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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-77056-9 - A History of Islamic Societies: Second Edition Ira M. Lapidus Index More information

INDEX

A ‘Abdallah Mahmud, al-Hajj, 755 Abacha, General, 751 ‘Abdallah b. Muhammad, 763 Abadan, 94, 137, 478 ‘Abdallah b. Salim, 435 ‘Abbas, Amir, 747 ‘Abdallah b. Yasid, 306 ‘Abbas, Farhat, 591, 593–4 ‘Abdallah b. al-Zubayr, 49 ‘Abbas I (Shah, 1588–1629), 235, 237–42, 244, 246 ‘Abduh, Muhammad, 464, 466, 516–18, 581, 592, 603, ‘Abbas II (Shah, 1642–66), 240, 243 609, 664, 820 ‘Abbas (uncle of Muhammad), 53 ‘Abdur Rahman, Amir, 720–2, 848 ‘Abbasid empire Abdulrahim, Imaduddin, 673 administration, 58–66, 105–6, 108, 110–11, 122, 185, Abraham, in Islam, 24, 69 192, 217, 286 Abu al-‘Abbas, 54 collapse of, 94, 103–12, 117, 119–20, 123–5, 131, 133, Abu al-‘Ala al-Ma‘arri, 126 135, 187, 290, 292, 356 Abu ‘Amir b. Garcia, 313 in Egypt and North Africa, 283, 285–7, 302–3, Abu Bakr (Almoravid, d.1087), 402 308 Abu Bakr (Caliph, 632–34), 21, 32, 45, 95, 685 history, 45, 51–66, 88, 151, 184–6, 253, 567 Abu Burda, 143 and Islamic culture, 67–82, 99–102, 114, 126–7, 142, Abu Dhabi, 577–8, 580 186, 216, 260, 285, 311, 313, 358, 381; and Abu Hafs ‘Umar, 307 Muslim theology, 78, 88, 136 Abu Hanifa, 176 legitimation, 68, 102, 104, 108, 186, 216 Abu Hashim, 53 military organization, 58–9, 103–4, 217 Abu Jummayza, 763 relation to tribes, 53–4 Abu Maydan (al-Andalusi), 140, 309 religious policy, 65, 99–103, 142, 816 Abu Muslim, 53–4, 65 and Shi‘a, 53–4, 65–6, 81, 95–8, 107–8, 133–4 Abu Sa‘id b. Abi Khayr (967–1049), 138 ‘Abbud, Ibrahim, General, 766–7 Abu Talib, 20, 22 ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, Shah, 464, 622 Abu’l Kalam Azad, 631, 640 ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, Sultan of Morocco, 332 Abyssinia. see Ethiopia ‘Abd al-‘Aziz b. Sa‘ud (Ibn Saud), 464, 569, 572, 848 Achaemenid empire, 6 ‘Abd al-Hafiz (Sultan of Morocco), 333 Acheh ‘Abd al-Hamid II (Sultan, 1876–1908), 251, 460, 496–8, kingdom of, 253, 385–8, 392, 397, 464, 660 500 in modern Indonesia, 669, 672–4 ‘Abd al-Karim, 609 Acrazas, battle of, 54 ‘Abd al-Malik, Caliph, 50–1, 69 activists, Muslim. see revivalism, Islamic ‘Abd al-Mu’min, 307 adab literature, 76–7, 80, 101, 185 ‘Abd al-Nasser, Jamal see Nasser, Jamal ‘Abd al- Adal, kingdom of, 436 ‘Abd al-Qadir (1776–1806), 419 adat (law), 657, 664 ‘Abd al-Qadir (fl.1832), 587–8 Aden, 254, 570–1, 576, 830 ‘Abd al-Rahman I (756–88), 311 administration. see also under the names of countries and ‘Abd al-Rahman II (822–52), 311, 313 regions ‘Abd al-Rahman III (912–61), 300, 311 Arab conquests, 41, 44 ‘Abd al-Rahman, Sayyid, 765 post-imperial era, 114, 116–17, 119–25, 127, 143–4, ‘Abd al-Rahman, Tunku, 677 148, 151, 154–5, 187–9, 192–3, 206 ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Rashid, 432 pre-Islamic, 3–5, 8 ‘Abd al-Rahman b. Rustam, 302 ‘ulama’, 207, 217 ‘Abd al-Raziq, ‘Ali, 521 Adhruh, 47 ‘Abd al-Wadids, 300 al-Afdal, 287 ‘Abdallah, Amir, 545 Afework, Isayas, 772 ‘Abdallah, Faruq, 649 al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din (1839–97), 460, 474, 516–18, 603, ‘Abdallah, King of Jordan (1999–), 545 632 ‘Abdallah, Shaykh Muhammad, 649 Afghanistan ‘Abdallah al-‘Ahmar, 571 and Caliphate, 92

941

942 Index

Afghanistan (cont.) Aleppo, 39, 109, 253–4, 265, 274, 287, 289–91, 296–7, and Europeans, 354–5, 471, 722 535–6, 550, 715 Islamization, 198 women in, 854 in modern era, 574, 648–9, 679–80, 712–14, 718–25, Alevis, 798 792, 806, 812, 826–7, 830, 835, 837, 844, 847–8, Alexander the Great, 6, 128, 130, 229, 263, 293 867 Alexandria, 33, 58, 77–8, 139, 178, 254, 513, 515 post-‘Abbasid era, 109, 112, 114, 116, 127, 135, 137, women in, 857 140, 356–7 Alfonso VI, King, 313 Safavids in, 235 Alfonso X, 316 women in, 725, 824, 863 Algeria. see also under agriculture; industrialization; Afghans reformism in India, 202–3, 447 administration, 218, 325–6, 587–8, 590–1, 596, 616 in Iran, 218, 244–5 Caliphal era, 302, 304, 307–8, 319, 325–6, 328–9, in Pakistan, 648 333–6 Aflaq, Michel, 540–1, 543 chronology, 300–1 African Americans, 785, 806–8 diffusion of Islam, 201, 302 Afshars, in Iran, 244–5 economy, 588, 590, 592 Aga Khan, 779 and Europe, 301, 326, 460, 467, 586–97, 602, 616, Aga Khan I, Hasan ‘Ali Shah, 375 790, 793–4, 797, 803, 841 agha (chief), 325–6, 587 independent, 597–600 Aghlabid dynasty, 285, 300, 302–3, 308, 334, 401 Islamic community, 214 agriculture legitimacy, 326, 334–5, 599 in ‘Abbasid era, 62, 110 and Libya, 613 Algeria, 598–9, 616 military organization, 326, 334, 818 Arab conquests, 34, 44 in modern era, 460, 467–8, 535, 584, 586–600, in Caliphate, 54, 76, 99, 184 615–18, 820, 824, 826 China, 730 and Morocco, 606–12 and diffusion of Islam, 22, 200, 202 nationalism, 820 East Africa, 433, 766, 775 and Ottoman empire, 325–6, 334, 446 Egypt, 513, 516, 525–7 political parties, 594–5, 597 feudalism, 123 pre-modern era, 319–21 India, 357, 362, 624 relation to tribes, 326, 334, 444, 586–90, 818 in Inner Asia, 345, 350, 686–8, 700–2, 704–5 state and religion, 334, 599–600, 740, 830, 840–2, Iran, 39, 111, 114, 226, 228, 231–2, 235, 480–1 871 Iraq, 38–9, 110, 114, 543, 552 war of independence, 595–6 Islamic community, 209 women in, 592, 598, 859, 863 Java, 382, 652–4, 656 Algiers, battle of, 255 Morocco, 327, 335, 607–8 Alhambra, 309, 316–17 Oman, 576 ‘Ali (Caliph), 21, 45–7, 49, 87, 138–9, 178, 233–4, 243, Ottoman empire, 248, 269, 457, 494 246, 267, 304, 349, 374, 685 in post-‘Abbasid era, 148, 151, 192 and Shi‘a, 53, 65, 95–7, 102, 134, 176, 180–1 pre-Islamic, 3, 8, 10, 13, 17, 22 ‘Ali b. Daud (Sultan of Harar), 436 Southeast Asia, 388, 390, 656, 664 ‘Ali b. Dunama (1476–1503), 405 sub-Saharan Africa, 400–1, 406, 410, 418 ‘Ali Mughayat Shah, 385 Sumatra, 654 ‘Ali Pasha (1759–82), 324 Syria, 39–40, 549 ‘Ali Pasha of Janina (1788–1822), 280 Tunisia, 304, 602, 604 ‘Ali al-Rida, 102, 134 Turkey, 500–2, 506 Alia, Ramiz, 788 West Africa, 733–4, 744 ‘Alid dynasty, 53, 178, 180–1, 285–6, 485 Ahl-i Hadith, 643, 825, 851 Aligarh modernism, 459–60, 517, 621, 628, 631–2, 820, Ahmad Baba (1556–1627), 409 846 Ahmad Bamba, 742 ‘alim. see ‘ulama’ (religious scholars) Ahmad b. Hanbal, 102 aliran (social units), 666, 669 Ahmad al-Jazzar, 297 Aliyev, Haidar, 717 Ahmad Khatib, Shaykh, 664 Allah’s Nation of the Five Percenters, 808 Ahmad b. Taymiya (Ibn Taymiya), 149 ‘Allami, Abu’l-Fazl, 372 Ahmad al-Tayyib b. al-Bashir, Shaykh, 762 almami, 414, 416, 418–19, 426 Ahmad b. Tulun (868–84), 107 Almohad dynasty, 191, 214, 216, 283, 300, 306–9, 314–15, Ahmadiya school, 295, 437, 749, 759, 768–9, 779–80, 797, 319, 321, 327, 333, 335, 613, 815 806–7 Almoravid dynasty, 191, 214, 216, 283, 300, 304–7, 309, Ahmed III (1703–30), 282 314–15, 327, 334–5, 401–2, 416, 815 Ahrar, ‘Ubaydallah (khavaja, 1404–90), 347 almsgiving. see zakat (almsgiving) Ahwaz, 33, 58 Alphonsi, Petrus, 316 ‘A’isha (wife of Muhammad), 47 Alptigin, slave governor, 114 Ait Ahmed, 595 Altynsarin, Ibragim, 692 Ajnadayn, battle of, 32 Amalric (king of Jerusalem), 290 Akaev, Askar, 713 Amanullah, 722 Akbar (1556–1605), 357–8, 365, 367–8, 371–2, 377–9 American Muslim Mission, 807 akhbari school, 246 Amin, Idi, 778 akhi (youth fraternity), 249 Amin, Qasim, 856 Alash Orda, 692, 694, 697 al-Amin, son of Harun al-Rashid, 103 ‘Alawi dynasty (Morocco), 214, 301, 327, 330–1, 335 Amir (rulers) ‘Alawis (Syria), 541, 543, 548–50, 583, 773 Bukhara, 696 Albanians Nigeria, 733, 737, 745–7, 751 in modern era, 510, 785–9, 803, 806 Transjordan, 540 and Ottoman empire, 250, 252–3, 264, 267, 273–4, Amir Khosraw, 263 276–7, 279–80, 498–9 amir al-mu’uminin (Commander of the Faithful), 311, Aleksander, king of Yugoslavia, 787 322, 416, 421, 424

Index 943

amir ul-umara’ (general-in-chief), 108 Iran, 126–8, 130 Amirid dynasty, 313 Middle Eastern societies, 136, 184, 186, 205, 283, 285, ‘Amr bin al-‘As, 33 541, 583 analogy. see qiyas North Africa, 321, 333, 586, 591, 593–5, 600, 603–4, Anatolia 607, 617 and Arab conquests, 33, 38–40 in Ottoman empire, 261, 265, 502–3, 509 and Caliphate, 54, 58, 287 in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 122, 151, 188 diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 201–2, 444 revival of, 537, 580, 744–5, 824 in Ottoman empire, 250–3, 259–60, 265–9, 272–4, Southeast Asia, 662–3, 676 282, 323, 325–6, 446, 457, 492–3, 498–500 Spain, 309–13, 318–19 in post-‘Abbasid era, 112, 117 West Africa, 408–9, 740, 742, 746, 751, 755–6, 758–9 in pre-Islamic era, 6–7 Arabic literature social change in, 278–80 classical, 67–8, 73–6, 80, 100–1, 183, 185–6 Turkish and Mongol settlement, 214, 226, 229, 231–4, in Ottoman empire, 267 248–50, 258 revival in, 537, 539, 603, 662 in Turkish Republic, 508, 786 in Spain, 311–13, 315–16, 318–19 al-Andalusi (Abu Maydan), 139, 309 Arabism, 538–40, 567, 578, 580, 593, 598, 614–15, 756, Andalusians, 313 758, 767, 778. see also Arab nationalism; pan-Arabism in North Africa, 306–7, 319, 321, 324, 329–30, 335 Arabs. see also Palestinians animism, 15, 200, 205, 584, 715, 738, 766 in Africa, 781, 784 anjumans (religious associations), 627, 632 and Caliphate, 56, 58–9, 61, 64–5, 68, 74–6, 81, 104, ansar (Medinian helpers of the Prophet), 45, 763, 765 191, 216 Ansar Party, 763, 765–6 in Caucasus, 714 Ansar ud-deen, 749 in China, 725–6 Antioch, 78, 287, 289 conquests, 8, 31–44, 48, 50, 67, 74, 99, 184, 193, 565, Anvari (1116–89), 128 576, 852 Aoun, Michel, 557 and diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 200, 202 ‘Aqaba, 39, 539 in East Africa, 204–5, 768, 772–4, 776–9, 827 al-‘Aqaba (pledge), 23 in Europe and United States, 785, 795–6, 799, 806 ‘aql (rational judgment), 29, 93, 162, 167 in India, 356 al-Aqraba, battle of, 32 in Iran, 127, 228, 337, 481 Arab League. see League of Arab States migrations, 10, 12, 15, 184–5, 191, 205 Arab Middle East. see also Arabia military techniques, 10 and Afghanistan, 848 in North Africa, 29–30, 48, 283, 299–300, 302, 304, and Africa, 755–6, 782 307, 309, 321, 333–4, 401, 459, 599, 613, 839 conservative regimes, 526–7, 548, 583–4, 848 in Ottoman empire, 252–4, 261, 264, 268, 274, 276, Gulf War, 528 280, 294–8, 492, 499 Islam in, 737 in post-‘Abbasid era, 142–3, 189, 191, 216, 283–94 Islamic reformism, 518 in Southeast Asia, 662 Islamic revival, 532, 835 in Spain, 299–300, 302, 309–10, 313–14 in modern era, 535–85, 848–9, 871 in Sudan, 429, 850 in Ottoman empire, 489 in West Africa, 416, 733, 740, 747–8, 840 and Turkey, 510 Arafat, Yassir, 560, 563–5, 585 women in, 853–7, 859–62, 864–5 Aramaic language, 44, 74 Arab nationalism. see also Arabism; pan-Arabism Arameans, 14, 36, 41 in Arabian peninsula, 567, 570–1, 573–4, 579 architecture colonial period, 540–6 ‘Abbasid, 216 in East Africa, 766 in Caliphate, 67–71, 99 in Egypt, 512 Fatimid, 285–6 and Islam, 580–2, 584–5 Hafsid, 322 in modern Middle East, 547–8, 551–6, 820 Iran, 131, 445 and notables, 535–40 Mamluk, 293 and Palestinians, 562, 588 Mongol, 228–9 Arab revolt (1936–39), 559 Mughal, 372, 376, 447 Arabia. see also Arab Middle East Ottoman, 216, 263, 282 and Arab nationalism, 538–40 post-‘Abbasid, 114, 121, 125–6, 188, 306 and Caliphate, 285, 313 pre-Islamic, 3 and diffusion of Islam, 203 states and, 218 early history, 10–30, 45–7, 49, 67, 97, 107–8, 110, Umayyad, 51, 185, 312, 316 183–4, 186, 197–200 Ardabil, 54, 233, 241 and Egypt, 512, 527–8, 567, 570, 573–574, 576, 578 Arifi (d.1561–62), 263 Islamic community, 211, 213–14, 444 Aristotle, 77–9, 88, 147, 152, 167–8, 178, 243, 312, 316 modern states, 565–80 Arkoun, Muhammad, 823–4 in Ottoman empire, 269, 283, 294, 296, 447, 492 Armenia, 7, 33, 54, 59, 61, 104, 108, 117, 120, 245, 248, reformism, 211, 462 292, 471, 493, 499, 693, 717 regimes, 568–9 Armenians, 235, 237, 242–3, 248–9, 251, 264, 268–9, Shi‘a in, 242, 555 272–3, 275–6, 297–8, 324, 485, 495, 498–9, 501–2, and Southeast Asia, 658 584 women in, 852–3 Army of Allah, Indonesia, 675, 827 Arabian Nights, 76 Arslan, Shakib, 591 Arabic language art. see also architecture; painting development of, 42–4, 50–1, 58, 67–9, 74–8, 81, 93, in Caliphate, 67–71, 99–101, 183, 185 117, 127 Islamic attitudes to, 131–2, 206 early, 13, 16, 21 in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 125, 130–2, 188 East Africa, 429, 432, 751, 767, 771 pre-Islamic, 3 Europe, 787, 794, 797 Arusha Declaration, 775 influence of, 416 ‘asabiya (group solidarity), 12 Inner Asia, 690–1, 702, 707 al-Asad, Bashar, 551

944 Index

al-Asad, Hafiz, 549–51, 565, 585 Badr al-Jamali, 287 asceticism, 90–2, 94, 101, 137, 158, 163, 184, 186, 210, Baghdad 308–9. see also mysticism; Sufism as ‘Abbasid capital, 38, 56–60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 73, 78, Ashanti, 406, 413, 438, 441, 759 99, 103–6, 108, 110, 126, 184, 311–13, 315–16, al-Ash‘ari (d.935), 89–90, 178, 306 567 Ash‘ari school, 135–7, 141, 149, 166–7, 177–8, 189, 308 in modern era, 535, 541, 544, 614 ashraf (sayyid, noble status), 215, 348–9, 355, 357, 380, in Ottoman empire, 254, 269, 274, 280, 296–7 567, 570, 620, 627, 685 in post-‘Abbasid era, 117, 121, 127, 133–6, 139–41, ashraf (sayyid, sada’, noble status), 208–10 143, 160, 176, 291, 306, 308 al-Askar, 64 Shi‘i community, 97, 133–4 Askiya Muhammad Ture, 404 Sufism, 92–3, 143, 178 Assassins. see Isma‘ili Shi‘ism Baghdad Pact, 480, 482, 524, 547, 551 assimilation Baha’ism, 473, 475, 485, 584 of Arabs, 40, 43–4, 51, 100, 184–5 Bahmanid dynasty, 357, 361 of Muslims under Chinese control, 725–7, 729–31 Bahrain, 32, 49, 98, 107, 242, 254, 568, 577–80, 583, 827 of Muslims in Soviet Union, 705–6, 708–9 Baki (1526-1600), 261 of Muslims in United States, 805, 808–9, 811–12 al-Bakka’i, Sidi Ahmad, Shaykh, 410, 425 of non-Arabs into Islam, 81, 189, 202 al-Bakr, Ahmad Hassan, 552 associations, religious. see also anjumans Bakr tribe, 32 in Caliphate, 7–8, 42, 49, 99, 177–84, 186–7, 189–91 Bakri lineage, 515 Iran, 226 Baksar, battle of, 380 in Islamic society, 205–6, 211 Baku, 691, 693, 702, 705–6, 717 relation to states, 815–18, 820–2 Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, 289 in West Africa, 755–6 Balfour Declaration, 493, 539, 544–5, 557 Assyria, empire, 6, 56 Balim Sultan, 266 Assyrians, 264 Balkans Astarabad, 235, 245 Arab conquests, 33 Astarabadi, Fadlallah (d.1394), 233 diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 201–2, 204, 214, 252–3 Astrakhan, 255, 339–40, 342, 344 in modern era, 505, 509–11, 524, 640, 785–9 Astrakhanid dynasty, 340, 348 and Ottoman empire, 222, 250, 252–5, 258–9, 263–9, Aswan dam, 516, 524, 526 272–4, 276–82, 324–5, 444, 446, 489–90, 492–3, Atabeg (regent), 119, 123, 289 497–9 Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal, 497, 499, 502–11, 667, 837–8, pre-Islamic, 6–7 856–7 slaves, 217, 259 Athens, 77–8 Balkh, 40, 60, 128, 230 ‘Attar, Farid al-Din (1142–1221), 130, 263 Baluchis, 576, 636, 644, 718, 847–8 Attila, 692 Bamako, 755, 758 Auliya, Nizam al-Din, Shaykh, 365, 368 Bambaras, 405, 425, 736 Aurangzeb (1658–1707), 357, 378–80 Bamidele movement, 737 Austria, 199, 224, 254–5, 489–93, 501, 538, 692, 786, 789, Bandar ‘Abbas, 237 792, 803 Bandung Conference, 524 Averroes. see Ibn Rushd Bangladesh, 641, 646, 649–51, 799, 806, 826, 837, 847 Avers, 698 Banjermasin war, 660 Avicenna. see Ibn Sina al-Banna, Hasan, 522 Aws, people, 22–3 Banten, Java, 392, 462, 659 al-Awza‘i, law scholar, 312 Banu Furat, 105 a‘yan (Ottoman notables), 278–80 Banu Hashim, 20, 22, 53 Ayatollahs, 215, 482–6, 488 Banu Jarrah, 105 Aybeg (Mamluk Sultan), 292 Banu Khalid, 578 ‘Ayn Jalut, battle of, 292 Banu Ma‘qil, 307, 327–8, 416 Ayodhya, 644 Banu Naghrila, 313 ‘ayyarun (gangs), 144, 146 Banu Nawbakht, 95 Ayyub Khan, General, 645–6 Banu ‘Utub, 578 Ayyubid dynasty, 109, 122, 176, 283, 291–3, 319, 567 baqa’ (persistence in one’s own identity), 92, 167 Azalis, 473 al-Baqillani (d.1013), 166, 176 Azarbayjan. see also Baku Barak, Ehud, 565 and Arab conquest, 33, 40, 714 baraka (power of blessing), 208, 210, 329, 335, 363, 747, and Iran, 476, 479 769 Ottomans in, 245 Barani (d. c.1360), 360 in post-‘Abbasid era, 117, 120, 130–1 Barelwi, Sayyid Ahmad, 622 in post-Soviet era, 710, 717–18 Barelwi movement, 464–5, 621–2, 626, 648, 799, 803 Russian control, 692–4, 697–8, 706, 717 Barghwata peoples, 304 Safavids in, 235 Barmakid family, 60 Azariqa, Khariji faction, 178 Basayev, Shamil, 717 al-Azhar University, Cairo, 211, 286, 295, 514–15, 517, Bashar al-Asad. see al-Asad, Bashar 523, 529, 682, 755, 762–3 al-Bashir, ‘Umar, 767–8 al-Azhar University, Gaza, 564 Bashir II (1788–1840), 536 ‘Azm family, 297 Bashkirs, 694, 698, 706 Azoury, Negib, 537 basmachi groups (rural bandits), 695–6, 703 Basra, 33–4, 38–41, 47, 50, 56, 66, 74–5, 85, 91, 107, 135, B 254, 269, 280, 297, 312, 572, 576 Baalbek, 32 Ba‘thism Baba Farid (Farid al-Din Ganj-i Shakr, d.1245), 362–3 Arabia, 575 Babrak Karmal, 723 Iraq, 548, 551–3, 555, 582 Babur, 358, 368, 371, 644 Libya, 614 Babylon. see Mesopotamia Syria, 540, 543, 547–9, 582 Badawiya order, 140 Batu (Mongol leader), 338 Badr, battle of, 27 Batyr Srym, 344

