TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS

Applied Environmental Geology

Applied Environmental Geology

Author Halász Amadé Professional reviewer: Konrád Gyula Language reviewer: Kovács János

30 January 2015

Publisher

University of Pécs

Publisher PTE• Pécs, 2015 © author, 2015 ISBN 978-963-642-726-9

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Contents

1. INTRODUCTION...... 6 2. PROTECTION OF THE SOCIETY FROM GEOLOGIC HAZARDS ...... 7

2.1. GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES ...... 8 2 2.1.1. Volcanic Activity ...... 8 2.1.2. Earthquakes ...... 12 2.2. SURFACE PROCESSES ...... 13 2.2.1. Mass Movements and Landslides ...... 13 2.2.2. Glaciers and Glaciation ...... 15 2.2.3. Weathering and Erosion ...... 16 3. MODIFICATION OF NATURE BY SOCIETY ...... 18

3.1. MINING ...... 18 3.2. INDUSTRY ...... 20 4. WASTE MANAGEMENT AND WASTE DISPOSAL ...... 21

4.1. VULNERABLE OBJECTS ...... 22 4.1.1. Groundwater ...... 22 4.1.2. Soils ...... 23 4.1.3. Geoheritage ...... 24 4.2. SOLVING THE CONTAMINATION ISSUE BY USING RAW MATERIALS ...... 27 4.2.1. Clays ...... 28 4.2.2. Talc ...... 29 4.2.3. Asbestos ...... 29 4.2.4. Industrial Sand ...... 29 4.2.5. Bentonite ...... 29 4.2.6. Zeolite ...... 30 4.2.7. Diatomite ...... 31 4.2.8. Alginite ...... 32 4.2.9. Perlite ...... 32 5. CASE STUDIES ...... 33

5.1. RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL ...... 33 5.1.1. Disposal of Low and Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste (Ófalu; Bátaapáti, Mórágy Granite) 35 5.1.2. Disposal of High Level Radioactive Waste (W-Mecsek, Boda Claystone) ...... 37 5.2. RECLAMATION AND CONTAMINATED LAND SITE INVESTIGATION ...... 40 5.2.1. Water and Soil Contamination Caused by Industrial Activities (Nagymányok area) ...... 42 5.2.2. Reclamation of the Former Uranium Ore Mining Sites ...... 45 5.2.3. Reclamation of the Former Coal Mining Sites ...... 47 5.2.4. Case Study at Garé Former Waste Disposal Site ...... 50 6. APPLIED METHODS IN ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY ...... 52

6.1. HEALTH AND SAFETY REGULATIONS ...... 53 6.2. SITE INVESTIGATION...... 54 6.3. FIELD METHODS ...... 55 6.3.1. Sub/Surface Exploration (drilling, trial pitting, geophysics) ...... 56 6.3.2. Sampling ...... 64 6.3.3. Field Hydrogeology ...... 65 6.3.4. Field Description of Rocks and Soils ...... 71 6.3.5. Laboratory Testing ...... 83 6.3.6. Basic Field Instrumentation for Site Investigation ...... 85 6.4. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGICAL MAPPING ...... 86

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6.4.1. Applied Geological Maps ...... 87 6.4.2. Interpretation of Photographs ...... 89 7. SKILLS ...... 91

7.1. GENERIC SKILLS...... 91 7.2. AWARD SPECIFIC SKILLS ...... 92 7.3. TRANSFERABLE SKILLS /REPORT WRITING ...... 93 7.4. FIND A JOB ...... 95 8. ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...... 99 3 9. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING ...... 100 10. APPENDIX ...... 104

