considered an exosphere, not an atmosphere; a cubic centimeter of Earth’s atmosphere at sea level contains about 100 billion billion molecules, [while the] same volume of the Moon’s exosphere contains only about 100 molecules”. Due to its fragile nature, lunar atmosphere is hard to study with humans and/or machines working on the Moon’s surface, as they quickly disturb Being our nearest neighbor, the Moon has always found its way into its fragile composition, swamping its natural composition. For example, the realms of human curiosity; its desolate beauty has been the source of analyzing data of atmospheric properties measured by Apollo(4) astronauts’ fascination, inspiring a rich cultural and symbolic tradition. It is no wonder machines was difficult because machine gases had a significant effect on then that it was the first new world on which humans set foot, and the target the studied data. Nevertheless, lunar atmosphere remains of high scientific of dozens of astronomical missions, aiming to explore its mysterious body. interest; as early as 2013, NASA will be launching the Lunar Atmosphere These explorations, as well as satellite images and remote-sensing and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE), aiming to study it better than ever observations highlighted radical differences between its nature and that of before. However, what do we already know about the composition of lunar Earth. In this issue in which we discuss the four elements of nature, let us atmosphere? investigate how different, or similar, they are on the surface of the Moon. The main gases composing the lunar atmosphere are neon, hydrogen and helium, in roughly equal amounts. Other gases detected in small Earth amounts include methane, carbon dioxide, ammonia, argon and even water Looking at satellite images of the Moon’s surface, all we can see are vapor. These gases come from different sources; mainly outgassing—gas grayish rocks and dust beds; they are very different in nature from their emissions released from the Moon’s interior as a result of seismic activities— counterparts on Earth though. Most lunar rocks are igneous(1) while most (2) and capture of particles from solar wind, which originates from the Sun’s hot Earth rocks are sedimentary ; two common kinds of lunar rocks are basalts, (5) (3) corona and carries gas molecules along to the Moon. rich in iron and titanium and found in lunar maria , and anorthosites, rich in Due to the Moon’s low gravity, lunar atmosphere gases are easily lost to aluminum, calcium and silicon, and found in highlands. space; light gases escaping faster than gases of heavier molecules. Argon, Similarly, lunar soils are different from “soil” as we know it, for there is for example, condenses due to the very low lunar night temperatures; while no biological factor in their formation. They are basically derived from lunar light gases, such as helium, which originate in the solar wind remain in the rocks, yet, they contain some alien materials coming from celestial bodies atmosphere and escape faster. Solar wind, thus, plays a very significant role crashing into the Moon’s surface. Lunar soils also encompass solar-wind- in maintaining the lunar atmosphere as it carries constant supplies of gas driven particles that get implanted in the outer layers of soil grains. molecules that makes for the escaping ones. Space scientists are indulged in extensive studies of lunar rocks and soils because they are believed to hold clues to the origin and history of Moon. Fire More amazingly, helium-3 solar particles implanted in solar rocks represent a It is technically impossible to light a fire on the Moon, for you cannot potential much cleaner and safer source of nuclear energy. Scientists claim secure sources of fuel, heat and oxygen needed to sustain a fire flame. Yet, that in high energy collisions, these particles would release more energy and the associations of the fourth element such as light, heat and glow manifest less waste than traditional nuclear reactors; since there is no helium-3 on in one way or another on the Moon’s surface. planet Earth, our closest supplier is the lunar soil.

6 newsletter 1st School Semester 2012/13 During daytime, sunlight is brighter and harsher on the Moon than it is on Earth because there is no atmosphere to scatter it and no clouds to shade it. At night, the Moon is lit up by sunlight reflected from Earth, and since Earth is much larger in size, lunar nights are brighter than Earth nights. Lunar temperatures are also of a very unique nature; it can reach 107°C during the day, dipping down to -153°C during the night. This drastic drop is due to several reasons. First of all, as mentioned earlier, the Moon’s atmosphere is very thin and thus heat easily escapes it. Also, the Moon takes 27 days to rotate once on its axis, which means that a single night on the Moon’s surface is two weeks long. By: Shahenda Ayman As bright as a glowing fire, glowing spots on the Moon’s surface were detected, yet, they were not fiery. Scientists observed the appearance of a series of glows on a large lunar crater that kept changing in shape until they finally faded. Such glows are believed to be caused by escaping gases that lift dust above the lunar surface into sunlight. At the same time, a series of fractures developed on the crater floor; they were believed to be the source of the escaping gases.

The four elements of Earth’s nature are all present in different forms on Most schoolchildren learn that everything in the universe is a solid, a the Moon; yet, they do not support any form of life over there. However, liquid or a gas. However, those lessons usually lack the fourth and by far the science is an endless race and “unquestionable facts” have no place in a most common state of matter: plasma. Not only should plasma be added to world where new discoveries are made everyday. The Moon’s four elements the list, but the order should be reversed to put it in first place; as a matter of can qualify it as an expansion of the Earth’s economic sphere or a testing fact, beyond the Earth’s atmosphere, the dominant form of matter is plasma, place for new technologies. Scientists are already speaking of types of and “empty” space has been found to be quite “alive” with a constant flow of bacteria that can be implanted into lunar soil and can survive such gloomy plasma, making up over 99% of the visible universem and perhaps most of conditions; who knows what is next? that which is not visible. Glossary Neither solid, nor liquid, nor gas, plasma most closely resembles the (1) Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidifying of molten materials. latter; however, unlike gases, whose components are electrically neutral, (2) Sedimentary rocks are formed through the deposition and solidification of plasma is composed of approximately equal numbers of positively charged sediments transported by water, ice and wind. Sedimentary rocks are often ions and negatively charged electrons. It is so energetic, or “hot”, that in deposited in layers, and frequently contain fossils. space it consists solely of ions and electrons; it is only when plasma is cooled (3) Lunar Maria are dark rocky spots on the Moon. The word “maria” means “seas” that atoms or molecules that are so predominant in forming gases, liquids, in Latin; these spots get their name due to their ocean-like appearance in contrast and solids we are so accustomed to on Earth, are possible. Accordingly, in with surrounding lighter spots. space, plasma remains electrically charged, carrying electric currents, and (4) The Apollo Program is a series of NASA space missions that have been launched more influenced by electromagnetic forces than by gravitational forces. to the Moon starting from 1969 until today; the missions land men on the Moon and return them to Earth. The space surrounding the Sun, its corona and beyond, is a plasma. (5) The Corona is a huge region around the Sun, the temperature of which is so high Indeed, much of all space is occupied by plasma, mostly in the dark current that the Sun’s gravity cannot hold on to it, thus emitting solar wind. mode; planets and their moons each carry an electric charge as they travel through this plasma. The plasma sea in which the solar system floats extends References out to what is known as the heliopause*, where there is probably a double www.britannica.com imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov layer separating our Sun’s plasma from the lower voltage plasma that fills our science.nasa.gov www.universetoday.com arm of the Milky Way. discovermagazine.com news.bbc.co.uk www.guardian.co.uk Plasma emits light because of “spontaneous emission”, which basically www.newscientist.com means that the ion, atom or molecule, have a higher level of energy than www.telegraph.co.uk www.wisegeek.com www.nytimes.com dictionary.reference.com stable ones, so it becomes unstable and the particles emit photons. Through www.livescience.com this release, the particles return to stability, only to start again; each time a particle goes from the same higher state to lower, the same photon will be emitted. The term “Plasma” was borrowed from blood plasma in order to describe its almost life-like and self-organizing properties. Although plasma is the The Zula Patrol dominant constituent of the universe as a whole, most people are ignorant 23 Min. Full-dome Show of the plasma concept. In daily life on Earth, perhaps the plasma to which Stars of the Pharaohs people are most commonly exposed is the one that produces the cool 35 Min. Full-dome Show efficient glow from fluorescent lights. The most familiar examples of electrical Seven Wonders VISITORS INFO plasmas here on Earth are neon signs and lighting, television screens, and 30 Min. Full-dome Show Planetarium electric arc welding machines. Fire and lightning are also forms of plasma. Oasis in Space Glossary 25 Min. Full-dome Show • For the Planetarium daily *Heliopause is a bubble of charged particles in the space surrounding the Solar schedule and fees, please consult System, “blown” into the interstellar medium (the hydrogen and helium gas that Mystery of the Nile the Center’s official website: permeates the galaxy) by the solar wind. 45 Min. IMAX Show www.bibalex.org/psc. SHOWS AVAILABLE References Cosmic Voyage • Kindly note that, for technical http://www.thunderbolts.info/forum/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?p=65974&sid=02c305aa448cd8a49013eae8b0c741e1 35 Min. IMAX Show reasons, the Planetarium http://www.plasmas.org/what-are-plasmas.htm maintains the right to cancel or http://www.egglescliffe.org.uk/physics/fun/plasma/plasma.html Stars Show change shows at any time without http://www.plasmacosmology.net/ 45 Min. Live Show by the PSC prior notification. http://pluto.space.swri.edu/image/glossary/plasma.html resident astronomer

1st School Semester 2012/13 newsletter 7 Aside from providing a place for seeds, plants By: Shahenda Ayman and trees to grow, our soil is a very important data gathering element on our planet. Soil quality is measured to help scientist predict impending drought by measuring the soil’s capability to hold water during the dry season; it can also show if the area can withstand flooding. The same is true when scientists are measuring the amount of chemicals and pH in the soil to show if the area can still sustain healthy plant life. In other words, our soil is like a measuring device that shows scientists the overall health of an area or a part of land. Soil is also a very big link in the chain of life and death on our planet. Living things such as Science in Our Life animals, leaves, seeds and other organic matter decompose in the soil, providing organic matter that enrich the soil. This process in turn makes plants grow healthier, which in turn are eaten by animals that are eaten by humans. The cycle resumes when the animal dies and decomposes with assistance from our soil. Water: The Nectar of Life

The chemical formula of water is H2O, The Four Elements of antiquity—earth, water, meaning it is made of two hydrogen atoms air, and fire—dominated natural philosophy for bonded to one oxygen atom. Each hydrogen 2000 years. The premise that everything was atom attaches to one side of the oxygen atom, formed from these Four Elements was developed obtaining a positive charge; whereas the oxygen by the Greek philosopher Empepedocles* of atom obtains a negative charge, which polarizes Sicily, and continued to be believed until the rise the water molecule, much like a magnet, giving a of modern science. While we do know now that water molecule positive and negative ends. Since these previous theories are false, in a way, the opposite charges attract, water molecules tend to Four Elements do align with the four states of stick together, giving water surface tension and matter that modern science has agreed on: solid allows objects, such as paperclips, to float on it. (earth), liquid (water), gas (air), and plasma (fire). While it cannot dissolve everything, water is known as the universal solvent because it can Matter is anything that has mass and volume, dissolve more substances than any other liquid; and is made up of atoms, which are the smallest it can dissolve salt, sugar, acids, alkalis, some particles of matter; bonding occurs among gases, and organic material. Water traveling atoms to make larger molecules. How atoms are through your body or through the ground takes arranged in an object determines whether it is a chemicals, minerals, and nutrients with it. Water’s solid, liquid, gas, or plasma. ability to dissolve substances helps keep the • Earth: The Root of Life In a solid, atoms are packed closely together in planet healthy. To give one example, for more than an ordered pattern and cannot move, forming a The two most common elements in the Earth’s crust are oxygen (46%) and silicon (28%); that is a century, the burning of fossil fuels has pumped solid of definite volume and shape. Examples of large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO ) into the why the most abundant mineral in the Earth’s crust 2 solids include rocks, wood, metal, and ice. atmosphere; water in oceans has absorbed about is silica (silicon dioxide). More commonly known as • In a liquid, atoms are close together but can half this CO by dissolving the gas from the air sand, silica is a major component of glass; when it 2 move around each other, allowing a liquid and processing it through sea vegetation. to take the shape of whatever container it is is heated, it melts and becomes glass, hardening placed in. Examples of liquids include room as it cools. temperature water, room temperature mercury, Moreover, rich deposits of metal ores exist and hot lava (molten rock). throughout the Earth’s crust. While these metals are • In a gas, there is more space between atoms; used in the production of machinery, straight out of they can move so freely that if the gas is not the Earth, these metals are useless. Fire is used trapped in a container, the atoms will diffuse and to heat, refine, and shape metal so that machines, spread throughout the atmosphere. Examples hammers, and support beams can be made from it. of gases are oxygen and nitrogen (in the air we Earth is full of a wide variety of rocks and breathe), helium, and steam (water vapor). minerals, which allow the soil to grow vegetation • In a plasma, atoms are spaced similarly to gas, and support life. Our soil is obviously as important except there is much energy in a plasma, the as our oceans and our water supply because we atoms actually split into smaller pieces. Plasmas would not have anything to stand on. Without soil, are able to carry an electrical current and we would not be able to plant trees or food crops; generate magnetic fields. Examples of plasmas we would not be able to eat or have shelter. We include lightning, solar wind, fluorescent lights, are all connected in this planet and our soil is one and neon signs. of the most basic elements in our lives.

