Does Self-Compassion Protect Adolescents Who Are Victimized Or Suffer from Academic Difficulties from Depression?

European Journal of Developmental Psychology

ISSN: 1740-5629 (Print) 1740-5610 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/pedp20

Does self-compassion protect adolescents who are victimized or suffer from academic difficulties from depression?

Oskari Lahtinen, Elina Järvinen, Sonja Kumlander & Christina Salmivalli

To cite this article: Oskari Lahtinen, Elina Järvinen, Sonja Kumlander & Christina Salmivalli (2020) Does self-compassion protect adolescents who are victimized or suffer from academic difficulties from depression?, European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 17:3, 432-446, DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2019.1662290 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2019.1662290

Published online: 06 Sep 2019.

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Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=pedp20 EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020, VOL. 17, NO. 3, 432–446 https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2019.1662290

Does self-compassion protect adolescents who are victimized or suﬀer from academic diﬃculties from depression?

Oskari Lahtinena, Elina Järvinenb, Sonja Kumlanderb and Christina Salmivallic aDepartment of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; bDepartment of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; cDepartment of Psychology, University of Turku, Shangdong University

ABSTRACT Adolescents face many social and academic difficulties which, if not managed properly, can lead to depression. Self-compassion, a kind and caring orientation towards oneself, has emerged as a possible resilience factor alleviating depression. Self-compassion comprises two factors: self-compassion and self-coldness. The present study set out to investigate whether self-compassion weakens or self- coldness strengthens the association between depression and two difficult cir- cumstances: victimization and academic difficulties (ADs). The sample consisted of 2383 students who had recently made the transition to upper secondary education. The study was cross-sectional and employed a hierarchical regression analysis approach. Strongest interactions were followed up with simple slope analysis. Self-compassion (inversely), self-coldness, ADs, and victimization were statistically significant predictors of depression. Self-compassion weakened the association between ADs and depression. The results suggest encountering difficulties in adolescence and depression are related and that self-compassion may moderate the association.

ARTICLE HISTORY Received 5 October 2018; Accepted 28 August 2019 KEYWORDS Self-compassion; self-coldness; victimization; academic diﬃculties; depression

Introduction

Adolescents are faced with numerous developmental challenges. Peer relations become increasingly important in this period of age, yet many adolescents are mistreated and victimized by their peers (Craig et al., 2009). Adolescents also have to manage increasingly demanding schoolwork as well as transitioning to upper secondary education. The transition entails risk and more vulnerable students (e.g., struggling with studies or in peer

CONTACT Oskari Lahtinen polaht@utu.fi Department of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku FI-20014, Finland © 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 433 relations) may find themselves unable to cope with the social and academic challenge. This risk is reflected in school dropout rates above 10% (Freeman & Simonsen, 2015;Official Statistics of Finland, 2017). In addition to challenges presented by peer relations and the educational environment, adolescents can also struggle with their own emotions and thoughts, in particular negative internal evaluations of their actions, feelings, or appear- ance. Adapting to the compounded challenges presented by adolescence thus requires resilience, i.e., capacity to cope when experiencing adversity (Rutter, 2015). Identifying resilience-promoting factors is thus exceedingly important. One factor promoting adolescent resilience has been proposed to be self-compassion (Neff & McGehee, 2010). Self-compassion can be defined as an accepting and caring orientation towards oneself when faced with difficulties (Neff, 2003a). Self-compassionate adolescents are thus likely to be more resilient when facing difficulties in adolescent life. Self-compassion has been defined as having both positive (self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness) and negative (self- judgement, isolation, and overidentification; reverse-scored in the total score) aspects and can be measured with the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003b). The positive aspects are collectively termed ‘self-compassion’ and the negative ones ‘self-coldness’. There is ongoing debate whether self- compassion should be conceived as a one-dimensional construct ranging from self-coldness to high self-compassion or whether it consists of two correlated yet distinct factors (self-compassion and self-coldness; Brenner, Heath, Vogel, & Crede, 2017; Kumlander, Lahtinen, Turunen, & Salmivalli, 2018).Whenwediscusspreviousstudies,unless otherwise stated, we always use ‘self-compassion’ to refer to the SCS total score. When we discuss the present study, we always differentiate between self-compassion (positive factors) and self-coldness (negative factors). In meta-analyses, self-compassion has been negatively associated with ill-being (anxiety, depression, and stress; MacBeth & Gumley, 2012)and positively associated with wellbeing (Zessin, Dickhäuser, & Garbade, 2015). Studies with adolescents have found self-compassion to be strongly correlated with depression (r = −.60 or above; e.g., Bluth, Campo, Futch, & Gaylord, 2017;Neff &McGehee,2010;Raes,2011). In a one-month longitudinal study, self-compassion was found to predict decreases in various psychological problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, and rumination; Neff, Kirkpatrick, & Rude, 2007)and,inafive-month longitudinal study, decreases in depression (Raes, 2011). 434 O. LAHTINEN ET AL.

