Métis Identity in Canada by Peter Larivière A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Geography Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2015, Peter Larivière Abstract The understanding and acknowledgement of Aboriginal rights has grown in importance within Canada as a result of the ever changing legal landscape and as Aboriginal groups more forcefully confront decades of colonial rule to assert their historic rights. While this has predominantly come out of First Nations issues, there has been a gradual increase in the rights cases by Métis communities. Primary among these was the 2003 Supreme Court of Canada Powley decision which introduced how Métis identity and community identification are key in a successful litigation claim by Métis. This research considers questions surrounding the contentious nature of Métis identity including how Métis see themselves and how their understandings are prescribed by others including the state, through tools such as the Census of Canada. ii Acknowledgements There is always a fear in acknowledging the support of individuals who assisted over the years that someone may be missed. So let me thank all those whose paths I have crossed and who in their own way set the stage for my being in this very place at this time. Without you I would not have made it here and I thank you. There are specific people who I do wish to highlight. My mother and father and my sister and her family all played a role not only in my formative years but continue to be part of my every day. In addition, the Pagé family who I have come to know and love over these last 25 years are a big part of my life. My colleagues throughout my career in the federal public service but especially Brendan O’ Donnell, Ann Holtz, Darlene Pearson and Nadine Crookes at Parks Canada. I thank you for your patience and support and giving me the opportunities to explore not only new and interesting subject matters but also my own sense of self. To those whose paths I have crossed throughout my university academic career that started at Carleton University over 30 years ago, to the many professors and staff thank you. Professor Fran Klodawsky whose support and advice has meant a great deal at the late stages of this research a very special thank you. To the thesis board members I thank you for taking time to help me progress in the final steps of the Masters program. To the elders and community members of Métis, First Nation and Inuit communities who have been my teachers, I offer you my heartfelt thanks and respect. I will always stand with you in the struggle. Finally I wish to acknowledge two individuals without whom I know I would not be at this stage in my life. Professor Derek Smith, you have been a mentor in more ways than you will ever realize. I know I wasn’t the easiest grad student to supervise. Thank you for everything. I know our paths will cross again. And Joanne, you have been my life. Without you none of this would have meaning or importance. I hope that you know I will always thank you for the time you allowed me to take to do this research at the expense of our time together. You are not only my wife, but my best friend and I will always love you. I dedicate this thesis to my Grandmother and Grandfather at the church, Ena and Joe Leblanc and my Grandmother and Grandfather at the club, Marjorie and Solomon Lariviere. iii Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. iv List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vi List of Illustrations .......................................................................................................... vii 1 Chapter 1: Introduction – The Power of Identity .................................................... 8 1.1 Purpose of Research ..................................................................................................... 12 1.2 Overview of the Thesis Chapters ................................................................................. 14 1.3 Positionality: From where I stand ................................................................................ 17 2 Chapter 2: Métis Identity and Community ............................................................ 19 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 19 2.2 Identity: Theory and Concepts ..................................................................................... 21 2.3 A Brief Métis History .................................................................................................. 34 2.4 Métis Identity and the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples .............................. 40 2.5 Métis Organization Definitions .................................................................................... 44 2.6 Concluding Thoughts ................................................................................................... 49 3 Chapter 3: Métis Case Law: Arguing Identity....................................................... 50 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 50 3.2 Powley .......................................................................................................................... 51 3.3 Labrador Métis Nation ................................................................................................. 61 3.4 Willison ........................................................................................................................ 66 3.5 Goodon ......................................................................................................................... 69 3.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 71 iv 4 Chapter 4: Methodology and Geographic Distribution of Métis Peoples and Communities .................................................................................................................... 73 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 73 4.2 The Census of Canada - Overview............................................................................... 77 4.3 Methodology: Managing the Data ............................................................................... 80 4.4 Census Data: An overview of Census Data ................................................................. 84 4.5 Mapping and Métis population .................................................................................... 93 4.6 Concluding thoughts .................................................................................................... 99 5 Chapter: Conclusion ............................................................................................... 101 Bibliography or References .......................................................................................... 118 v List of Tables Table 1 – 2001 Métis population by province 86 Table 2 - 2001 Métis populations in select CSDs 88 Table 3 – 2006 Métis populations in select CSDs 89 Table 4 – Métis population in select CMA’s 91 Table 5 – Largest Métis CSDs 2006 95 vi List of Illustrations Illustration 1 – Map 1 – 2006 Winnipeg CTs 111 Illustration 2 – Map 2 – 2006 CSD Métis identity – Hot Spots 112 Illustration 3 – Map 3 – 2006 CSD Métis population normalized by total population – Hot Spots 113 Illustration 4 – Map 4 - 2006 CSD Urban Centres – Métis population 114 Illustration 5 – Map 5 – 2006 CSD Métis as percentage of total population 115 Illustration 6 – Map 6 – 2006 CSD Métis as percentage of Aboriginal population 116 Illustration 7 – Map 7 - North Bay area Métis Communities 117 vii Introduction – The Power of Identity In this thesis, identity is considered in two ways: how one sees oneself and how others see an individual or group of individuals (community). As I understand it, when identity is imposed, it often takes on a role of power, with one group imposing an identity on the other (Said, 1979). Whether identity is assigned to subjugate and control or self-prescribed to claim a sense of ownership and authority (de la Cadena and Starn, 2007: 12), identity is a tool that plays a role in the relationship between peoples who may share a common geography but who see a separation or difference from each ‘other’. This research looks at the question of identity with a focus on the Métis peoples in Canada, examined through a range of perspectives, including definitions presented by Métis organizations, and through the eyes of the Canadian nation state, both in the form of census data, and through recent court decisions, in particular the 2003 Powley decision by the Supreme Court of Canada. This research, grounded in the concept of identity as socially constructed and contested, demonstrates how Métis identities are shaped by both geography and a range of political processes, including struggles