8 newsletter 1st School Semester 2012/13 Temperature Check Health officials emphasize the importance of Air: The Breath of Life Water has a high specific heat index, meaning drinking at least eight glasses of clean water each that it requires a lot of energy to change its and every day to maintain good health. temperature; this is essential for life to survive Since water contains no calories, serves as on a planet. The abundance of water on Earth an appetite suppressant, and helps the body keeps the planet in a very short but comfortable metabolize stored fat, it may possibly be one of the temperature range. The average surface most significant factors in losing weight. In his book, temperature of Earth is 15ºC, with the highest “The Snowbird Diet”, Dr. Donald Robertson states recorded temperature 57.72ºC and the lowest that the body will not function properly without temperature -89.22ºC. enough water, and discusses the importance of To compare, it would seem logical that Mercury, drinking plenty of water for permanent weight loss. the closest planet to the Sun, would stay really Clean Water: Clean Health warm on all surfaces of the planet, regardless Water is a key component in determining the if it was facing the Sun or not. However, while quality of our lives. Although water covers more the surface facing the Sun reaches very warm than 70% of the Earth, only 1% of the Earth’s temperatures (up to 426.67ºC), the surface facing water is available in rivers, lakes and groundwater away from the Sun drops to a chilly -173.33ºC. reservoirs for drinking. Yet, our society continues Mercury’s lack of water is responsible for this to contaminate this precious resource. drastic temperature change because the dry Small traces of chemicals, microorganisms material that makes up its surface cannot retain and bacteria may occasionally be present in water Air was considered a pure element; in fact, heat like water does. before treatment; any pesticides found will be at the air around us is made up of a variety of gases, To experience for yourself how well water extremely low levels, which are not harmful to primarily nitrogen and oxygen, with almost 1% keeps temperature from drastic fluctuations, pay health. Moreover, iron occurs naturally in many argon and even smaller amounts of carbon dioxide attention to the change between daytime and water sources, but can also be added to water by and other elements, such as krypton and helium. nighttime temperatures the next time you visit the corrosion of water mains; it is unlikely though The composition of air is just right for life on Earth a maritime or desert climate. You will probably to be harmful to health. though; we use oxygen we get from the air we inhale, notice that there is little to no temperature change On the other hand, lead could be found in then exhale carbon dioxide, which plants need to near the ocean, whereas in the desert there is a drinking water, coming from lead pipes; it is manufacture their food through photosynthesis, in significant change between daytime and nighttime suspected of affecting the mental behavior of turn giving off oxygen during photosynthesis. temperatures. children. Nitrates from fertilizers may also be found Pressure Check This high specific heat index also helps water in pre-treated water, which could be harmful to Although air is invisible, and most of the time extinguish a fire by cooling the fuel surfaces that babies. we forget it even exists, it takes up space; it has the fire is burning, removing the heat needed for In order to make water safe to drink, it volume and exerts pressure. This can be seen the fire to burn. It also smothers a fire by preventing undergoes a treatment process tailored to suit when you take an empty glass, turn it upside it from obtaining the oxygen it needs to burn. the source; for example, groundwater requires down, and try to push it down to the bottom of much less treatment than river water. At treatment Drinking Water: Staying Fit a sink full of water. If the glass was truly empty, facilities, water goes through different stages of the water would easily fill the inside of the glass, treatment: but air is in there, and only a small amount of Clarification is a process where a chemical water can enter the glass. The air in the glass was is added to raw water and combines with material compressed, giving the water some space that such as algae and silt to form larger particles, was previously occupied with air. which are then removed either by settling them It is good that air fills empty space because out (sedimentation) or by using air to float them to air all around us actually presses down on us the surface (flotation). all the time; we would collapse under the weight Filtration is the removal of any particles of the air, except air is also inside us and exerts remaining in the water following clarification. pressure that balances out the pressure exerted The water flows through a bed of sand or other by the outside air. media where the particles become trapped. It is necessary to ensure that as many particles Fresh Air: Fresh Health as possible are removed in order for the final For many of us, the time we spend outdoors disinfection stage to be effective. It is at this stage each day amounts to a bunch of minutes added up that harmful microorganisms are removed. as we go from one closed space to another; some Disinfection, most commonly using chlorine, is of us go out more when the weather gets warmer, essential for the removal of bacteria from water to but the body’s need for fresh air is not seasonal. We ensure it is kept safe during its journey to your tap. need to get a good amount of fresh air each day. One of nature’s most important gifts to The levels of organic substances such as There is no “right amount” of fresh air we mankind, pure water is an odorless, tasteless, pesticides and herbicides are controlled by a should get each day; let your commonsense guide clear liquid. Water is one of the most essential combination of ozonation and carbon adsorption; you and you will know what you need. Whether it elements for good health as it is necessary for the ozone breaks down the chemicals, which is a half hour or a half day, there are so many ways the digestion and absorption of food; it helps are then adsorbed onto the carbon. Meanwhile, to spend time outdoors and make it fun; perhaps maintain proper muscle tone, supplies oxygen nitrate levels in water are controlled by a process a jog, a walk, flying a kite, throwing a Frisbee or and nutrients to cells, rids the body of wastes, known as ion exchange, which is similar to that even just sitting outdoors. Our lungs, skin and and serves as a natural air conditioning system. used in domestic water softeners. whole body benefit so much from fresh oxygen.

1st School Semester 2012/13 newsletter 9 You may think that it cannot be that important or a campfire, fires are considered helpful; Every time you turn on a light in your home, to your health; after all, you spend most of your however, when one or more of these things are flick on the air conditioner, watch television or use life indoors and seem to be doing fine. But, are not controlled, such as in a wildfire or a burning any other appliance, there is a good chance you you really fine? How often do you get respiratory building, fires can easily become very dangerous. have fire to thank for the luxury. While it does not tract infections such as the cold, flu or bronchitis, To extinguish a fire, oxygen, fuel, or heat seem apparent to many people, electricity does etc? How about allergies and asthma rates? Our needs to be eliminated; smothering a fire by not magically occur without an energy source. respiratory health is informing us that we are not placing a blanket or dirt on it works because the According to the Polymer Science Learning fine; getting sick is not supposed to be a normal fire goes out without oxygen. When the fuel is Center website, the vast majority of electricity in part of life. removed, the fire has nothing left to burn and is the USA comes from the burning of fossil fuels. High oxygen levels increase the efficiency of extinguished. Water often serves as an effective Fuels such as coal, natural gas or oil is burned almost all the reactions in your body; from losing cooling source by removing the heat from a to heat water and produce steam that builds weight to sleeping better at night, fresh air is a key fire; this is seen when hot lava from an erupting pressure and forces turbines to turn, creating component. High oxygen levels in the body have volcano flows into the ocean or when a bucket of energy that supplies electricity to the public. Fire also been linked to decreasing cancer growth and water is dumped on a campfire. is at the root of the process, and without it, much preventing cancers all together. Fire creates light, heat, and smoke by a rapid of the current electrical availability across the Indoor air and outdoor air both contain oxygen chemical reaction known as combustion; smoke is country and much of the world would not exist. naturally, but the quality is not the same. Some the result of the incomplete combustion (burning) people say that they do not want to go outdoors or of a fuel as particles that were not burned become open their windows in fear of pollution; however, suspended in the air. Smoke is often dangerous The in-commutable relationship between unless you live next to some combustion factory because it contains harmful gases that can poison these four elements and our life is fascinating. or it is a high alert smog day, I can assure you a person who inhales too much smoke. These magical elements are the heart of that the air outdoors is almost always better than You might be surprised to know that our bodies everything and anything around us; if we take a that indoors. also use combustion to produce energy from closer look on our daily activities, we will discover The reason for that is the concentration and oxygen and food through metabolic processes. their glory and glow. As far as I am concerned, dilution effects. Outdoors, there is a better dilution We need a steady supply of oxygen to keep our they are the Epitome of my life! effect as more fresh air is available; thus, the bodies functioning normally; if there is insufficient concentration of pollutants tends to be lower. oxygen in the air, we will suffocate; at the same Indoors, especially the air-tight way that most time, we can be thankful there is not excessive homes are built today, exists a higher ratio of oxygen in the air, or the chemical reactions in our pollutants to fresh air; thus, the air in your home is bodies would speed up, causing us to soon crash not high quality, unless it is regularly exchanged. and burn! Excessive oxygen in the air would also Open your windows and air out your house increase the risk of fires on Earth. Since nitrogen regularly; go outdoors to have some fun in the and argon are not very reactive, air is pretty safe fresh air! No matter what season, what time of for us. the day, these are relatively free, yet necessary Multitasking Element actions for our health and wellbeing. One of the most well known uses of fire is Fire: The Engine of Life heating; dating back to the early years of mankind, humans used fire to keep warm. Even today people use open fires to stay warm outdoors during camping trips, or light fireplaces in homes to keep the house warm during the winter. Even gas burning central heating units ignite a flame and use its heat to warm air that is then blown into the home through ducts by a fan. Perhaps one of the most important uses of fire throughout history has been its ability to provide light. Fire is a good light source although it pales Glossary in comparison to other sources, such as light *Empepedocles was a Greek pre- bulbs and flashlights for some purposes. It does, Socratic philosopher; his philosophy however, provide a soft glow that can help light is best known for being the originator an area and make it possible to move around of the cosmogenic theory of the four at night outdoors. In the days prior to electric Classical elements. lights in homes, fire was a main source of light in References salemos.tripod.com fireplaces and oil lanterns. www.aomega.com Fire can be used to prepare foods in many www.ehow.com ways; open fires have long been used to roast medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com Humans have been huddling around fires www.hometrainingtools.com for thousands of years; from the very basic and meats and vegetables, while grills use flames www.farmcommunities.com to prepare favorite foods such as steaks, rizwanisria.hubpages.com primitive essentials to modern living amenities, www.rsc.org fire plays one of the most important roles in our hamburgers, fish and much more. Many people daily lives. prefer grilling to oven roasting or frying because of How fire works is closely linked to air; it the distinct smoky flavor it produces. Fire is also needs three things in order to exist: oxygen, the catalyst for smoking meats; this method of fuel, and heat. When all three of these things flavoring and preserving meats has been around are in a controlled situation, such as in candles for generations.