There is early evidence that having self-compassion may protect against developing depressive symptoms (Ford, Klibert, Tarantino, & Lamis, 2017). Self-compassion protected students who had experienced a traumatic event by preventing traumatic symptoms in a six month longitudinal study (Zeller, Yuval, Nitzan-Assayag, & Bernstein, 2015). Self-compassion also predicted improved mental health in low self-esteem adolescents in a one- year longitudinal study (Marshall et al., 2015). In a laboratory experi- ment, having self-compassion protected participants from self-directed negative emotions when they imagined unpleasant social situations and self-compassion protected participants from negative emotions when they received ambivalent feedback about their own performance (Leary, Batts, Adams, & Hancock, 2007).

Difficulties and depression in adolescence All life stages involve exposure to stressors, but adolescence is considered a particularly stressful developmental stage (Arnett, 1999). Difficulties in adolescence can predict depressive symptoms even later in adulthood (Pine, Cohen, Johnson, & Brook, 2002).Forbothadolescentsandadults, depression is a leading global public health problem (Hankin, 2006;World Health Organization, 2008). Onset of depression is commonly preceded by various kinds of difficulties and negative life events, and the risk to develop depression is highest during the first month after a major life setback (Hammen, 2005;Mazure,1998; Tennant, 2002). In addition to external events, self-criticism is strongly associated with depression (Gilbert, Baldwin, Irons, Baccus, & Palmer, 2006). As adolescents are in the stage of developing a stable self and practicing how to relate to themselves, self- criticism is a particular risk-factor (Gilbert & Irons, 2009;Steinberg&Morris, 2001). Not all adolescents who encounter difficulties get depressed, however (Hammen, 2005). It is thus important to recognize moderators, both protective and exacerbating, of the difficulties-depression association. One common stress factor with substantial long term negative effects on psychological wellbeing is victimization by peers (Reijntjes, Kamphuis, Prinzie, & Telch, 2010;Ttofi, Farrington, Lösel, & Loeber, 2011). A meta- analysis consisting of 29 studies found that, even after controlling for 20 other factors, previous victimization predicted depression years later (Ttofi et al., 2011). Victimization is a challenge from the external environment. Depression can also result from internal stress factors. A prominent stress factor for adolescents is suffering from academic difficulties, i.e., having EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 435 difficulties in their studies. ADs and emotional and behavioural problems often co-occur: a meta-analysis comprising 25 studies found that 75% of children and adolescents with emotional/behavioural problems performed worse than their peers in all school subjects (Reid, Concalez, Nordness, Trout, & Epstein, 2004). Poor academic achievement in childhood has been found to predict later depressive symptoms even in early adulthood (Bandura, Pastorelli, Barbaranelli, & Caprara, 1999). Academic difficulties can often result from (neurological) learning difficulties. A cohort study (n = 9432) found the prevalence of learning difficulties in Finnish school- aged children was 21.4% (12.3% had a verbal learning difficulty, 3.0% a mathematical learning difficulty, and 6.0% a combined learning difficulty; Taanila, Yliherva, Kaakinen, Moilanen, & Ebeling, 2011).