10.1. LIST OF THE MAIN SOURCE OF LAW AND REGULATION ...... 104

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS List of Figures

Figure 1 Spectrum of hazards after Smith (2000) ...... 7 Figure 2 Volcanic activity and plate-tectonics (USGS) ...... 9 Figure 3 The Volcanic Explosivity Index (USGS) ...... 10 Figure 4 The environmental impact of the different mining methods ...... 20 Figure 5 Conservation value types ...... 26 Figure 6 Key section of the Boda Claystone Formation at Boda A: alternation of claystone and siltstone 4 layers, B: cross stratified siltstone (earlier dolomite interbed), C: parallel laminated claystone and siltstone desiccation...... 27 Figure 7 Zeolite as a molecular sieve ...... 31 Figure 8 The new conceptual model of BCF Project after Fedor et al. 2009...... 39 Figure 9 Remediation technology of the Funnel and Gate system ...... 41 Figure 10 Pump and Treat remediation system (eurssem.eu)...... 42 Figure 11 TPH contamination of the former briquette factory ...... 44 Figure 12 Drilling methods depth diameter...... 57 Figure 13 Scanned image of the borehole Ib-4 (646.76–647.44 m) ...... 58 Figure 14 Field- and office work performed during and after trench mapping (Gyalog et al. 2004) ...... 59 Figure 15 Field scetch of a trench (Konrád) ...... 60 Figure 16 Well drilling and sampling near the Drava river ...... 66 Figure 17 72 hours long continuous pumping test at Dráva-basin ...... 67 Figure 18 The grade of metamorphism ...... 76 Figure 19 The foliation and grade of metamorphism (Columbia.edu) ...... 77 Figure 20 Comparison chart for visual percentage estimation (after Terry and Chillingar 1955) ...... 81 Figure 21 Soil classification by USCS ...... 82 Figure 22 Oolite Thin Section in Polarized Light (Nikon Corp.) ...... 85 Figure 23 Intermediate field map ...... 87

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS List of Tables

Table 1 Unconsolidated sedimentary materials (Domenico and Schwartz 1990) ...... 69 Table 2 Sedimentary rocks (Domenico and Schwartz 1990) ...... 70 Table 3 Crystalline rocks (Domenico and Schwartz 1990) ...... 70 Table 4 The classification of metamorphic rocks by texture ...... 78 Table 5 Classification of igneous rocks based on texture (after Coch and Ludman 1991)...... 79 5 Table 6 Checklist for field description of soil (after Schoenberger et al. 2012) ...... 83 Table 7 Type of laboratory test ...... 84 Table 8 Aspects of features that aid in their recognition on aerial photographs (Avery and Berlin 1992) .. 90

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1. Introduction

The aim of the environmental geology is to evaluate the impact of human activity on the geological environment. The environmental geologists are responsible to find the protection of e.g. water, land, rocks, and soils and the most suitable sites for wastes and predicting geological hazards. 6 The concept of environmental geology is different from author to author. To determine the concept is not the purpose of this book, but I would like to present some of them. For a detailed theoretical background, for the historical perspective and for the basic concepts of environmental geology you should read Coates (1981). Coates (1981) gives almost the shortest definition: environmental geology is that subject area which relates this science to human activity. According to Földessy (2011), the environmental geology uses geological methods in order to environmental management. As stated by Hajdúné, environmental geology described the material and structural characteristics of the geological environment and changes of them due to human activity. One of the most detailed descriptions is presented by the Geological and Geophysical Institute of Hungary, Department of Environmental Geology: “Environmental geological research in a wider sense (agrogeology, environmental geological mapping, environmental geochemistry, engineering geology, ecogeology, geological nature protection, urban geology) concerns itself with geological research aiming to recognise formations above and under the surface (including the soil–base rock–groundwater system) as well as the processes taking place in them.”. I recommend this textbook for Environmental Studies, Environmental Sciences and Earth Sciences and for Geographer undergraduate students both at Bachelor (BSc) and at Master (MSc) level particularly for the Applied Environmental Geology practice course. Basic background knowledge is indispensable to understand every detailed information contain in this textbook.

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2. Protection of the Society from Geologic Hazards

“The geologic hazard is a phenomenon associated with geologic processes that can produce a disaster when critical threshold is exceeded and can result in significant loss 7 in life or property” (Coates 1981). The hazards have some characteristics like magnitude, duration, areal extent, speed of onset, spatial dispersion, temporal spacing and amount of human involved. According to Smith’s spectrum (Figure 1), hazards can be divided on one axis from natural to manmade and on the other axis from voluntary to involuntary. The main geological hazards are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, landslides and subsidence. Partly geo and partly anthropogenic hazards are the meteorological (drought, avalanche, cyclones), oceanographic (storm), hydrological (flood, flash flood) and biological (epidemics, crop blight).

Figure 1 Spectrum of hazards after Smith (2000)

The topic of this subsection gives you a general knowledge of a broad range of geological and environmental hazards, including volcanic activity, earthquakes and landslides hazards. But basic geological background knowledge is required. This will be a short overview of the natural processes what can affect the human environment. Any geological processes can impact the society: volcanism, mass movements, plate tectonics and consequences, glaciations etc. The most dangerous places are the

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS overcrowded areas. It is clear that earthquakes around the mid-ocean ridge have a negligible outcome in a society point of view, than an earthquake in Los Angeles. Volcanoes can risk humans in several ways. Damages during an earthquake are caused by a shaking of the ground that cause the building collapse; by vibration cause the liquefaction; by tsunamis and landslides; by breakage of gas lines or highways; disruption of communication. The immediate effects of a volcano in a smaller area such as lava flows (Hawaii, Sicily), heavy ash falls (Tavurvur Volcano) but tsunamis (partly 8 belong here) can affect a much larger area. The catastrophic nature of mass movements makes it vital to evaluate potential mass movement problems in detail prior to the development of an area.