10 newsletter 1st School Semester 2012/13 1 always preparedtofleesafety. carried out to make sure people are habitual hazard, and drills are often in someplaces,earthquakesarea Others, however, arenotasblessed; for awhilesinceitisrareoccurrence. alarm though,stillpeopletalkaboutit mild tremor;nothingtocausemuch then, Alexandria wouldexperience a number ofnaturaldisasters. be clearlyseenintheincreasing grave consequences; this can are upsettingthescales,triggering interference intheecosystem, we now, withtheincreaseofhuman to natural disasters. Especially reality, they themselves can lead in the cartoontoquelldisasters,in used were fire and wind, water, to beasgreenpossible. home planet;italsoshowedushow we shouldrespectandprotectour message of the cartoon was that disasters fromoccurring. The main who would stop environmental they could summon Captain Planet combining theirpowerstogether by heart; or fire wind, water, earth, the powerofanelement,beit a magicringthatcouldsummon teenagers environmental pollution.Eachhad five from around the world who fought around revolved Planet and the Planeteers”; it watch acartooncalled“Captain On ShakyGrounds st SchoolSemester 2012/13 Even though the powers of earth, When Iwasachild,usedto In recentyears,everynowand feel andcallanearthquake”. Earth intheformofwaves,whichwe energy thatmovesthroughthe occurs, thestressisreleasedas is forcedtobreak.Whenthebreak the force is large enough, the crust themselves andeachother;when plates movetheyputforceson crust actsinthesameway. As the stress youhaveputonit;theEarth’s break inthemiddle,releasing force isapplied,thepencilwould see thepencilbend. After enough pushing downonthem,youwould force tobothendsofthepencilby horizontally; ifyouweretoapplya puts it: “Imagine holding a pencil past each other. As one person continuously, andslowly, move thesurfaceofEarththat along earthquakes. movement iswhatusuallycauses apart orslidealongeachother;this the platescrashtogether, pull the platesaremoving.Sometimes friction dependingonthedirection move indifferent directions,causing of several large, thin plates that crust anduppermantleiscomposed ground toshake?Well, theEarth’s many earthquakes injured, morethan 45,000homes injured, in 1995; nearly 27,000 people were its history was the Kobe earthquake earthquakes Japan experienced in tremors each year. One of the worst experience thousandsofminor There areabout20plates So, whatexactlycausesthe One countrythatexperiences is Japan; it can USD 14.5billionto 34.6billion. losses from the earthquake alone at Early estimates placedinsured they travelled up to 10 km inland. Iwate Prefecture;intheSendaiarea, of up to 40.5 m in Miyako in Tōhoku's tsunami wavesthatreachedheights this movementtriggeredpowerful Earth shiftedduringtheearthquake, the As Tōhoku. of Peninsula Oshika approximately 70 km east of the earthquakes. The epicenter was making itoneofthemostpowerful never recordedinmoderntimes, on theRichterscale;astrength earthquake wasofmagnitude9.0 to astandstill;but,why? overflow to and becomeblocked.Lifecancome roads causing water, to copewiththesuddenexcessof as draining systems become unable hours, evendays,causingmayhem when itwouldrainnon-stopfor Too LittleWater Too Much Water … areas withbuildings andconcrete concrete. The urbanizationoflarge would naturally soak into the soil, not infrastructure; but,whenitrains,water extremely difficult to predict when and whereearthquakeswilloccur. predict to difficult extremely prediction ofearthquakes,butitis have sincetriedtoimprove so devastating,Japanesescientists lost theirlives. The destruction was were destroyed,and6,433people Not onlyisitduetopoor Weexperienced days haveall More recently, the2011 Tohoku air moist,leadingtomonsoonalrains. blow from ocean to land making the months oftheyearwhenwinds the air dry; monsoons occur during the blow fromlandtoocean,whichmakes During mostoftheyear, thewinds potentially leadingtoafoodcrisis. and thesoilover-saturatingwithwater, farmlands, ascropsendupdrowning a lotofdestruction,especiallyon monsoon season,whichleadsto like what happens during the rainy is alargedownpourofrainwater, ad ra a egle i flood directly affecting about20million in engulfed waters, which had a drastic impact, was area land total Pakistan’s of one-fifth Around that affected theIndusRiverbasin. as history a resultofheavymonsoonrains its in flooding worst the season. to intenserainfallcomemonsoon of alowpressurezonethatleads the probabilityofdevelopment highest plateaus on Earth, increases India, which is one of the largest and India the Tibetan Plateauinthenorthof are and Pakistan. The highelevationof flooding consequential witness heavymonsoonrainfalland cities aroundtheworld. many of streets the flooding trapped, often hardly enough and water gets would beenough.However, thisis holes intheground,assumingthis option buttogodownsmalldrainage roads hasleftrainwaterwithnoother In 2010,Pakistanwitnessed Among thecountriesthat Flooding alsooccurswhenthere By: JailaneSalem newsletter 11

Science & Nature people, whether by destroying their neighboring countries, pressuring 120 km/h to 320 km/h. A hurricane more heat is being transferred homes and properties, or their refugee camps and stretching food usually lasts for over a week, from the ocean’s surface into the livelihood and the infrastructure of supplies pretty thin. Due to political moving 16-32 km/h over the open atmosphere. the affected areas. An estimated obstacles, aid did not easily reach ocean; as one person explains it: “A This exchange of heat creates 2000 people lost their lives in the those who needed it most, and an hurricane builds energy as it moves a pattern of wind that circulates natural disaster. unfortunate famine claimed the lives across the ocean, sucking up warm, around the surface center called In December 2010, Australia’s of thousands. moist tropical air from the surface “converging winds”, which collide Queensland experienced its wettest In May 2012, the United Nations and dispensing cooler air aloft. and push more moist air upward. season on record; record high rainfall Humanitarian Chief warned that Think of this as the storm This rising air reinforces the air that occurred in a total of 107 locations about 18 million people were facing breathing in and out. The hurricane is already aloft from the surface, during the month. Tropical Cyclone hunger across eight countries in escalates until this “breathing” causing the circulation and wind Tasha was the main cause for the West Africa, including the Sahel is disrupted, like when the storm speeds of the storm to increase. high precipitation rate; when the region. The Sahel is the eco- makes landfall. At this point, the The rising hot air from the rain continued, it caused the river climatic and bio-geographic zone storm quickly loses its momentum storm’s center is removed by strong to swell and eventually break its of transition between the Sahara and power, but not without winds blowing at the same speed banks leading to a series of floods, Desert in the north of Africa and the unleashing wind speeds as high as at higher altitudes (up to 9,000 m) which affected primarily the State Sudanese Savannas in the south, 300 km/h on coastal areas”. Once a helping in maintaining a continual of Queensland including its capital covering an area of 3,053,200 km2. hurricane reaches land it unleashes movement of warm air from the Brisbane. It is a transitional eco-region of semi- heavy rain, strong winds and large surface and keeping the storm The floods forced the evacuation arid grasslands, savannas, steppes, waves which can damage buildings, organized. As high-pressure air is of thousands of people from towns and thorn shrub lands. trees and cars. sucked into the low-pressure center and cities; over 200,000 people felt The famine was due to a Hurricanes gain their energy of the storm, wind speeds increase. the brunt of the floods in at least combination of failed crops, insect from the warm water of the ocean; Most of the destruction caused 70 towns. The damage was very plague, high food prices, conflict and they can only form if the water’s by hurricanes is due to its storm costly and was initially estimated at drought. The drought affecting this temperature is 27°C or higher. The surges; as a hurricane’s winds around AUD one billion. region is no newcomer, and has in warm, moist air from the ocean’s spiral around and around the storm, However, water disasters do not past decades led to much suffering surface begins to rise quickly; as water is pushed into a mound at only occur when there is too much in the form of food insecurity. Some it does, water vapor condenses to the storm’s center. Once the storm rain; they can also occur when there scientists blame the drought on form storm clouds. reaches land, this mound of water is not enough of it. In many areas humans’ misuse of environmental As the condensation releases becomes extremely dangerous around the world, countries suffer resources, while others see it as heat, more cool air warms up, because it leads to flooding along from severe extended periods of consequences for global climate ending up rising and giving way the coast bringing in a large amount drought, forcing people to abandon changes. for more cool air to be heated up; of water crashing into the land, their homes, especially in the Rajiv Shah, Head of the United as this cycle continues, the size sweeping anything that exists in its countryside where farms are located. States Agency for International of the storm cloud increases, and path. Instead of lush green pastures and Development, believes that climate crops, and lazily grazing cattle, change increased the severity of the there would be brown brittle bushes, problem: “There is no question that sundried caked and cracked earth, hotter and drier growing conditions and sad dried cattle carcasses. in sub-Saharan Africa have reduced One such drought-affected the resiliency of these communities”. area is the Horn of Africa where Others, on the other hand, do severe drought affected millions of not believe that climate change is people in Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya connected to the drought, or played and Somalia. Seasonal rains were a role in the crisis; two experts disrupted due to weather conditions with the International Livestock over the Pacific, for one year in Research Institute suggested that Kenya and Ethiopia (2011), but it was it was too early to blame climate disrupted for two years in Somalia. change for the drought, and insisted The main rainy season, from April that more research is needed to to June, witnessed a decrease in study the suggested connection precipitation rates; in many areas, between the two. the percentage of precipitation was Roaring Tempests significantly lower than past years, We have all seen the iconic some areas receiving less than 30% image of a hurricane from space, a of the average rainfall. huge swirl of clouds around a small This lack of rainfall had an opening that is called “the eye of the adverse effect on crops and storm”; we have also all heard of the livestock; food prices skyrocketed, devastating effect hurricanes can and wages decreased leading to have on human lives. economic problems in the region. Hurricanes are basically really People’s livelihood was threatened; big storms, reaching up to 900 km many people were dislocated across, with strong winds spiraling and tried to find refuge in other inward and upward at speeds of