Present study The study set out to investigate the association between depression and two different kinds of life difficulties among adolescents after upper secondary school transition: adversity related to external factors (victimization by peers) vs. internal factors (struggling with schoolwork). We also examined whether self-compassion and/or self- coldness could act as protective or exacerbating, respectively, moderators in the association. We expected self-compassion to weaken and self-coldness to strengthen the connection between difficulties and depression in adolescents. We expected victimized students with self-compassion to better be able to comfort themselves and be less vulnerable to depression. Similarly, we expected that students with academic difficulties would suffer less from depression if they had high levels of self-compassion and thus a more compassionate attitude towards their difficulties.

Method

Participants

The study sample (n = 2383) consisted of ﬁrst and second year upper secondary education students (Table 1). The sample was drawn from eight upper secondary schools and eight vocational institutions in south- ern and western Finland. Participants were not asked for their age, but previous data from an overlapping sample indicates approximately 95% of students are between 16 and 18 years old. 436 O. LAHTINEN ET AL.

Table 1. Demographic information of participants. Number (n) Percentage (%) Upper secondary school Girls 774 32.5 Boys 582 24.4 Vocational institution Girls 475 19.9 Boys 552 23.2

Study procedure

The study sample is a part of a larger research project (Well-being for secondary education). Because the project questionnaires were lengthy, answer reliability was maximized using a planned missing- ness protocol (for further elaboration of the protocol and the ratio- nale behind it, see Little & Rhemtulla, 2013). Questionnaire items were divided into four pools: a common pool that everyone answered in its entirety and three other separate pools. Item allocation between pools was determined based on the item factor loading on the scale or subscale to which it belonged. Each participant answered thecommonpoolandtwoofthethreeseparatepools(66.5–66.9% of all items). The missing (completely at random) data were imputed using multiple imputation. The data were collected in May of 2018. Participants filled questionnaires on an iPad or a computer. They were informed that the collected data were confidential and gave informed consent to participate. Data collection was supervised by one or two people who had been specifi- cally trained for the occasion. A hundred movie tickets and an iPad mini 4 were raffled among all participants.

Study variables Self-compassion and self-coldness Self-compassion and self-coldness were assessed with the 26 item Self- Compassion Scale (SCS; Neﬀ, 2003b). The scale was translated into Finnish via a joint eﬀort between a professional interpreter and the research group. Half of the items in the scale assess the three areas of self-compassion: kindness towards oneself (‘When I’m going through a very hard time, I give myself the caring and tenderness I need’), common humanity (‘I try to see my failings as part of the human condition’), and mindfulness (‘When I’m feeling down I try to approach my feelings with curiosity and openness’). The other 13 items assess self-coldness which comprises a judgemental attitude towards oneself (‘I’m disapproving and judgmental about my own EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 437

flaws and inadequacies’), feelings of isolation (‘When I think about my inadequacies, it tends to make me feel more separate and cut off from the rest of the world’), and overidentification (‘When I’m feeling down I tend to obsess and fixate on everything that’s wrong’). Answer options range from one to five (1 = Almost never, 2 = Every now and then, 3 = Approximately half of the time, 4 = Quite often and 5 = Almost always). Two mean variables were computed: 1) the self-compassion mean variable, which comprised items that measure self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness (α = .90) and 2) the self-coldness mean variable which comprised items that measure self-judgement, isolation, and overidentification (α = .92). Self-compassion and self-coldness can be validly measured with the SCS (Brenner et al., 2017).

Victimization Victimization was measured with the Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (BVQ; Olweus, 1996). The questionnaire was translated into Finnish by the research group. The questionnaire asks about eight forms of bullying and asks the participant to assess, on a scale from one to ﬁve, how often he/she had been bullied during that fall (1 = I have never been bullied, 2 = Once or twice, 3 = 2 or 3 times a month, 4 = About once a week, and 5 = Several times a week). We also added an item asking about bullying via a phone or over the internet. A mean variable was formed based on the answers. (α = .93.) Victimization can be validly measured with the BVQ (Lee & Cornell, 2009).