Index 945

Bawa Muhaiyadeen, 806 British Bayar, Jelal, 505 and Afghanistan, 720 Bayazid I (1389–1402), 250–1, 259 in Arabian peninsula, 567, 570–1, 574, 576, 578, 580 Baybars (Sultan, 1260–77), 294 and diffusion of Islam, 199 Bayt al-Hikma (academy), 68, 78 in East Africa, 439, 441–2, 763, 765–6, 768–70, 772–9 Baytursun, Ahmad, 697 and Egypt, 441–2, 457–458, 492–493, 512, 515–516, Bazargan, Mehdi, 482 519–524, 526, 534, 840 bedouins. see also tribes in India (see India (British control)) in Arabia, 12–16, 22, 27–9, 32, 184, 214, 543, 613–14, in Iran, 237–8, 461, 471–3, 476–9, 482–3, 844 616 in Iraq, 492, 539–40, 544, 551–4 in Caliphate, 64–6, 68, 74–5, 81, 108, 110 in Middle East, 502, 540, 542, 544–5, 547 conversion, 43, 107 Muslims in Britain, 789–91, 793, 799–801, 803–4 migration, 33–4, 36, 40–1, 335 in North Africa, 325–6, 329, 331–2, 587, 613–14 and Ottoman empire, 296–7 and Ottoman empire, 275, 297, 457, 489–90, 492–3, in post-‘Abbasid era, 142, 192 496, 500–1, 536, 538–9, 544 Bedreddin (d.1416), 266 in Palestine, 547, 557–60, 582 Begin, Menahim, 563 society, 221 Bektash, Hajji (d. c.1297), 249, 266 in South Africa, 760 Bektashiya, 249, 252, 266–7, 494, 788, 806 in Southeast Asia, 396–8, 652–3, 662, 668, 675–7, 683 Belgium, 744, 791, 793, 803 in sub-Saharan Africa, 416 Belhadj, ‘Ali, 599–600, 617 trade and naval power, 222–4 Belig, Mehmed Emin, 282 in West Africa, 416, 426, 428, 438–41, 444, 732–6, Bello, Ahmadu, 748, 752 738, 745–50, 850 Bello, Muhammad, 421, 424, 747 Bu Sa‘id dynasty, 568, 576 Ben ‘Ali, Zine Labidine, 604–6 Buddhism, 351 Ben Badis (‘Abd al-Hamid b. Badis, d.1940), 464, 592–4, and Caliphate, 60 598 and Islam, 203, 233–4, 356–7, 362, 381, 623, 725 Ben Bella, Ahmad, 595–7 in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 139 Ben Jadid, Chadli, 597, 599–600 in Southeast Asia, 384, 448, 660, 672 Ben Jellul, Dr, 591 Budi Utomo (Noble Endeavour), 660–1 Bengal. see also Bangladesh; India; Pakistan Buganda, 435, 777–8 and British control, 223, 380–1, 465, 620–1 Bugeaud, Thomas-Robert, 587 Islam in, 202, 357, 361–3, 379, 818–19, 847 Bukhara in modern era, 636–7, 644, 650 and Caliphate, 33, 38–9 partition, 630–1 Islamic community, 206–8, 217, 230–1 reformism, 211, 622–3, 627 post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 117, 126, 131, 143, 146, 169 Berbers in pre-modern era, 345, 347–8, 350, 355, 444 dahir, 607, 609 Russian control, 684–5, 687–8, 690–1, 696–8, 700, Kitama, 285 702, 706 Masmuda, 299 al-Bukhari, 84 in Mauritania, 208, 401, 416 Bulgaria, 250, 252–3, 266, 273, 276, 280, 338–9, 490–2, in North Africa, 191, 201, 214, 286, 299, 302, 304, 495, 498, 785–6, 789 306–9, 321, 329, 332–3, 586, 593, 600, 607, Bundu, 418–19, 427, 443 609–10 Burhan family, 143 Sanjaha, 299, 304, 306, 740 Burkina Faso (Upper Volta), 411, 414, 426, 441, 732, in Spain, 309–11, 313 735–6, 738, 755–6, 759, 780, 825 in sub-Saharan Africa, 204, 400–2, 425, 443, 781, 784 Bursa, 250, 253, 265, 269, 272, 276 and Umayyad Caliphate, 54 Burujirdi, Ayatollah, 482 Zenata, 299, 304, 306, 327 Burundi, 441, 774, 779 Berlin, Congress of, 325, 351, 490, 492, 614, 632 Bush, George, 563 Berri, Nabih, 556 Bustani, Butrus, 537 Bessarabia, 490 Buwayhid dynasty, 108–10, 112, 114, 116–17, 120–2, 140, Beys (rulers), 301, 323–5, 601, 603–4 187, 287 Bhutto, Benazir, 647 Byzantine empire Bhutto, Zulfiqar ‘Ali, 646–7, 826, 847 Arab conquests, 31–4 Biafra, republic of, 750 and Caliphate, 36, 38, 48, 51, 59, 68–9, 71, 73–4, 85, al-Bid, ‘Ali Salim, 571 99–100, 183, 217, 285, 289–90, 299 Bihafarid (rebel leader), 65 and diffusion of Islam, 183–5, 200, 202 Bihzad (painter), 231, 240 and North Africa, 303, 305 bin Laden, Usama, 571, 725, 797, 830, 835, 848 and Ottoman dynasty, 248–53, 255, 258, 260–1, 263, Biruni (scientist, geographer), 128 266, 446 al-Bistami, Abu Yazid (d.873), 92, 175 in post-‘Abbasid era, 112, 117, 137–8, 287–9 Bitar, Salah al-Din, 543 pre-Islamic, 6, 8, 10, 13–14, 16 Bitikchi, Muhammad Salih, 235 and Spain, 310 Bloc Démocratique Sénégalais (BDS), 735 women in, 852 Bofo Abba Gomol, 437 Bohra (Shi‘i sect), 375, 377, 781, 784, 805 C Bokar Salif Tall, 738 Caesarea, 32 Bonneval, Claude de, 282 Cairo Bornu, kingdom of, 401, 405, 408, 411, 420, 423, 427, early history, 110, 126, 176 443, 748 in modern era, 462, 519–20, 522, 530–1, 547, 662, Bosnia, 250, 253, 276–7, 490, 492, 510, 785–8, 806, 821, 664, 676, 747, 755, 771 828, 830, 867 in pre-modern era, 211, 253, 265, 268, 274, 286, 316, Boumedienne, Houari, 595, 597 405 Bourguiba, Habib, 603–5, 617, 839 women in, 854, 856 Boutiflicka, Abdelaziz, 600 calendar, 23 Brazzaville Conference, 734–5 Caliphate. see also elites; Fatimid dynasty; Shi‘a; state and Brezhnev, Leonid, 705 religion

946 Index

Caliphate (cont.) Chinggis Khan, 226, 228, 339–40, 351, 692 ‘Abbasid, 53–66, 71, 73, 94–5, 102–3, 184–6 Chist, Mu‘in al-Din Hasan, 365 administration, 34–8, 50–3, 59–64, 66, 73, 76, 85, 99, Chistiya (Sufi order), 217, 362, 364–6, 372, 374–5, 622, 102, 105–6, 185 626, 635 Almohad, 306–7 Christianity. see also Copts; Crusades; Greek Orthodox authority and concepts of, 45, 47–51, 66, 69, 71, Church; Monophysites; Nestorians 73–5, 80–2, 87, 92, 95, 101–3, 108, 814–15 and Arab conquests, 31, 33–4, 36, 40–1, 43 changes during, 45–66, 100 and Caliphate, 51, 56, 58–9, 64–5, 68–9, 71, 77–8, 85, early, 9, 21, 31, 34–47, 184–5 87–8, 90, 99–101, 287–90 in Egypt and Syria, 283–90 and diffusion of Islam, 200–3, 242–3, 313 ideology, 67–71 early history, 4, 6–8, 14 and India, 358, 360, 377–8, 631–2, 634 in East Africa, 429, 435–6, 441, 761, 766, 768–72, and Inner Asia, 334–5 776–7 in North Africa, 308–9, 319, 322, 327, 606 in Egypt, 513, 518, 531–2, 584, 841 in Ottoman empire, 253, 263, 500, 502, 631–2, 634 in Europe and United States, 219–21, 786, 788–90, in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116–21, 125–6, 133–4, 136, 800–1, 802, 806–7, 822 139–41, 147–55, 178, 180, 185–90, 293, 446, 820 in India, 624, 630 religion and state, 99–100, 176–7, 193, 208, 214–15, in Inner Asia, 344 242 in Iraq, 584 restoration of, 531, 537–9, 581, 634, 638, 717, 797, and Islamic institutions, 142–3, 183–5 825, 828, 839, 868 and Islamic revelation, 16, 20–1, 23–4, 28 in Spain, 309–19 in Lebanon, 535–7, 546, 555–7, 827 (see also Umayyad, 45–51, 68–71, 95 Maronites) in West Africa, 419–20 in modern era, 457, 581, 828, 830, 851 Camel, battle of the, 47 in North Africa, 299, 302, 306, 309, 321, 323–4, 331, Cameroons, 421, 427, 441, 737–8 333–4, 592, 602, 607 Camp David accords (1979), 527, 562 and Ottoman empire, 250–3, 255, 258–61, 263–7, Canada, 804 272–4, 279–80, 282, 297–8, 461, 490, 493, 495–9, capitalism 511, 516, 535–8 Dutch in Indonesia, 652–8, 664 and Palestinians, 558–9, 562, 820 European, 221, 223 in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 137, 149, 166, 190, 248–9, Carter, Jimmy, 527 291–3 Catherine the Great, 344, 685 Safavids and, 233–4, 237 Caucasus Southeast Asia, 657–8, 663, 667, 671–2, 674–5, 681, Arab conquests, 33 683, 827, 843 and Caliphate, 54 in Spain, 310–16, 318–19, 324 and Iran, 254 in Sudan, 584 Islamic community, 213, 714–18 in Syria, 541, 548–9, 583–4 and Ottoman empire, 494, 499 and Turkey, 510–11 in post-Soviet era, 714–18 in West Africa, 438, 440, 733–4, 736, 738, 746, 749, Russian occupation, 255, 494, 694, 698, 706–9, 752–3, 758, 827 714–17 Circassians, 235, 266, 277, 292–3, 513, 545 slaves, 217, 235 city-states, 3–4, 37 and Turkey, 510 clans. see also lineage; tribes Cayor, 419, 425, 440 and Arab conquests, 36, 41–2, 44 Central Asia. see Inner Asia and Caliphate, 45–6, 49 Central Treaty Organization, 480 and diffusion of Islam, 205 ceramics, 130, 228, 237, 286 in Inner Asia, 338–9, 342 Chad, 416, 427, 615, 732, 737, 782, 827 in Iran, 226 Chaghatay, 201, 226–7, 229, 231, 245, 340, 345, 350–2, Islamic community, 29, 213–14 371, 446, 690–1 poetry, 15–17 Chagri Beg, 117 in post-‘Abbasid era, 155, 189–91 Chaldiran, battle of, 242, 253 pre-Islamic society, 3–5, 12–17, 21–6 Chamoun, Camille, 555 religion, 15–17 change, social class structure. see also elites and colonialism, 733, 746 in Caliphate, 64, 68, 110, 184–5 and diffusion of Islam, 203 and diffusion of Islam, 204 and Islamic societies, 22–6, 31, 42–4, 50, 108, 110, Iran, 474 184–5, 581 Islamic community, 41–3, 145, 207, 456, 459 Charles “Pudding” 13X, 808 in post-‘Abbasid era, 151, 154, 192 Chaudhari, Rahmat ‘Ali, 637 pre-Islamic, 17 Chechnya, 510, 574, 698, 715–17, 825, 827–8, 830, 867 clientage chiefs. see shaykh in early Middle East, 3, 8, 15, 27, 39–44, 49–52, 54, China 58–9, 64, 81, 104–5, 122, 124, 145, 185, 188, 190 in Caliphal era, 41, 56, 69, 313 in Morocco, 611 diffusion of Islam, 198, 337–8 in pre-modern era, 205, 207, 213–14, 217 and Inner Asia, 219, 223, 341, 352–5, 453–4, 465, in West Africa, 402 684, 689, 699, 701, 726–7, 730–1, 827 Clinton, Bill, 565 Mongols in, 226, 228–9 colonialism. see also British; Dutch; French; Germans; Muslims in, 213, 337–8, 443, 485, 725–31, 818, 850–1 Italians; Portuguese; Russia, Tsarist in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 120 confrontation with Islam, 211, 222–5, 457, 818–19 women in, 729 in East Africa, 439, 441–2, 761, 763, 772–8, 780–1 Chinese in Egypt, 515–16 in Iran, 237 in North Africa, 332 in Southeast Asia, 203, 655, 660, 663, 675–81, 683, in Southeast Asia, 397–9 843–4 in West Africa, 205, 423, 438–41, 732–8, 780–1 Ch’ing dynasty (Manchus), 352–4 commerce. see economic conditions

Index 947

Committee for Union and Progress, Turkey, 497–8, 538 Damascus Communism Arab nationalism in, 537–9, 547 in Afghanistan, 723–4, 848 and Caliphate, 32, 39, 51, 68, 78, 137, 216, 287 in Algeria, 460, 591, 596 early history, 13, 32 in Azarbayjan, 717 irrigation, 310 in China, 727, 729–30 in modern era, 535, 550, 820 in East Africa, 766, 771 in Ottoman empire, 253, 265, 268, 274, 280, 296–8, in Egypt, 522, 531 497, 536, 572, 715 in Europe, 508, 786–7, 789 in post-‘Abbasid era, 109, 135, 139, 149, 172, 290–1, in Inner Asia, 692–700, 704, 707, 710, 712–14 293–4, 306 in Iran, 476–7, 481 Umayyad Mosque, 70–1, 312 in Iraq, 551 Daqiqi, poet, 127 in Palestine, 560 dar al-hadith (college), 141, 291 in Southeast Asia, 652, 661, 666, 668–71, 677, 682–3, Dar ul-Islam, 669, 808–9, 810 842–3 Darfur, 205, 432, 442, 762–3, 766 in Yemen, 571 Dari language, 127–8 community. see umma (community) Darqawa order, 326, 331 companions of the Prophet. see Muhammad, companions Darul Arqam, 679 of Da‘ud, Prince, 722–3 Congo, 772–3, 779, 782 Da‘wa al-Islamiya (Islamic Call Society), 755, 828–9 Congress Party. see Indian National Congress da‘wah. see missionaries Constantinople, 33, 56, 71, 250, 252–3, 255, 265, 272. see Daylam, 61, 64, 107–8, 114 also Istanbul Dayr Qunna, 105 conversion. see also diffusion of Islam de Gaulle, Charles, 596, 735 in Caliphate, 52–3, 58, 64, 81–2, 87, 99, 105, 107–8 de Reuter, Baron, 471, 473, 484 early, 21–3, 27, 40–4 Delhi, 211, 634–5, 642 forcible, 36, 198, 252, 426 Delhi Sultanates (1206–1526), 202, 356–61, 367–8, 371–2, Middle East and North Africa, 197–201 374, 381 in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116–17, 120, 133, 138–40, Demirel, Suleyman, 507, 798 142, 146 Democritus, 88 in Southeast Asia, 203–4 Deobandi reform movement, 464–5, 626–7, 631–2, 634–5, in sub-Saharan Africa, 203–5 640, 648, 799, 803, 817 and Turkish conquests, 201–3 devshirme, 258–9, 277, 279 in United States, 806–9 Deys (rulers), 301, 323, 325 Copts, 7, 34, 36, 40, 43–4, 142 Dhahabiya order, 242 in modern Egypt, 513, 531–2, 584, 841 dhikr (repetition of the name of God), 91, 93, 162–3, 328, Cordova, 126, 309–14 685, 747 Cornwallis, Governor-General in India, 381 dhimmi (protected communities), 265 Cossacks, 245, 277, 476, 686 diffusion of Islam, 9, 23, 42–4, 52–3, 58, 100, 133, 142–3, Crimea 197–206, 814–15. see also conversion; missionaries; khans of, 342, 714 and under the names of countries and regions in Ottoman empire, 259, 269, 281, 498 Dihlawi, ‘Abd al-Haqq, Shaykh, 367 Russian control, 281, 338–9, 489, 685, 690–1, 693–4, Dioscorides, 312 698, 700, 716 Diouf, Abdu, 744 Crimean war (1853–56), 490, 495 Dipanegara, Prince, 395, 464, 659 Croatians, 264, 268, 785–7 Ditch, battle of the, 27 Crusades, 109, 112, 201, 250, 287–93, 297, 316. see also divorce, 25–6, 82, 149, 481, 503. see also women Christianity diwan, 42, 59–60, 105. see also administration Ctesiphon, 33, 56 Diyala, 38, 56, 543 Cuba, 770–1 Djibouti, 769–70 culture Dogomba, 204 European, 219–21, 225 Dome of the Rock, 51–2, 69, 71, 263, 290, 293 Hellenistic, 13, 67–8 Don Fodio, ‘Uthman, 419–24, 427, 444, 462, 465, 747–8 Iranian, 381, 444–5 Dost Muhammad, 720 Islamic, 183, 814 Druze, 287, 297–8, 536, 541, 543, 546, 548, 556, 583 Delhi Sultanate, 358, 360–1, 366, 381 Dubai, 577, 580 and diffusion of Islam, 197–206, 309–12, 814–15 Dudayev, General, 716 imperial, 67–80, 99–102, 184–7, 285–6 Dudu Mian, 623 post-imperial, 112–20, 125–32, 140, 142, 191–3 Dulles, John Foster, 524 pre-modern, 8–9, 31, 34, 815–17 Durkheim, Emile, 870 state and, 216–18 Durogba, ‘Ali Maye, 769 urban, 187, 216, 218 Durrani, Ahmad Shah, 380 non-Islamic, 214 Durranis, 720 Ottoman, 216, 218, 261–3, 281–2 Dutch pre-Islamic, 3–9, 15 in Africa, 438, 760 culture system. see Java, economy and Iraq, 552 CUP. see Committee for Union and Progress, Turkey Islam in Southeast Asia, 203, 394–5, 459–60, 462, Cyprus, 255, 268, 325, 492, 789, 799 467, 652–68, 671, 821, 842–3 Cyrenaica, 612–16 Muslims in Netherlands, 791, 802 and Ottoman empire, 275, 296 D Southeast Asian colonialism, 199, 219, 223–4, 385, Daghestan, 698, 706, 715–17 387–8, 392, 396–8, 453–4, 652–4, 656–8, 663, Dagomba kingdom, 411, 413 683 Dahlan, Hajji Ahmad, 662 trade and naval power, 219, 222–4, 237, 329, 331 Dahomey, 732–3, 735, 759 Dyula people, 204, 207, 213–14, 413–15, 426–7, 443, 745, da‘i. see missionaries 758, 781, 784 dakwah. see missionaries Dzungarian Confederation, 352

948 Index

E elites. see also intelligentsia East Africa Africa, 781 Arabs in, 576 and Arab conquests, 31, 36, 38, 40–5 coastal cities, 432–5 in Arab Middle East, 546–50 diffusion of Islam, 198, 204, 429–38, 770, 772–3, and Arab nationalism, 541, 543, 547–8, 582 780–4 Arabian states, 9, 12, 34, 570–1, 580, 818 and Europe and United States, 225, 438–9, 441–2, in Caliphate, 45–6, 49–50, 58–60, 63–6, 75, 77, 99, 453, 762, 772–8, 799, 802, 806, 809 101, 104, 108, 110–11, 184–5, 187, 200 Islamic community, 211, 213, 443 Caucasus, 717–18 nationalism, 763, 765, 769, 772–3, 775, 777, 780–1 cosmopolitan culture, 67–80, 90 and Ottoman empire, 254, 269 and diffusion of Islam, 202–5, 815 slaves from, 39 East Africa, 204, 432, 762, 765–6, 770, 773 women in, 779 Egypt, 512–16, 519, 522, 525–8 East Africa Company, British, 441–2, 776 India, 217, 358, 364, 378, 380, 460, 620–2, 624–5, East India Company, Dutch, 385, 652, 760 627–33, 635–9 East India Company, English, 237, 276, 380–1, 398, 620, Inner Asia, 347, 349–50, 688, 691–2, 696, 701–3, 624 708–9, 712–14, 729–30 East India Company, French, 237 Iran, 226, 228, 242, 470, 477, 479, 483–4, 816 East Timor, 674, 682 Iraq, 540, 544, 552, 554, 582, 818 Eastern Europe, Muslims in, 785–9 Jordan, 545, 582 Ecevit, Bulent, 507 Lebanon, 536–7 economic conditions and modernization, 494, 496, 540 Arab conquests, 39–41, 44 and nationalism, 818–19 Caliphate, 50–4, 58, 60, 67, 99–100, 110–11, 183–6 North Africa, 307–8, 319, 590–1, 595, 597, 600, 603, and diffusion of Islam, 198, 200, 205 605–7, 609–11, 616, 618, 818 European societies, 219–20, 222–3, 225 Ottoman empire, 263–4, 267–8, 277, 279–80, 493–8, Islamic society, 214, 217 500 in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 119, 154–5, 190, 192–3 Pakistan, 646, 648 pre-Islamic, 3–5, 8, 13, 17, 22 Palestine, 558 Edessa, 78 post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116–17, 121–2, 126, 133, education 142–6, 155, 188–9, 192 in Islamic community, 206–7, 209, 217 pre-Islamic, 4–5, 13 in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 151, 155, 188–92, 197, 201 religious, 81–98, 143–4, 184, 187, 206–15, 308, 444–5, pre-Islamic, 8 817 Egypt. see also under agriculture; elites; industrialization; response to West, 817 intelligentsia; modernization; nationalism; revivalism; rural, 213–15 secularization; socialism; taxation Southeast Asia, 203–4, 459, 462, 656, 660–2, 670–1, administration, 51, 513, 515, 523–30, 533–4, 618, 818 676–7, 679, 818 Arab conquest, 34, 37, 39–40, 43–4, 50 sub-Saharan Africa, 204–5, 409–11 and Arab nationalism, 523–4, 547–8 Syria, 538, 540–1, 543, 550, 582 and Arabian peninsula, 512, 527–8, 567, 570, 573–4, Turkey, 493, 499, 502–4, 506–7, 511, 519 576, 578 urban, 9, 213 and Britain, 441–2, 457–8, 492–3, 512, 515–16, West Africa, 204, 734–7, 740–1, 745–8, 751, 754, 818 519–24, 526, 534, 840 emirates. see Amir (rulers) and Caliphate, 56, 59–61, 64, 107–11, 185, 283–90 Empedocles, 88 early history, 6–7, 13, 33 empires and East Africa, 429 Arab-Muslim (see Caliphate) economic development, 513–16, 518–30, 533 early, 3–6, 8–10, 12 European influence, 225, 441–2, 457–9, 492–3, Enver Pasha, 695 512–17, 519–24, 526, 534, 840 Erbakan, Necmettin, 508, 838 Islam in, 207–8, 211, 521–3, 527–34, 550, 581, 584–5, Eritrea, 770–2 618–19, 818, 820, 822–7, 830, 840–2 Ershad, General, 650 Islamization, 201–2 Ertugrul, warrior, 250 land ownership, 514, 525 Ethiopia liberal era, 519–23 and Caliphate, 69 in Mamluk era, 512–15, 537, 541 conquests, 15–16 in modern era, 516–34, 539, 545–6, 551–4, 582–5, Islam in, 22, 204, 434–8, 443, 737–8, 782–3, 827 773, 820, 871 in modern era, 761, 770–2 modernism, 457–60 and Ottoman empire, 294 nationalism, 458–9, 512, 516–26, 529, 531 and Somalia, 442, 769–71 and North Africa, 302, 304, 313, 319, 322–3, 325, 327, ethnicity 596, 601–3, 605–6, 609, 614–15 Arab conquests, 44 and Ottoman empire, 253–4, 258, 264–5, 269, 272, in Caliphate, 45, 50, 52–3, 81 275, 280, 294–9, 444, 446, 489–90, 494, 535, 565 and diffusion of Islam, 201, 206 and Palestine, 559–60 Islamic community, 28, 213–14, 216–17 pan-Arabism, 582 in post-‘Abbasid era, 121, 189, 192 in post-imperial era, 112, 120, 122, 126, 135, 140, pre-Islamic, 3, 8, 10, 16 142, 172, 176 Eulogius, priest, 313 and Saljuk dynasty, 290–4 Europe. see also Christianity; colonialism; and under the and Southeast Asia, 682 names of countries and regions state and religion, 515, 521–3, 527–34, 837, 840–2 anti-semitism, 557, 559 and Sudan, 205, 429, 431–2, 512, 516, 519–20, 761–3, and Arab nationalism, 535–9, 575 765–6 conflict with Muslim world, 216, 218, 222–5, 287–91, and Syria, 290–1, 513, 515, 536, 538, 548 299, 304, 314–15, 428, 449 (see also Crusades) and tribal societies, 512, 818 conquests and colonialism, 223–5, 438–42, 469, 471, and West Africa, 755 817, 871 women in, 530–3, 854–61, 863–4 and diffusion of Islam, 197–9, 211, 223, 387