12 newsletter 1st School Semester 2012/13 A hurricane will cause more storm winds during landfall of 125 mph—a the planet; hot gases and magma while an extinct volcano is one that surge in areas where the ocean strong category 3 hurricane on the lying underneath the plates, coming erupted thousands of years ago and floor slopes gradually; this leads to Saffir-Simpson scale—and minimum up to the surface from time to time there is almost no possibility of it major flooding, which was one of the central pressure the third lowest on through the vents of volcanoes. erupting again. biggest problems when Hurricane record at landfall (920 mb), Katrina Volcanoes tend to exist along the Even though the dangers of Katrina hit the USA in 2005. resulted in widespread devastation edges between tectonic plates; living near a volcano are apparent In 2003, Hurricane Isabel was along the central Gulf Coast States around 90% of all volcanoes exist to all, many still do. A large eruption the costliest and deadliest hurricane of the US. within the “Ring of Fire” along the can be extremely dangerous; flows in the Atlantic hurricane season. Cities such as New Orleans bore edges of the Pacific Ocean. of searing lava, which can reach Isabel formed near Cape Verde the brunt of Katrina’s force, needing When there is a large build up 1250°C or more, can be released, Islands; it moved northwestward, weeks and months of recovery of pressure from molten rock, there burning everything in its way. reaching peak winds of 265 km/h on efforts to restore normality. Katrina is no way of releasing that energy Large pieces of hardening lava can 11 September. In North Carolina, the was the costliest storm in United except through erupting from shower down on nearby villages storm surge from Isabel washed out States history with amounts over volcanoes. With every eruption, a and towns. Eruptions cause snow to a portion of Hatteras Island, damage USD 81.2 billion; and more tragically, volcano gets bigger and bigger; melt quickly, which can result in mud was greatest along the Outer Banks, a death toll of over 1,836. when the magma flows out onto flows that can strip mountains and where thousands of homes were Walking on Fire the surface it becomes lava, and valleys bare and bury towns in its damaged or even destroyed. as it slides down the sides of the wake. All the ash and toxic gases that One of the most famous volcanic The worst of the effects of volcano, it cools down and solidifies are released into the atmosphere eruptions in history is that of Mount Isabel occurred in Virginia, where adding to the size of the volcano. can lead to lung damage and other Vesuvius in the year 79. Rivers of lava most deaths and damage from the Basically, volcanoes are what problems; still, people ignore all of ran down the volcano after erupting hurricane were reported; about remain after the material spewed that for the gain of farming the fertile through its vent, engulfing the nearby 64% of the damage and 68% of the during eruptions has collected and soil of volcanoes. human settlements of Pompeii and deaths occurred in North Carolina hardened around the vent, this can Erupting in 2010, Icelandic Herculaneum, whose locations were and Virginia. Some rural areas were happen over a period of weeks or Eyjafjallajökull maybe the most lost until they were accidentally without electricity for weeks, and millions of years. notorious volcano of recent years. discovered in the 18th century. local flooding resulted in thousands Scientists have categorized Despite not being that big of an The eruption, though unfortunate of dollars in damage. Throughout volcanoes into three main eruption, the disruption it caused for the inhabitants of the time, became the path of Isabel, damage totaled categories: active, dormant, and impacted many people. There was a fortunate event for archaeologists, about USD 3.6 billion. extinct. An active volcano is one that enormous disruption to air travel who were later on offered an More notoriously famous, has recently erupted and there is a across Europe over an initial period interesting glimpse into the past when Hurricane Katrina was one of the possibility that it may erupt soon. A of six days, as ash clouds covered the buried towns were unearthed. strongest storms to impact the dormant volcano is one that has not large areas of northern Europe; Under the Earth’s thin crust lie coast of the United States during erupted in a long time but there is a about 20 countries closed their many layers reaching to the core of the last 100 years. With sustained possibility it can erupt in the future, airspace, hundreds of thousands of travelers were left stranded and disgruntled at airports. Still, this is nothing compared to volcanic eruptions of yore, such as that of Mount Vesuvius.

Whether it be a natural disaster due to earth. water, air, or fire, they can all have equally devastating effects on humanity. In many cases, we humans can do nothing but stand in awe watching Mighty Mother Nature; nevertheless, some disasters occur due to human negligence and disregard for environmental consequences. Like the five young Planeteers, we need to come together to defend our Earth from any unnecessary harm. Resources eo.ucar.edu www.bbc.co.uk science.howstuffworks.com environment.nationalgeographic.com

1st School Semester 2012/13 newsletter 13 By: Sara Khattab

Fingernails are important structures made of keratin, which is Science & Me the same substance the body uses to create hair and the top layer of the skin. Fingernails act as a protective plate and enhance sensation of fingertips; they also serve to enhance precise delicate movements of the distal digits through counter-pressure exerted on the pulp of fingers. Nails then act as a counterforce when the end of the finger touches an object, thereby enhancing the sensitivity of fingertips, even though there are no nerve endings in the nail itself. Teeth are necessary for n classical Greek science and medicine, the Four Elements are the basic constituents of all matter, chewing, tearing, biting and grinding including the Human Body. They were used to describe the Four Temperaments or Humors a person food. The tooth has two parts: one Icould have, which would affect personality traits and behaviors: sanguine, being pleasure seeking part is visible in the mouth and is and sociable; choleric, being ambitious and leader-like; melancholic, being introverted and thoughtful; and the crown; while the other, which is phlegmatic, being relaxed and quiet. embedded in the bone, is the root. Ancient theories stated that the temperaments and humors needed to be in balance with each other in The outmost layer of the crown is order for a person to be normal both mentally and physically. These theories might have been void of actual called enamel, which is the hardest science; our bodies, however, do in fact manifest the Four Elements of Nature: Earth, which manifests in bones, part of the body; then comes the muscles, tissues, teeth, nails and hair; Water, which constitutes over two-thirds of the body; Air, which allows dentin in which we can feel hot and us to breathe, and therefore, live; and, Fire, which provides our bodies with the warmth and energy they need. cold sensations; afterwards comes the pulp, which contains the blood and nerve supply of the tooth. of muscle: skeletal, smooth, and Tissues are composed of groups Teeth are generally named based cardiac. Skeletal muscles consist or layers of cells that collectively on the functions they perform. The incisors are the front teeth in both the of striped or striated fibers; they perform a specific function. There upper and lower jaws found in the move the various parts of the body. are major tissue types in the human middle; they are useful for biting food. Skeletal muscles are considered body; one of which is connective Then, there are the canines, one on Earth “voluntary” muscles because the tissue, which is made up of cells and each side of the incisor group; they person controls their use. protein fibers, and provides support are useful for tearing into the food. Earth is what makes body Smooth muscles are found in the for other body tissues. Following the canines are the pre- mass such as bones, muscles, stomach and intestinal walls, veins, Another type of tissue molars, which initiate the chewing cells, tissues, teeth, hair and nails. and in various internal organs. They is epithelial tissue, which is process; after that there are the twelve Humans are born with about 300 are called “involuntary” because comprised of tightly packed cells molars that help grind the food. Adults to 350 bones, many of which fuse they cannot be made to work by arranged in layers. It provides usually have 32 teeth on their jaw. together between birth and maturity conscious choice, but are controlled many functions, including Hair is basically a form of skin; to produce an average adult total of by the autonomic nervous system. absorption, excretion, protection, it is made up of a protein known as 208 bones. The number of bones in Finally, cardiac muscles, which are reproduction, secretion and keratin, and it grows everywhere on the human body varies according to only found in the heart, contain both sensory reception. The third type the body with the exception of the the counting method applied. While striped and smooth tissue and they is muscular tissue, which provides lips, eyelids, the palms of the hands, some methods consider a given are involuntary. stability to the skeleton and and soles of the feet. Hair serves structure to be a single bone with Cells are the basic structural and internal organs, and allows body as a protective layer for the skin; multiple parts, others consider the functional unit of all known living movement. Muscle tissue makes it traps dust and other particles so same structure to be multiple bones. organisms; a cell is the smallest unit up approximately 60% of the that they do not enter our bodies. It The number of muscles in the of life that is classified as a living body’s mass. Other types are the also helps maintain thermal balance human body varies from about 656 thing, and is often called the building nervous system tissue, lymphatic by protecting the skin from heat and to 850; there are three categories block of life. tissue, and membranes. excessive coldness.

14 newsletter 1st School Semester 2012/13 primarily clear in color. The juices and easy to swallow. The food then in the stomach begin the process travels down the esophagus and of breaking down food so that into the stomach. nutrients can be extracted by the The stomach is your body’s intestines; they are produced by mechanical and chemical food glands in the stomach as needed. processor; it is a pouch composed Water Acids and enzymes that are in Air of sheets of muscles that encircle Humans can exist for several the stomach need the balance of Within the body, air (oxygen) the stomach in different directions. weeks without food; however, after water to break down food into a is the basis for all energy transfer When they contract, the stomach several days without water, we homogenized fluid. Once the fluid reactions. As we breathe air, our mixes the soft food. The lining of would not survive. Water is one is formed, it can be easily passed bodies use oxygen from the air the stomach secretes gastric juices; of the most essential elements into the intestine for the next stage to create energy, build cells, and including hydrochloric acid, which in the body; in fact, it is the most of digestion. maintain healthy body functions. dissolves the food; a protein-splitting abundant substance in the human Water consumption plays an enzyme known as pepsin; and a fat- body and is a major component of important role in the digestion of Respiration digesting enzyme known as lipase. every cell. solid foods; an acidic stomach will In human physiology, respiration For comfortable digestion, the Water is the basis of all bodily respond to hydration, and therefore is the transport of oxygen from clean stomach lining should secrete just fluids; it is vital for the functioning make it easier to digest food. air to tissue cells, and the transport the right amount of acid at the right of tissues, organs and bodily Sometimes, an absence of water of carbon dioxide, in the opposite time; no more or less. If the lining systems. Blood, lymph, and other in the body may lead to common direction. Carbon dioxide can pours out acid when the stomach is fluids move between the cells symptoms such as heartburn and prevent hemoglobin from carrying empty, the acid irritates the stomach and through the vessels, bringing constipation. oxygen around the body, leading lining leading to uncomfortable energy, carrying away wastes, to hypoxia, which can lead to organ sensations, or indigestion. regulating temperature, bringing Excretion failure, brain damage, and death. disease fighters, and carrying Excretion is the process by We breathe with the help of hormonal information from one area which waste products of metabolism our diaphragm and other muscles Indeed, the Ancient Greek Four to another. and other non-useful materials are in our chest and abdomen; these Temperaments or Humors Theory eliminated from an organism. This is muscles literally change the space might have been void of actual Circulation primarily carried out by the kidneys and pressure inside our body cavity science; our bodies, however, do Blood is composed of blood through urine, and the skin through to accommodate breathing. in fact need a balance of the Four cells suspended in a liquid known sweat. When the diaphragm pulls Elements to be in good health. as blood plasma, which constitutes Urine is a liquid waste product down, it makes room for the lungs Too much air in the body will 55% of blood fluids, and is mostly of the body secreted by the kidney to expand; the lungs thus get bigger produce nervous conditions such as water (92% by volume). The water by a process of filtration from blood with air, pushing the diaphragm anxiety; lack of air will lead to lack portion of blood dissolves and known as urination and excreted by down, which lowers the internal of oxygen, leading to hypoxia. When carries necessary substances such the urethra. Urine production serves air pressure. When the diaphragm there is too much water in the body as nutrients and oxygen to the a greater purpose than just dumping relaxes, it moves up and the cavity we will usually see imbalances in cells, transporting metabolic waste excess water from the body; it is inside the body gets smaller; the lower body such as edema, or products away from those same actually composed of 95% water, muscles then squeeze the rib cage swelling of the ankles, or bloating; cells. which works as a vehicle to carry the and the lungs begin to collapse as not enough water may lead to There are two types of blood waste of urea, uric acid, ammonia, the air is pushed up and outside the dryness, which would cause joint vessels that carry blood throughout hormones, dead blood cells, salts body while exhaling. problems and dry skin. our bodies; one of which are and minerals, and toxins out of the Likewise, excess fire (energy) arteries, which carry oxygenated body. can manifest as high blood blood from the heart to the rest of Sweating, on the other hand, pressure, heat rushes, bad temper, the body. Blood also travels through is the release of a fluid consisting frustration, and more; too little fire in veins back to the heart and lungs, primarily of water as well as the body can manifest as paleness where it receives more oxygen. As minerals, lactate, and urea from in the face and poor digestion. Last, the heart beats, you can feel blood the body’s sweat glands in the Fire but by no means least, when out of traveling through the body at pulse skin; this process is also known balance, the Earth element could Within our bodies, fire (energy) lead to stagnation. points—such as the neck and the as perspiration. Sweating is an is most manifested in the process Once again, ancient cultures wrist—where large blood-filled essential function that helps the of nourishment, in which foods are have proven to have had a piercing arteries run close to the surface of body stay cool. transformed into the energy needed look into nature, creating mythical the skin. The kidneys act as a filter, but by the body; in turn, this energy theories that surprisingly find Water is a necessary ingredient for them to work properly they need for proper blood flow in the body. enables the body and mind to reflection in modern scientific truths. to have plenty of water intake. function properly. As you drink more water, oxygen Water lessens the burden on the levels in your bloodstream increase, Fire transforms food into energy References kidneys and liver by flushing out through digestion, which allows the salemos.tripod.com leading to better circulation and waste products as it dilutes the cms.yourholisticdentist.com improved overall health. Good blood body to gain nutrients and energy it yoga-connection.com calcium in our urine, which could needs from the food you eat. Even www.jiva.com flow can help increase your energy crystallize to form kidney stones if www.drstandley.com levels and burn more fat. before you eat, once you smell www.healthhype.com the body did not receive enough a tasty food or see it, digestion www.dhammacenter.org fluids. Drinking water keeps the www.helpwithcooking.com Digestion begins. Saliva begins to form, so www.fitness.com Gastric juices are liquids found body hydrated by replenishing the when you eat, this enzyme starts the www.dirjournal.com in the stomach; in their normal bodily fluids lost through urination digestion of starch in the food into www.wisegeek.com state, these liquids are usually or sweating. small particles, making the food soft

1st School Semester 2012/13 newsletter 15 ave you ever heard of water-repelling sands, or ever imagined fire that Hdoes not burn? Did you obtain your portable water-desalination device to use at the beach next summer? If not, let me then welcome you into the nanotechnology world; the gateway to the next industrial revolution. By: Hend Fathy Taken from the Greek word for midget, “nano” is a metric prefix indicating a billionth part. Nanotechnology simply states that manipulating substance at the atomic/nano scale opens endless channels of assigning them new Nano-Elements surprising properties. This technology is still in its infancy; once mature, it has the potential of changing everything around us, producing highly advanced, cleaner, safer, and smarter substances.