2.1. Geological Processes

2.1.1. Volcanic Activity

Volcanic activity and earthquakes are geologic hazards. The force which drives the volcanoes originates from the Earth interior. As with earthquakes, volcanic activity is linked to plate-tectonics processes (Figure 2). Most of the active volcanoes (which affect human safety) are located along convergent plate boundaries where subduction is occurred (around the Pacific Basin). However, much more under sea volcanism takes places beneath the ocean at the oceanic spreading zones. That activity does not affect the human life. Subduction-zone volcanoes like Mt. Pinatubo erupt with explosive force. The hotspots can be very dangerous if they exist below continental crusts. For example in the region of Yellowstone NP several calderas exist that were produced by gigantic eruptions (Kious and Tilling 1996).

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Figure 2 Volcanic activity and plate-tectonics (USGS)

Volcanic activity differs from the other natural hazards, because it has advantages to the society not just disadvantages. The well-known drawback is the force that destroys houses, villages and lives, but the total loss is less than other hazards. The soils developed on volcanic slop are of highest quality on the Earth. They are the sources of new minerals and geothermal energy. And do not forget the landscapes what the volcanic area can create (Sicily, Hawaii, Teide etc.). Those are the most visited places even for an inactive volcano. The most well-known hazard is the aerosols in the atmosphere what can affect weather condition and eyeshot. Though in the last couple of years this types of hazards were on the cover for weeks every year. The aerosols can affect (sometimes shut down) the air traffic (2010 Iceland Eyjafjallajökull). The scientific background of how the volcanoes works have been described by many authors. In this subsection I only would like to remind you about the classification of the volcanoes and the impacts on the society of the volcanic activity. Over the last few decades, volcanologists (Newhall and Self 1982) created a relative measure for classifying the size of the eruptions (Figure 3). The Volcanic Explosive Index (VEI) can be classified between 0 and 8. It is not precise because it measures the volume and type of material and the height of the eruption column. Because no one can measure the exact volume of the erupted material therefore this classification is partly subjective.

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The volumes of several past explosive eruptions and the corresponding VEI are shown in Figure 3. Numbers in parentheses represent the total volume of erupted pyroclastic material (tephra, volcanic ash, and pyroclastic flows) for selected eruptions; the volumes are for unconsolidated deposits. Each step increase represents a tenfold increase in the volume of erupted pyroclastic material (Newhall and Self 1982).

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Figure 3 The Volcanic Explosivity Index (USGS)

The most common classifications are by their period of activity, type of activity and the type of landforms created. The volcano is active if it erupted during historic time. If not, it can be inactive, dormant or extinct. The type of activity is basis of the eruptions degree of explosivity. The types were named after a well-known volcano where the characteristic is

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS exemplifies the type of activity. Some volcano has the same characteristics during their activity and some display the whole sequence of types.  Hawaiian – Hawaiian Islands (VEI 0-1): This type of eruption (effusive) occurs mainly over hot spots. That and the Icelandic are both characterized by high temperature, low viscosity basalt with low gas content and the lava is outpouring from craters. 11  Icelandic – Iceland (VEI 0-1): This type of eruption (effusive) occurs mainly over the Mid-Atlantic ridge. The flood basalt can be watched as a particularly large Icelandic type eruption.  Strombolian – Stromboli (VEI 1-2): Mild explosive eruption by quiet periods between a minute and an hour or more. It can last for years. The basaltic, andesitic magma has higher gas content so fire fountains and flows can be examined during the activity.  Vulcanian – Vulcano (VEI 2-3): The eruption is explosive and contains andesite and rhyolite magma (viscous silica magma). The falling ash can create pyroclastic flows that can be hazardous to the society. The ash column can go as high as 10 km above the vent.  Pelean – Mt. Pelée (VEI 3-4): Similar to the Vulcanian type but extremely eruptive.  Vesuvian – Mt. Vesuvius (VEI 1-2): Intermediate in explosiveness.  Plinian (VEI 4-8): The most explosive type of activity the ash column generally goes up to 25 km. This type activity can greatly affect the global climate for years by the aerosols (ash). Impacts on the society can be huge but with the modern and accurate (predicting) monitoring it can be less damageable than years ago. Today millions of people live in areas where the volcanic hazards are ever-present threats. The challenge for the scientists is to mitigate the long-term benefits of volcanism not just the hazardous side of them. As mentioned above, volcanic terrains produce exceptionally fertile soils under warm and moisture climate, where the rapid weathering helps to make nutrient for the plans. Many volcanic sites offer scenic landscapes and some are touristic places for campsites and ski resorts. But the increasing number of visitors can be a victim of a sudden eruption (Yellowstone Caldera). Different kind of building stones (cinder cones material, hardened lava or pumice) are the result of an eruption. The most valuable minerals are linked to volcanic processes such as sulphur, metals, and diamonds. Volcanic activity sometimes affects the weather and the climate, too. Those can have a greater impact on the society than tsunamis or lava flows. One eruption in Iceland caused many cold winter in