Index 949

economic impact, 453, 455–9 fay (conquered property), 36 educational influence, 536 Faysal, king of Iraq, 539–40, 544–5, 547 feudalism, 123–4, 219–21 Feda’iyan-i Khalq, 481, 484 Hellenism, 101, 310 feudalism imperialism, 453–6 and diffusion of Islam, 206 international trade, 221–5, 324–5, 329–31, 438, 440–1, Europe, 123–4, 219–21 455 Islamic regimes, 114, 122–5, 128, 185, 218 (see also Islam and, 453–68, 823, 868 iqta‘) Islamic culture in, 315–16, 532 pre-Islamic, 4 and modernization, 455, 471–2, 485 feuds, 22, 25, 29, 114 Mongols in, 226 Fez, 126, 300, 302, 304, 306, 326–7, 329–33, 607, 609–11, and Muslim women, 795, 798, 801–2, 855–8, 861–3, 613 865 Fezzan, 405, 612 Muslims in, 785–805, 823, 828, 830, 872 fief, compared with iqta‘, 123–5 nationalism, 280, 441 Fiqh Council of America, 812 and Ottoman empire, 222, 225, 250–61, 263–4, 269, fiqh (understanding, law), 157 272, 275–82, 296–8, 457–8, 489–501, 511, 536, Firdausi, poet, 128 538–41, 586–97, 600, 613–14, 785–6, 788–9 firman (decrees), 261 pre-Islamic, 6 Fitrat, ‘Abd al-Rauf, 691, 697 society and culture, 219–21, 867 fityan (gangs), 144 state and religion, 219–20 Five Percenters, 808 European Union, 510 FLN. see Front de Libération Nationale evliadi (holy lineage), 208, 210, 685 France Evliya Chelebi (1614-82), 263 Crusaders, 289 and East Africa, 438, 442, 763, 776 F and Egypt, 513–16, 518, 524, 526, 529, 560 face. see wajh (face) feudalism, 123–4 factionalism, religious, 136–7, 140–2, 144–6. see also and Iran, 237, 477–8 Shi‘a; Sufism; Sunni and Iraq, 553 Fadiliya order, 742 and Middle East, 493, 540, 542–3, 546–7, 550 Fadlallah, Muhammad Husayn, 556 Muslims in, 54, 310, 785, 789–96, 803, 823 Faidherbe, Louis, French military governor, 440 and North Africa, 302, 322–6, 336, 453–4, 458–61, Fakhr al-Din, 298 586–98, 602–17, 839, 841, 849 (see also Algeria; falasifa. see philosophy Morocco; Tunisia) family. see also divorce; women and Ottoman empire, 254, 264, 275–6, 282, 297, 490, and Arab conquests, 41–2 492, 497, 499, 536, 539–40, 586–97, 600, 613–14 and Caliphate, 64, 95, 100, 105, 108 society, 221 and diffusion of Islam, 205 and Southeast Asia, 397–8, 652 European societies, 219–20 and Spain, 310–11, 316 Iran, 481–2 and sub-Saharan Africa, 410, 416, 419 Islamic community, 29, 207, 213–14 trade, 222–3 Mongols, 226 and West Africa, 425–6, 428, 440–1, 444, 453–4, nomads, 125 732–8, 740–4, 755–6, 839–40 (see also Mauritania; in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 119–20, 143–4, 154–5, Senegal) 183–5, 189, 192 Frederick II, 291 pre-Islamic, 3, 8, 12, 16, 22–3 Free Officers Quranic concept, 24–6, 30 Egypt, 523–4, 526, 547, 840 Soviet law on, 704 Libya, 614, 616 in West Africa, 204 Freetown, 414 fana’ (union with God), 92, 167 French West Africa, 331, 733 Faqariya (Mamluk faction), 296 Front de Libération Nationale (FLN), 595–600 faqi (holy men), 215, 431–2, 762–3 Fruit of Islam, 807 al-Farabi, 79, 152–3, 169, 178, 316 Fulani, 214, 418, 421, 423, 427, 462, 746–8, 754, 783 Farad, Wallace D., 807 fundamentalism. see revivalism, Islamic Fara’idi (reformist movement), 464–5, 623, 627 Funj Sultanate, 205, 429–32, 436, 762 Farangi Mahall, 622, 626, 631–2, 634 Fur people, 432 Farghana, 61, 64, 117, 350, 358, 687–8, 709, 713 Fustat, 34, 44, 46, 64, 135 Farid al-Din ‘Attar (1142-1221), 130, 263 Futa Jallon, 410, 414, 418–19, 424, 426–7, 441, 444, 782 Farid al-Din Ganj-i Shakr (Baba Farid, d.1245), 362–3 Futa Toro, 410, 414, 419, 427, 444, 839 Farrakhan, Louis, 808 Fars, 33, 65, 78, 114, 120, 235 G Faruqi, Isma‘il, 809 Gailani, Sayyid Ahmad, 724 al-Fasi, Ahmad b. Idris, 762, 769 Galen, 77–8, 312 fasting. see Ramadan Galiev, Mir Said Sultan, 697–8 al-Fatah, 560, 562 Galla people, 436–7, 443, 771, 780 Fath ‘Ali Shah, 470–1 Gambia, 414, 441, 732, 736–7, 755, 825 Fatima (daughter of Muhammad), 866 Gandhi, Mahatma, 634, 636, 643 Fatimid dynasty Gao, 401, 404 in Arabian peninsula, 567 garrison cities. see misr culture, 126, 815 Gasprinskii, Isma‘il, 464, 690–1, 693 in Egypt and North Africa, 108–10, 112, 214, 283–7, al-Gaylani, Rashid ‘Ali, 544 290–1, 300, 304–5, 307–8, 311, 334, 401 Gaza, 32 and Islam, 140–1, 176, 178, 191, 293, 375 Gemayl, Pierre, 555 legitimation, 216, 285–6 Georgia, 248, 281, 698, 715–17 in Syria, 112 Georgians, 120, 217, 233, 235, 249, 251, 266, 277 Fatma Aliye Hanem, 857 Germans fatwa (judicial opinion), 473, 622, 632, 706, 800–1 in Africa, 332, 441, 453, 609, 772–4, 779

950 Index

Germans (cont.) Gulf states, 527–8, 548, 554, 565–6, 571, 576–80, 582–5, and Egypt, 520 648, 712, 788, 825, 835 in Iran, 478 women in, 579 and Iraq, 544, 552 Gulf War (1991), 509–10, 528, 551, 553–5, 563, 574, 579, Muslims in Germany, 785, 790–3, 796–9, 803 582, 801, 812 and Ottoman empire, 276–7, 457, 492–3 Gulistan, treaty of, 471 and Palestine, 557, 559 Gumbad-i Qabus, 131 society, 221–2 Gumi, Abubakar, 752 in Spain, 311 Gypsies (Roma), 41, 788–9 and Turks, 510, 785, 793, 796–9 Ghalzai, 245 H al-Ghamba, Muhammad, 413 Habash, George, 560, 570–1 Ghana Habibie, 674 British colonialism, 732, 735, 759 Habibullah, 722 Islam in, 204, 304, 401–2, 404–5, 408, 414, 438, 441, Habsburg dynasty, 222, 254–5, 275, 281, 321, 329, 385 443, 736–7, 775, 780, 825 Hadhramaut, 32, 49, 434, 662. see also Yemen al-Ghannouchi, Rashid, 605–6, 617, 839 al-Hadi, Caliph, 73 Ghassanids, 14–15 al-Hadi, Sayyid Shaykh, 664 ghazal (lyric), 126, 128, 261. see also poetry, post- hadith (sayings of the Prophet) ‘Abbasid authority of, 18, 82, 84–7, 90, 93, 95, 100, 134–7, Ghazan (1295–1304), 228, 231 156–8, 173–4, 177–8, 186, 206–7, 210–11, 626, ghazi (frontier soldiers), 107, 117, 140, 144, 146, 248, 663, 867 253, 258–60 in India, 367 Ghaznavid dynasty, 109, 112, 114–17, 120–3, 136, 146, Islamic culture, 77, 102, 141–2 187, 217, 356–7, 720 in North Africa, 312, 322 and Islamic culture, 126, 128, 192 and reason, 88–9, 166, 517–18 al-Ghazzali (1058–1111), 148, 151–2, 160–8, 176, 189, and state, 148–9, 193 211, 267, 315, 388, 410 al-Hadrami, Imam, 402 ghilman. see slave soldiers Hafizullah Amin, 723 Ghilzais, 720 Hafsid dynasty (1228-1574), 283, 300, 320–5, 327, 334, Ghujdavani, ‘Abd al-Khaliq, 347 444 Ghulam ‘Ali, Shah, 375 Haile Selassie, 770–1 Ghurid family, 126, 356–7, 720 hajib (vizier in Spain), 311 Ghuzz, 112, 120 hajj (pilgrimage), 15–16, 24, 27, 73, 82, 108, 172, 181, Glawi, 607–8 200, 242, 244, 268, 306, 416, 419–20, 573, 688, 712, al-Glawi, Thami, 610 747, 750, 755, 762, 807 gnosticism, 76–7, 134, 158, 171–4, 180, 193, 210, 243, from Southeast Asia, 658–9, 662, 664 285, 814 al-Hajj ‘Umar, 211, 421, 440–441, 444, 465, 747, 840 Gokalp, Ziya, 499, 503, 856 al-Hajjaj, governor of Iraq, 50 Gold Coast, 438, 440, 733, 759 hakam (arbitrator), 23 Golden Horde, 201, 226, 338–40, 342, 344–5, 714 al-Hakim (d.1021), 286–7 Gonja kingdom, 411, 413 hal (grace), 91 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 709 al-Hallaj (d.923), 92, 178 Gordon, George Charles, General, 763 Hama, 32, 298, 550 governors Hamadhan, 33, 36, 39, 169 ‘Abbasid Caliphate, 60–1, 64, 81, 103–4, 107–8 Hamadhani, Yusuf, 347 in post-‘Abbasid era, 119, 123–4, 143, 145, 187 Hamallah, Shaykh, 737–8 pre-Islamic, 4 Hamalliya brotherhood, 737–8 Gowon, Colonel, 750–1 HAMAS, 563–4, 584–5, 600, 797, 820, 824, 827 Granada, 300, 309, 313–19, 324 Hamdanid family, 108–11, 140, 287 Greece, 250, 268–9, 276, 280, 490–4, 498, 505, 512–13, al-Hamdi, Ibrahim Muhammad, 570 785–6, 789 Hammadid family, 300, 302, 304–5, 334 Greek culture Hammuda Pasha, 324 in Caliphate, 50–1, 67–8, 71, 76–80, 85, 87–90, 93, Hammurapi, 4, 6 99–101 Hamza Fansuri, 387–8 in early Arab Middle East, 13 Hanafi (school of law) in Europe, 219, 310 in East Africa, 762 in post-‘Abbasid era, 140, 152–3, 169–72, 178–9, in Egypt, 291 185–6, 188, 243 in India, 623 Greek Orthodox church, 7, 202, 243, 250–2, 260, 264–5, in Inner Asia, 211, 337, 354 274, 280, 289, 495, 556, 559, 786, 788 in North Africa, 308, 323, 602 Greeks origins and social structure, 135–7, 141, 157, 176–8, in Africa, 733 189, 206, 211–12 and Arab conquests, 36 in Syria, 291 and Caliphate, 54, 76–80 in United States, 808 in Ottoman empire, 253, 255, 260–1, 264, 269, 272–4, and women, 855 276, 280–2, 298, 495, 499, 501–2 Hanbali (school of law), 135–6, 140–1, 148, 157, 166, in post-‘Abbasid era, 120, 248–9, 251 177–8, 186, 190, 206–7, 210, 572 in Turkey, 584 hanif (Arabian monotheists), 16, 18, 24. see also Gregory VII, Pope, 314 monotheism guilds, 272–3, 280, 349–50, 355, 514 Hapsburgs. see Habsburg dynasty Guinea haqiqa (truth of Quran), 91, 267, 391 French colonialism, 732–3, 735 haram (common sanctuary), 13, 15 Islam in, 205, 410, 414, 419, 426–7, 441, 443, 736–7, Harar, 435, 437, 442, 768 780–2, 825 Hari Singh, Maharaja, 649 in modern era, 755–6 al-Hariri (d.1122), 126 Gujarat, 253, 357, 361, 367–8, 380, 644, 779, 799 al-Harith al-Muhasabi, 92

Index 951

Harran, 35, 58, 78, 149, 770 Husayniyah Irshad, 483 Harun al-Rashid, 60, 73, 103 al-Husri, Sati, 540 al-Hasan, Mahmud, 632 Hussein. see Husayn Hasan al-Basri, 90–1, 158, 178, 244 Hasan Pasha, 297 I Hasan (Sultan of Morocco, 1873–95), 332 Ibadan, 737, 748–9, 781 Hashimite family, 545, 547 ‘ibadat (ritual regulations), 85, 163, 167 Hassan (Sultan of Morocco, 1961–99), 611–12 Ibadis, 178, 214, 302, 433, 565, 568, 576 Hassani, 416 Ibn ‘Abd al-Rabbih, writer, 312 Hastings, Warren, 380 Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad, 572 Hattin, battle of, 290 Ibn ‘Ali, Zayd, 53, 572 Hausa, 213, 736–7, 746–54, 759, 781, 783–4 Ibn al-‘Arabi, 171–4, 176, 210–11, 243, 296, 315, 365–6, Hausaland, 204, 405–8, 411, 416, 420–3, 427, 444, 748, 377, 388, 410 759 Ibn al-‘Arif, Abu al-‘Abbas, 315 Hawatmah, Nayyif, 560 Ibn al-‘As, ‘Amr, 33 al-Hawrani, Akram, 543 Ibn Batta, theologian, 148 Haykal, Muhammad, 522 Ibn Battuta, 384, 434 Hazaras, 718, 724, 848 Ibn Hazm, philosopher, 315 Hazrat Inayat Khan, 806 Ibn Hisham, 18, 20 Heliopolis, 33 Ibn Ishaq, 18, 20 Hellenism. see Greek culture Ibn Karram (Muhammad b. Karram), 137 Herat, 61, 65, 230–1, 240, 263, 471 Ibn Khaldun, historian, 168–9 Hermetic philosophy, 77, 172–3 Ibn al-Muqaffa‘, 74 Herzegovina, 250, 253, 490, 492, 785–6 Ibn Qutayba, 77, 126 Herzl, Theodore, 557 Ibn Quzman, poet, 315 Hezbollah. see Hizballah Ibn Rushd (Averroes), 152–3, 178, 267, 307, 315–16 Hijaz, the, 13–14, 33, 539 Ibn Saud (‘Abd al-‘Aziz b. Sa‘ud), 464, 569, 572, 848 hijra (migration), 23, 419–20, 531 Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 152, 169–72, 178, 316 hikma (wisdom), 171 Ibn al-Tabban, scholar, 308 Hikmatyar, Gulbuddin, 724 Ibn Taymiya (Ahmad b. Taymiya), 149 Hilali migration, 300, 304, 321, 327–8 Ibn Tumart, Muhammad b. ‘Abdallah, 306–7 hilm (self-control), 29, 49 Ibn al-Walid (Khalid b. al-Walid), 32 Himyarite kingdom, 14 Ibn Yasid, ‘Abdallah, 306 Hindi, 630, 640 Ibn al-Zubayr, ‘Abdallah, 49 Hinduism Ibo, 735, 750 in Afghanistan, 725 Ibra Fall, Shaykh, 742–3 in India, 629–31, 633–4, 636–40, 643–5 Ibrahim, Anwar, 679–81 and Islam, 203, 218, 356–8, 360–4, 366, 378–81, 390, Ibrahim Musa. see Karamoko Alfa (Ibrahim Musa) 623–4, 627, 629–31, 637, 640, 643–4, 649, 847, Ibrahim Pasha, son of Muhammad ‘Ali, 538 851 ‘Id, 181, 350, 611, 806 and Mughal dynasty, 369, 371–2, 377, 447–8, 620–2 identity, Islamic, 142–6, 177, 183–5, 189–93, 197, 213–14 in Southeast Asia, 382–4, 392, 394–5, 448, 660, 663, ideology 672 Caliphate, 50–1, 74, 105, 185 Hippocrates, 78 of modern states, 818 al-Hira, 14, 32, 34 in post-‘Abbasid era, 192 Hisham, Caliph, 50, 53, 76, 311 Idris I (Morocco), 304 historical chronologies, 9, 46 Idris II (Morocco), 304, 327 historical writing, 74, 77, 96–7, 126, 128, 185–6, 188, Idris, Amir (Libya), 614 228–9, 261, 263 Idris b. ‘Ali (Sudan, 1570-1602), 405 Hittites, 6 Idris Shah, 806 Hizb-i-Islami (Afghanistan), 724, 848 Idrisid dynasty, 300, 303–4, 307 Hizballah, 487, 556, 563, 585, 797, 824, 827 Idrisiya order, 465 Hizbullah (Indonesia), 669 Ifat, Muslim kingdom, 436 Hoja Dehhani, Ottoman poet, 261 ijaza (license to teach), 138 holy war. see jihad ijma‘ (consensus), 86, 157 Homs, 32, 135, 298, 543 ijtihad (judgment), 133, 157, 424, 662, 692 Houphouet-Boigny, Félix, 735, 758 Ikhshidid dynasty, 109, 285 Hoxha, Enver, 786 Ikhwan al-Muslimin, 829 Hrawi, Ilyas, 557 Ilkhanid dynasty, 126, 226–9, 231–2, 469 al-Hudaybiya, 27 ‘ilm (knowledge), 157 Hui, 353, 725–7, 729, 731, 851 Il’minskii, Nicholas, 689, 692 al-Hujwiri (d.1071), 159 Ilorin, 736, 748 Humayun, son of Babur, 358 Ilyas, Maulana Muhammad, 464, 635 Hunayn b. Ishaq, 78, 178 imam Hungary, 250, 254, 264, 276, 278, 281, 489, 538, 786 in Arabia, 570–1, 576 Hurgronje, Christiaan Snouck, 660 in Caucasus, 715 Hurmuz, 237, 384 in Inner Asia, 308 Hurufiya school, 233, 266 in Islamic community, 204, 214–15 Husayn b. ‘Ali (ruler of Tunis, 1705), 323 in North Africa, 335, 348 Husayn (king of Jordan, 1952–99), 545, 585 in post-‘Abbasid era, 178–9, 181 Husayn (Shah, 1688–1726), 243 Shi‘i view, 65, 95–8, 100, 102, 133–4, 180–1, 208, 375, Husayn (Sharif of Mecca), 492, 538–9, 544 377, 487, 814 Husayn (son of ‘Ali), 49, 53, 134, 176, 181, 243–4, 286, in Southeast Asia, 391, 669 470, 483, 484, 623 in West Africa, 406, 413–14, 416, 420–1, 423–4, 749 Husayn (Sultan, 1469–1506), 231 al-Imam, newspaper, 664 al-Husayni, al-Hajj Muhammad Amin, 558–9 imama (theory of collective organization), 85 Husaynid dynasty, 323 iman (faith), 168–9