Academic difficulties ADs were measured with a five item scale asking about difficulties in reading, writing, reading comprehension, math, and foreign languages. The participant was asked to estimate how often they had difficulties on each domain using a scale from one to three (1 = Not at all, 2 = Somewhat, and 3 = A lot). The answers were combined into a mean variable. (α = .72.) Turunen, Poskiparta, and Salmivalli (2017) used similar items for assessing difficulties in reading and math in a sample of younger students and provided validity information for the used measures. As our participants were older teenagers (mostly aged 16–18), their answers are likely to be more reliable than those of younger students. 438 O. LAHTINEN ET AL.

Depression Depression was assessed with the 13 question Revised Beck Depression Inventory (R-BDI; Kaltiala-Heino, Rimpelä, Rantanen, & Laippala, 1999). The participant was asked to describe how he/she felt at the moment, e.g., ‘How is your mood?’ Questions were answered on a scale from one to ﬁve. For instance the answer options for the question ‘How is your mood?’ were 1 = I feel good and positive, 2 = I do not feel sad, 3 = I feel sad or blue, 4 = I feel blue or sad all the time and I cannot snap out of it, and 5 = I am so sad or unhappy that I cannot stand it. The answers were combined into ameanvariable(α = .91). R-BDI has been validated with Finnish adults (Raitasalo, 2007).

Gender and school type Participants chose their genders out of three options (1 = girl, 2 = boy, 3 = other) and their current educational institution out of two options (1 = upper secondary school, or 2 = vocational institution). The third gender option was dropped from analyses because of the small size of the group (n = 34).

Plan of analyses Missing values (all missing completely at random, i.e., MCAR) were imputed using the multiple imputation procedure (5 imputations; Little & Rhemtulla, 2013). Hypotheses about the moderating effect of self-compassion (model 1) and self-coldness (model 2) were tested with hierarchical regression analyses, where we investigated whether self-compassion and self- coldness moderate the relationships between victimization and ADSs and depression. Depression was a dependent variable in both models and school type and gender were controlled for. Predictor variables were stan- dardized for regression analyses. During the first phase gender and school type were included in the model. In the second phase self-compassion or self-coldness and victimization or ADs were added. In the third phase the interaction term (victimization x self-compassion or ADs x self-compassion or victimization x self-coldness or ADs x self-coldness) was added. Statistically significant interactions were followed up with simple slope analyses, where the relationship between victimization/ADs and depression was examined at high (1 SD above mean) and low levels of self-compassion (1 SD below mean). EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 439

Results

Correlations and descriptives The means and standard deviations for self-compassion, self-coldness, depression, victimization, and ADs are shown in Table 2 and correlations between study variables in Table 3. In terms of mean differences, girls suffered more from depression and had more self-coldness and academic difficulties than boys (t > 6.0, p < .01). Upper secondary students suffered more from depression and had more self-coldness and self- compassion than vocational institute students (t > 2.8, p < .01). Vocational institute students were more often victimized than upper secondary education students (t = −3.0, p < .01).

The moderating eﬀects of self-compassion and self-coldness In phase 1 of model 1 (Table 4), gender predicted depression whereas school type did not. In phase 2, victimization was positively and self- compassion negatively associated with depression. In phase 3, the interaction between victimization and self-compassion was not a statistically signiﬁcant predictor of depression. Phase 1 of model 2 was identical to model 1 (this will be the case for phase 1 of models 3 and 4 as well and is not repeated below). In phase 2, both victimization and self-coldness