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Europe in the 18th century. The 1815 Tambora explosion caused even a colder year; they call it a “year without summer”.

2.1.2. Earthquakes

Earthquakes are the most unpredictable nature hazards that can influence the society. The frightful elements are the suddenness, and the inability of moving to a safety place. Earthquakes caused by transmissions of energy from underground faulting to the 12 surface. During and after the earthquake the damage is causes by moving ground and it causes the building to collapse. The vibration can causes liquefaction of sand sediments, seismic sea waves (tsunami) and landslides. Two types of vibrations can occur during and after the earthquake: the surface waves and the body waves. The surface wave causes more damage on the surface. There are two types of body waves: compression and share waves. The compressional waves also called primary or P waves, and the shear waves are the secondary (S) waves also called transverse wave. The ratio of the arrival times of the P and S waves refer to their speed. The size of an earthquake is generally given of its magnitude what is expressed as Richter Scale. This scale is an absolute measure of the amplitude of the seismic wave, which are dependent on the amount of energy released. The magnitude scale varies logarithmically. The intensity of an earthquake is expressed by the Mercalli Scale. A great amount of quakes are formed along two belts: the circum-Pacific and the other from Spain through the Mediterranean and the Middle East until the Himalayan Mountains. This two major orogenic belt are the sites of most recent geologic and orogenic activity what cause the quakes. During the orogeny deformation takes place over an elongate area where plates are collided. The focus, hypocentre and the different focal depths what refer to damage to humans are well described in many “Physical Geology” books. But the human causes of earthquake are less known. In the last century humans have the ability to initiate earthquakes? Some of them are by purpose and some by inadvertent activities. Some geophysical research activity needs the seismic waves therefore the geophysics need to induce earthquakes. The careless human activity and planning can cause higher damage (anywhere in the world) on the society than any other natural earthquake. Along the two main “quake belt” can predict the earthquake at least the possibility of it. But the human caused earthquakes are unpredictable in any sense. The human caused earthquake topic would fit to the next chapter as well, but to see it as a whole we thought it has to be mentioned here. The first connection between earthquakes and reservoirs were described in Greece in 1931. The rapid rise of water level causes the earthquake itself. Since then more quakes were registered and most of the biggest ones related to a deeper reservoirs. Water injection can cause earthquakes in many cases. There were a disposal

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS method for contaminate water to pump the liquid waste to the bedrock. It can result earthquakes up to 3 M at Richter Scale, or even more, if the well is deeper than 4000 m. In the fifties the water flooding of oil bearing strata by injection wells became a common method for the recovery of additional petroleum (Evans 1966) in the USA (Denver, California and Colorado) and Japan (Matsushiro). The underground and surface mining operation can cause earthquakes as well. The undermined areas are the most compromised places, but the explosion and free face falling can also cause earthquakes. 13 The other seismic activities is caused by humans are the detonation of nuclear devices, the heavy truck traffic and building roads. The earthquake effects on the society are varies from the numerous changes on the land, to the more bizarre phenomena. The “earthquake light” is one of them. It can be explained by the piezoelectric effect of the quartz bearing rocks. The person can be damaged both physically and psychologically. The prediction and the control of the earthquakes are still unsolved problems. But there are some physiochemical changes that can predict a possibility of an earthquake: changes in electrical resistivity (it is depend on the amount of the water in the rock, the changes in water level in wells and the emission of radon gas. Nevertheless the most commonly reported prognostic features are anomalous terrain changes and the unusual behaviour of many animals. The earthquake prediction (geologically safe environment) is an important factor in the case of a sitting of a nuclear power plant.