Let us zoom into the possibilities nanotechnology applications can offer to of the four elements. Nature

As far as our imagination would stretch, we would have never thought that sand, as found on the beach embracing waters of breaking Earth waves, would become hydro-phobic. Water To understand how hydrophobic sand works, you need to know

ZoomTech some basic information about water molecules. Due to the unequal Though it covers over 70% of the Earth’s surface, less than 3% is suitable for distribution of electrons in the molecule’s bonds between atoms, water human use; not only that, but a large portion of this small fraction is hardly accessible molecules have slightly positively- and slightly negatively-charged ends. to humans, being enclosed in ice reservoirs far in the Poles. With the steady growth Positively- and negatively-charged ends of different molecules strongly of human population and the accelerated effect of climate change, the challenge of interact with each other in the same way poles of a magnet do. These securing sufficient supplies of freshwater is to become more and more compelling interactions known as “hydrogen bonds” are so strong that substances in the coming decades. made up of non-polar molecules, such as that of oils and tar, cannot A research team led by Jongyoon Han, Associate Professor of Biological Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), has innovated a mix with water. (1) Naturally, atoms on the surface of sand particles have charged ends nanotechnology water desalination system that works on the ion levels. The core mechanism of this system relies on the polarization of ion concentrations. Salty that are attracted to the water molecules charged ends; that is why sand water passes through a channel lined with nano-structured membrane that polarizes absorbs water. Applying nanotechnology, scientists have coated natural salt ions; salts are diverted into a branched brine channel leaving another for salt- sand grains with a silicon-based compound that has a hydrophilic end, free water. Han states this mechanism “moves not only salts, but also any charged which is attracted to the sand particle, and a hydrophobic end that sticks colloids in the water source, such as cells or bacteria, thereby fundamentally out away from it. This process creates a hydrophobic water-repelling eliminating the potential for membrane fouling and clogging. This can significantly layer on the surface of the sand grain. However, other liquids will soak reduce the complexity and cost of direct seawater desalination”. into the nano-modified sand, such as oils. It is claimed that in this single-step operation, 99% of the salt contained in Hydrophobic sand is used in cleaning up petroleum oil spills due seawater is removed; however, it cannot remove non-ionized organic compounds. to its ability to absorb it. It has also been used to protect electric and Hence, to obtain drinkable water, we should further use conventional methods such telephone wires in extremely cold climates as it repels water and as charcoal absorption for removing neutral compounds. This technology can be prevents it freezing around junction boxes. applied to produce small scale, portable desalination systems operated by batteries. However, the team currently aims to build a scaled-up version of the current unit Air device in order to reach a meaningful flow rate (100 mL/min). WATCH OUT! That is what is usually heard when someone’s clothes is unintentionally Changing air properties has been our own making; Man has close to a fire flame of a candle or a cooker for example. Believe it or not, scientists have drastically disturbed the nature of Earth’s atmosphere through managed, applying nanotechnology, to produce fire-resistant fabrics. constant human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases and Dr. Jaime Grunlan, Associate Professor at the Department of Mechanical pollutants. Although political-economic communities have failed, or Engineering, Texas A&M University, developed a thin polymer(2) coating that could have chosen to fail, to put an end to this urgent problem since the keep cotton clothing from going up in flames, eventfully managing to produce cotton last decades of the 19th century to this very day, the environment- Fire fabric that does not burn at all. friendly scientific communities have provided nanotechnology The developed technology involves covering every fiber of a fabric with a nano-thin solutions. coating of two polymers, producing a protective carbon foam coating when exposed There are two major approaches to remediate air pollutants to high temperatures. This breakthrough can revolutionize cotton industry; it can be applying nanotechnology: nano-catalysts and nano-structured used for making children’s clothes, laboratory uniforms, firemen uniforms, and more. membranes. A catalyst is an exhaust emission control device These fabrics can also be used in making camping and military tents, where a fire in a that converts toxic chemical engines exhaust into less toxic ones; single tent can wipe out an entire camp. Fire-resistant applications of nanotechnology do catalysts are all that stands between a society depending on not stop here; a lot is mentioned about fire-resistant paints, fire-resistant foams, as used in making sofas and theater chairs, and even fire-resistant glass. engines and the toxic pollutants they create. Nano-catalysts have a greater surface area than normal Like electricity before it, nanotechnology will definitely change the way we live; catalysts made from larger particles, which allows more chemicals offering greatly improved efficiency in almost every facet of life. Most importantly, it to interact with the catalyst, simultaneously making it more effective. would change our perception of each and every element around us, even if it were of Speeding up the chemical interactions responsible for transforming the main four element of nature. the harmful vapors from cars and factories into harmless gases, nano-catalysts do our Earth’s atmosphere, and us, a great favor. Glossary References Nano-structured membranes are designed for trapping 1. An Ion is an atom or molecule in which the total www.nanotech-now.com dujs.dartmouth.edu the emissions of greenhouse gases caused by mining, power number of electrons is not equal to the total number www.understandingnano.com generation stations and industrial plants. These filtration of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical mrsec.wisc.edu charge. www.sigmascan.org membranes have nano-pores that are small enough to separate www.nanowerk.com methane or carbon dioxide from the exhausted emissions. John 2. A polymer is a substance that has a molecular www.nanoacademia.com Zhu, a Queensland-University-researcher, states that these structure built up mainly or completely from a large membranes can trap gases up to hundred times faster than the number of similar units bonded together. conventional16 ones. newsletter By: Lamia Ghoneim

we lose 36 football fields-worth of forests—the underlying message could also be a parody of the bottled water industry; an industry surviving on the pollution of our natural resources and in turn pollutes the environment furthermore. “A Tree Falls the Way it Leans. Be Careful Which Way You Lean” The Lorax said so as a warning to the Once-ler,

who was still a young well-intentioned boy at the Science in Sci-Fi time, when he found him leaning towards his own Warning: Spoiler Alert! personal profit without thinking of the effect on the When I took my three-year-old daughter to due to human activities, and the destruction of the environment and the animals that need the trees watch the 3D animation movie “The Lorax”, I was ecosystem biodiversity; all those serious issues are he was chopping off. expecting to see a fun kid’s movie with a light- represented in the story and are predicted to lead By cutting down the Trufulla trees, the Once-ler hearted attempt at delivering an environmental down this road. thought he was “only building the economy”; he awareness message to the youngsters; one However, the tale is not all gloomy; there is hope was not aware of how much he endangered the that I was sure my daughter—between dancing in the end and lessons to be learned to avoid such planet and only realized his mistake very late. The enthusiastically through the musical numbers fate. As I became deeply engrossed in the tale, and sustainable development focus is to balance quality and munching eagerly on her popcorn—would even more so deeply touched and inspired by all of life with quality of the environment, a concept the probably fail to notice. the powerful messages portrayed within the plot, I Once-ler did not understand, but one that the young Personally, I was prepared for some serious found myself tracking the lessons we could all learn boy was able to introduce with the last Truffula snoozing time; I certainly was not expecting to find from the Lorax; the following are just a few: seed. Thus, young children and adults can identify anything intriguing or thought-provoking in such a with him and understand how essential it is to help kid’s tale. I was definitely in for a surprise. “Unless Someone Like You Cares a preserve the environment before it is too late. The Lorax knew that Thneeds made from the Based on Dr. Seuss’s 1971 picture book, which Whole Awful Lot, Nothing is Going to unfortunately most of us here in Egypt have not Truffula trees were useless and unwarranted, had the chance to read, the story seems so ahead Get Better. It’s Not” but the Once-ler, who was dazzled by the dollar, of its time; one might even call it visionary. The tale Dr. Suess said so 40 years ago and it still claimed that everybody needs Thneeds. The focuses on the plight of the environment and the applies today. Unless we start caring and changing message here is also complex, we must not just risks that industrialization and corporate greed can things, we too will end up trying to survive in a dirty lean towards sustainable development, we also have, which at the time the book was written were wasteland and a barren landscape. have to adjust our aspirations to ensure a more only starting to become apparent. However, 40 years The idea that protecting and preserving our secure future. We need to ask ourselves when and later, the messages of conservationism are more environment cannot happen without personal where we fall victim to irresponsible consumerism, relevant than ever. ownership by all is delivered by the character of the realize what we really need and what is The famed Dr. Seuss tale takes place in and young boy “Ted”, the one who cared enough to try unnecessary, and work at becoming more Earth- savvy. In other words, We Do Not Need Thneeds! around Thneedville, a sparkling clean town where and change things, and managed to find hope in the The lesson that really stuck with me however, everything is synthetic, trees are inflatable and made end by planting the last Trufulla seed, and growing was the one presented by the mystical Lorax in factories, animals are long gone, water is poisonous a real tree once again. Kids and adults can identify himself (voiced by none other than the legendary and the air is so polluted that everyone breathes with Ted and learn that one person can make a Danny Divito who delivered a star performance) bottled air sold to them by a creepy little villain. difference; one just needs to care “A whole awful lot”. A young girl named Audrey longs for a real tree, with his distinctly deep voice as he declared: and 12-year-old Ted is determined to find her one. “The More Smog in the Sky, the “I am the Lorax, and I Speak For the With the help of his grandma who still remembers More People Will Buy” the trees, he seeks out the Once-ler; the old hermit Trees!” tells the tale of how he broke a promise to “The Mr. O’Hare, the greedy businessman in the I found myself channeling my inner Lorax and Lorax”—the mystical creature who is guardian of tale who managed to find a way to sell air, was speaking for the trees and what they represent; all the trees—and cut down all the trufulla trees aware that the more the air was polluted, the more in the story, the Lorax spoke for the trees and so he could sell the populace his briefly trendy people will buy his bottled air. While the obvious although the Once-ler did not listen at first, he “Thneeds”. Thneeds were a useless product, just lesson here is a message of criticism towards eventually redeemed himself and began to speak a piece of fabric that everyone thought was cool for greedy capitalism, the deeper message is to for the trees as well. There is hope in being green, a while worn as a hat or worn in other ways, and tackle environmental problems from their roots, and public awareness is essential, so we need then they went out of fashion and nobody cared for something “Ted” was able to understand. to keep hope alive and keep on spreading the them anymore. Instead of purifying the air and selling it in plastic message. bottles, which in turn pollutes the environment even References Bottled air, inflatable trees? Ridiculous as it As we left the theater, I asked my daughter www.nanotech-now.com may seem, I could not help feeling that this is not more from the manufacture of plastics and the what she thought the movie was about, she said dujs.dartmouth.edu too far off from what we could soon face. In fact, creation of non-biodegradable waste, Ted realized that the bad man cut down all the trees, which was www.understandingnano.com mrsec.wisc.edu the story contains many common components that he needs to solve the root of the problem; in wrong; we should not cut down the trees or the air www.sigmascan.org found in environmental issues we are facing that case, the lack of trees. and the water will stink! www.nanowerk.com While deforestation is definitely an issue for us So, I guess she did sort of get the message www.nanoacademia.com today: deforestation, air and water pollution, lack of natural resources, animals critically endangered today—it has been estimated that every minute, after all.