952 Index

imaret (buildings), 269 diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 201–3, 205–6, 337–9, 342, IMF. see International Monetary Fund 344–5 imperialism. see colonialism early history, 33 Imru al-Qays b. ‘Amr, 13 education, 689–91, 702–3, 705 India. see also Delhi Sultanates; Mughal empire; and ethnic population, 719 under agriculture; elites; industrialization; and Europe, 690–2, 698, 705–7, 709–10 intelligentsia; modernization; reformism; industrialization, 687, 701–2, 704–5, 708 secularization; taxation; trade, international intelligentsia, 689–93, 695–7, 708 and Afghanistan, 720, 723 Islamic community, 211, 213–14, 217, 443, 684–6, Arab conquests, 38, 41 706–9, 825 and Arabia, 576 language reform, 702–3 British control, 223–4, 354–5, 357, 380–1, 453–4, Mongols and Turks in, 226, 228–9, 232, 234, 249 459–60, 467, 515, 544, 620–40, 645, 648, 675, and Mughal empire, 447 737, 846–7 Muslim congresses, 694 British education, 621, 625–7 Muslim publications, 707 and Caliphate, 56, 59, 68, 76–7, 80, 107, 313 nationalism, 689–90, 692–4, 696–700, 705–6 diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 201–4, 356–9 and Ottoman empire, 253, 255, 489, 498 economy, 624, 630, 675 and Pakistan, 648 and Europe, 322, 331 in post-‘Abbasid era, 112, 116–17, 120–2, 127, 130, history, 172, 228 140, 143 independence movement, 629–32, 660 in post-Soviet era, 709–14 and Inner Asia, 688, 692 Russian control, 219, 223–4, 453, 684–714, 731 Islamic community, 207, 209–11, 213, 444, 446, states, 444–5 448–9, 452, 462, 467, 517, 572, 803, 825, 827 and Turkey, 509–10 in modern era, 460, 467, 629–46, 648–51 women in, 688, 696, 703–4 Muslim minority, 635–6, 639–40, 642–4, 651, 850–1 Inonu, Ismet, 504–5 nationalism, 630–40 insilimen (lineages), 210, 409 and Ottoman empire, 268–9, 276, 294, 297, 490 Institute for Muslim Minority Affairs, 829 partition, 639–40, 644–5 institutions in post-‘Abbasid era, 116–17, 127, 140 Islamic, 3, 9, 29–30, 100, 114, 121–5, 183–5, 187–8, state and religion, 364, 367–8, 620 191, 205–6, 215–18 states and religion, 216–18 in post-‘Abbasid era, 120, 133–46 Timurids in, 229 pre-Islamic, 3–10, 16, 21 women, 644 pre-modern, 154–5, 197, 815–17 Indian National Congress, 628, 630, 632, 634, 636, 638, intelligentsia. see also elites 640, 643–5 and Arab nationalism, 540–1, 543, 547, 580 Indians East Africa, 765 in Africa, 733, 749, 759–60, 772–3, 777, 779–80 Egypt, 457–8, 460, 512, 516–19, 521–2 in Europe and United States, 785, 789–90, 805, 809 India, 459–60 in Southeast Asia, 662, 677, 681, 683, 843–4 Inner Asia, 689–93, 695–7, 708 Indonesia. see also Java; Sumatra Iran, 473–6, 479, 481 administration, 656–8, 671, 683 Jordan, 545 and Africa, 760 Lebanon, 536–7 diffusion of Islam, 198, 203, 219 and modernization, 457–68 economy, 670–1, 673 and nationalism, 818, 822 education, 656–8, 666, 672 North Africa, 591, 605, 607, 611 European colonialism, 219, 222–3, 396–9, 459–61, Ottoman empire, 496–9 652–68 response to West, 817 as independent state, 668–75, 806, 818, 820–2 Southeast Asia, 658–9, 661, 667, 670–1, 676–7 Islam in colonial era, 127, 206–7, 211, 382–8, 446, Syria, 543, 550 448, 453, 461–2, 467, 518, 572 Turkey, 460, 497–500 Islam in modern state, 668–75, 683, 737, 818, 820–1, West Africa, 734, 754 825–7, 830, 837, 842–3, 871–2 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 506, 612, 713 Islamic parties, 670–2 Iqbal, Muhammad, 636–7 Japanese occupation, 667–9 iqta‘ (timar, tuyul, jagir, land concession) legal systems, 657 in Caliphate, 62–3, 106, 108, 110 nationalism, 460, 467, 658, 660–2, 665–8 Egypt and North Africa, 287, 291–2 and Ottoman empire, 276 in India, 369, 371, 380 resistance to Dutch rule, 460, 665–6, 669 Inner Asia, 345 states in, 216–17 Iran, 226, 237, 246 Indonesian National Party (PNI), 661, 666–71, 821 in Ottoman empire, 249, 258–60, 277, 279 industrialization in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116, 120, 122–5, 187–8, 217 Algeria, 598–600 Iran. see also under agriculture; elites; intelligentsia; Egypt, 513, 516, 525–6 reformism; secularization; Shi‘a Europe, 453 administration, 226 India, 624 and Afghanistan, 723–5 Inner Asia, 687, 701–2, 704–5, 708 and Africa, 754–5 Iran, 478, 481 Arab conquest, 33–4, 36, 38–9, 41, 44, 337 Morocco, 608 and Caliphate, 47–8, 56, 60–3, 65, 67–9, 76–7, 97, Ottoman dynasty, 494, 501 104, 106–7, 109, 111, 185–6, 285, 287, 313 Turkey, 506–7 and Caucasus, 715, 717 Inner Asia chronology, 230 and Afghanistan, 720, 723, 725 constitutional revolution, 473–6, 484, 691, 844 Arab conquests, 38, 67 early history, 6 and Caliphate, 61, 64, 68, 185 economy, 231–2, 235, 237–8, 478–85 and China, 219, 223, 341, 352–5, 453–4, 465, 648, and Europe, 237–8, 288, 461, 471–3, 476–9, 482–3, 689, 699, 701, 726–7, 730–1, 827 788, 796, 844

Index 953

and Gulf states, 576 Isly, battle of, 587 and Inner Asia, 685, 688–9, 710, 714 Isma‘il, ‘Abd al-Fattah, 571 and Iraq, 480, 482, 486–7, 553–5, 845 Isma‘il, Maulay, 330–1 Islamic society, 444–8, 461–2, 823–5 Isma‘il Pasha, Egyptian ruler, 513, 762, 857 as Islamic state, 844–8, 850 Isma‘il (Shah), 233, 235, 241–2, 266 Islamization, 197, 200, 203, 206 Isma‘il (son of Ja‘far), 95–7, 133 Kharijism, 178 Isma‘ili Shi‘ism. see also Bohra (Shi‘i sect); Nizari Shi‘a in modern era, 457, 461–2, 469–88, 505, 509, 524, in Afghanistan, 724 547, 563–4, 574, 584–5, 605, 618, 648, 680, 812, in Caliphate, 66, 95–8, 107–8 821, 826, 837–8, 871 in East Africa, 779, 781, 784 modernization of the state, 471–2, 477–82 in Egypt and North Africa, 284–7, 293, 302 Mongols and Timurids in, 207, 226–34, 246, 248, 338, in Islamic community, 134, 137, 140–1, 213, 215 345 opposition to, 136, 293 nationalism, 461–2, 467, 476, 479–80, 691 in post-‘Abbasid era, 149, 172–3, 178, 180–1 and Ottoman empire, 234–47, 253–4, 258, 266, in Syria, 541, 548–9, 583 268–9, 276, 278, 296–7, 489, 844, 846 in United States, 809 post-‘Abbasid era, 135–9, 142–4, 171–2, 176, 193, isnad (chains of authority), 86, 156, 413 213–14, 225, 293, 324 Israel Safavid, 196, 216, 232–47, 345–6, 394, 443–5, 447–8, ancient, 6 469, 844 and Egypt, 522, 524–9 and Saljuk era, 291, 294, 299 establishment of, 546–7, 557, 560 state and religion, 469–88, 816, 818 and Iran, 480, 482, 486 and tribal societies, 471–2, 475–7, 484–5, 818 and Jordan, 545 ‘ulama’, 207 Muslims in, 860 women in, 481–3, 486–7, 857–63, 865–6 nationalism, 565 Iranians, in Europe and United States, 283, 806 opposition to, 548, 550–1, 554, 556–65, 574, 582, Iraq. see also under agriculture; elites; irrigation; 584–5, 615, 618, 708, 752, 821, 827, 841, 860 socialism and Turkey, 510 administration, 51, 543, 551–3 women in, 860 Arab conquest, 32–4, 37–41, 43–4, 46 Istanbul. see also Constantinople British influence in, 492, 539–40, 543–4, 551–4 in modern Turkey, 508 and Caliphate, 49–50, 56–64, 97, 103, 105–10, 185, as Ottoman capital, 207, 211, 253, 255, 258–9, 263–5, 287, 312 267, 270–9, 281–2, 294–6, 323, 325, 334, 492–3, diffusion of Islam, 200 498, 516, 544, 690–1 early history, 3–4, 6–7, 10, 14–15 urban development, 56, 272 and Iran, 480, 483, 485–8, 553–555, 845 women in, 856, 858 Islam in, 211, 552–4, 581, 827 Italians in modern era, 509–10, 524, 528, 545, 547–8, 551–5, colonialism, 453–4, 493, 542 563–4, 572, 574, 581–5, 741, 830 and early Middle East, 287, 291 and Ottoman empire, 254, 296, 334, 446, 492–3, in East Africa, 442, 763, 768, 770–1 543–4 and Egypt, 513, 520 post-imperial era, 112–32, 135, 139, 142–6, 176, 193 Muslims in Italy, 792 Saljuks in, 248, 299 in North Africa, 301, 304, 322, 324–5, 327, 331–2 Shi‘a in, 178, 242, 445, 470, 544, 552–5 and Ottoman empire, 222, 250, 255, 261, 268, 276, state and religion, 618 281, 492, 586, 613–14, 616 women in, 859–61 ithna ‘ashari (“twelver” Shi‘a community), 96, 133–134, Iraqis, in Europe and United States, 785, 805–6 178, 181, 186, 215, 241–243, 245–246, 366–367, 375 Ironsi, General, 750 in East Africa, 779–80 irrigation in United States, 805–6 in Caliphate, 48, 106 Ivory Coast, 410, 414, 426–7, 441, 732–3, 735–7, 755–8, China, 730 780, 825 Egypt, 458, 512–13, 516 Izetbegovic, Alija, 787 Inner Asia, 349–50, 687, 701, 704–5 Iran, 39, 228 J Iraq, 38, 110, 552 Jacobite church. see Monophysites Morocco, 608 jadid movement, 464, 466, 689–93, 695–7, 702, 712, 718 North Africa, 324 Ja‘far al-Sadiq, 91, 95–6, 133, 267 Oman, 576 Ja‘fari (Shi‘i school of law), 245 in Ottoman empire, 294, 296 jagir (land concession). see iqta‘ Persian, 76 al-Jahiz, 77 in post-‘Abbasid era, 143 jahl (ignorance, thoughtlessness), 29 Southeast Asia, 382, 653–4, 656, 673 Jakhanke lineage, 208, 414–15, 443, 754 Spain, 309–11 Jalili family, 297 al-Iryani, Qadi ‘Abd al-Rahman, 570 Jama‘at-i Islami (India), 640, 645–6, 648, 724, 824, 826, Isfahan, 33, 36, 39–40, 126, 169, 237–41, 245 829, 847–8 ishan (Sufi holy men), 210, 685 Jama‘at al-Islamiya (Egypt), 619, 825 Ishmael, 69 Jama‘at al-Muslimin, 531 Iskandar (ruler of Srivijaya), 384 jamat (religious communities), 414 Iskandar Muda (Sultan), 385 jamatbandi (Isma‘ili collective association), 213, 772, 781 islah (reform). see reformism James I of Aragon, 316, 318 islam (submission to Allah), 29, 167 James II of Aragon, 318 Islamic Call Society (Da‘wa al-Islamiyya), 828–9 Jami‘at al-‘ulama’-i Hind, 632, 634, 638–40 Islamic Development Bank, 829 janissaries Islamic Jihad, 563, 827 in North Africa, 323, 325–6, 446, 586 Islamic law. see Shari‘a law in Ottoman empire, 258–60, 267, 273, 277–9, 294, Islamist movements. see revivalism, Islamic 296–8 Islamization. see diffusion of Islam weakening of, 494, 496, 500

954 Index

Japan, 575, 660, 667–9, 677 Jurjan, 61 Jassy, peace of, 281 al-Juvaini, historian, 228 Java. see also agriculture; reformism al-Juwayni, theologian, 161, 166–7 administration, 653, 669 British control, 397, 652–3 K contemporary, 670–3 Ka‘ba, 2, 14–16, 24, 27–8, 108 Dutch control, 223, 385, 387, 652–4, 656, 658–65 Kabardes, 698 economy, 652–4 Kabul, 61, 64, 380, 718, 722, 724–5 Ethical Policy, 656, 661, 667 Kaduna, 747–8, 751, 753 Islam in, 658, 661–5, 669, 683, 816 Kai Ka’us, 151 in modern era, 463, 467 Kalila wa-Dimna, 76, 128 in pre-modern era, 203, 219, 383–7, 392–8, 448 al-Kamil, 291 Jawi Peranakan, 662 Kamil, Mustafa, 518–19 al-Jazira (TV channel), 579 kand tax. see kharaj al-Jazuli, Abu ‘Abdallah, 328–9 Kanem, 204, 405, 411 Jelal, preacher, 266 al-Kanemi, Bornu chieftain, 423 Jelali rebellions, 279 Kano, 406–8, 421, 746–8, 751–4, 781, 825 Jelutong Press, 664 Kano, Aminu, 748 Jerusalem, 24, 32, 51, 69, 71, 112, 175, 263, 288–91, 293, Kanpur mosque, 633–4 490, 527, 558, 560, 563–5, 574, 582, 770 kanun (law codes), 261 Jevdet, ‘Abdallah, 499 Kanuri nation. see Kanem Jewish National Home, 493, 522, 545, 557–60 Kaplan, Metin, 797 Jews. see Judaism Karakalpaks, 698 Jibril b. ‘Umar, 419–20 al-Karaki, ‘Ali, 242 jihad (holy war) karamoko. see ‘ulama’, in West Africa Afghanistan, 725, 848 Karamoko Alfa (Ibrahim Musa), 418 Africa, 202, 205, 211, 214, 216, 400, 402, 732, 818 Karbala, 49, 134, 176, 244, 483 Arabia, 574 Karim Khan, 245 in Caliphate, 91 Karimov, Islam, 713 Caucasus, 715, 717 Karlowitz, treaty of, 282 Egypt, 531–2, 841 Karrami school, 135, 137, 143 Europe, 787, 805 Kartosuwirjo, 669 Inner Asia, 695 Kashan, 130 in Iran, 233 Kashani, Ayatollah, 482 Libya, 615 Kashgar, 208, 216, 337–8, 340, 350–1, 353–5, 730 modern movements, 823, 827, 829–30, 835, 847–8 Kashgaria, 117 North Africa, 334 Kashmir, 357, 364, 574, 640, 644–5, 648–9, 720, 723, 799, in Ottoman empire, 263, 447 827, 830, 845, 847 in post-‘Abbasid era, 117, 138, 188, 190 Kassites, 6 in Sudan, 765 Katip Chelebi, 281 West Africa, 416–28, 741 Katsina, 406, 421, 746–7 Jilan, 61, 235, 245, 476 Kaum Muda (Young Group), 464, 664–5, 676 al-Jilani, ‘Abd al-Qadir, 139, 420 al-Kawakibi, reformer, 537 Jimma-Kakka, Galla kingdom, 437 Kawkaw, kingdom of, 401, 443 jinn (demons), 15 Kazakhs, 201, 223, 338–45, 350, 352–3, 355, 818 Jinnah, Muhammad ‘Ali, 636 and Chinese, 726–7, 729–30 jizya (poll tax), 37, 53, 217, 421 under Russian rule, 686–90, 692–4, 697–8, 701, 706 Jochi, 277 Kazakhstan, 694, 698, 700–2, 704–6, 708–10, 712–13, Jordan. see also Transjordan 716 early history, 13, 31, 36, 41 Kazan, 255, 339–40, 342, 344, 689–94 in modern era, 493, 524, 532, 545, 547, 551, 554–5, al-Kazaruni, Shaykh Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, 138, 142 561–2, 565, 572, 578, 582–5, 818, 825–6 Kazaruniya (Sufi order), 364 women in, 862 Kebatinan groups, 672 Judaism, 183–5 Keira state, 432 in Africa, 752 Keita, Modibo, 756 and Caliphate, 56, 59, 69, 85, 99, 287 Keita dynasty, 402 and diffusion of Islam, 200–1, 242 Kemal, Mustafa. see Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal early history, 6, 16 Kenesary Kasomov, Khan, 344 in Egypt, 514, 516, 518 Kenya, 442, 761, 772–3, 776–7, 830 in Europe, 800 Kenyatta, Jomo, 776–7 and impact of modernization, 457 Kermani, Mirza Aqa Khan, 474 in Inner Asia, 705 Khadija, wife of Muhammad, 20–2, 852 in Iran, 485, 584 Khalduniya school, 602 in Iraq, 584 Khalid b. al-Walid (Ibn al-Walid), 32 and Islamic revelation, 18, 20–1, 23–4, 27–8 khalifa (delegates), 138, 210, 215, 365, 424, 587, 715, and Islamic revivalism, 828, 830 747, 763 in North Africa, 302, 309, 324, 326, 331 al-Khalifa family, 578–9, 583 in Ottoman empire, 252, 264, 268–9, 272–3, 275–6, Khalji, ‘Ala al-Din, 357–8, 360, 368 297, 495, 501, 538–9 Khalji dynasty, 357–8, 368 and Palestine, 547 Khalq faction, 723, 848 in post-‘Abbasid era, 138, 166, 293 Khalwatiya (Sufi order), 210, 242, 267, 295, 464 in Spain, 313, 316, 318–19 Khamene’i, Ayatollah, 485, 488, 845 in United States, 790, 807–8 Khan, Sayyid Ahmad, 459–60, 627–9, 631, 692 Jumblatt family, 556 Khan Berke, 339 al-Junayd (mystic, d.911), 92–3, 158, 160, 178, 189, 388 khanaqa (religious retreats) al-Junayd (Shaykh, 1447-60), 233–4 in India, 361–2, 364–7, 375 Jundishapur, 58, 78 in Inner Asia, 349

Index 955

in Middle East, 94, 137–8, 140–2, 162, 189, 192, 210, in modern Turkey, 505, 509–11, 838–9 213, 291, 293–4 national identity, 584, 826 Khans in pre-modern era, 233–4, 259, 277, 290–1, 296, 298, Inner Asia, 117, 685 307, 321, 446, 493, 499, 513 Iran, 469–70, 477, 479 al-Kursavi, Abu Nasr, 690 kharaj (land tax), 37, 53, 62, 217, 421 Kuwait, 528, 553–5, 560, 568, 574, 577–80, 582–3, 680, Kharijis 710, 748, 756, 805 in Caliphate, 47, 49–50, 53–4, 65, 81, 87, 133, 178, women in, 859 185–6 Kyrgyzstan, 710, 713 in North Africa, 191, 201, 214, 302–3, 306, 308–9, 325 in sub-Saharan Africa, 401, 405 L Kharraz, Abu Sa‘id, 91 Laden, Usama bin. see Usama bin Laden Khatami, Muhammad, 488, 845 Lagos, 424, 440, 735–6, 748–9, 752, 784 Khatmiya order, 762, 765–6, 781 Lahore, 116, 380 Khayr al-Din (fl.1873–77), 601–2 Lakhm kingdom, 14–15, 32 Khayr al-Din Barbarossa (fl.1529–33), 255, 325 Lamu, 772 Khazars, 33, 54 land tax. see kharaj Khazraj, 22–3, 31–2 Laskar Jihad, 675 Khidr, 234 Lat Dior, 426, 742 Khilafat movement, 632, 634–5, 637–8 Lausanne, treaty of, 499 ‘ Khirbat al-Mafjar, 69 law. see also law, schools of; Shari a law khirqa (cloak), 138, 210, 323, 365 Arab conquests, 43 Khiva, 340, 348, 350, 684–5, 696, 698, 700 in Caliphate, 59, 89–90, 92, 95, 99–100, 102, 105 Khoiaev, Fayzullah, 697 and diffusion of Islam, 201, 206–7 Muslim states, 215–16, 220 Khokand, 348, 350, 352–4, 688, 695, 702 ‘ Khomayni, Ayatollah, 483–6, 792, 801, 845, 866 in post- Abbasid era, 114, 128, 133–7, 140–6, 152–3, Khrushchev, Nikita, 705, 707 156–8, 160, 165–6, 174, 176–82, 189, 193, 197 Khufiya order, 726 pre-Islamic, 5–6, 8 Khurasan Quranic, 24–6, 30 law, schools of. see also Hanafi (school of law); Hanbali and Arab conquests, 33, 37, 41, 43–4 ‘ and Caliphate, 49–50, 53–4, 56, 58–61, 64–5, 78, (school of law); Maliki (school of law); Shafi i 103–4, 107, 109 (school of law) post-imperial era, 109, 112, 116–17, 120, 122, 127, in early Middle East, 85–6, 114, 133–7, 140–6, 157, 135, 139–41, 146 177–9, 181–2, 184, 186, 189, 192–3 Sufism, 92–3, 178 India, 374 Khusraw Parviz, emperor, 130 in pre-modern era, 201, 205–7, 209–13, 215, 226, 816 Lawrence, T.E., 539 Khuzistan, 33, 58, 60, 114, 120, 554 Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 794 Khwaja Ahrar, 230 League of Arab States, 557, 559, 610 khwaja (holy men in Transoxania), 208, 214, 216, 340, League of Nations, 520, 533, 539, 553, 774 349, 352, 353–5, 464, 685 Lebanon. see also Druze Khwarizm, 39, 114, 116, 139, 337–9, 350, 698 in Caliphate, 287 Kilwa, 433–5 Christians in, 316 (see also Maronites) Kinda confederation, 14 civil war (1975–91), 487, 551, 555–7, 582, 827 al-Kindi, philosopher, 79, 178, 316 and Europe, 457–8, 524, 536–7, 539, 543, 545–6, 805, kingship. see also empires 830 in early Middle East, 4–5, 12–15, 44, 69, 121, 123, in modern era, 540, 546–7, 550, 555–7, 561–3, 582–5, 128, 131, 149–55 679, 805, 827 in East Africa, 429, 431–2 nationalism, 461, 535–7 in India, 360, 372 in Ottoman empire, 296–8, 492–3, 535–7 in pre-modern era, 204, 218, 228, 231–2 in post-‘Abbasid era, 149 in Southeast Asia, 393 state and religion, 556 kinship. see family women in, 859–60, 862 Kirgiz, 350, 353–5, 689, 698, 700, 706, 708–10, 713, 726 Lenin, V.I., 697 Kirman, 40, 65, 107, 114, 120 Lepanto, battle of, 255 Kitama. see Berbers Levant Company, British, 275–6 Kitchener, Lord, 763 Lezghins, 698 kiyayi. see ‘ulama’ (in Southeast Asia) liberal Islam, 823–4 Kochu Bey, Mustafa, 281 Libya, 300–1, 309, 465, 556, 586, 612–16, 618, 680, 682, Koja Sinan, 263 740, 755, 781, 793, 818, 820, 829, 837 Konya, 172, 248, 250, 265, 272 Limmu-Innarya, Galla kingdom, 437 Koprolu, Mehmed, 279 lineage. see also clans; tribes al-Korau, Muhammad, 406 Africa, 781–2 Kosovo, 250, 574, 785–6, 788 and Arab conquests, 40, 42 Kubra, Najm al-Din, 139, 233 in early Middle East, 137, 183–4, 190–1, 815–16 Kubrawiya (Sufi order), 139, 233, 349 East Africa, 433–4 Kuchuk Kaynarca, treaty of, 281 in European societies, 219 Kuder, Lawrence, 681 Inner Asia, 338 Kufa, 34, 39–41, 47, 49–50, 53, 66, 74–5, 85, 107, 130 Islamic community, 29, 204–5, 208, 214 al-Kulayni, 134 North Africa, 325, 614 Kumasi, 413, 441, 759 in post-‘Abbasid era, 155, 187 Kunta family, 409–10 pre-Islamic societies, 3, 8–9 al-Kunti, Sidi al-Mukhtar, 410, 740 Southeast Asia, 388 Kurds West Africa, 409 in the Caliphate, 65, 120 literature. see also Arabic literature; Persian literature in Europe and United States, 796, 803, 806, 809 Indian, 361, 447 in modern Iran, 479, 482 in Inner Asia, 690, 702–3, 705–6 in modern Iraq, 544, 548, 552–5, 583 Muslim, 156