2.2. Surface Processes

2.2.1. Mass Movements and Landslides

Mass movements and landslides are movements of material under the influence of gravity. The steeper the slope, the greater is the tendency for mass movements. The movements can be caused by the slope angle, material, the amount of water in the system and the removal of vegetation. Generally more of its combination is the cause of a failure. The water can resist and drive the mass movements. Typically the water is a driving force to reduce the rock strength and increase the volume of the expanding clays what is going to be a slipping surface. The materials transported by the mass movements are called colluviums. In the colluvium the grains have a minimal rounding and poorly sorted and the material composition is similar to the original material. The colluviums are important because by the mass movements they move off slopes and get into a transport system like rivers, glaciers and coastal areas. The results of rockslides, the debris at the bottom called talus. Rockslides occur along flat planes but slumps along curved planes. The major mass movements processes can classify two, three or four categories. The fourth is a complex movements with the combination of different movement types and the rate of the

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS movements can be between slow to extremely rapid. This category does not published by every author that is why I have started with this one. The reality is that only some of the mass movements can be put into a decent category in the nature. Many of them are mixed movements. The three major types of mass movements are the falls, slides and the flows. The falls can be subdivided to two minor types; the rockfalls and the soilfalls. The rockfalls are extremely rapid, and develop in rocks. The rocks can be of any size that fall through the 14 air from cliffs or road cuts. The soilfalls develop in sediments and also characterized by extremely fast movements. The slides can be rockslides or slumps. Both are masses of rocks or sediments that slide downslope along planar surfaces. The rock slides occur along a flat inclined surface and can be rapid or very rapid movements. Slumps occur along a curved surface commonly involve unconsolidated material at an extremely slow to moderate speed. The flows subdivided to several minor types: mudflows, debris flows, debris avalanches, earth flows, quick clays, solifluction and creeps. The common in all minor types is that the character of movements is a displaced mass flow as a plastic or viscous fluid. The mudflow consist of at least 50% fine grained (silt- and clay sized particles) and around or up to 30% water. The movement is very slow to rapid at speed. The debris flow is a very rapid flow; sometimes starts as a slump in the upslope area. The mass contains large sized grains and less water than mudflow. The debris avalanche is extremely rapid and the debris is falling and sliding during movements. Earth flow is a slow to moderate process where thick tongue-shaped mass of wet regolith will occur. The quick clays start to move if they are disturbed by a shock (earthquake) and lose their stability and flow like liquid. The sediment of it composed of fine grain particles (silt and clay) saturated with water. Solifluction is water saturated slow or very rapid flow sediments (regolith) on a surface. The creep is an extra slow movement of the surface sediment (regolith and rock). Many landslides in Hungary have taken place in the Danube Loess bluffs, especially with some of the highest landslide densities found in the area of Kulcs, Dunaújváros, Dunaszekcső. Their causes can be considered geological and hydrogeological reasons. To investigate the first one, landslide sediments, as a typical movement, in high bluffs must be documented by using different techniques (XRD, grain size distribution, major and minor element analyses, and tectonics). Because the types and forms of the landslides were describing by many authors, therefore we give you only a checklist for field identifications. Checklist of features to record during slope profiling: Profile environment:  Identification, e.g. number, code for the slope, observer, date of survey;

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 Location, specified by co-ordinates from map, or by GPS;  Geology; general description of the area and detailed data of a particular site, including deposits type;  Vegetation and land use of area, slope and profile line and the type of plants;  Soil and regolith characteristics of the area slope and profile line; 15  Landforms, basic features. Relation of profiled slope to nearby slopes and landforms. Relation along the profile line on other parts of the slope;  River channel characteristic. Possibility of slope undercut (if present), estimated volume of flow (in each season) and speed.

Profile form:  Location of the steepest point of the profile;  Lateral slope at profile crest;  Lateral slope at profile base;  Plan curvature at steepest point profile.

Measured length:  Vegetation or land use;  Ground surface distance;  Gradient measured backwards and forwards;  Visible evidence of processes and materials (microrelief, outcrops, stones, evidence of mass movement);  Man-made features e.g. hedges;  Presence of disturbed ground.

2.2.2. Glaciers and Glaciation

Glaciers are masses of ice that move on land by plastic flow under the pressure of its own weight (Sharp 1988). There are two types of glaciers: the continental glaciers (ice caps or ice sheets) flow out in every direction; and the valley glaciers flow from higher to lower elevation. The glacier can move by under its own pressure when it reaches the minimum of 40 m in thickness. Glaciers have a lower ductile, and an upper brittle zone and the movement depends on the thickness and the angle of a slope. These are