1st School Semester 2012/13 newsletter 17 In-Depth Science 18 f niatr r scientifically are a mysterytodate. antimatter proven, withsomeissuesremaining of based, alotoftheactualconcepts of an anti-you may not be evidence existence the While facts. scientific on thescreenisatleastbased see we what of lot a fiction, science though, in the case of antimatter cases, it is not science. Fortunately undoubtedly entertaining,inmost the storybegins. antimatter forthatmatter, hereishow with the“physics”ofStarTrek , or the ultimatesolution. there inananti-universe. an anti-me living somewhere out parallel anti-world;ananti-youand twin foreverypersoninanother imagined theexistenceofanevil entirely of antimatter. Many even universes and anti-worlds made up others producedvisionsofparallel using it for the propulsion starships; source ofenergyinthecosmos, annihilation as the most powerful writers, foresawmatter-antimatter device. Some, such as the conceptas an attractiveplot exploited writers sci-fi that wonder no is it world; scientific the beyond revolutionary ideasperceivedway one of the most interesting and a mirrorimageofallmatteris phaser technology faster thanthespeedoflight,to that sendtheenterprisestarship show; from powering warpengines sci-fi a from expect would one issue energy resolves almost every single a major theme ofStarTrek that of matter-antimatter reactions is antimatter. In fact, the employment For thosefewwhoarenotfamiliar is fiction science While The idea that there exists E there is the equally opposite there istheequallyopposite that there is matter, and very Star Trek fanknows newsletter (1) , antimatteris Star Trek the firstexampleofantimatter. “antiparticle” oftheelectron;itwas is nowknownasthepositron, electric charge. This particle,which with positiveinsteadofnegative the samemassaselectronbut another typeofparticlewithexactly and infactrequired,theexistenceof describe theelectronalsodescribed, prediction; theequationsheusedto theory initscontext. that correctlyincludedEinstein’s theory first the fields; magnetic and the motionofelectronsinelectric to formulateaquantumtheoryfor behave, and successfully managed electrons nearthe speed of light— small and very fast—in this case, He explainedhowthings,bothvery to integrate these disparate theories. managed finally Dirac calculations, apparently bothwouldnotagree. special theoryofrelativity, for of quantum theory with Einstein’s problem: How to reconcile the laws physicist, setouttosolvea Antiparticles RevealedAntiparticles periods. and holdthemcaptiveforbrief managed to trap antimatter atoms of positrons; scientists have also routinely produce large numbers an electron.Experimentstoday indicated mass andothercharacteristicsas field, charged one,butwiththesame magnetic that theparticlewasapositively a to of thecurvaturepath,due a lead plate, where the direction from belowandpassingthrough in 1931showedaparticleentering picture taken by Carl in Dirac’s theory. A cloud chamber the confirmed remarkable prediction of antimatter soon experiments The positron’s discovery in His theory led to a surprising Through complexmathematical In 1928,PaulDirac,British D. Anderson opposing partnersmeet? well-verified But, what happens when these a hundreds of such pairings observed. now phenomenon, withbothpartnersfor is particles antimatter partnersforallmatter thus, antimatter. The existenceof combine toformanti-atomsand, and anti-electrons(positrons) matter; antiprotons,antineutrons, electrons combine to form atoms and reversed. but with the signs of all charges properties arealsocloselyrelated, the particle and all the rest of its antiparticle is identical to that of antiparticle type. The massof any particle musthaveacorresponding matter; meaning that each type of the fundamentalconstituentsof only totheelectron,butall require, thatantimatter andmatter of theuniversesuggest,oreven particle physicsandoftheevolution each otherwithaburstofenergy. attractandthenannihilate initially charges, matter and antimatter on contact. Thanks totheiropposite custom- that antimatterandmatterexplode findings, is adventure, sci-fi a many for made dramatic most Anderson’s discovery;oneof their great deal about antimatter since Matter vs Antimatter Matter atmosphere. as they penetrate the Earth’s particles thatformnew are extraterrestrialhigh-energy primarily incosmicrays,which is uncommon and appears to exist Outside thelaboratory, antimatter matter particlesandannihilates. because itmeetsupwithmatching in thelaboratorysoondisappears Just asprotons,neutrons,and Dirac's predictionappliesnot Although moderntheoriesof In fact,anyantimatterproduced Physicists havelearneda mirror. found suspiciousscratchesinthe our of own; experimentshavealready reflection perfect a is world to theory predicts that the antimatter clues find this asymmetrymechanism.While to hoping combine, the antimatter they form when they of manufacturedantiparticles,and study thepropertiesandbehavior this apparent asymmetry. They mechanism thatwouldproduce at work,tryingtoidentifytheexact remained. was thattinyfractionofmatter particles. Everythingweseetoday there were one-billion-and-one that, for every antiparticles, billion particulate opposite by a hair, so matter somehowoutnumberedits fraction ofasecondtheBigBang, universe. However, within a milli- that drove the expansion of the ofexistence; annihilated, generatingtheenergy moments moments later, theycombinedand few first antimatter were created in the amounts ofbothmatterand ago with the “Big Bang”, enormous existence some 15 when theuniverseburstinto asymmetry fordecades. been grappling with this question of antimatter, particlephysicistshave mostly of matter and not its opposite granted that the universe is made most people probably take it for words, whydoweevenexist?While so uncommontoday?Inother annihilated, andwhyisantimatter of matter;whywasitnotall world aroundustoday. and antimatter objects we find in the difference inthenumbersofmatter stages, thereiscertainlyadramatic were equally common in the earliest Thus far, physicists are hard Physical theories assert that, The entireworldismade 1 st By: LamiaGhoneim SchoolSemester 2012/13 billion years billion Prevailing Matter Although these results cannot particle jets from sources as varied team; now considered the most Most scientists believe that be claimed as a bona fide discovery, as cosmic rays, the solar wind, solar abundant source of antiprotons there is a subtle difference in the which requires a chance of it being flares and even supernova, collide ever imagined close to Earth. way matter and antimatter interact a fluke at less than one in a million, with other matter such as the upper However, in order to use the with the forces of nature, especially particle physicists are still excited; atmosphere of the Earth. antiprotons as an energy source, in the way they decay, which may “We cannot yet say for sure it is CP These collisions involve massive scientists still need to find a way account for a universe that prefers violation,” says Angelo Carbone, amounts of energy; hundreds of to harvest this antimatter in space. matter. This subtle difference— a member of the LHC and CDF thousands of times more powerful If feasible, harvesting antimatter in technically known as Charge-Parity collaboration, “but it is close”. than our most powerful particle space would completely bypass the (CP) violation—would have allowed Thus far though, the observed accelerators here on Earth. When obstacle of low energy efficiency normal matter to prevail over imbalance between matter and these incredibly high energy when an accelerator is used to antimatter so that normal matter antimatter remains a puzzle yet particles collide with other particles, produce antimatter. could go on to form everything we to be explained. Yet, without the immense energy leads to radical As far-fetched as all of this may see in the universe today. Over the this imbalance, there would be changes in the way the components sound, imagine trying to explain years, evidence has been mounting, essentially no matter left around; of the atoms are themselves made to Lord Kelvin or Thomas Edison supporting this theory; recent annihilations would have converted up, resulting in the creation of the mastery we would have over research may well be on its way to everything into massive energy. antimatter. matter and energy at the start of the st confirm it. Antimatter Power Although particle colliders are 21 century. Even Albert Einstein The first evidence of this Smash a lump of matter into able to produce high energy particle was quoted in 1932 saying, “There difference was found in the 1960s, antimatter and it will release a collisions that can create positrons, is not the slightest indication that in the decay of particles called thousand times more energy than antiprotons, anti-hydrogen, and nuclear energy will be obtainable”. neutral kaons, which can transform the same mass of fuel in a nuclear even a few anti-helium atoms, the Therefore, the seemingly impossible into their antiparticles and vice fission reactor, and some two billion amount they produce is minute, not challenges of using antimatter as versa, but such transformation times more than burning the enough to power much of anything. the ultimate power source may be does not occur with exactly the equivalent in hydrocarbons. It is not If we were to gather all the comparatively routine a century same probability in both directions, surprising then that Star Trek writers antimatter that has ever been from now. indicating a difference between the chose it to power the enterprise, artificially created, it would hardly properties of matter and antimatter be enough, when combined with and they are not alone in thinking Glossary of this kind. antimatter fuel could be the dream normal matter, to light a standard (1) Phaser Technology is a In 2001, accelerators in the fuel. light bulb for more than a few United States and Japan found minutes. It is also a very expensive common fictional technology Scientists and futurists have put employed in Star Trek that more evidence for a difference in a lot of thought into the promise of operation; it would cost an estimated works as a direct energy particles called B mesons. Last an antimatter engine; even NASA USD 25 billion to produce one gram weapon, emitting energy in year, at CERN’s Large Hadron put forth early designs for an of positrons, while researchers at an aimed direction without the (2) Collider (LHC) near Geneva, antimatter spacecraft, complete with CERN point out that it would take means of a projectile. It creates Switzerland, evidence was found in special magnetic storage rings to USD 100 quadrillion and 100 billion a beam of a fictional type of a third system, D mesons; however, safely house the vital antimatter. years of running their accelerator to subatomic antiparticles called “rapid nadions”. there was not enough data to rule According to the NASA research produce a single gram of antimatter. (2) Large Hadron Collider out a statistical fluke. team, the energy produced by a Yet, according to the Journal of More recent results from the Propulsion and Power, a mere (LHC) is the world’s largest gram of antimatter meeting a gram and highest-energy particle Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) of normal matter would equal that millionth of a gram would be enough accelerator; a device that uses experiment near Chicago also of the thrust behind 1,000 external to power a one-year flight to Mars. electromagnetic fields to propel show very similar results to the space shuttle fuel tanks. Moreover, Still, with the technology charged particles to high CERN’s collider, confirming almost the concept of its power generation currently available today, it costs speeds and to contain them in the same level of difference in the is quite simple and easy to achieve, more energy to create antimatter well-definedbeams . It was built decay of D meson particles and not that fundamentally different from than the energy one could receive by the European Organization their antiparticles. These combined from an antimatter reaction, for Nuclear Research (CERN), a rocket engine where a combination 1998-2008, with the aim of results are still not conclusive of fuel and an igniting agent produce which does not make antimatter evidence, but they bring the reactors viable. However, scientists allowing physicists to test the the explosive trust. predictions of different theories chances of a fluke down to about So, if a pound of antimatter can are looking for ways to capture of particle physics and high- one in 10,000. roughly produce enough energy to antimatter that is naturally created in energy physics. To witness this kind of CP satisfy the requirements of a group the universe. violation, physicists study particles References of countries for a number of years, The Antimatter Belt Encyclopaedia Britannica Ultimate to see if there is any difference in what is stopping us from harnessing A newly discovered belt of Reference Suite, Chicago: Encyclopædia the rate of decay between normal Britannica, 2010. this ultimate source of energy that antimatter circling Earth, consisting http://www.nasa.gov particles and their antiparticles. could solve all our energy problems, of antiprotons trapped by Earth’s http://www.exploratorium.edu The accepted theory of now and in the future? magnetic field several hundred http://www.scientificamerican.com/article. elementary particles, the standard cfm?id=what-is-antimatter-2002-01- The answer to this question kilometers above the planet’s 24&print=true model, allows for a low level of lies in the difficulty of producing surface, may ultimately become a http://www.wikipedia.com CP violation, but not enough to http://space.about.com/od/Space-and- antimatter artificially. So far, main source of fuel for missions Astronomy-Star-Trek/a/Matter-Antimatter- explain the prevalence of normal antimatter happens to be one of venturing beyond the Solar System. Power.htm matter. Researchers have thus http://news.discovery.com/space/ the most expensive-to-produce The belt was discovered by the harvesting-antimatter-in-space-to-fuel- been trying to find cases in which materials in the universe. international PAMELA (Payload starships-120523.html CP violation is higher, and the The primary way antimatter is for Antimatter/Matter Exploration combined results from LHC and produced is through high energy and Light-nuclei Astrophysics) CDF are close to what they have collisions that occur naturally in the satellite and was found to contain been looking for. universe; high energy particles and 28 antiprotons as counted by the