956 Index

literature (cont.) and women, 855 Ottoman empire, 261, 263 Malkum Khan (1833-1908), 474 in post-‘Abbasid era, 125–30, 140, 142 mallam. see ‘ulama’, West Africa state elites, 216, 218 Malta, 255 Turkish, 117, 337–8 Mamluk regime Lithuanians, 806 administration, 292, 294, 299, 444, 514, 816 Lobbo, Ahmad, 424 concept of ruler, 292–3 Lucknow, 379, 626, 631, 634 and East Africa, 429 Lugard, Frederick, 441 in Egypt, 109, 122, 125, 280, 283, 292–6, 298, Luri, 234 512–15 Lyautey, Marshal, 606–7 legitimation, 216, 292–4 military organization, 217, 258, 292, 294 M and North Africa, 319, 322, 613 Ma Ba, teacher, 425, 465, 742, 839 and Ottoman empire, 253–4, 263 Ma Hua-lung (Tsung-ta A-hung), 354 and women, 854 Ma Ming-hsin, 353 al-Ma’mun, Caliph, 61, 64, 68, 101–4, 136 Macedonia, 250, 253, 266–7, 492, 785–6, 788–9 Ma‘n family, 298 MacMahon, Henry, 539 Manchu dynasty. see Ch’ing dynasty Madali, Ishan (Ishan Muhammad al-Khalifa Kabir), 688 Mangit dynasty, 341, 348, 355 Madani, ‘Abassi, 599–600, 617 Mangkurax, Sultan, 385 madrasa (colleges) Manichaeanism, 6, 73, 76, 87, 116, 166 East Africa, 434 Mansa Musa (1307-32), 402, 408 Egypt, 291, 293 al-Mansur, Caliph, 73 India, 364, 372, 628 al-Mansur (Sa‘dian Sultan, 1578-1603), 329 in Islamic society, 135–7, 141–2, 156, 177, 192, 206, Mansur, Shaykh (c.1760–91), 715 215 al-Mansur Qala’un (1280–90), 293 North Africa, 323, 327, 405, 589 Manzikert, battle of, 117, 248 Ottoman empire, 265 Mao Zedong, 727, 730 Southeast Asia, 664 Maoism, 507 West Africa, 751, 756 Marathas, 369–70, 379–81 al-Maghili (d.1504), 404, 406, 408, 416, 420 Marcos, Ferdinand, 682 Mahathir b. Muhammad, 680–1, 844 Mardawij b. Ziyar, 108 Mahdawi movement, 366 Marei, Sayyid, 525 al-Mahdi (Caliph, 775–85), 60, 73, 101 al-Marghinani (d.1169), 157 mahdi (savior), concept of, 50, 53–4, 65, 73, 95–8, 134, ma‘rifa (direct knowledge), 165, 167, 267 181, 186, 190, 416, 419–20, 588 Marinid dynasty, 283, 300, 320, 327–8, 335 Mahdi (of the Sudan), 762–4 marja‘i-taqlid (spiritual leaders), 215, 473 Mahdist states, 737, 762–6, 815 Marjani, Shihab al-Din, 690 Mahfouz, Naguib, 532 Maronites, 264, 297–8, 535–7, 546, 555–7 Mahgrib. see North Africa Marrakesh, 300, 306, 309, 314, 328–9, 608 Mahmud II (Sultan, 1807–39), 494, 496, 500 marriage. see divorce; women Mahmud of Ghazna (988–1030), 128 Martel, Charles, 310 Maimonides, 316 Ma‘ruf, Muhammad, 772 Majapahit kingdom, 383–5, 392 Marw, 36, 39–41, 54, 78, 126, 128 al-Majdhub, Muhammad, 762 Marwanid dynasty, 287 Majdhubiya, 431, 762 Mashhad, tomb, 134, 176, 244 Majid, Nurcholis, 673–4 Masjumi, 667–71, 673 majlis (council), 573 Masmuda. see Berbers Majlis Ugama, 676 masnavi (rhyming couplet), 128, 261. see also poetry, al-Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir, 242 post-‘Abbasid Majnun, 130 Mas‘ud, Ahmad Shah, 724–5 Makhdum-i A‘zam, 351 Mataram empire (Java), 219, 385–7, 392–3, 398, 658, al-Makki (d.989), 159 816 mala (council of clans), 17 Materi, Mahmud, 603 Malacca, 223, 383–6, 397–8, 677 Maturidi (school of theology), 166, 177, 189, 337 Malamatiya (wandering dervishes), 266, 364, 368 Mau Mau revolt, 776 Malawi, 760, 779 Maulay Rashid, 329 Malay Muslim Youth League (ABIM), 679, 825 Mauritania Malay States, Federation of, 398 and French, 732, 737–41, 793 Malaya. see also Malaysia independent, 612, 735, 740–1, 745, 768 European colonialism, 219, 223, 453, 654, 656, 658, Islam in, 204–5, 208, 409–10, 414, 416, 419, 426, 444, 664, 675–7 737–8, 761, 780–1, 784, 826, 837 Islam in, 198, 203, 216, 382–8, 390, 392, 396–8, 448, Mausillu (Iranian regional rulers), 235 661–2, 675–7 mawali. see clientage nationalism, 460, 677 Al-Mawardi (d.1058), 148 women in, 664 Mawdudi, Abul ‘Ala, 645 Malays, 41, 658, 662, 676, 760, 793, 799, 821, 826, 844 mawla. see clientage Malaysia. see also Malaya mawlid (birthday of the Prophet), 176, 181, 295, 322, Islam in, 678–81, 683, 788, 818, 822, 825–6, 830, 837, 329, 350, 391, 414, 515, 623, 747 842–4, 871 Mazandaran, 235, 245 nationalism, 676–80 Mazdaism, 6, 65 women in, 680–1 Mazhar, Shaykh Mirza, 374–5 Malcolm X, 807 mazkhzan (coalition), 335 Mali, 204, 327, 402, 404–5, 408–9, 414, 443, 736–8, 741, Mecca 755–8, 780–1, 793, 825, 837 and Caliphate, 45–6, 49, 66, 74, 85, 108, 286 Malik Dauda Sy, 418 early history, 3, 15–17, 26–8, 34, 67, 184 Malik Shah (d.1092), 120 in modern era, 492, 512, 574–5, 738, 769–70, 849 Maliki (school of law), 135, 156, 178, 206–7, 211–12, Muhammad in, 19–23 306–9, 312, 322–3, 333–4, 602, 755, 762 in Ottoman empire, 235, 295, 572, 613, 715

Index 957

pilgrimage to (see hajj (pilgrimage)) post-‘Abbasid era, 134, 138, 140–3 in post-‘Abbasid era, 131, 293 pre-Islamic, 6 reformism, 211, 213, 662 modernism, Islamic, 457–61, 817, 820, 822. see also Meccans, exiled. see muhajirun modernization Medina in Africa, 782 and Arab conquests, 36 in colonial era, 581 and Caliphate, 45–7, 49, 51, 66, 85, 286 in East Africa, 767 in modern era, 512, 770, 849 in Egypt, 460, 516–19, 521–2, 822 Mosque, 71 in India, 459–60, 628–9 Muhammad in, 19, 22–7, 31–2, 67, 184, 531, 809 in Iran, 472–4 in Ottoman empire, 253, 265, 295, 572, 715 in Ottoman empire, 496, 500 pilgrimage to (see hajj (pilgrimage)) and reformism, 466 in post-‘Abbasid era, 135, 293 in Southeast Asia, 460–1, 663, 672, 677 reformism, 211, 213 in Tunisia, 458–61 Megawati Sukarnoputri, 674 in Turkey, 460 Mehmed Fuad Pasha, 496 in United States, 810 Mehmed I, 251, 260 in West Africa, 745, 749, 754–6, 759 Mehmed II the Conqueror, 250–1, 253, 255, 260–1 modernization. see also modernism, Islamic Mehmet ‘Ali Pasha, 496 in Arab Middle East, 548 Menderes, Adnan, 505–6, 547 in Arabian peninsula, 567, 570, 573–4, 580 Mendès-France, Pierre, 610 in East Africa, 761–2, 779–80 Menelik II, king of Ethiopia, 770 in Egypt, 457–8, 474, 512–17, 521–2, 530, 533 Mengistu Haile Mariam, 771–2 in Europe, 455–6 merchants in India, 624–5 in Caliphate, 41–2, 52, 64, 81, 95, 110, 184–5 in Inner Asia, 689–91, 695, 700–9, 731 and diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 200–1, 203–7, 337, in Iran, 471–2, 477–82 344, 382–4, 409–11, 433–5, 732, 780 in Lebanon, 537 in Islamic community, 209, 211, 213 in North Africa, 592–3, 601–3, 605, 617 Morocco, 331 in Ottoman empire, 457–8, 460–1, 467, 474, 493–501, in Ottoman empire, 272–3 692, 819, 837 in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 145, 179, 189, 192 in Southeast Asia, 664–5, 671, 680 pre-Islamic, 5–6, 10, 16–17 in Tunisia, 457–9, 601–3, 617 Mesopotamia in Turkey, 498–504, 511 and Arab conquests, 33–4, 37, 39–40, 43 in West Africa, 736–7, 752 and Caliphate, 50, 60, 65–6, 78, 85, 107–10 Mogadishu, 433–4, 437 heritage, 553 Moi, Daniel arap, 777 in Ottoman empire, 253 Mojahedin, 486 in post-‘Abbasid era, 110, 114, 117, 120, 123, 142–4, Mojahedin-i Khalq, 482, 485 149, 176, 287, 289–91, 293 Mongol dynasty, 109, 112, 120, 293, 358 pre-Islamic, 3–6 administration, 217, 228–9, 232 Sufis in, 232 in Afghanistan, 720 and Syria, 290 and Anatolia, 249 Messali Hajj, 591, 594 in China, 338 messiah. see mahdi (savior), concept of concept of monarchy, 228, 232, 246, 446 Mevleviya (Sufi order), 217, 249, 252, 267 and diffusion of Islam, 198 Middle East, Arab. see Arab Middle East in Inner Asia, 201, 232, 338, 345, 350–2 migration. see hijra (migration) invasions, 226–9, 231–2, 292–3 migrations. see Arabs; Turks in Iran, 207, 226–9, 246, 248, 338 Mikali family, 143 legitimation, 228–9 millet system, 265, 495, 691–2 state, 445 Milli Firqa party, 693–4 women in, 853 Milosevic, Slobodan, 786, 788 Mongolians, 226, 232, 725, 728 Minangkabau, 211, 213, 385, 387, 390–2, 448, 657, 660, Monophysites, 7, 34, 264, 436 662, 664–5, 669 monotheism. see also Christianity; hanif (Arabian Ming dynasty, 353 monotheists); Judaism minorities, Muslims as and diffusion of Islam, 200–1, 205, 363, 810 Africa, 781–2 and Islam, 20–1, 23–4, 26, 28, 69, 87–9, 99, 183, 186 China, 353, 725–31 pre-Islamic, 3, 6–7, 9–10, 16–17, 183 East Africa, 770 Montenegro, 253, 274, 490–2, 498, 786 in India, 640, 642–4 Moorish Science Temple of America, 807 Inner Asia, 684, 700, 705 Mori-Ule Sise, 426 in modern era, 850–1 Morocco. see also under agriculture; reformism; trade, South Africa, 760 international Spain, 316, 318–19 administration, 327, 330, 332, 335, 607–8, 610–11, West Africa, 413, 758 616 Mir ‘Ali Shir Nava’i, 231 and Algeria, 587, 595–7 Mir Damad, 243 Caliphal era, 283, 304–9, 319 mir (holy men in Transoxania), 208, 349, 355 chronology, 300 mi‘raj (ascension of the Prophet), 175, 181, 316 colonization, 606–11 Mirdasid dynasty, 109, 287 diffusion of Islam, 201, 299, 302, 306 al-Mirghani, Muhammad ‘Uthman, 762 economy, 606–7, 612 Mirghaniya (reform order), 437 and Europe, 301, 313–14, 331–3, 586, 606–11, mirrors, for princes, 147, 149–55 615–16, 793–4, 799, 802, 803, 849 misr (pl. amsar, garrison city), 34, 36, 40–1, 43–4, 49–50, invasion of Sudan, 404–5 81, 184, 200 Islamic community, 208, 211, 214 missionaries as Islamic state, 327–36, 409, 444, 612, 618, 818, 844, and diffusion of Islam, 28, 97–8, 107, 198, 201–5, 849–50 215, 342, 377, 383–5, 390, 435, 671, 673, 679–83, legitimation, 327, 332, 335, 616 732, 809 in modern era, 606–12, 615–18, 740–1, 826, 871

958 Index

Morocco (cont.) Indonesia, 464, 662–3, 666–7, 669, 672–5, 818, 822, and Ottoman empire, 325, 606 825, 843 in post-‘Abbasid era, 139 in Inner Asia, 692 pre-modern era, 319–22, 326–36 Muhammadzai dynasty, 720, 848 relation to tribes, 444, 606–11 Muharram, festival, 244 state and religion, 216, 218, 818, 820–1, 837, 848 Mujaddadiya order, 374 women in, 612, 860–1, 863 mujaddid (renewer of Islam), 377, 419–20, 424 Mosaddeq, Muhammad, 479, 482, 554 Mujaddidi, Sibghatullah, 724 Moscow, and Golden Horde, 339, 342 mujahid (warrior), concept of, 553, 559 mosques, construction, 131, 135, 200, 263 Mujahidin (Afghanistan), 725, 830 Mosul, 33, 39, 54, 108–9, 280, 289–91, 296–7, 535 mujtahid (chief religious scholars), 157, 215, 246, 335, women in, 854 445, 470, 485 Mozambique, 774 Mukhtar ould Daddah, 740–1 mu‘amalat (rules of social relations), 85, 167 Mulla Sadra, 243 Mu‘awiya, 47–50, 87, 134, 136 mullah. see ‘ulama’ Mubarak, Husni, 527–8, 533, 859 Multan, 98, 720 Mudar faction, 49 Munsif Bey, 604 mufti (jurisconsults) al-Muqanna, prophet, 65 East Africa, 772 muqarna, 131 Egypt, 517 Muqatil b. Sulayman, 91 India, 374 al-Muqrani, 589 Inner Asia, 344, 348, 685, 706 al-Murabitun. see Almoravid dynasty in Islamic communities, 207, 215 Murad Bey (d.1640), 323 North Africa, 323 Murad I (1360–89), 251, 258 Ottoman empire, 266, 294 Murad (Mangit ruler, fl.1785), 348 in post-‘Abbasid era, 157 Muridiya brotherhood, 742–4, 781, 840 Southeast Asia, 676 Murji’a (theological school), 87, 178 Mughal empire murshid (head of order), 210, 215, 233, 241, 414 administration, 207, 216–17, 236, 369, 371, 374, Murtada Ansari, Shaykh, 473 379–80, 444, 447–8 Musa al-Kazim, 95–7, 133, 366 and Afghanistan, 720 Muscat. see Oman chronology, 357 Museveni, Yoweri Kaguta, 779 decline of, 218, 378–81, 465, 620–5 Musharaff, Pervez, 648, 847 and diffusion of Islam, 198, 644 Mushatta, 68 foundation, 358 music, 216, 218, 447 and Islam, 368–78 Muslim activists. see revivalism, Islamic legitimation, 217–18, 650 Muslim Brothers patronage of culture, 371–2, 447 Afghanistan, 724 religious policy, 372, 374–8, 816, 846 Algeria, 598–9 and Southeast Asia, 387 East Africa, 766 muhajirun (exiled Meccans), 27, 31 Egypt, 522–3, 528–9, 532, 534, 550, 584, 618, 755, Muhammad 824–6, 840–1 authority of, 90, 97, 173, 179, 210, 814, 868–9 Europe, 794, 796–7, 799 companions of, 21, 45–7, 90, 138–9, 158–9, 176, 186, Iraq, 551 208, 210 Jordan, 545, 584, 826 life of, 18–32, 183–4, 866 Syria, 550, 618 and Mecca, 17, 20–3, 26–8 Tunisia, 605 and Quran, 18–26, 28–30, 67, 88, 181 Yemen, 571 successors to, 32, 47–9, 53, 65, 81, 90, 134, 214–15, Muslim law. see Shari‘a law 233–4, 246, 286, 294, 307, 588, 685, 715 Muslim League, 621, 631, 636–9, 820, 846 veneration of, 79, 174–6, 267, 290, 329, 801 Muslim Mosque Inc., 807 Muhammad, Elijah (Elijah Poole), 807 Muslim World League (Rabitat al-‘Alam al-Islami), 755, Muhammad, Maulay, 329 797, 828–9 Muhammad, Shaykh, 776 Mustafa ‘Ali (1541–99), 261 Muhammad, Warith Deen, 808 Mustafa b. ‘Azzuz, Shaykh, 588 Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhab, 572 Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. see Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal Muhammad b. ‘Abdallah (Abdille Hassan), 769 Mustafa Reshid Pasha, 496 Muhammad Ahmad, Shaykh, 762 al-Musta‘li, 287 Muhammad ‘Ali (Egypt, 1805–48), 458, 490, 494, 512–15, al-Mustansir, Caliph, 287 519, 538, 572, 761 Mustarshidin, 745 Muhammad ‘Ali (India), 631–2, 634 al-Mutanabbi (poet), 126 Muhammad Bello, 421, 424, 747 al-Mu‘tasim (Caliph), 104 Muhammad b. Karram (Ibn Karram), 137 al-Mutawakkil (Caliph), 102, 105 Muhammad al-Mahdi, 329 Mu‘tazila (theological school), 87–9, 95, 102–3, 135–6, Muhammad b. Masarra, 312 143, 166, 178, 186, 312 Muhammad Omar, Mullah, 725 Mutesa I (king of Buganda), 778 Muhammad Rahim I (1806–25), 350 Mutiny, Indian, 623–5 Muhammad Reza Shah, 479–84, 487–8, 554, 845 al-Muwahhidun. see Almohad dynasty Muhammad Sa‘id, 762 Mwiniyi, ‘Ali Hassan, 776 Muhammad b. Salih, 769 mysticism. see also asceticism; Sufism Muhammad Shah (1834–48), 472 in Caliphate, 67–8, 82, 90–4, 99–101, 186 Muhammad (son of Isma‘il), 97 and diffusion of Islam, 201 Muhammad Tahir, Shaykh, 664 in Indonesia, 672 Muhammad b. Tughluq, 358, 368 in Islamic community, 207–10 Muhammad V, Sultan of Morocco, 610–11 in modern era, 233, 308–9, 623, 631, 814 Muhammad VI, Sultan of Morocco, 612 in post-‘Abbasid era, 128, 130, 134, 137, 156, 163, Muhammad Yunus, Hajji, 663 165, 169–72, 176, 179–80, 193 Muhammadiya movement in United States, 808

Index 959

N education, 746–9, 751–3 Nabateans, 13 Islam in, 205, 421–3, 427, 736–8, 745–54, 756, 780–1, Nabiev, Rakhmon, 714 818, 825–7, 850–1 Nadir Shah, 245, 380, 722 Muslim identity, 782–3 nafs (soul), 16, 93, 162, 167 post-independence, 738, 748, 750–4, 850–1 Nagorno-Karabakh, 717 in pre-modern era, 427, 438–9, 441 Naguib, Muhammad, 523, 840 state organization, 818 Nahdatul ‘Ulama’, 665–70, 672, 674–5, 821, 843 women in, 746, 751, 753, 863 Naima, Mustafa, 281 Nihawand, 33 Na’ini, Mirza Muhammad Husayn, 474 Nimatullahiya (Sufi order), 242, 806–7 Najaf, 134, 176 Nimrud, 56 Najda, Khariji faction, 49 Nineveh, 56 Najiballah, General, 725 Nishapur, 38–40, 65, 117, 126, 128, 130, 137–8, 143, 146, Najran, 13 160–1, 312 Nan Rincheh, Tuanku, 391 Niyazov Saparmund (Turkmenbashi), 713 Nan Tua, Tuanku, 391 nizam-i mustafa (Islamic system), 646 Napoleon, 490, 512, 515 Nizam al-Mulk, vizier, 136, 141–2, 151, 154 Napoleon III, 589–90 Nizami (poet), 130 Naqshband, Baha’ al-Din, 347 Nizamiya school, 160 Naqshbandiya (Sufi order) Nizar, 287 in Afghanistan, 722, 724 Nizari Shi‘a (Isma‘ili, Assassins), 284, 287, 375, 377, 806 in the Caucasus, 715–16 Nkrumah, Kwame, 735, 759 in Egypt, 518 Noble Drew Ali, 807 in India, 207, 213, 368, 374–5, 377 nomads. see also bedouins; pastoralism; tribes in Inner Asia, 213, 342, 347, 349, 464–5 and Caliphate, 54, 66 in Iran, 230–1, 242 and diffusion of Islam, 198, 201–2, 205–6 in Islamic community, 209–11 early, 3, 6, 200 in Ottoman empire, 267, 295 invasions, 109, 112, 114, 116–17, 119–22, 125, 133, in Southeast Asia, 390, 394, 662, 664 143–5, 149, 187, 192, 226, 337–8 in Turkey, 509, 797, 838 Normans, 287, 304 in United States, 807 North Africa. see also Algeria; Morocco; Tunisia Narimanov, Nariman, 697 Arab conquest of, 33–4, 48, 50, 201, 333–4 al-Nasafi, Isma‘ili missionary, 285 and Caliphate, 54, 61, 64, 104, 107–8, 283, 285, 287, Nashashibi family, 558–9 299–309 Nasi, Joseph, Duke of Naxos, 264 diffusion of Islam, 97–8, 178, 197–8, 200–1, 204, Nasibin, 33, 78 299–309, 333–6 nasiha (advice), 149 and Europe, 225, 255, 302, 304, 321–7, 329, 331–6, al-Nasir, Caliph, 139 453–4, 458–61, 586–98, 602–17, 785, 793–7, Nasir al-Din (1848–96), 416, 471–2 802–3, 839, 841, 849–50 Nasiri, ‘Abd al-Qayyim, 690 Islamic community, 207, 210–11, 213–14, 217–19, Nasiriya (Sufi order), 330 444, 462, 518, 572, 737 Nasr, Sayyed Hosein, 810 in modern era, 586–619, 739, 871 Nasrallah, Amir, 348 nationalism, 460, 591, 593–8, 606–7, 609–12, Nasrid dynasty, 300, 316 616–19 Nasser, Jamal ‘Abd al-, 523–9, 533, 547–8, 554–5, 575, Ottoman empire, 222, 253, 255, 269, 280, 447, 614, 766, 840, 859 489 ‘nation in arms,’ 44, 58–9 post-‘Abbasid era, 120, 126, 135, 137, 140, 191 Nation of Islam (NOI), 807–8 pre-modern era, 299–309, 319–36 nationalism. see also under the names of countries and and Spain, 310–14, 318–19 regions state and religion, 308, 330–1, 333–6, 818 Arab (see Arab nationalism) contemporary, 600, 615–19 in modern era, 225, 456–7, 459–61, 467, 817–22, 837, North Atlantic Treaty Organization see NATO 840–4 Northern Alliance (Afghanistan), 725, 835 and women, 855–63 Northwest Frontier, 202, 211, 630, 632, 636, 644, 725, nationality, Soviet policy, 693, 698, 702–3, 705–6 847–8 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 505, 509, Nubia, 294, 429, 778 524, 725, 786–9, 835 Numayri, Ja‘far, 766–7, 782 Natsir, Muhammad, 670 Nur al-Din, son of Zengi, 290–1, 294 Nawaz Sharif, 647–8 Nur Misuari, 682 Nayman, 112, 120 Nurbaksh (Sufi preacher), 233 Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 712–13 Nurbakshiya (Sufi order), 242 Nedim, Ahmed, 281 Nurcis, 798–9 Nef‘i, Ottoman poet, 261 Nursi, Said, 508, 838 Nehru, Pandit, 636 Nyerere, Julius, 775–6 neo-Islamists. see revivalism, Islamic neo-Platonism. see under Plato O Nestorians, 7, 34, 41, 43, 58–9, 78, 105, 116, 185 Obasanjo, Olusegun, 751, 753 Netanyahu, Binyamin, 565 Obote, Milton, 778 Netherlands. see Dutch Ocalan, ‘Abdallah, 509 Niass, Ibrahim, 742, 747, 750 Ogaden, 770–1 Nicopolis, battle of, 250 Oghuz peoples, 116–17, 248, 337, 446 Niffari (d.985), 93 oil Niger, 302, 404, 410, 440–1, 732–3, 735, 738, 755–6, 759, in Arabian peninsula, 567, 573–6, 578–80 780 in Iran, 478–9, 481–2, 484 Niger Company, 441 in Iraq, 552–4 Nigeria. see also Hausaland in Nigeria, 750–2 British colonialism, 453, 732–6, 745–50, 850 Oirat (Mongols), 352 civil war, 750 Oljeytu (1304–17), 228–9