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS powerful movements, what can erode mountains and deposit unsorted sediments (moraine). The moraine sediments are good water reservoir nowadays. The extension of a glacier or ice sheet depends on the global climate. Today approximately 10% is the total coverage of ice on the planet. During the Pleistocene Epoch the coverage was around 30 %. Therefore the sea level was much lower (130 m) than today. The thick ice coverage caused isostatic subsidence and after the melting the isostatic rebound began. 16 The glacial intervals continue each other after tens or hundreds of millions of years. The glacial periods occur as a result of a plate movement and/or Earth axis movement changes. The Milankovitch theory is the most accepted explanation for glacial- interglacial intervals. The climate change and the glacial period’s impact on the society can be significant. During the Little Ice Age a short-term cooler period was observed. Today the global warming is a popular bugaboo what can be explained by human reasons and by glacial- interglacial transitional theory. The consequences of the global warming (no matter what causes it) are the sea level rise (this effects the stream deposition and erosion), the rapid climate change (landslides, floods, etc.), the ice sheet melting, etc.

2.2.3. Weathering and Erosion

Weathering is a chemical and physical change of a rock or sediment where those react with the biosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. The weathering occurs because the rock forms under different chemical and physical environment than what can be found near the surface. This force drives the rocks to fall apart. The remained part (residue) of the weathering can form to a soil or become a sedimentary rock. The physical weathering increases the surface area of a particle but no change in the original mineralogy. The thermal expansion, the frost action (ice crystal grows), pressure release by roots, the salt crystal grows and the activities of organism are the physical weathering processes. The chemical weathering causes changes in the mineralogy, only the quartz remain unchanged under temperate climate, the others transform to a new mineral. The main chemical weathering processes are the oxidation and hydrolysis. The best climate for effective chemical weathering is the hot, wet, humid environment. The soluble ions are the most important final products of the chemical weathering. Those ions under humid climate can be removed by surface- and groundwater and accumulate in the oceans after transportation. The soluble salt under dry climate condition deposited in layers and from crusts within the regolith or soil. The soil is one of the most common weathered outcomes. For a detailed description of the soils see later chapter.

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The most common geomorphological feature resulted of weathering is the karst. The limestone is dissolved under humid climate and under special circumstances bauxite can form.

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3. Modification of Nature by Society

The major source of pollution is originated from industrial, domestic and agricultural activities. Physical (landscape change, landslides), chemical (pollution of heavy minerals) and biological pollution affect the vulnerable objects. The principal contaminants from industrial sources (McGauhey 1968) are the: metal ions, inorganic 18 solids, mineral residues, soluble salts and chemical residues such as acids, alkalies and complex molecules. The agricultural sources are the: fertilizer residues, pesticide residues, silt and soil particles and increased concentration of salt and ions. The most variable contaminants are from the domestic use such as detergents, parasites, sewage, salts and ions and raw wastes from humans. Contamination of water sources results from point-source discharge of wastewater into the water or partly; non-point source such as runoff or inflow of already contaminated water. It is easy to determine the location of the point-source outflow, but much more difficult to find the origin of the non-point source of contamination. It can affect both the surface- and groundwater reservoirs. One of the solutions is the dilution, for example the contaminated groundwater is continuously is diluted as it flow through the pores. One of the main problems is with contaminated surface flow (stream or rivers) that many inorganic and organic chemicals attached to the particles, therefore the river or stream sediment is also going to be contaminated. It has to be removed and cleaned also. The other type of hazards are the air-, land-, noise-, thermal- and visual pollution and all of those consequences.

3.1. Mining

Perhaps the reclamation of the surface coal mining could offer the most dramatic evidence of what proper procedure and planning could perform for an area which is nowadays a complete destruction and desolation. The available renovation techniques provide a wide range of solution for multipurpose and sequential land use management of natural resources. A lot of abandoned open pit mines can be found in Hungary recently with no or in the foreseeable future not realized reclamation plans. In Baranya County the Vasas and the Karolina open pit mines are the best examples of abandoned places. The abandoned tunnel and shaft can cause environmental problems as well, but those are not within view. It is necessary and obligatory by law that a complete reclamation plan and operation be in force before any mining activity. Only this kind of long-range policies can protect and minimize the environmental damage accomplish.

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The following methods (Paone et al. 1974) describe the processes that should be applied for the reclamation of surface mines: Spoil piles should be covered and planted after the production to avoid the mass movement and the oxidation of sulphur minerals which can cause acid water drainage (in the case of a coal mine). The working area should be minimizing exposure of a new rock to weathering process. This belated for an abandoned mine, but would be useful at lignite mines. Slope should be graded so as not to exceed the angle of stability. At Karoline open pit mine the mass movement and the 19 landslides are already exist. Revegetation of the area should be done as soon as possible after the mining. The environmental impact can be different by each mining methods (Figure 4). The underground mining (a system of subsurface working for the removal of mineral matter) has several types. In Baranya County the coal and uranium ore mining left a great amount of tunnels and shafts behind. The biggest environmental issues are the abandoned uranium ore tunnels because of the untreated water. The water is continuously cleaned by the local environmental company. The other type of underground mining methods is the longwall mining. This is an extracting method especially to flat lying layers of mineral resources. The biggest issue is the subsidence of the ground surface because of the lack of the support of the overlying rocks. The solution is the room and pillar method in which a material removed in a cellular pattern. But a significant amount of useful mineral must be left behind. Other effects are the cracking and fracturing what can impact riverbeds (water loss) and buildings; and also a rock and cliff falls.