1st School Semester 2012/13 newsletter 19 By: Shahenda Ayman

he word “element” is defined as the building block of everything that Top Ten Top Thas come into common use in the world. From the air we breathe— 8 Krypton (Kr) oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases—to medications we take, all are found, or A noble gas, krypton is colorless, odorless and tasteless; it is produced in in a few cases, created, here on Earth. Many elements stand out for a myriad the Earth’s crust as a result of radioactive decay of thorium and uranium. As of different reasons; here is a countdown of the Top Ten Most Marvelous an inert gas, krypton is chemically inactive; however, compounds of krypton Elements, in our humble opinion. have been synthesized in the laboratory and used for research purposes. Like other inert gases, krypton is used in making luminous, fluorescent lights used in different kinds of lamps, incandescent light bulbs, advertising 10 Mercury (Hg) signs, and more. One of the radioactive isotopes of krypton can be combined with phosphorus to produce materials that glow or shine in the dark. Silvery-white in appearance, mercury can exist at room temperature in a Krypton is characterized by emission of sharp spectral lines, out of which liquid state; it is the only metal that is known to exist in liquid form naturally. The green and yellow lines are the strongest and most prominent. When ionized, discovery of mercury was made thousands of years ago; traces of the element krypton gas emits bright white light; hence, krypton-based bulbs are widely can be found in Egyptian tombs that date back to the year 1500 BCE. In ancient used in high speed photography. It is also used in slide and movie projectors. time, mercury was known as “quicksilver”, roughly implying live silver. The origin Moreover, krypton-85 is used to study the flow of blood in the human of this name can be based on the fact that when liquid mercury is poured on a body. When the gas is inhaled, it is absorbed by the blood and travels flat surface, it forms distinct small beads that move around as if they were alive. through the bloodstream and the heart along with blood. The pathway can Mercury has extremely strong reflective powers, and is regularly used in be determined by holding a detection device over the person’s body. making mirrors. In fact, it is used for a myriad of purposes: in manometers, thermometers, barometers, vapor lamps, among others. Most street lamps contain mercury, and it is used in some electric batteries as well; moreover, it helps in the production of sodium hydroxide, chlorine and in dental silver 7 Curium (Cm) amalgam fillings. 8 Curium, named in honor of Marie and Pierre Curie, is a radioactive transuranic-metallic element(2); it is produced by bombarding plutonium with helium nuclei. Curium is classified in the actinide series as one of the rare 9 Magnesium (Mg) Earth elements, most of which are synthetic or man-made. Curium is a hard, dense radioactive silvery-white metal, which tarnishes 10(1) Magnesium is classified as an alkaline-earth metal ; it widely exists in slowly in dry air at room temperature. It is highly radioactive and it glows red 4 th nature, ranking 9 among the most abundant elements on the surface of the in the dark; its radioactivity makes it harmful as it accumulates in bones and Earth, but due to its high reactivity, it cannot be found in its elemental form. destroys marrow, stopping the formation of red blood cells. In its purest form, magnesium can be identified as a soft, silvery-white Curium is mainly used in scientific research; curium-244 was used in the Alpha solid material; however, when exposed to air, it tarnishes easily. The surface Proton X-ray Spectrometer (APXS), which measured the abundance of chemical of freshly extracted magnesium is often coated with a thin layer of magnesium elements in rocks and soils on Mars. Curium-244 is a strong alpha emitter and oxide in order to prevent tarnishing. is being studied as a potential power source in Radioisotope Thermoelectric At room temperature, this element reacts with water; on reaction with Generators (RTGs) for use in spacecraft and other remote applications. acids, it releases a large amount of heat energy. Elemental magnesium is an inflammable substance; it readily catches fire when in powdered form, but it is not the case when it is in bulk amount. It is combustible in nitrogen as Strontium (Sr) well as carbon dioxide present in the air; when it burns in air, it produces a 6 magnificent white light, which is why it is used for preparing fireworks, marine Strontium is classified as an alkaline-earth metal that is found in the flares, and photographic flashbulbs to produce bright lights. 7 Earth’s crust, though not in the elemental form due to its reactivity; instead, Magnesium is the third most widely used structural metal after steel it is widely distributed in rock structures. This metal can be prepared by and aluminum; it has major applications in construction. It is widely used electrolysis of the fused chloride mixed with potassium chloride, or is made in manufacturing an aluminum-magnesium alloy called ‘magnelium’ or by reducing strontium oxide with aluminum in a vacuum at a temperature at ‘magnalium’; as it has a lesser density than aluminum, it gives the alloy which strontium distills off. lightness and strength required for manufacturing aircraft and automobile Strontium should be kept under kerosene to prevent oxidation; freshly cut 9parts. It is used in various electronic devices mainly because it has good strontium has a silvery appearance that rapidly turns a yellowish color with electrical and mechanical properties, and is light in weight. the formation of the oxide. The finely divided metal ignites spontaneously in air; volatile strontium salts impart a beautiful crimson color to flames, and are used in pyrotechnics(3) and in the production of flares.

20 newsletter 1st School Semester 2012/13 The major use for strontium is in producing glass for color television picture tubes. Moreover, strontium titanate is an interesting optical material as it has an extremely high refractive index and an optical dispersion greater 2 Zirconium (Zr) than that of diamond; it has thus been used as a gemstone, but it is very Zirconium is a lustrous, gray-white, strong transition metal. Given the soft. Furthermore, strontium chloride is used in toothpaste for sensitive teeth, metal’s low absorption of neutrons, and significant resistant towards heat while strontium oxide is used to improve the quality of pottery glazes. and chemical corrosion, it is widely used in nuclear reactors; it is used to provide an outer covering to components such as the fuel rods that run the reactor. As a matter of fact, the nuclear power industry exploits 90% of the 5 Lutetium (Lu) metal produced each year.