960 Index

Oman, 32, 49, 178, 214, 434, 565, 568–9, 573, 576, 578, Pakistanis 772, 776 in Africa, 773, 779 Omdurman, battle of, 763 in Europe and United States, 785, 793, 799, 801–3, Organization of African States, 770 806 Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), 752, Palestine. see also Palestinians 829 and Arab conquests, 32, 40 Orhan (1324-60), 251, 259 Crusades, 109, 112, 201, 250, 287–93, 297, 316 Osama bin Laden. see Usama bin Laden early history, 3, 13–14 Osman, founder of Ottoman empire, 250–1 and Egypt, 522–4 Ossets, 698, 717 Islam in, 562–5 Ottoman empire. see also under agriculture; culture; in modern era, 539–40, 545, 547, 557–65, 679, 773, elites; intelligentsia; reformism; secularization; state 828, 867 and religion; taxation; trade, international nationalism, 558–65 administration, 125, 217, 258–61, 265–6, 272–5, 294, and Ottoman empire, 264, 297, 457, 492–3, 536 296, 334, 444, 446–7, 494–5, 497, 502 partition, 559–61 in Arab Middle East, 292–8, 492–3, 535–41, 543–4, state and religion, 557–60, 562–5 553, 580 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 551, 556, 560, in Arabian peninsula, 280, 565–6, 568, 570, 580 562–4, 680, 820–1 and Caucasus, 715 Palestinians conquests, 250–3, 268–9 and Egypt, 528–9, 841 culture, 218 in Europe and United States, 785, 805–6, 811 dissolution of, 218, 275–82, 297–8, 489–93, 511, international support for, 708, 830 537–40, 632, 634, 818, 842, 847 and Islam, 558–9, 562–5, 827 and East Africa, 434, 436, 762–3, 772 in modern era, 545, 547–8, 550, 554–65, 574, 578, economy, 268–9, 272–3, 275–82, 296, 494 582–5, 605, 820–1 in Egypt, 254, 280, 283, 294–8, 512–14, 516, 518, 761, women, 855, 859–60 840 Palmyra, 13–14 and Europe, 222, 225, 250–61, 263–4, 269, 272, pan-Arabism, 523–4, 541, 546–53, 575, 582–3, 591, 614, 275–82, 296–8, 457–8, 489–501, 511, 536, 616, 618–19 538–41, 586–97, 600, 613–14, 785–6, 788–9 pan-Islamism and Inner Asia, 339, 342, 354, 685, 691–2, 695 Egypt, 547 and Iran, 234–47, 253–4, 258, 266, 268–9, 276, 278, Europe, 805 296–7, 489, 844, 846 in Indian subcontinent, 625, 628, 632, 635, 637 Islamic community, 207, 210–11, 448, 820 Inner Asia, 691–2, 696–7, 702–3, 712 and Islamization, 198, 201–3, 216, 444 in Iran, 474 legal reform, 494–5, 498 and modernism, 460–1 legitimation, 216, 260–1, 282, 444, 446–7, 489 in Ottoman empire, 498 military organization, 258–9, 263, 277, 282, 294, in Southeast Asia, 666, 676 296–7, 334, 493–4 pan-Malayanism, 676 and modernization, 457–8, 460–1, 467, 474, 493–501, pan-Turkism, 692, 696–8, 702–3, 712–14, 797 692, 819, 837 pançasila (five principles), 668, 671–4, 821 in North Africa and Spain, 280, 299, 301, 319–21, Panipat, battle of (1526), 358 323–6, 329, 334, 336, 405, 601–2, 606, 612–14, Panipat, battle of (1761), 380 616, 618, 839, 841 Parcham, 723 origins, 109 Paris, treaty of, 490 and provincial administration, 259–60, 273–5, Parsi language, 127 277–80, 446 Parthian empire, 6 reform, 462–501 Pasai, Shams al-Din, 388 rise of, 109, 248, 250–3 Pashtuns, 464–5, 622–3, 644, 648, 718, 720, 722–5, 819, society, 258, 263–8 847–8 and Southeast Asia, 387 Passarowitz, peace of, 281 women in, 498, 854, 856–7 pastoralism. see also bedouins; nomads; tribes and world empire, 253–8, 632 and Arab conquests, 40 in World War I, 492–3 and Caliphate, 110–11 Oyo empire, Nigeria, 438 and diffusion of Islam, 197, 200–2, 205, 214 Ozal, Turgot, 507, 838 India, 362 North Africa, 333–5, 614 P in post-‘Abbasid era, 116 Padri movement, 211, 464–5, 660, 664 pre-Islamic, 4, 10, 12, 22 Pahlavi, Muhammad Reza Shah, 479–84, 554, 845 in pre-modern era, 231–2, 304, 337–9, 345, 348, 355, Pahlavi, Reza Shah, 476–7 409, 512 Pahlavi dynasty, 469, 476–85, 845–6, 857–9 Russian limitation of, 686 painting Pasvanoglu, Osman, 280 Fatimid, 285–6 Pathans. see Pashtuns Iran, 229, 231, 445 Patriarch, authority of, 265 Mongol, 229 patronage. see also clientage Mughal, 216, 372, 447 and Caliphate, 64, 75, 107, 200 Ottoman, 261–3, 282 Islamic community, 207, 816 Safavid, 240–1 in post-‘Abbasid era, 141–2, 144–5, 188 Timurid, 231, 240–1 royal, 131, 144–5, 188, 216, 291, 294, 371–2, Pakistan. see also Bangladesh 447–8 and Afghanistan, 722–3, 725 penghulu (village headman), 388, 390–2, 665 and Arabia, 573, 578, 646 peoples, pastoral. see bedouins; nomads; pastoralism; and Inner Asia, 712 tribes modern state, 459, 622, 641, 644–51, 818, 821, 824–6, “Peoples of the Book,” 36, 100 830, 837, 844, 846–8, 850, 871 Peres, Shimon, 565 movement to create, 635–40 Persatuan Islam, 663 women in, 647, 861 Persatuan Muslimin Indonesia, 667

Index 961

Persian empires, 3, 6, 10, 14, 32–3, 38, 241, 260. see also trade & naval power, 222–4 Mughal empire; Parthian empire; Sasanian empire prayer, ritual. see salat Persian Gulf states. see Gulf states priyayi (Indonesian ruling class), 393–4, 460–2, 467, Persian language, 42, 44, 50, 74, 76–7, 114, 116–17, 657–8, 660–1, 665, 667, 683, 821 125–30, 260–1, 503, 621, 630, 633, 690–1, 707, 714. prophecy see also Persian literature Muslim concept of, 18, 20–4, 27–30, 32, 65, 78–9, Persian literature, 76–7, 100–1, 114, 116, 125–32, 218, 96–8, 170, 179 231, 267, 293, 338, 347 philosopher-kings, 152–3 mirrors for princes, 147, 149, 151–2 Punjab, 202, 363, 380–1, 636–7, 644–5, 647–8, 720, 799, Persians 802, 847 in China, 725 Pythagoras, 77, 80 in early Middle East, 40, 42, 44, 56, 59, 68–9, 71, 77–8, 80, 142, 169, 172, 188 Q in India, 620 al-Qabisi (935-1012), 308 in modern Iran, 488, 845 Qabus b. Sa‘id, 576 in North Africa, 302 Qadari order, 178, 387, 390 in pre-modern era, 204, 216, 228, 231, 235, 239–40, al-Qaddafi, Mu‘ammar, 614–16, 792 245, 247, 252, 261, 263–4 qadi (judges) pesantren (school/brotherhood), 206, 394, 448, 663, 665 in Caliphate, 59–60 Peter the Great, 281, 342, 344 in East Africa, 772 Petra, 13–14 in Inner Asia, 346, 348, 684–5, 696, 703 Phanar. see Greeks, in Ottoman empire in Iran, 228 Philip II of Granada, 319 in Islamic society, 135, 204, 207, 215 Philip III of Granada, 319 in North Africa, 322–3, 333, 607 Philippines, 681–3, 827, 830 in Ottoman empire, 249, 265–6, 294 philosophy in post-‘Abbasid era, 157 in Caliphate, 67–8, 75, 77–80, 87–8, 93–4, 99–101, in Southeast Asia, 391, 398, 675–6, 678 183, 185–6, 312, 315 in Spain, 318 in India, 203 in West Africa, 406, 408–9, 413–14, 423, 751–2 and political theory, 147, 152–5, 216 al-Qadir (Caliph, 991–1031), 140–1 in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 126, 128, 132, 140, 156, al-Qadiri, Muhammad Tahir, 648 159–60, 162, 166–74, 178, 190 Qadiriya order and Sufism, 169–74, 180, 243 in Afghanistan, 724 and theology, 166–9, 177, 243, 315, 447 in the Caucasus, 716 transmission to Europe, 315–16 in East Africa, 431, 437, 768–9, 772–3, 776, 781 pilgrimage. see also hajj (pilgrimage) foundation, 139 in post-‘Abbasid era, 134, 138, 140, 176 in India, 368, 374, 623 pre-Islamic, 14–16 in Inner Asia, 349 social structure, 211 in North Africa, 326, 410, 464, 587 Piri Re’is (1465-1554), 254, 261 in Southeast Asia, 392, 394, 659, 662 Plassey, battle of, 357, 380 transnational organization, 209, 828 Plato, 77–9, 147, 152–3, 312 in West Africa, 415, 420–1, 425, 741–2, 747, 751, 755, neo-Platonism, 77, 93, 99, 101, 134, 169–70, 172–3, 758 178, 186, 243, 285 Qadisiya, battle of, 33 Plotinus, 93 Qadizade Mehmed Efendi (d.1635), 268 pluralism al-Qaeda network, 571, 725, 830, 835, 848 European societies, 219–21 qa’id (district governors), 311, 318, 323, 325, 330, 587, Sudan, 767–8 606 PNI. see Indonesian National Party (PNI) al-Qaim (Caliph, 1031–75), 141 poetry Qajar dynasty, 244–5, 469–74, 477, 844 bedouin, 13, 15–17, 68, 75 Qalandariya (Sufi order), 242, 249, 266, 349, 364, 368 in Caliphate, 67–9, 73–4, 125–8, 130, 185–6, 229 qalb (heart), 16, 93, 162, 167 Indian, 361, 366 Qarakhanid dynasty, 112, 116–17, 120–1, 130, 146, 201, Inner Asia, 347 337–8, 345 Iran, 445 Qarakhitay, 120 Mamluk, 293 Qaramanli dynasty, 301, 613 Muslim regimes, 218 Qarluq, 116–17, 337 Ottoman empire, 261, 266, 282 Qarmatian movement, 107–8, 110, 140, 178, 191, 285 post-‘Abbasid, 114, 126–8, 131, 153, 188 qasbah (towns), 379 Spain, 309, 311–12, 315 qasida (panegyric), 126–8, 261, 315. see also poetry, post- Sufi, 92, 126, 130, 266 ‘Abbasid Poitiers, battle of, 310 Qasim Amin, 856 Poland, 250, 255, 269, 281, 806 Qasimid dynasty, 296, 567, 568 politics, theory of, 147–55, 285 Qasr al-Khayr, 69 poll tax. see jizya al-Qassam, Shaykh ‘Izz al-Din, 559 Polo, Marco, 384 Qassim, ‘Abd al-Krim, 551 polyandry, 25 Qatar, 577–9, 583 polygamy, 25 Qayrawan, 34, 299–300, 302, 304, 308–9 polytheism, 15–17, 200, 420, 572 Qays, warring faction, 49, 51, 310 Poole, Elijah (Elijah Muhammad), 807 Qazvin, 39 popular religion. see religion, popular qiyas (reasoning by analogy), 157 population data, 831–4, 836 Qizilbash (Safavid warriors), 234–5, 237, 242 Portuguese Qum, 39, 65, 176, 242, 482–4 in East Africa and Persian Gulf, 237, 434, 436, 438, Quran. see also law, Quranic; scripturalism 576 authority in early Middle East, 18, 30, 67, 79, 81–96, and North Africa, 301, 314, 322, 324, 327–9 100–2, 131–2, 136, 156–8, 166–7, 184, 186 and Ottoman empire, 253–4, 264, 275, 281, 296 authority in modern era, 462, 482, 522, 529–31, 572, in Southeast Asia, 203, 223, 384–5, 387–8, 396–7 645, 716, 753–4, 783, 867

962 Index

Quran (cont.) Java, 662 authority in pre-modern era, 207–8, 211, 378 Lebanon, 537 and Communist states, 729 Libya, 465 as created, 88–9, 101–2, 141, 308 in modern era, 459, 461–8, 817, 819–23 interpretation of, 67, 74–5, 91, 96, 128, 174, 178–9, and modernism, 466 181–2, 315–16, 521, 628–9, 681, 808 Morocco, 466, 609, 616 Islamic culture, 77 movements, 464–5 and modernism, 628–9 North Africa, 210–11, 464, 598–9, 606, 616–17 monotheism, 16 Ottoman empire, 267, 295, 819 and reason, 79, 87, 89–90, 517–18, 628–9, 663 Pakistan, 646 and reformism, 521, 581, 622–3, 663, 665, 673 Palestine, 559 revealed to Muhammad, 18–26, 28–30, 88, 181–2 in post-‘Abbasid era, 193 and revivalism, 650, 863–5 in pre-modern era, 815–16 scripturalism, 615 Sa‘udi Arabia, 664 standard edition, 46 Southeast Asia, 211, 388, 391–2, 464–6, 658–70, and state, 148–9 672–4, 676, 683 and tribal societies, 17 Tunisia, 602–3 and women, 852–4 West Africa, 413, 416, 419–25, 427, 462, 465, 737–8, Quraysh, 14, 21–3, 28, 46, 49 745, 747, 751, 753–9 qurra’ (readers of Quran), 42, 82 religion Qusayr ‘Amra, 69 bedouin, 15–17 al-Qushayri (d.1074), 159–60, 176, 189 popular, 156, 176, 180–1, 193, 203, 210, 266, 366, Qutb, Sayyid, 531 381, 383, 429, 663, 691, 707–8, 782 Qutb al-Din Aybeg, 356–7 pre-Islamic, 3–9, 13–16, 21, 23, 28 qutb (pole of universe), 174, 232, 244, 365, 424 revelation. see Quran, revealed to Muhammad Qutb Shah dynasty, 361 revivalism, Islamic Afghanistan, 724 R Arabia, 571, 573, 575, 578, 583, 585 Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 724–5, 848 East Africa, 777 Rabi‘a (warring faction), 49 Egypt, 521–3, 527–34 Rabi‘a (woman mystic, d.801), 92 Europe, 792, 795–7, 800, 805 Rabin, Yitzhak, 565 Indian subcontinent, 639, 648–9 Rabitat al-‘Alam al-Islami (Muslim World League), 755, Inner Asia, 712 797, 828–9 Jordan, 545 race. see ethnicity in modern era, 817, 822–35, 872 radical Islamic movements. see revivalism, Islamic North Africa, 599–600, 605, 612, 614–19 Raffles, Sir Stamford, 652–3 Palestine, 562–3 Rahman, Fazlur, 810 in pre-modern era, 815 Rahmaniya (Sufi order), 326, 464, 588–9 Southeast Asia, 658–66, 673–5, 679–80 railway construction Turkey, 507–10 East Africa, 762, 779 West Africa, 738, 741, 745, 751–9 Inner Asia, 687–8 and women, 863–7 West Africa, 733 revolutionary Islamic movements. see revivalism, Islamic railway construction, West Africa, 746 Reza Shah, 476–7, 479, 845, 857–8 Rais, Amin, 674 ribat (fort, meeting-house), 137, 139, 141–2, 201, 291, ra’is (headman in Iran), 349 299, 308 Raj, British. see India, and British control Rida’, Rashid, 581, 592, 809 Rajep Pasha, 504 Rif, 609, 611 Rajputs, 203, 379, 381, 447 Rifa‘iya (Sufi order), 139, 249 Rakhmonov, Emanli, 714 Rightly-guided Caliphs. see Rashidun Ramadan (fast), 24, 82, 181, 230, 286, 322, 395, 404, 415, Riza, Ahmad, 497 605, 642, 655, 707–8, 743, 795, 800–1, 807–8 Roderic of Spain, 69, 310 Ramiya, Shaykh, of Bangamoyo, 775–6 Rogova, Ibrahim, 788 Ramla, 137 Roma (Gypsies), 41, 788–9 Raqqa, 39 Roman empire, 6, 10, 14, 33, 37–8, 59, 71, 77, 123, 219, al-Rashid, ‘Abd al-Rahman, 432 250, 253, 304, 312, 333–4. see also Byzantine empire Rashid al-Din (1247-1318), 228–9 Romania, 254–5, 259, 264, 268, 274, 276, 280–1, 490–2, Rashidun (Rightly-guided Caliphs), 45–7, 136 498, 786 Rassemblement Démocratique Africain (RDA), 735, 756 Romanos I, Byzantine emperor, 248 Rasulid dynasty, 567, 568 ruba‘i (quatrain), 128, 261. see also poetry, post-‘Abbasid rationality. see philosophy Rudaki (poet), 127 Rayy, 33, 36, 39, 65, 131 ruh (spirit), 16 Razi, Fakhr al-Din, 167, 267 Rukh, Shah, 230 reformism. see also Quran Rumfa, Muhammad, 406 Africa, 783 Rumi, Mawlana Jalal al-Din, 130, 267 Algeria, 466–8, 591–3, 597, 599, 616, 819 Rushdie, Salman, 792, 801, 812 Arabia, 464, 572 Russia, post-Soviet, 510, 709–18 Caucasus, 464 Russia, Soviet colonial era, 581 and Afghanistan, 648–9, 722–3, 827, 830, 848 East Africa, 437, 465, 762–3, 773, 776 and Africa, 603, 769–71 Egypt, 464, 518, 521–3, 534 and Arab Middle East, 548 Europe, 798 in Arabian peninsula, 571 Indian subcontinent, 210–11, 354, 367–8, 378, 464–5, and the Caucasus, 694, 698, 706–9, 714–17, 827 621–3, 626–7, 631, 633, 635, 648 and Egypt, 524–6, 547 Indonesia, 467, 821–2 and Europe and United States, 790, 806 Inner Asia, 354, 464, 466, 689–93, 695, 697–8 in Inner Asia, 455, 693–709, 727, 729, 825 Iran, 482–3 and Iran, 476–80 in Islamic community, 207, 210–11, 213–14, 216 and Iraq, 553

Index 963

and Islam, 705–9, 715–17, 731, 818, 821, 872 Salamat, Hashim, 682 modernization, 700–9 salat (ritual prayer), 24, 82, 181 and Palestine, 560 Saleeby, Najeeb M., 681 suppression of Islam, 703–4 Salga, Muhammad, 747 and Syria, 550–1 Salih, ‘Abdallah, 571 and Turkey, 502, 505, 507, 509–10 Salih b. Tarif, 304 women, 860 Salihiya (reform order), 437, 768–9, 773 Russia, Tsarist Salim Suwari, al-Hajj, 414–15 and Afghanistan, 720 Saljuq dynasty anti-semitism, 557 administration, 117, 119–23, 125, 143, 187–8, 217, and diffusion of Islam, 199 228, 246, 249, 252, 258, 299, 319 and Europe and United States, 790, 806 in Anatolia, 248–50, 258 and Inner Asia, 219, 223, 338–9, 342–5, 347, 350, in Caucasus, 714 354–5, 453, 464–5, 471, 648–93, 731 and diffusion of Islam, 198 and Iran, 244–5, 461, 471–6, 484–5, 844 empire, 117–20, 337 and Japan, 660 and Iran, 246, 248–9 and Ottoman empire, 253–5, 269, 275, 281, 325, 457, and Islamic culture, 126, 128, 130–1, 192–3, 261, 263, 489–92, 494, 497, 632, 786 444 Rustam, 128 legitimation, 117, 121, 141–2 Rustamid dynasty, 300, 303, 308 in Middle East, 109, 112, 146, 226, 229, 283, 287, Rwanda, 435, 441, 774, 779 289–94 opposition to Shi‘ism, 141–2 S religious policy, 116, 136, 141–2, 192–3, 201–2, 249, al-Sabah family, 578–9, 583 291, 293, 815–16 Sabah b. Jabr, 578 Sallal, ‘Abdallah, 570 Sabaheddin, Prince, 497 Salman movement, 673 sabr (patience), 29, 91, 167 salvation, 7, 16–17, 77, 94, 134, 153, 169, 171, 179, 814 Sabri, ‘Ali, 524 European view, 220–1 sada’. see ashraf Samanhudi, Hajji, 663 Sadat, Anwar, 523, 526–9, 532–3, 560, 840–1, 859 Samanid family, 61, 107, 109, 112, 114, 116–17, 126–8, Saddam Husayn, 552, 554–5, 563, 582, 585, 801 130–1, 136, 146, 169 Sa‘dians, 214, 328–30, 335 Samarqand, 33, 38–9, 61, 117, 126, 130, 229–30, 345, 351, Sadiq al-Mahdi, Sayyid, 767 687 Sadiqi College, Tunis, 601–2 Samarra, 104, 285 Sadozai, Ahmed Shah, 720 Sammaniya order, 465, 761 al-Sadr, Musa, 556 Samory Ture, 426–8, 441, 465 Sadr al-Din, 233 San Stefano, treaty of, 490 sadr (religious bureaucrat), 235, 242, 349, 364, 374 Sanhaja people. see Berbers Safavid dynasty Sanjar, Sultan, 129 administration, 216–17, 235, 241, 444–5, 469 al-Sanusi, Muhammad b. ‘Ali, 464, 613 in Afghanistan, 720 Sanusiya (Sufi revivalist order), 211, 301, 464–5, 613–14, concept of monarchy, 233–4, 240, 246–7, 329 616, 781, 818 decline of, 218, 244–7, 253, 282, 844 Sarekat Islam, 663–4, 666, 669, 821, 843 in Inner Asia, 345–7, 715 Sargon of Akkad, 4, 6 in Iran, 232–47 Sasanian empire and Islam, 125, 191, 198, 207, 234–5, 241–7, 394, culture, 127–8, 130 443–5, 447–8, 815–16 and diffusion of Islam, 10, 14, 31, 33–4, 36–9, 43, 46, legitimation, 216, 218, 233–5, 238–9, 445, 447, 470 48, 51, 56, 59, 61, 68, 73–4, 78, 85, 99–100, military organization, 235, 237, 241, 244 183–5, 200, 217 and Ottoman empire, 253, 256–7, 266, 282, 715 in Iraq, 119 relation to uymaqs, 232–5, 237, 244, 246–7, 444–5 in Oman, 576 and West Africa, 733, 741 pre-Islamic, 6, 8 Saffarid dynasty, 107, 109 women in, 852 Safi al-Din, Shaykh, 233 Sa‘udi Arabia Saghanughu, Muhammad al-Mustafa, 414 and Afghanistan, 648, 723–5, 848 Saghanughu family, 414, 443, 754 and Africa, 748, 752, 755–6, 782 Saharan Africa and Arabian peninsula, 570–2, 574 diffusion of Islam, 197, 302, 304, 306, 309, 443 and East Africa, 771, 777 and North Africa, 319, 326–7, 331, 334, 586–7, 596, and Egypt, 527–8 612–13 and Europe and United States, 788, 793, 799, 809, and Ottoman empire, 489 813 al-Sa‘id, Nuri, 544 and Indian subcontinent, 643, 648–9, 851 al-Sa‘id, Sayyid, 779 and Inner Asia, 712–13 Sa‘id b. Taymur (1932-70), 576 as Islamic state, 565–6, 572–5, 818, 827, 829–30, 837, saints, veneration of 844, 848–9 in early Middle East, 94, 100, 128, 138, 140, 149, 158, in modern era, 548, 554, 557, 572–5, 578, 580, 582–4, 172–6, 180, 191, 193, 814 821, 871 in modern Inner Asia, 716 and North Africa, 612 opposition to, 377–8, 462, 572, 592, 609, 623, 691, reformism, 664, 825 763 and Southeast Asia, 680, 682 in pre-modern era, 208, 210, 216, 218, 308, 349–50, transnational organizations, 829–30, 835 374–5, 383, 415 women in, 574 sajjada nishin (Sufi elite), 215, 625, 637 Sawakin, 254 Saladin. see Salah al-Din (Saladin) sayyid. see ashraf Salafi movement, 464, 518, 571, 581, 592, 600, 603, al-Sayyid, Lutfi, 518–19 609–10, 612, 617–18, 755, 809–10, 820, 822–3, 825, Sayyid Ahmad Khan. see Khan, Sayyid Ahmad 830, 835, 871 Sayyid ‘Ali Muhammad, 473 Salah al-Din (Saladin), 109, 176, 290–1, 294 Sayyid Muhammad, 366–7