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Environmental impacts of mining activity

Open pit Underground Drilling mine mine leaching / gasification 20

Groundwater Groundwater Groundwater contamination contamination contamination

Air (dust) Mass movement Mass movement pollution

Noise Subsidence Subsidence pollution

Vibration Cone depression Soil contamination

Figure 4 The environmental impact of the different mining methods

The reclamation of the open pit mine was mentioned above, but we also has to mention the environmental impacts of the different methods. The area strip mining can cause a large scale washboard terrain composed of parallel ditches. The best solutions are the recontouring and the revegetation. Contour and placer mining’s are not an issue in Hungary. In situ mining like UCG (Underground Coal Gasification) and ISL (In Situ Leaching for uranium ore) are the recent cases in Hungary. Leaching out the needed mineral is also important in the extraction of uranium, sulphur or copper. Ocean mining is also not a case in Hungary but has a great background publication.

3.2. Industry

The industrial activities decrease the water and soil quality and pollute the rocks and the air. Dumping industrial waste directly to the surface was an unsaid practice earlier. Until today the number of illegal industrial landfill decreased, but the number of illegal domestic landfill increased markedly. Past errors by industry, military and the unscrupulous waste handling companies left many problems for us.

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4. Waste Management and Waste Disposal

The concept of a waste in a sense is subjective. Today the material (waste) owner

(person or company) should decide if the worn product or by-product is valuable or not. 21 But it can happen only in a brave new world. The reality is that the government decides over the waste. This can vary country by country. In Hungary, the 2012. CLXXXV. and the 2013 CXXV. regulations are in place. This regulation introduces the concept of a by- product and the conditions of termination of waste status. It is almost a brave new world, but it has some criterion and all the four have to meet in a same time. Intended for specific purposes and have a general usage. It has a market or a demand. It has to meet the technical requirements and the corresponding regulatory requirements and standards for the intended purpose. The overall usage not allowed having effect on the environment or on human health. The grouping is based on the state, the place of origin, the type of the waste and the environmental risks of the waste generated. The waste can be liquid or solid. The gas phase waste management is more difficult, and not that important in the case of the environmental geology. The exception is the carbon dioxide if we see it as consequences of human activities. The carbon dioxide capture and storage topic is blooming. The storage can be an environmental geological task if we store it in a geological environment and not in the ocean (which is also a possibility). It is the most cost effective method beside other technologies. According to Metz et al. eds. (2005) representative estimates of the cost for storage in saline formations and disused oil and gas fields are typically between 0.5–8.0 US$/ tCO2 stored, the ocean storage is around 6-

16 US$/ tCO2 stored. The storage via mineral carbonation is the most expensive method

(50-100 US$/ tCO2). The basis of origin of a waste can be production or communal. The production waste is from the industry, agriculture, mining activity etc. Any of them can be hazardous or non- hazardous. In the recent days in Hungary the 75% of the waste is non-hazardous production waste, 18% sewage, 4% municipal solid waste and 3% production hazardous waste. The total EU average in 2006 (EC EU) is the following: production waste (construction 32.9%, mining and quarrying 25.1%, manufacturing excluding recycling 12.3% and agriculture 5.5%), households 7.3%, electricity, gas and water supply 6.6% and other 10.4%. EU waste management policy is based on a hierarchy of principles: the best being waste prevention, followed by re-use, recycling and other recovery, safely incineration, and disposal being the least favourable. There is a big difference among the EU members in

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS the rate of a waste treatment. The landfill rate can be 90% in Bulgaria and almost zero in Denmark and Belgium. The landfill has an important criterion that those cannot become a health and environmental hazards during the operation or after (Nagy 2002). The landfills can be placed in designated area which always needs a land-use (environmental license) permit. The landfill site selection of the geological, environmental, hydrogeological, water conservation, public health, land protection, regional development and 22 landscaping (for surface landfill) aspects have to be taken into account. The landfill site selection of the forbidden areas such as:  highly dangerous erosion, surface (mass) movement of hazardous areas;  karst or karst prone area, or in a place where contamination can enter the karst;  existing water resources and potential resources area;  flooded area;  near or in groundwater level;  nature and landscape protection area;  power transmission line protected area;  active or abandoned open pit mine or underground mine and the area where the mass movement has not been consolidated. The radioactive waste disposal and waste categories has a separate subsection (see later).