The main sources of zirconium are the minerals known as zircon (ZrSiO4) A silvery-white rare-earth element, lutetium is used6 in nuclear technology; and baddeleyite (ZrO ); a process known as the Kroll process is applied to 2 it was the last natural rare-earth element to be discovered. It does not exist obtain the metal from these minerals. It also finds its application in steel as free in nature, but is found in a number of minerals, mainly monazite. an alloying agent; vacuum tubes, different surgical appliances, lamp filaments, Historically, isolation of rare-earth elements from each other has been piping, artificial joints and limbs require this metal. Apart from these, the metal is difficult and expensive because their chemical properties are so similar. Ion employed in photoflash bulbs, explosive primers, rayon spinnerets, and more. exchange and solvent extraction techniques developed since the 1940s Moreover, zirconium oxide or zirconia, is mainly used in the manufacture have lowered the cost of production. Pure lutetium metal is produced by the of ceramic materials; it is an inorganic metal oxide also used as a gemstone reduction of the anhydrous fluoride with calcium metal. Lutetium oxide is used as it has a high refractive index. On the other hand, lithium zirconate can be to make catalysts for cracking hydrocarbons in the petrochemical industry. used to absorb carbon dioxide; the reaction is reversible so the carbon dioxide can be released in a location of choice. This application may be useful in 4 addressing environmental concerns about the release of carbon dioxide into Chlorine (Cl) the atmosphere. 2 Chlorine is produced commercially by electrolysis of sodium chloride brine. It5 has a variety of uses, one of which is disinfecting water; it is part of 1 Elements 112-118 the sanitation process for sewage and industrial waste. During the production of paper and cloth, chlorine is used as a bleaching agent; it is also used in (Ununbium, Ununtrium, Ununquadium, Ununpentium, Ununhexium, Ununseptium, cleaning products, including household bleach. Ununoxium) Chlorine is a yellow-green gas at room temperature; it is not Relatively new to the Periodic Table, elements 112-118 are completely flammable, but may react explosively or form explosive compounds man-made by bombarding specific atoms of one element with specific atoms with many common substances. It is also used in the preparation of of another, thereby separating each into an entirely new element only stable, chlorides, chlorinated solvents, pesticides, polymers, synthetic rubbers, though not necessarily visible, for a fraction of a fraction of a second. and refrigerants. Chlorine was also the first poison gas to be used as a Ununbium was first created on 9 February 1996 in a lab in Germany. This weapon during World War I. element was created by fusing a zinc-70 nucleus with a lead-208 nucleus by Most chlorine exposures occur via inhalation; low level exposures to accelerating zinc nuclei into a lead target in a heavy ion accelerator. The two chlorine in air will lead to eye/skin/airway irritation, sore throat and cough. ununbium nuclei so produced had a mass number of 27. Since chlorine is a gas at room temperature, it is unlikely that a severe On 1 February 2004, the discovery of ununtrium and ununpentium exposure will result from ingestion. However, ingestion of chlorine dissolved were reported by a team composed of Russian scientists and an American in water (such as sodium hypochlorite or household bleach) will lead to scientist at the Lawrence Livermore National Academy. Most of the others corrosive tissue damage of the gastrointestinal tract. were created or discovered much in the same fashion in different parts of Earth’s oceans contain a large amount of chlorine; if this chlorine were the world since then. As of yet, since none of these have been witnessed for released as a gas, its weight would be 5 times greater than Earth’s total more than a second, their inclusion remains suspect and under investigation. current atmosphere. Chlorine is not only abundant in our oceans; it is the 1 sixth most abundant element in Earth’s crust. Our universe is full of wonderful treasures; this is just a humble list of a 4 small selection of amazing elements found in it. It would take days and days to talk in depth about all the elements that surround us and form everything. 3 Aluminum (Al) Without elements, there would be no universe; thus, there would be no life and there would be no Us! Aluminium is classified as one of the other metals(4), all of which are solid, have a relatively high density and are opaque. Aluminium never occurs in a Glossary free state in nature, owing to its great affinity for oxygen; in combined form, 1. Alkaline-Earth Metal: The term “Alkaline” refers to its slight solubility in water, and “Earth” is derived from its inability to decompose when exposed to heat; the name as oxides, silicates, and a few other salts, it is both abundant and widely refers to their oxides that produce basic alkaline solutions. They are reactive and distributed, being an essential constituent of all soils and of most rocks, widely distributed in rock structures; they are characterized by having two electrons excluding limestone and sandstone. in their outer shell, and they conduct heat and electricity. Today, aluminum and aluminum alloys are used in a wide variety of 2. Transuranic-Metallic Element: Any element with an atomic number greater than products; cans, foils and kitchen utensils, as well as parts of airplanes, 92; they are all radioactive. rockets and other items that require a strong, light material. Although it 3. Pyrotechnics: Fireworks, especially rockets, flares, smoke bombs. does not conduct electricity as efficiently as copper, it is used in electrical 4. Other Metals: Metallic elements within Groups 13, 14, and 15 in the Periodic Table; transmission lines because of its light weight. It can be deposited on the they are ductile and malleable, good conductors of both electricity and heat, and surface of glass to make mirrors, where a thin layer of aluminum oxide form ionic bonds with non-metals. quickly forms that acts as a protective coating. References There is more aluminum in the Earth’s crust than any other metal; at about listverse.com 8%, aluminum is the third most abundant element in our planet’s crust, following education.jlab.org www.facts-about.org.uk chemistry.about.com www.radiochemistry.org oxygen and silicon. Pure aluminum is quite soft and lacking in strength; www.ptable.com www.radiochemistry.org aluminum used in commercial applications has small amounts of silicon and www.eco-usa.net www.yourdictionary.com iron (less than 1%) added, resulting in greatly improved strength and hardness. www.buzzle.com www.periodic-table.org.uk www.health.ny.gov www.thefreedictionary.com www.chemicool.com www.about-the-element.com 1st School Semester 2012/13 3 newsletter 21 Fact or Fiction 22 fertility, capable of unleashing life-giving symbolsoffortuneand raindrops. They arereveredas in oceans,lakes,riversandeven amphibious creaturesthatdwell world aftereachcycleofdestruction. names was believed to renew the feathered serpentknownbyvarious Mexico and South America, a divine a bat. In the ancient cultures of tongue of a snake and wings like reptiles, large andlizard-like,withtheforked fire-spewing nightmarish universal culturephenomenon. are whatonemayconsidera everywhere intheworld,dragons throughout theagesandalmost many different yetsimilarways, cultures in the world. Perceived in are part of the mythology of most these awe-inspiring creatures maiden eatingEuropeandragon, benevolent lakedragon,totheevil to mankind. most universal fantasy ever known creaturesandthesingle legendary of all beasts, the mightiest of all beast the is it jaws; its through fire with rowsofsharpteeth,breathing serpent flying giant the to compare fantasy orinperceptiblereality, can dragons. Nomightycreature,in Man hasbeenfascinatedwith The Legend The In the East, dragons are In Europe,dragonsareevil From theChinesewiseand Since the beginning of time, newsletter this notion,andsomeeventruly undeniably outnumbered,question and crocodiles,otherscientists, the likesofgiantlizards,serpents creatures living other by influenced the richimagination,inspiredand that dragonsaretheproductof and storiesweheardaschildren. of artandliterature,thelegends that remainsarenumerousworks remains wereeverdiscovered;all these No dragonfossilsorskeletal that existed. ever creatures evidence magnificent scientific of this day, thereexistsnoshred the storiesofdragonsmaybe,to quality; theabilitytobreathefire. a resemblanceandmostthrilling and powerfulcreatureswhoshare possess, they are all enormous different qualities the dragons may undoubtedly related; for however our minds, those images are conjures dissimilarimagesin dragons fromdifferent cultures Egyptian mythology. representations ofdragonsin dragon and an evil god) are both and Meretseger (aserpentwithwings) pantheon ofgodsandgoddesses. well representedintheEgyptian punish to serpents andwingeddragonswere fire spewing evil-doers. In Ancient Egypt,sky and rain While mostscientistsbelieve Yet, however widespread Although thedepictionof Apep (agiantserpentine By: LamiaGhoneim matter, tobeablebreathefire? for a dragon, or any creature for that science if it is theoretically possible not amerefantasy, andtoaskthe explore thenotionthatdragonsare making itup? coincidentally andsimultaneously all reasonable tobelievethattheywere corresponded witheachother;isit that neverconnected,oreven not inter-mixed? These arecultures time in history when cultures were depicted insomanycultures,ata were justafantasy, whyarethey most importantquestion:Ifdragons realistic scientistsfailedtoanswera fascination, butmoresobecause am prejudicedbymyowndragon the science;perhapsbecauseI this timeIwouldliketoquestion proof, living and evidence scientific with thesidethatholdsmost been thelastsurvivingdinosaurs. roamed the Earth and might have thatdragonsoneday believe oxygen mixtures may require a in therightproportions. Some fuel- all oftheseelementsin place, and reaction. Firecannotexistwithout oxidation thatproducesachain and is able to sustain a rate of rapid at whichthemixturecanvaporize), oxidizer mix(thelowesttemperature pointofthefuel/ above theflash of compound, is exposed to a source sufficient oxygen gasoranotheroxygen-rich a material, with quantity ofanoxidizer combustible combination in a and/or first must and one starts, what breathingfirewouldrequire. fire fire, a how understand exhale or to possesstheabilityinhale whether any creature can evolve The Science The For a moment, I would like to Although I always tend to ally ie trs hn flammable a when starts Fire To answerthequestionof heat orambienttemperature , suchas animals inhaledroughlythesame animals Assuming thatthesedragon-type as itisintheairallaroundus. is ahighlyreactivefuel. solve thefuelissuesincehydrogen hydrogen released, which would similar toabladderthattrappedthe and storeitinafuelstorageunit the abilitytoproducehydrogen then toassumethatdragonshad as afuel. scale, to generate hydrogen for use use ofbacteriaonanindustrial that thisprocesscouldleadtothe colon. Ithasevenbeenestimated bacterial fermentationinthehuman both ofwhichcanbeproducedby such asmethaneandhydrogen, gas, flammable is bacteria some of for them. compartmentalized stomach do it plants, cellulose; gut bacteria in a one ofthemainconstituents such ashippos,areunabletodigest example, mostplant-eatinganimals, bacteria playakeyrole;for bacteria. In many species, gut even humans, contains numerous bacteria intheirguts. produced hydrogen with the help of creationists is that dragons suggested by dragon proposing in their gut. One plausible theory process thatcansafelytakeplace be theresultofanaturalbiological ludicrous; their fuel would have to or gasoline in their gut would be Assuming dragonscouldutilizecoal material; inotherwords,afuel. flammable a is need would dragon combust morereadily. which enables the reactants to reaction duringcombustion,but directly involved in anychemical catalyst, a substance that is not Oxygen istheeasiesttosupply, It is biologicallyconceivable One of the products of the activity The gutofallanimals,and So, the first thing a fire-breathing 1 st SchoolSemester 2012/13 manner as other mammals—the The Reality debate about whether dragons One real living creature that would be a mammal or a reptile is comes close to possessing the a whole different matter, but the ability of fire breathing is a little few dragon believing scientists lean insect known as the Bombardier towards dragons being mammals— Beetle (Brachinus). This insect has the air that was drawn into the lungs evolved a little combustion chamber was not totally depleted of oxygen that combines several chemicals when they exhaled. and can blast out hot gas, about In a normal healthy human, 100ºC, from their rear end. for instance, we inhale air with It is a remarkable defensive approximately 20.9% oxygen system; when threatened, it emits content, and then exhale air with a rapid burst of scalding, irritating about 15.3% oxygen content. chemicals in the face of its attacker. Obviously the lung capacity of a The process is complex though; dragon would affect how much cells in the tip of the beetle's oxygen this actually was, but it abdomen produce hydrogen seems to me that this would be peroxide (H2O2) and substances sufficient to coax a flame out of the called hydroquinones, which are body until it reaches the outside stored in a reservoir. This reservoir is world, where external oxygen can connected to a thick-walled reaction then fulfill the need for further rapid chamber by a valve, controlled by a oxidation. sphincter muscle. The only thing left is the spark, The reaction chamber is the heat energy needed to start lined with cells that secrete the reaction, chemically dubbed as these creatures at risk of constant Rather more special than these enzymes; when the reactive the “Activation Energy”. We know spontaneous combustion; not the examples are the elephants of mixture of hydrogen peroxide and hydrogen molecules violently react best survival strategy for a species. Mount Elgon in Kenya. Many animals hydroquinones is passed into the with oxygen when the existing Another option could be that congregate around salt licks; for the reaction chamber, the enzymes molecular bonds break, and new they were able to strike a spark Mount Elgon elephants, though, the break down the H2O2, releasing bonds are formed between oxygen against their teeth. There is also only natural source of salt is in deep copious free oxygen, and catalyzing and hydrogen atoms. As the the possibility of electricity; there caves in the sides of the mountain. the oxidation of the hydroquinones. products of the reaction are at a lower are animals that create amounts of Herds of elephants enter the caves, The reaction generates enough energy level than the reactants, the electricity—electric eels and electric walk as far as 500 feet in pitch- heat to bring the volatile mixture to result is an explosive release of rays—but none we know can darkness, then chip off chunks of boiling point and vaporizes much energy and the production of water. generate a spark. salt-rich rock with their tusks and of it, which greatly increases the However, hydrogen does not react The most plausible solution, crunch them up. pressure within the reaction vessel, with oxygen at room temperature; a employed by the creators of Animal The fact of the matter is that forcing the valve shut, preventing source of energy is needed to ignite Planet’s documentary on dragons, quite a number of animals take backfires, and expelling the mixture the mixture, a spark. is that dragons ingested platinum in minerals to use for their own explosively through openings in the Introduction of a spark to from rocks, and platinum acted as a purposes, why not dragons? tip of the abdomen. the mixture results in raised catalyst that sparked the hydrogen Combining all these theoretically Although the scalding chemicals temperatures amongst some of the oxygen reaction. feasible assumptions, we now have produced by the beetle are in no hydrogen and oxygen molecules; The scientific inspiration for the a dragon that produces hydrogen in way as hot as fire—the coldest molecules at higher temperatures theory that dragons can ingest and its gut, combines it with oxygen in visible fire is at least 525°C—but it travel faster and collide with more grind platinum originates from many the presence of powdered platinum, is pretty hot, and the closest living energy. If collision energies reach biological examples. For instance, previously ingested and grinded example to fire breathing. After all, minimum activation energy sufficient birds do not have teeth, and many now serving as a catalyst; then poof, it is just a tiny beetle; one would not to “break” the bonds between the species rely on swallowing grit and fire spews out of its jaws. expect it to produce a firestorm! reactants, then a reaction between even small stones to help grind up The final problem is how dragons So, what do you think? Could hydrogen and oxygen follows. As food in their gizzards. Dinosaur avoided getting completely scorched dragons have been real? Maybe hydrogen has low activation energy, stomachs sometimes contained by the fire it exhaled; one could if you believe in them, that is real only a small spark is needed to large stones, or gastroliths, worn assume that the inside of dragon’s enough. trigger a reaction with oxygen. smooth by grinding or exposure to mouth was armor-plated and that it One could assume the dragon References digestive fluids; the stones probably had a false palate in its throat, similar http://www.livescience.com had an extraordinarily high internal also played a part in breaking down to a crocodile, to stop back draft. body temperature, sufficient http://animal.discovery.com hard food. Modern crocodiles do So, there you go; the possibility http://www.ehow.com enough for a spark, but it would much the same, the stones also that fire-breathing dragons once seem that such a feat would put serving as ballast for swimming. existed is not so outrageous after all.

1st School Semester 2012/13 newsletter 23 Planetarium Science Center 6th year | 1st edition

1st School Semester 2012/13

Editorial Team: Maissa Azab Head, Educational Publications Unit

Shahenda Ayman Sara Khattab Hend Fathy Educational Publications Specialists

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24 newsletter 1st School Semester 2012/13