964 Index

Sayyid Sa‘id b. Sultan, 434, 772 Sha‘rawi, Huda, 857 science Shari‘a law. see also under Sufism in early Middle East, 67–8, 76–8, 80, 99, 125, 128, in Afghanistan, 724 168–9, 179, 183, 185, 216 in Arabia, 570, 575 in modern era, 581, 629, 707 and Caliphate, 82, 85–6, 100, 147–9, 188 scripturalism, 82–7, 156–8, 177–80, 591, 615 in Caucasus, 715–17 sects. see associations, religious in East Africa, 432, 762–3, 767, 769, 783 secularization in Egypt, 295, 522, 529–30, 532 in Africa, 780, 784 in Europe and United States, 793, 810 and Arab nationalism, 537–8, 541, 581–2 in Indian subcontinent, 358, 374, 377–8, 621–2, 626, in Arabian peninsula, 573, 578, 580 628, 631, 635, 638–9, 643–5, 648, 847 in Bangladesh, 650 in Inner Asia, 685, 695–6, 703, 706, 713 in East Africa, 761, 765–6, 779 in Iran, 475, 477, 485, 846 in Egypt, 512, 516, 518–19, 521–3, 527–30, 533 in modern states, 213, 229, 581, 823–6, 828–9, 867, in Europe and United States, 800–1, 806 869 in India, 460, 627, 635, 637–8 in North Africa, 602, 607, 610 in Indonesia, 661 in Ottoman empire, 260–1, 266–8, 494–5 in Inner Asia, 691, 702–4, 708–9 in post-‘Abbasid era, 131, 186, 190 in Iran, 472, 477–80 in South Africa, 760 and Islamic modernism, 459 in Southeast Asia, 390–2, 657, 662–5, 668, 671–6, 678 and Islamic reformism, 467 in Syria, 550 modern states, 817–18, 820, 822, 824, 837–40 theory of, 157, 160, 162, 166, 171, 174, 177–9 in North Africa, 460, 603, 605–6, 610–11, 616–18 in Turkey, 503, 797 in Ottoman empire, 460, 495–6 in West Africa, 419–20, 426, 736, 741, 746, 751–3, in Pakistan, 645 755–7, 850–1 Palestinians, 562, 565 and women, 854, 860–1, 864–5 in post-‘Abbasid era, 140, 187, 189 Shari‘atallah, Hajji, 623 pre-Islamic religions, 8 Shari‘ati, ‘Ali, 483 pre-modern societies, 815–16 sharif (pl. shurafa’, holy men), 208, 215–16, 328–31, 335, in Southeast Asia, 663, 667–8, 671–3, 676, 679, 681, 409, 538–40, 544 683 Sharja, 577–8, 580 in Syria, 538, 550 Shattariya (Sufi order), 364–6, 388, 390–1 in Turkey, 498–500, 505–11, 645 al-Shawkani, Muhammad b. ‘Ali, 567, 570 in West Africa, 736–8, 743, 756 Shaybanid dynasty, 234, 340, 342, 345–6 Sekou Toure, 782 shaykh Selim I (Sultan), 251, 262 as religious teacher, 138, 143, 210, 215, 328, 424, Selim III (Sultan), 251, 494, 500 514–15, 565 Seljuks. see Saljuq dynasty as tribal chief, 12–13, 21, 29, 32, 39, 41–2, 46, 63 Senegal Shaykh al-Islam (chief jurisconsults), 215, 229, 265, 294, and France, 732–3, 735, 737–8, 741–3, 793, 839–40 349, 352, 364, 498, 684–5, 706 Islam in, 737, 741–5, 747, 755–6, 780–2, 818 Sheng Shih-ts’ai, 727 in modern era, 740–5, 747, 825 Sher Shah (1540–55), 358, 360, 371 in pre-modern era, 418–19, 425, 428, 441 Sherley, Anthony and Robert, 237 state and religion, 444, 837, 839–40, 871 Shi‘a. see also ithna ‘ashari (“twelver” Shi‘a community) Senegambia, 205, 414–16, 419, 424–7, 443, 462, 732, in Afghanistan, 720, 723–5 839 in Anatolia, 249 Senghor, Léopold, 735, 743–4 in Arabia, 574–5, 578–9 Serbs, 250, 252, 265, 273–4, 280–1, 490–2, 498, 785–9 and Caliphate, 47, 49–50, 53–4, 59, 65–6, 81, 94–8, Shabbaz, 807 100, 102–3, 105, 107–8, 133–4, 180–2 al-Shadhili (d.1258), 139, 322–3 in East Africa, 776, 779–80 Shadhiliya (Sufi order), 139, 295, 431, 772–3 in Europe and United States, 797, 806, 809, 813 al-Shafi‘i (767–802), 86, 176, 293 holy places, 176 Shafi‘i (school of law) Imami, 96, 98, 134, 140, 178, 180–1, 208, 234, 246, in Arabian peninsula, 565, 570–1 285 in East Africa, 433–4 in India, 374–5, 377, 622–3, 632 in Egypt, 291 in Inner Asia, 685, 693, 706 in North Africa, 308, 312 in Iran, 207, 226, 233–4, 241–7, 345, 381, 445–6, origins and social structure, 135–7, 140–1, 157, 189, 461–2, 470, 473, 482, 485–6, 516, 648, 825 206, 211–13 in Iraq, 470, 544, 552–5, 583 in post-‘Abbasid era, 177–8 in Islamic community, 133–4, 185–6, 189, 206–8, 213, in Southeast Asia, 211, 675 814 in Syria, 291 leadership, 180–1, 193, 207 Shagari, al-Hajj Shehu, 751 in Lebanon, 546, 555–6, 585 Shah-en-shah (King of Kings), 121 in North Africa, 191, 214, 306, 308 Shah-name (‘Book of Kings’), 128, 229, 241, 347 opposition to, 136, 140–1, 148, 192, 308, 581, 622–3 Shah-name-i Al-i-Osman (‘Book of Kings of the House in Ottoman empire, 253, 267 of Osman’), 263 in Pakistan, 648 shahada (profession of faith), 24, 82, 181 post-imperial era, 114, 136, 139, 142–4, 146, 156, Shahji, Shah, 380 178, 293 Shahs rebellions, 54, 65–6 modern Iran (see Pahlavi dynasty) in Spain, 312 Safavid, 234–5, 237–43 and state, 140–1, 244–6, 816, 827 Shailendra dynasty, 383 in Syria, 548 shakiriya (militias), 104 in West Africa, 754 shamans, 116, 213, 342, 685, 708 in Yemen, 567 Shamil, imam, 715–16 Shihabi family, 298 Shamir, Yitzhak, 563 Shiraz, 143, 263 Shaqiq al-Balkhi, 92 Shirin, 130

Index 965

Shirkuh, general, 290 in Tunisia, 603–5 Shivaji, 380 in Turkey, 507 Shoa, 435–6, 770 in West Africa, 744, 753 shrine veneration Society of Muslim Brothers. see Muslim Brothers early Islamic, 28 Soghdian, 44 Inner Asia, 685, 708 Sokoto Caliphate, 421, 423, 427–8, 441, 462, 465, 733 modern era, 625, 631, 663, 816, 820 religion in, 444, 745, 815, 850 opposition to, 149, 295, 466, 581, 621, 623 Somalia in post-‘Abbasid era, 126, 140, 174–6, 180, 191 Islam in, 204, 435–8, 443, 737–8, 780–4, 806 pre-Islamic, 14, 21 lineage groups, 214, 768–9 pre-modern era, 205, 208–10, 213–15, 244, 349–50, in modern era, 761, 786–72 364, 375, 444–5 and Western countries, 442, 768–9, 790 Shukri Mustafa, 531 women in, 769 Shu‘ubiya (literary movement), 76, 101 Songhay, 204, 404, 409, 415, 423, 443, 748, 783 Sibawayh, 75 Sori, Ibrahim, 418 Siberia, 116, 223, 339–40, 342, 685–7, 706, 716 Soroush, Abdol Karim, 488, 823–4 Sicily, 197, 255, 287, 304, 316, 322 South Africa, 760 Sidiya Baba (1862/63–1926), 410 Southeast Asia Sidiya al-Kabir, Shaykh (1775–1868), 410, 740 diffusion of Islam, 197, 203–4, 223, 382–4, 759 Sierre Leone, 414, 441, 732–3, 736–7, 748, 755, 780, 825 Europe and, 218–19, 223, 276, 453 Siffin, battle of, 47, 49 Islamic community, 211, 448–9, 464–6, 652–83 Sijistan, 107, 114, 126 national societies, 842–4 Sikhs, 380, 621, 649, 720 state and religion, 203, 388, 390–1, 398–9, 667–8, silsila (chains of authority), 138, 149, 208, 210, 420 671–7 al-Simnani (1261–1336), 139, 233 Spain Sind, 50, 202, 636, 644, 648, 847 Arab conquest, 33, 50, 67, 299–300, 302, 307, 309–10 Sindbad, 128 Caliphate in, 54, 69, 216, 309–20 Singapore, 397–8, 466, 658, 662, 664, 675, 677, 843 chronology, 300 Singkeli, ‘Abd al-Ra’uf, 388 colonialism, 222, 224, 454, 606, 609, 612, 681–2 Sinkiang. see Xinjiang diffusion of Islam, 197, 199 Sirhindi, Shaykh Ahmad, 367, 377–8 and North Africa, 218, 302, 306–7, 321–4, 327, 329, Sistan, 65 331–3, 609, 612 Sisters in Islam (Malaysia), 681 and Ottoman empire, 253–5, 264, 283 Siyad Barre, general, 769–70 in post-‘Abbasid era, 120, 126, 172, 291, 293 slametan (village ritual), 395 Reconquista, 253, 287, 314–16, 320 slave regimes, 120–2, 125, 133, 143–5, 149, 187, 192, 283 Umayyad dynasty, 54, 108, 216, 283, 300, 303, slave revolts, 107, 110 311–13, 401 slave soldiers (ghilman) Srivijaya kingdom, 383–4 in ‘Abbasid empire, 103–4, 107–8 Stalin, Joseph, 693–4, 697–8, 700, 704–5 Mamluk regime, 292 state in Mongol regime, 235 Islamic concept of, 9, 112–32, 147–55, 215–18 in North Africa, 330 legitimation, 815–19 (see also under individual Ottoman empire, 258–60, 263, 277 regimes and states) in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116, 120, 122, 124–5, philosophical theory, 152–5 187–8, 206, 217, 286 pre-Islamic, 8 Saljuk empire, 226 state and religion. see also under Shi‘ia; Sufism; and the West Africa, 741 names of countries and regions slavery, military. see slave soldiers in Caliphate, 51, 69, 71, 76, 81, 99–102, 184, 187 slaves contemporary era, 820–3, 835–50 in Caliphate, 39, 41–2, 110, 188 and diffusion of Islam, 205, 207 East Africa, 431–5, 437, 441–2, 762, 773 early empires, 4–6, 8–9 in North Africa, 304, 613 Fatimid dynasty, 286 in post-‘Abbasid era, 151 in modern era, 467–8 United States, 897 neo-Islamic states, 844–50 West Africa, 415, 418, 425, 427, 438, 440, 733, 740, Ottoman empire, 207, 210, 264–8, 282, 294–5, 443–4, 748 446–7, 495–6, 499–500, 816 Slavs post-imperial era, 126, 131–2, 136, 140–2, 147–55, in Eastern Europe, 785–6, 788–9 187–9, 192–3 in Inner Asia, 705 in pre-modern era, 815–17 and Ottoman empire, 264, 280–1 Safavid dynasty, 234–5, 241–7, 394, 443–5, 815–16 in Spain, 311, 313 Saljuq dynasty, 116, 136, 141–2, 192–3, 201–2, 249, Slovenia, 786 291, 293, 815–16 social change. see change, social Subbanu al-Muslimin (Society of Young Muslims), 755 social reform Subud, 806 Islamic community, 210–11 Sudan socialism administration, 762–3, 765, 818 in Arab Middle East, 548, 571 British in, 442, 763, 765–6 and Arab nationalism, 548, 570–1, 581 in Caliphate, 286 in East Africa, 769, 775 diffusion of Islam, 205, 770 in Egypt, 523–7, 547–8 and Egypt, 209, 429, 431–2, 512, 516, 519–20, 761–3, in Inner Asia, 690, 692–4, 697, 702–3, 707–9 765–6 in Iraq, 548, 552, 618 independence, 765–6 in Lebanon, 556 Islam in, 211, 737–8, 780–4, 821, 825–6, 830, 850 in modern societies, 460, 467, 817–18 in modern era, 584, 761–8, 778, 782–4, 825–7 in North Africa, 468, 597–9, 614–16 nationalism, 766–7 in Pakistan, 847 and North Africa, 302, 614–15 in Southeast Asia, 658, 661, 666 and Ottoman empire, 268–9 in Syria, 548–50, 618 pre-modern, 429–32

966 Index

Sudan (cont.) and state, 101–2, 201, 215–18, 266, 273–4, 325–6, religion in, 755, 781 333–4, 336, 364, 367–8, 444, 448–9, 664–5 state and religion, 738, 766–8, 837, 844 in sub-Saharan Africa, 400, 409–10 women in, 763, 767, 863 in tribal societies, 214, 248, 266–7, 326, 330, 337–8, Sudanic states 367, 444, 768–9, 818 central, 405–8, 419–24, 443 in Tunisia, 334, 602 concept of ruler, 401–2, 404 in Turkey, 249, 252, 265–6, 269, 500, 502, 506, 508–9 diffusion of Islam, 197, 201, 204–5, 219, 330–1, in United States, 807–8, 810 401–2, 404–6, 408–9, 732, 780, 782 in West Africa, 414–16, 421, 423–4, 427, 737, 740–2, eastern (see Sudan) 745, 747–8, 752, 754–5, 840, 850 French in, 732, 735 and women, 854 in modern era, 736–7, 739–40, 784 Suharto, 671–4, 683, 821, 826–7, 843 and North Africa, 304, 306, 319, 327, 331, 335 al-Suhrawardi, Abu Najib, 138 western, 401–5, 443 Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din (1153–91), 171–2 Suez Canal, 331, 492, 513, 515, 520, 522, 524, 526–8, al-Suhrawardi, ‘Umar (1145–1234), 139, 243, 365 560 Suhrawardiya (Sufi order), 139–40, 217, 364–5, 367–8, Suffah Institute, 669 374 Sufism. see also philosophy; saints, veneration of; shrine Sukarno, 661, 666–8, 670–1, 674, 683, 821 veneration; tariqa Sulayman I, 251, 260–1, 264–5, 493 in Afghanistan, 720, 723–4 Sulayman Bal, 419 in Africa, 781 Sulaymancis, 798–9 in Algeria, 325–6, 334, 586–8, 592–3 Sultaniya, 228 in Arabia, 571 Sultans Baghdadi school, 92–3, 178 Arabia, 565, 570, 576 in Caliphate, 81, 95, 187 authority of, 117, 119–22, 124, 129, 147–9, 151, 153, in the Caucasus, 707, 709, 715–16 187–8, 260–1, 322, 335, 358, 388, 390, 398 in China, 726 Egypt, 290–3 and diffusion of Islam, 197, 205–6 Morocco, 328–33, 336, 606, 608, 610–12, 615–16, 794, in East Africa, 432, 437, 762–3, 765, 768–9, 772–3, 849 775–7 Ottoman, 258–63, 265, 267, 272, 276–7, 280–1, 297, in Egypt, 294–6, 512, 515, 518, 521, 531, 840 323, 325, 334, 447, 461, 495, 497–8, 500, 502, 634 in Europe, 787–8, 798–9, 801–2, 803 Southeast Asia, 659, 675–7, 681 al-Ghazzali’s theory of, 160–8, 211 state and religion, 9, 140, 142, 191, 814, 816–17 gnosticism, 158, 171–4, 180, 210, 243 Zanzibar, 773 and Hinduism, 362–3, 366 Sumatra in Indian subcontinent, 140, 360–1, 372, 374–5, in modern era, 464–6, 654, 658, 661–2, 664–5, 377–8, 380–1, 444, 448, 622–3, 625–6, 631, 668–70, 672 635–7, 646 in pre-modern era, 382–8, 397–8, 448 in Inner Asia, 140, 143, 337–8, 347, 349–51, 353, 355, reformism, 211 685–6, 688, 695, 708–9, 712–13 revivalism, 661 intermediary role, 137–40, 181, 191, 207–8, 295, 319, social structure, 213 338, 362–3, 366, 410, 685, 768–9 Sumerians, 4 in Iran, 226, 229–35, 242–3, 246, 444–5, 471 Sunjata, Mali chieftain, 402 and Islamization, 201–6, 249, 252 Sunna (example of the Prophet) Khurasanian school, 92–3, 178 as authoritative, 29, 32, 378, 530, 622, 645, 716, 752, and the law, 100, 158–69, 179 783 and leadership, 181, 214–15, 230, 232–4, 321, 424 in Caliphate, 36, 84, 86 in Libya, 615–16 in modern era, 462, 531, 581–582, 581–2, 592, 615, lineage societies, 208, 210, 214, 325, 336, 338, 781, 809 815–16 in pre-modern era, 211 missionary activity, 201–5, 337–8, 382–4, 390 and reformism, 622, 665 and modernism, 457 and revivalism, 825 in Morocco, 328–30, 335, 606–7, 609, 611–12, 618, Sunni. see also law, schools of 849 in Afghanistan, 723 mysticism, 90–4, 631 in Anatolia, 249 and nationalism, 581, 820 in Arabian peninsula, 567, 570, 579 in North Africa, 140, 191, 219, 306–9, 319, 321–5, and Caliphate, 47, 53, 82–7, 94–5, 100, 147–9, 153–5, 333–4, 444, 586–7, 594, 611 177, 186, 189–90, 814 and Ottoman empire, 265–9, 273–4, 296, 446–7 in Egypt and North Africa, 191, 214, 287, 290–1, 293, poetry, 126, 130, 266 295, 306, 308, 327, 516 and political conquests, 214–15 in Europe and United States, 788, 806, 808, 810, 813 popular, 174–6, 180, 191, 208–9, 246, 266, 336, holy places, 176 374–5, 377–8, 380, 592, 664 in India, 358, 374 in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116, 135–40, 142–6, 149, in Inner Asia, 253, 345–6, 349–50, 351, 685, 706 155–6, 158–69, 171–5, 177–81, 189–90, 192–3, in Iran, 226, 233–4, 242, 244–6, 445 291 in Iraq, 544, 552, 583 and Quran, 90–1 and law, 166, 177–9, 189–90, 201, 206, 291 and reformist movements, 210–11, 295, 416, 420–1, in Lebanon, 546, 555 427, 437, 572, 581, 592, 631, 664, 692, 762 and Mamluks, 293, 295 and revivalism, 822, 824–5, 828, 835 in Ottoman empire, 266 sainthood, 94, 100, 158, 174–6, 180, 191, 208, 374–5, in Pakistan, 648 377–8, 380 and popular religion, 181–2 in Sa‘udi Arabia, 572 in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 133, 139, 144, 191 social organization, 207–11, 213–15, 871 reformism, 191, 214 in South Africa, 760 scripturalism, 82–7, 156, 177–9, 374 in Southeast Asia, 382–4, 387–8, 390, 395, 398–9, sectarianism, 134–7 448–9, 462, 652, 662–5, 675–6 and Shi‘a, 98, 140–2, 181, 244, 246, 827 in Spain, 312–15 social organization, 215