Table 2. Variable means and standard deviations. Gender School type Girls Boys Upper secondary school Vocational institute All M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD Self-compassion 2.83 .79 2.80 .84 2.93 .79 2.67 .82 2.82 .82 Self-coldness* 2.67 .87 2.21 .83 2.57 .86 2.29 .88 2.45 .88 Depression* 1.98 .66 1.71 .56 1.89 .63 1.81 .63 1.85 .63 Victimization 1.11 .34 1.12 .43 1.09 .31 1.14 .46 1.11 .38 ADs* 1.62 .46 1.48 .45 1.56 .45 1.55 .48 1.55 .46 * = mean diﬀerence between genders or school types, p < .01

Table 3. Correlations between study variables. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. Self-compassion 2. Self-coldness −.07 3. Depression −.32 .53 4. Victimization −.02 .17 .19 5. ADs −.10 .22 .30 .21 p < .01 for all 440 O. LAHTINEN ET AL.

Table 4. Hierarchical regression analyses for predicting depression from difficulties. Moderator Self-compassion Self-coldness Model 1 Model 2 b ΔR2 b ΔR2 Victimization Phase 1 .05 Same as in Model 1 Gender −.13 School type −.03 Phase 2 .15 .25 Victimization .12 .07 Moderator −.21 .31 Phase 3 .00 .00* Victimization x moderator −.01 −.02 Model 3 Model 4 Academic difficulties Phase 1 Same as in Model 1 Gender School type Phase 2 .17 .27 Academic difficulties .15 .12 Moderator −.20 .30 Phase 3 .01 .00 Academic difficulties −.06 .02 x moderator p < .01 in bold predicted depression. In phase 3, the interaction between victimization and self-coldness did not predict depression statistically significantly. In phase 2 of model 3, ADs predicted depression and self- compassion inversely predicted depression. In phase 3, the interaction between ADs and self-compassion inversely predicted depression. In phase 2 of model 4 ADs and self-coldness predicted depression. In phase 3, the interaction between ADs and self-coldness did not predict depression.

Moderation follow-up analyses

One interaction (LD x self-compassion) was statistically signiﬁcant and was followed up on with a simple slope analysis. The interaction between ADs and self-compassion was probed at high (M + 1 SD) and low (M – 1 SD) levels of the moderator. For participants high in self- compassion, ADs were less predictive of depression (b = .09 [.06, .12], p < .01; Figure 1) whereas for participants low in self-compassion ADs were more predictive of depression (b = .21 [.18, .24], p < .01). EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 441

Figure 1. ADs-depression associations at high, average, and low moderator values.