Index 967

and state, 140–2, 192, 447 in East Africa, 431, 437, 762, 768–9, 773, 775, 777, in Syria, 541, 543, 548–50, 583 781 and theology, 87–90, 177–82 in Europe, 799, 803 Sunni ‘Ali, ruler of Songhay, 404 in India, 209, 365, 448 Sunni-Shari‘a-Sufi synthesis, 156–69, 179–82, 189–90, in Inner Asia, 349 210 in Iran, 226, 234 Sunpadh, rebel leader, 65 in modern era, 205, 208–15, 443, 814, 816 Suwari, al-Hajj Salim, 758 in North Africa, 336, 586, 588, 611 Swahili Islam, 204, 432–5, 772–80 in Ottoman empire, 249, 265–7, 295, 447 Sweden, 791, 803 social structure, 211–15 Switzerland, 503, 799, 858 in Southeast Asia, 391, 448–9, 462 Sykes-Picot agreement, 492, 539 in West Africa, 209, 737–8, 740–4, 747–8, 752, 754 syncretism, 65, 204, 216, 234, 366, 377, 379, 381–2, 384, Tarzi, Mahmud Beg, 722 428, 444, 782–3 tasdiq (truth), 168 Syria. see also under agriculture; elites; intelligentsia; Tashkent, 351, 687–8, 691, 696, 703, 706–7 secularization; socialism Taslima Nasreen, 650 administration, 51, 541, 543 Tataristan, 698, 700 and Arab conquest, 34, 37–40, 43–4, 47 Tatars and Caliphate, 54, 56, 58–60, 64–5, 68, 78, 85, 87, 93, intellectual revival, 690–3 97, 107–9, 283, 285, 287–92 Islamic community, 201, 223 in colonial period, 540–1, 543, 805 and Ottoman empire, 277 early history, 6–7, 10, 13–15, 20, 28, 32–3 political parties, 692–3 and Egypt, 514–15, 518, 524, 536 in pre-modern era, 338–9, 342, 344–5, 350, 355 and Europe, 311–12, 551 in Romania, 785 Islam in, 201, 207, 211, 548–50 and Russian control, 686, 689–98, 706, 716 and Lebanon, 555–7 and Turks, 249, 255 in modern era, 458–9, 461, 492–3, 509–10, 524, Taubman Goldie, George, 441 546–51, 553–4, 581–3, 585, 618, 680, 806, 818 tawakkul (trust in God), 91–2, 167 nationalism, 459, 461, 537–8, 541, 543, 558 taxation. see also iqta‘; jizya; kharaj and North Africa, 615, 618 in Caliphate, 36–40, 47, 50, 52–4, 59, 61–4, 66, 106–7, in Ottoman empire, 251, 254, 258, 264, 268, 283, 110, 122, 185 295–9, 334, 446, 490, 513, 537–9 Dutch, in Southeast Asia, 652–3, 659 and Palestine, 558–65 in Egypt, 40, 513, 516 in post-imperial era, 109, 112, 120, 122–3, 126, 135, in India, 357, 379–81 139, 142–3, 176 in Iran, 226 and Saljuk dynasty, 290–4 in Mughal empire, 371 Shi‘a in, 242 in North Africa, 332–3 Timurids in, 229 in Ottoman empire, 259, 294–5 tribal groups, 541, 543, 549 in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 120, 124, 143, 145, 148, women in, 855, 857 188, 192, 206, 217 ta‘ziya (mourning) procession, 623 T tekke (Sufi hospices), 210, 252, 266–9 al-Tabari, poet, 128 Teodros, king of Ethiopia, 770 Tabaristan, 61, 64 terrorism Taba’taba’i, Sayyid Muhammad, 474 in Afghanistan, 725 tabligh (evangelical teaching), 663 in Caliphate, 49 Tablighi Islam movement, 464, 635, 650, 680, 794, 796, in Egypt, 827 798, 802, 818, 822, 828, 851 in Europe, 792, 805 Tablighi Jama‘at, 643, 799, 804, 809 in India, 827 Tabriz, 228–9, 231, 234, 240, 253, 263, 476 in North Africa, 600 Taha Husayn, 521 transnational organizations, 829–30, 835 Tahir, governor of Khurasan, 64, 103–4 against United States, 675, 725, 812, 830, 835, Tahirid family, 61, 104, 107, 109, 126–7 847–848 Tahmasp, Shah, 240, 242 al-Tha‘alibi, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 603 al-Ta’if, oasis, 22 al-Thani, Hamad bin Khalifa, 579 Tajikistan, 698, 700–1, 705–6, 710, 712, 714, 827 theology (kalam). see also Ash‘ari school; Karrami Tajiks, 698, 706, 718, 724–5, 819, 848 school; Mu‘tazila; philosophy Takrit, 552 and Caliphate, 67–8, 73, 78–9, 82, 87–90, 95, 99–101, Takrur, kingdom of, 401–2, 404, 408, 414, 419, 443 186 Talha, Meccan aristocrat, 47 and diffusion of Islam, 201, 206 Taliban, 649, 725, 792, 812, 824, 826–7, 835, 847–8 in Islamic community, 209 Talibov, ‘Abd al-Rahim, 474 Muslim, opposition to, 306 Tall, Tyerno Bokar Salif, 738 in Ottoman empire, 268 Tamerlane. see Timur (Tamerlane) in post-‘Abbasid era, 126, 132–4, 136, 140–2, 147–9, Tamim tribes, 15, 42, 49 153, 156–69, 176–82, 189–92 Tanganyika. see Tanzania theosophy, 156, 169–74, 179–80, 209 Tanzania (Tanganyika), 442, 737, 761, 772–6, 780–1, 818, Tigris. see Iraq 830 Tijaniya (Sufi order) Tanzim movement (India), 635, 817 in North Africa, 213, 326, 465 Tanzimat (Ottoman reforms), 494–7, 503, 537–8, 613, reformism, 211, 464, 781 722, 762, 848, 857 in West Africa, 213, 421, 424–5, 465, 737–8, 740–2, taqlid (obedience to tradition), 157, 160, 162 747, 750–1, 755, 758, 822, 828, 840 Tariq, Arab ruler, 310 timar (tax revenues). see iqta‘ Tariqa-i Muhammadi (Way of Muhammad), 623 Timbuktu, 331, 404, 409–11, 414, 416, 420, 425 tariqa (Sufi brotherhoods) Timur (son of Ahmed Shah Sadozai), 720 in Africa, 211, 324, 328–30, 342, 782 Timur (Tamerlane), 229–30, 250, 260, 347, 349, 692 in early Middle East, 114, 133–4, 137–40, 144–6, 186, Timurid dynasty, 126, 198, 207, 217, 228–33, 246, 248, 189, 193 345–6, 381, 720

968 Index

Tippu Tip, 435 economy, 322, 324–5 al-Tirmidhi (d.892), 94, 176 and France, 301, 325, 458–9, 586, 601–4, 617, 793–4, Tito, 786–7 802, 803, 839 Titu Mir, 464, 623, 627 Islam in, 592, 605–6, 617, 826, 839 Tjokroaminoto, ‘Umar Sa‘id, 663 and Libya, 613, 615 Tobacco Rebellion, 473–4, 484–5, 844, 858 in modern era, 457–61, 562, 595–7, 601–6, 608, Togo, 441, 759 610–11, 615–19, 820, 826 torodbe (leadership group), 418–20, 425, 427 nationalism, 603 trade, international and Ottoman empire, 255, 283, 323–5, 334, 446, 535 Arab Middle East, 535 pre-modern era, 319–26, 328–9, 333–5 and Caliphate, 110, 184 and Spain, 313 East Africa, 429–31, 433–8, 440–1, 443, 772 state and religion, 818, 837, 839, 841, 871 felt caps, 324 and West Africa, 755 India, 624 women in, 605, 859–60 Inner Asia, 344–5, 347, 349–50, 688 al-Turabi, Hassan, 767–8, 782, 826 Islamic community, 213–14, 217 Turkestan Morocco, 327, 329–31 Chinese control, 219, 223, 727 in North Africa, 201, 304, 319, 321–2, 324–5 diffusion of Islam, 201, 338, 345–55 in Ottoman empire, 268–9, 272–3, 277–8, 294, 296, Mongols in, 226 298 Russian control, 684, 686–90, 693, 696, 698, 700–1, in post-‘Abbasid era, 117, 191–2 704–5 pre-Islamic, 3, 12–16, 27–8 struggle for independence, 695–6 in Safavid dynasty, 237–8 Turkey. see also under agriculture; elites; in Southeast Asia, 203, 382–5, 390–1, 652–3, 675 industrialization; intelligentsia; modernization; in Spain, 313 revivalism; secularization; socialism; Turks in sub-Saharan Africa, 204–5, 400–1, 404–6, 408, economic development, 501–11 410–11 and Egypt, 512, 518, 521–2, 534 in West Africa, 415, 418, 733–4 and Europe, 276, 492, 501–3, 505, 510, 786–9, 793–4, Transcaspia, 223, 687–8 796–9, 802, 803 Transcaucasia, 245, 685 and Inner Asia, 689, 702, 709–10, 714 Transjordan, 492–3, 539–40, 544–5, 547, 560. see also Islam in, 172, 176, 282, 457, 502–3, 506–11, 581, 584, Jordan 667, 820–1, 825–6, 830, 837–9, 871 transnational Islam, 828–9 nationalism, 498–500 military and terrorist organizations, 829–30, 835 in Ottoman empire, 489, 491, 497, 537, 846 Transoxania political parties, 502, 505–10 and Arab conquests, 33, 38, 43–4, 50 reformism, 297, 467 and Caliphate, 54, 58, 61, 65, 104, 107 Republic, 501–11, 524, 535, 539, 543, 547, 555, Islam in, 197, 207–8, 337–9, 345 584–5, 605–6, 634, 820, 830 Mongols in, 226 state and religion, 507–11, 837–41, 846–7, 872 in post-‘Abbasid era, 112, 114, 116–17, 120, 126–7, tribes in, 818 130–1, 135, 137, 139–40, 143, 223, 229 women in, 503, 856–8, 860–1, 864 Russian control, 688 Turkic languages Shaybanids in, 234 in early Middle East, 130 Timurids in, 230 in modern era, 460, 496, 498–9, 502–3, 510, 538, 691, Transylvania, 250, 254, 259, 274 702, 706, 714, 726, 789, 857 Traore, Mousa, 756 in pre-modern era, 218, 231, 234, 259–61, 282, 351 Trebizond, 233 Turkmanchai, treaty of, 471 tribes. see also clans; lineage; Sufism Turkmenbashi (Niyazov Saparmund), 713 and Arab conquests, 41, 43–4, 46–7 Turkmenistan, 214, 685–6, 698, 706, 708, 710, 712–14 and Caliphate, 68, 75, 100 Turkmens (Turkomans), 208, 298, 685, 698, 706, 712, factionalism, 50–1, 53–4, 65 718, 724, 848 Islam in, 200–1, 204–5, 214–15, 307, 814–15 Turks. see also pan-Turkism and Islamic society, 29–30, 97, 183–5, 337–9, 355, administration, 151 443–5 in Afghanistan, 718, 848 Muhammad’s relations with, 27–9, 32 and Arab conquests, 33, 39, 41, 43 in post-‘Abbasid era, 119–20, 137, 143, 154–5, 187, in Caliphate, 54, 69, 104, 107, 286 190–3 in the Caucasus, 715, 717 pre-Islamic, 4, 9, 13–17, 21, 26–7 in China, 725 and states, 49, 215, 217–19, 274, 321–3, 325–34, 336, in Europe, 785–9, 793–4, 796–9, 801–3 347–8, 572, 768–9 identity, 826 (see also pan-Turkism) Tripoli, 33, 255, 287, 289, 299, 302, 304, 309, 613 in India, 357, 362, 364 Tripolitania, 603, 612–14 in Inner Asia, 690, 692, 713 Trucial States, 578, 580 in Iran, 226, 228, 231–5, 237, 241, 245–6, 337–8 Truman, Harry, 505 migrations, 112, 114, 116–21, 143, 187–8, 191, 197–8, Tuareg, 404–5, 424, 737 201–3, 216, 248–54, 258, 290–3, 338–9, 345–6, Tughluq dynasty, 357–8, 360, 368 351–2, 444, 785 Tughril Beg, 117, 121 in North Africa, 307, 321, 325–6, 329 Tulunid dynasty, 107, 109, 283 in Ottoman empire, 259–61, 263–4, 266–8, 272–3, Tunis, 299, 301–2, 304, 308–9, 322–4, 326–7, 461, 604 279–80, 297, 446, 497–9, 513, 538–9, 580 battle of, 255 in Sudan, 762–3 Zaytuna mosque, 592–593, 601–602 in Syria, 543 Tunisia. see also under agriculture; modernization; in United States, 806, 809 reformism; socialism women, 853, 856 administration, 207, 321–2, 601, 615 Tus, 160 Arab conquests, 34 al-Tustari, Sahl (d.896), 93 Caliphal era, 299–305, 307–8 tuyul. see iqta’ chronology, 300–1 “twelvers.” see ithna ‘ashari (“twelver” Shi‘a community)

Index 969

U and Indonesia, 670–1, 675 ‘Ubaydallah, imam, 285 and Iran, 476, 478–80, 483–4, 487, 845 Ubulla, 32 and Iraq, 553–4 Uccialli, treaty of, 770 and Jordan, 545 Uganda, 442, 761, 772, 777–80, 782 and Lebanon, 555 Uhud, battle of, 27 Muslim converts, 806–9 Uighurs, 353–5, 726–7, 730 Muslim women, 807–8, 810–12, 823 Ukraine, 255, 258, 269, 687, 705, 716 Muslims in, 785, 790–1, 803, 805–13, 823, 828, 872 ‘ulama’ (religious scholars) and North Africa, 331, 596, 615 in Arabia, 565–6, 570–1 and Ottoman empire, 277, 500 and Caliphate, 81, 92, 101–2, 147–9, 186–8 and Pakistan, 847 in Caucasus, 715–16 and Palestine, 557, 559–60, 563–5 in East Africa, 762–3, 765, 781 and Philippines, 681, 683 in Egypt, 294–5, 512–16, 521–2, 529 and Sa‘udi Arabia, 574–5, 849 in India, 217, 358, 360, 364, 367–8, 374, 377–8, 381, state and religion, 810 448–9, 465, 621, 626–7, 631–2, 634, 637–8 and Syria, 551 in Inner Asia, 344, 347, 348–9, 355, 444, 685–6, terrorism against, 675, 725, 812, 830, 835, 847–8 688–9, 691–3, 695, 697, 703, 706–9 and Turkey, 505–6, 710 in Iran, 206–7, 228, 242, 245–6, 444–6, 462, 469–77, unity, Arab, 546–7 479, 482–7 Unkiar Skelessi, treaty of, 490 in Iraq, 470, 553 Unsuri (d.1039–40), 128 in Islamic communities, 209–10, 213, 815 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), 411, 414, 426, 441, 732, in Libya, 615 735–6, 738, 755–6, 759, 780, 825 in Malaya, 675 ‘Uqaylid dynasty, 109, 287 and modernization, 581, 631–2 ‘Urabi, Egyptian rebel, 515, 517–18 in North Africa, 207, 319, 326–7, 330, 332–4, 336, Urban II, Pope, 289 597, 602, 607, 609–11, 617 urbanization in Ottoman empire, 265, 267–8, 282, 294–5, 298, 444, in Africa, 780 447, 494, 496, 500, 511 Arab conquests, 9, 31, 38–40, 44 in Pakistan, 645–6 in Arabia, 574–5, 578, 580 post-imperial era, 114, 134–5, 137, 140, 143–6, 152, and Caliphate, 56, 67, 73–5, 100–2, 111, 184–7, 193, 155, 157, 162 197 relation to state, 152, 155, 206–7, 217–18, 267–8, 294, and diffusion of Islam, 198, 200 332–3, 364, 367–8, 371, 377–8, 444–9, 469–77, Egypt, 528, 530–1 482–7, 500, 602, 816 in Europe, 220 resistance to European influence, 457, 459, 461–2, in India, 379 466–8 in Inner Asia, 708 social functions, 140, 143–6, 189–90, 192–3, 197, 201, in Iran, 226 205–7, 215, 295–6 Islamic community, 213 in Southeast Asia, 206, 388, 394, 397–9, 448–9, 652, in post-‘Abbasid era, 126, 130, 133, 143, 145, 155, 657–60, 664–5, 667, 669, 672, 680 189 in Spain, 312–14 pre-Islamic, 3, 8, 10, 13 in sub-Saharan Africa, 405–6, 408–9 and religious elites, 81–98, 100–2 in Syria, 296, 537–8, 550 in West Africa, 734, 744 in Turkey, 502, 508 Urdu, 218, 366, 626, 628, 630, 633, 640, 643, 648, 851 in West Africa, 204, 206–7, 413, 418, 420, 428, 732, Usama bin Laden, 571, 725, 797, 830, 835, 848 748, 752 Ushrusana, 61, 64 in Yemen, 567 Usmaniya movement, 748 Ulugh-beg, 229–30 usul al-fiqh (sources of law), 157 ‘Umar I (Caliph, 634–44), 34, 36–7, 44–6, 49, 95, 685 usul-i jadid. see jadid movement ‘Umar II (Caliph, 717–20), 43, 50, 52–3, 58 usuli school, 246 ‘Umar, al-Hajj, 211, 421, 440–1, 444, 465, 747, 840 ‘Uthman (Caliph, 644–56), 18, 45–8, 178, 685 Umayyad dynasty ‘Uthman I (Osman, founder of Ottoman empire), 250–1 in Egypt, 283 Uways al-Barawi, Shaykh ‘Umar, 772–3 history, 45–51, 53–4, 64, 66, 334, 567 Uwaysiya brotherhood, 768–9, 772–3 and Islamic culture, 67–71, 75–6, 99, 185, 290, uymaq (household state), 232–5, 237, 245, 246–7, 339, 311–13 345–8, 355, 444–6, 469 legitimation, 216, 313 Uzbek Khan, 339 military organization, 59, 104 Uzbekistan, 680, 698, 700, 704–6, 709–10, 712–14, 725, and Muslim theology, 68, 78, 87 827 and Shi‘a, 81, 95 Uzbeks Spanish, 54, 108, 216, 283, 300, 303, 311–13, 401 in modern era, 686, 691, 698, 706–7, 712, 718, 720, state organization, 50–1 724–5, 819, 848 umma (community), 23–4, 26, 28–30, 82, 101–2, 144–5, in pre-modern era, 198, 201, 217, 236, 339–40, 342, 149, 183–4, 206–11, 215, 220, 581 345–6, 348–51, 355 United Arab Emirates, 577–8, 580, 583 United Arab Republic, 524, 548–9, 570 V United Nations, 528, 554–5, 559, 561, 582–3, 604, 612, Varamin, 228 614–15, 649, 668, 674, 768, 770, 787 Varna, battle of, 250 United States Vienna. see Austria and Afghanistan, 648–9, 713, 722–5, 848 vizier. see wazir (viziers) African Americans, 785, 806–8 Volga region, 116, 223, 255, 690, 694, 697, 700 and Arab Middle East, 547, 582, 584 cultural values, 823 W and East Africa, 170 Wafd Party, 520, 528, 603, 858 and Eastern Europe, 786 wahdat al-wujud (unity of being), doctrine of, 173, and Egypt, 524, 526–8, 532, 548 366

970 Index

Wahhabi movement Yaji (1348-85), 406 in Arabia, 565, 571–2, 575 Yan ‘Izala, 752, 825 Chechnya, 716–17 Yan Tatsine, 754 in East Africa, 782 Yang Tseng-hsin, 726–7 in Egypt, 512 Ya‘qub Beg, 355, 464 Inner Asia, 712 al-Yasavi, Shaykh Ahmad, 338, 347 Wahhabi movement (Icont.) Yasaviya order, 342, 347 in Islamic community, 211, 462, 464, 823, 835, 848 Yassine, ‘Abdelsalam, 617 West Africa, 738, 754–9, 825 Yazdagird, Emperor, 33 Wahid, Abdurrahman, 674, 821 Yazid, Caliph, 49 wajh (face), 13, 16 Yaziji, Nasif, 537 wali (saints), 210, 335, 377, 392, 420 Yemen. see also Hadhramaut Waliallah, Shah, 377, 464, 621–2, 635 in Caliphate, 49, 59, 107 al-Walid, Caliph, 50–1, 71 early history, 10, 13–15, 32 waqf (endowments) Imamate, 565–8, 570–1 in Anatolia, 249 irrigation, 310 in Egypt, 513–15, 529 Islam in, 178, 211, 570–2 in India, 374, 626 in modern era, 565–74, 576–8, 790, 799, 811, 830 in Inner Asia, 344–5, 685, 687, 695–6, 701, 703, and Ottoman empire, 254, 258, 275, 294, 296 706 women in, 859 in Middle East, 135, 137, 210, 217, 228 Yemen, People’s Democratic Republic of, 569, 571 in North Africa, 599, 601–3 Yemen (Kalb), warring faction, 49–51, 54, 81, 287, 310 in Ottoman empire, 295–6, 494 Yoruba, 735–7, 748–50, 752–3, 850 in post-‘Abbasid era, 192 Young Algerians, 591 in Syria, 538 Young Bukharans, 691, 696–7 in Tunisia, 604 Young Ottomans, 460, 496, 498, 517, 820 in Turkey, 502, 506, 509 Young Tunisians, 464, 602–3, 617 al-Wasit, 39, 50, 68 Young Turks, 460–1, 497, 499, 691, 820, 837 Wattasid dynasty, 301, 320, 328 Yuan dynasty, 352 wazir (viziers), 60, 105, 136, 141, 235, 259, 424, 434 Yugoslavia, 785–8, 796, 802 Weber, Max, 221 Yunnan, 354, 464, 726 West Africa. see also under elites; intelligentsia Yunus, Mahmud, 672 anti-colonial movements, 734–5 Yunus Emre, Sufi poet, 266 diffusion of Islam, 198, 204–5, 308, 409–28, 732, 736–7, 746, 780, 822, 850 Z and Europe, 331, 416, 425–6, 428, 438–41, 444, Zaghlul, Sa‘d, 518–19 453–4, 732–8, 740–50, 755–6, 772, 785, 793, 799, Zahir Shah, 722–4 839–40, 850 Zahir al-‘Umar, 297 independence, 735–7 Zakariya, Baha’ al-Din, 365 Islam in, 206–9, 211, 213, 443, 462, 532, 736–8, zakat (almsgiving), 20, 24, 28–9, 53, 82, 181, 592, 676 780–4, 825 zamindar (local notables), 369, 371, 379–81, 620–1, 623, in modern era, 732–60 625 nationalism, 734–8, 740, 750, 753, 758–60 Zamzam, Hajji, 663 and Ottoman empire, 269 Zamzam (sacred well), 20 state and religion, 204, 738–40 Zands, in Iran, 245 states, 216–17 Zangid dynasty, 109 Western Europe, Muslims in, 785, 789–805 Zanj (slave laborers), 107 Wilson, Woodrow, 519, 603 Zanzibar, 433–5, 441–2, 576, 760, 772–5, 777, 779 Wingate, Sir Reginald, 763 al-Zawahiri, Ayman, 532 Wolofs, 742–3, 747 zawaya (persons of holy descent), 208, 210, 409, 418, women. see also under the names of countries and 740 regions zawiya (Sufi teaching mosques), 210, 323, 328, 330, 410, and Arab conquests, 40–1 431, 464, 515, 588–9, 607, 613 and Islam, 851–67 Zayanids, 320 and modernization, 530–1, 592, 605, 664, 704, 729, Zayd b. ‘Ali (Ibn ‘Ali), 53, 572 769, 779, 782–3 Zaydi dynasty, 178, 565–6, 568, 570 and mysticism, 90, 92 Zaytuna mosque, Tunis, 592–3, 601–2 in national states, 855–63 Zenata. see Berbers pre-modern era, 852–5 Zengi (d.1146), 289–90 Quranic teaching on, 24–6, 29 Zeroual, Liamine, 600 and revivalism, 824, 863–7 Zia ul-Haq, General, 646–8, 847 Shi‘i views, 65 Zia ul-Rahman, General, 650 Somalia, 769 Zionist Organization, 524, 545, 547, 557–9, 582, 614–15, World Assembly of Muslim Youth, 755, 829 713 World Bank. see International Monetary Fund (IMF) Zirid family, 300, 302, 304–5, 308 Ziryab (789-857), 311 X Zongo. see Kumasi X, Malcolm, 807 Zoroastrianism Xinjiang, 341, 355, 726–7, 730, 827, 851 and diffusion of Islam, 200, 242 in early Middle East, 6–8, 31, 36, 51, 64–5, 76, 99, Y 127, 138, 142, 172, 183–4 Yahya, Imam, 567, 570 in modern Iran, 234, 486 Yahya Efendi (1552–1644), 261 Zsitva Torak, treaty of, 255 Yahya Khan, general, 646 Zubayr, Meccan aristocrat, 47