Discussion

The study set out to test whether self-compassion weakens or self-coldness strengthens the relationship between victimization and ADs with depression. Self-compassion (inversely), self-coldness, victimization, and ADs were statistically significant predictors of depression for adolescents when gender and school type were controlled for. Self-compassion weakened the association between ADs and depression. The moderating effect of self- compassion on the association between ADs and depression was aligned with what we expected. Self-compassion entails having a kind attitude towards oneself when encountering difficulties. ADs are by definition difficulties and it appears that having a self-compassionate attitude alleviates the suffering that comes from ADs, i.e., that self-compassion promotes resilience in the face of difficulties as proposed in previous studies (Neff & McGehee, 2010). Self-compassion did not moderate the association between victimization and depression. This is different from its moderating effect in the ADs-depression association. A possible reason for the disparity may be in 442 O. LAHTINEN ET AL. that whereas ADs are an ‘internal’ experience with cognitive and emotional factors, victimization entails mistreatment that comes from the environment. As taking a self-compassionate stance towards one’s experience is also an internal process, it is possibly more effective with ADs than with victimization. Self-coldness did not statistically significantly moderate interactions between difficulties and depression. It is currently not known how self-compassion and self-coldness moderate (or mediate) the connection between life difficulties and depression. Evidence exists that self-compassion could act both as an emotion regulation skill (Neff &Germer,2013; Trompetter, de Kleine, & Bohlmeijer, 2017; Vettese, Dyer, Li, & Wekerle, 2011) and uphold a sense of self-worth when encountering difficulties or failures (Neff, 2003a;Neff et al., 2007). Victimization (Reijntjes et al., 2010;Ttofi et al., 2011), ADs (Bandura et al., 1999;Reidetal.,2004), and the SCS total score (e.g., MacBeth & Gumley, 2012) have been found to be associated with depression in adolescents and adults. The results of the present study, in this regard, are consonant with the theoretical assumptions and earlier empirical findings: victimization, ADs, and self-coldness were positively correlated with depression, whereas the association between self-compassion and depression was negative. Results regarding the association between self-compassion and self- coldness were also aligned with some recent empirical results: self- compassion and self-coldness appear to be separate phenomena and not opposite ends of a continuum (Brenner et al., 2017). Self-compassion research has thus far largely been done using the total score of the SCS which is calculated by summing up items that assess both self-compassion and self- coldness (latter reversed; MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;Neff et al., 2007;Raes, 2011;Zessinetal.,2015). The present study supports criticism directed of late at the factor structure of the SCS in that self-compassion and self-coldness were only weakly related in our data (r = −.07). If the items measuring self- compassion and items measuring self-coldness indeed were measuring opposite ends of a spectrum the scales would be expected to be strongly negatively correlated. The association between self-compassion and depression was weaker than the association between self-coldness and depression. This can partly be due to overlap between the concepts of self-coldness and depression. A novel aspect of the present study, when compared to previous studies, was looking at the moderating effects of self-compassion and self-coldness separately. The self-compassion total score has been found to factor into the relationship between difficulties and psychological EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 443 wellbeing (Leary et al., 2007; Marshall et al., 2015; Vettese et al., 2011; Zeller et al., 2015) and the protecting influence has been thought to be explained by self-compassion acting as a way of self-regulating (Neff & Germer, 2013; Trompetter et al., 2017; Vettese et al., 2011) and uphold- ing a sense of self-worth (Neff, 2003a;Neff et al., 2007). The present study yields preliminary evidence on self-compassion and self-coldness having different moderating roles in how life difficulties predict depression: the main protective effect was exclusively from self- compassion in the case of students having ADs. Self-compassion did not protect victimized students from depression. Low self-coldness did not appear to protect victimized students or students with ADs. However, having low self-coldness appears to be protective from depression in and of itself, given the strong association between self-coldness and depression. Self-compassion has been thought to be an adaptive self- regulatory skill especially for adolescents (Bluth et al., 2017;Neff & McGehee, 2010). Self-kindness and common humanity aspects of self- compassion in particular could alleviate self-criticism and feelings of isolation common in adolescence, which in turn make adolescents sus- ceptible to depression (Murphy et al., 2002). Some study limitations should be noted. First, the study was cross- sectional and causal conclusions cannot be drawn based on its results. In this cross-sectional account, it is possible difficulties moderated the relationship between self-compassion and depression, not the other way around. Second, we relied on self-reports to assess study variables. Especially with the case of academic difficulties, it would be more desirable to have more objective data from the schools or parents. Third, the prevalence of victimization was somewhat low in the sample, which makes drawing conclusions more difficult. Low victimization in upper secondary education is in itself of course a positive thing, but testing of study hypotheses would perhaps been more fruitful in basic education where victimization is still more prevalent. Fourth, in this study we looked at only two kinds of life difficulties, ADs and victimization. Future studies could investigate other kinds of difficulties and also take into account cumulative risk from having multiple simultaneous difficulties. Taking all things into consideration, the results lend support to the conclusion that there is a positive association between the difficulties adolescents face and depression. There are further hints that self- compassion is a factor that may alleviate this association. The study results support the separate roles of self-coldness and self-compassion and raise 444 O. LAHTINEN ET AL. questions about the validity of using a SCS total score in analysis involving ‘self-compassion’. Even though practicing self-compassion can alleviate depressive symptoms (Bluth, Gaylord, Campo, Mullarkey, & Hobbs, 2016), more evidence is needed of the separate effects of self-compassion and self-coldness and the mechanisms by which they protect from and expose to depression.

Disclosure statement

No potential conﬂict of interest was reported by the authors.

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