4.1. Vulnerable Objects

The soil, the water, the rocks, and the air are the main vulnerable objects in the Earth system. In the following subsection we try to give a short overview of these objects except of the air (pollution) because it is beyond this textbook. The most vulnerable object is the water because it can transport and dissolve the pollutant. The rocks can be contaminated, but the main problem is their porosity where the contaminant water can be stored or flow. The wider description of the rocks can be seen in later subsections. The soil and some sediment can have the same hydraulic conductivity therefore those cannot be ranked in that case. For example in the clayey soil the liquid phase flow slower than in pebbly sediment.

4.1.1. Groundwater

Groundwater is mostly derived from rainfall and partly from juvenile water and stored beneath the land surface during various times. The water is a renewable resource because of the hydrological

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS cycle, but the contamination can stay inside the cycle. The water supply distribution is as follows: surface water such as freshwater lakes 0.009%, saline lakes and inland seas 0.008% and stream channels 0.0001%. Subsurface: vadose water 0.005%, groundwater within a depth of 800 m 0.31% and deep lying groundwater 0.31%. Other locations: icecaps and glaciers 2.15%, atmosphere (at sea level) 0.001% and World Ocean 97.2%. The international groundwater term differs from the Hungarian. The water table is the top of the saturated zone. Groundwater move slower than the surface streams; the 23 velocity can be as slow as 10-12m/s and it is described by permeability. Different rocks have different permeability. Darcy’s law described the discharge of the water in the groundwater system. It says that the discharge of water in groundwater system equal to the product of the investigated area of flow, the coefficient of permeability and the hydraulic gradient. The only problem with the Darcy law is that the product of the cross- section area can differ place to place. The theoretical calculation is always overwritten by the experiment. The nature is too complicated to be able to describe with a single equation. But the Darcy’s law explains the basis process. The most common water supplies are the aquifers, among the most productive of which are porous (sand, gravel, sandstone and karst). The water extraction methods from wells are different from place to place. The water flows to the wells mainly by gravity, and with the pumping of water a cone of depression is created. In the well-known artesian type aquifer the hydrostatic pressure let the water into the well and flows out without pumping. The bigger amount of water withdrawal can lead to the water table shrinking and can cause land subsidence. The main interest is in the water quality even nowadays. It is influenced by dissolved materials, seawater and the pollution by the society and the industry. The waste can percolate into groundwater reservoir. The dissolved materials depend on the base rock and on the groundwater chemistry. There are two major problems: the water abundance and the lack of water. The drought is increasing throughout the Globe, because we need more water than ever before. The necessity or even usage is increasing day by day. The other problem is the water quality. The quality is affected by geological, hydrological and biological factors. Therefore the contamination ranges from physical integration from rocks (mainly from sediments) to the biological and chemical pollutants of organic wastes. Nowadays the water salvage and conservation are the main aims for the survival of the society. There are strategies that have been used and proposed to increase water availability (Weinberger 1966): recharge of used water into wells, scarification of the land surface, surface coating in arid regions, cloud seeding and the use of icebergs.

4.1.2. Soils

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In most of the places the surface is covered by regolith. If it consists of weathered material, water, air and organic matter it can described as a soil. The other important criterion is for soil that it has to support plant growth in some level. In a geotechnical (engineering) point of view the organic matter is a weakening factor. The volume ration of the soil components are the followings: minerals 40-45%, water 30-45%, air 5-20%, organic matter 5-8%. The main functions of the soil in environmental geology are the energy conversation, the climatic and erosion regulation and the matter (water, 24 pollutant) transport, storage and solution. The water, the wind, the ice and gravitation are the main destructive factors what can lead to a total annihilation of the soil. Each factor can make it by itself, but when those appear together the process is even faster. Under our climate the erosion by water and the wind erosion are the two main factors. The aerial water flow (in some case flash flood) will transport the soil when the daily amount of rain is higher than the water absorption capacity of the soil per day. The cause of the deflation (wind erosion) is the movement of the air (velocity, vortex and permanency). The structure, the grain size and composition, the organic matter content, the moisture and the plant coverage are the influencing factors. The soil genesis and devastation are in equilibrium in the natural environment. The human impact made a big influence, but only on the devastation of the soils, which is an irreversible process. The topsoil is the first layer if the contamination is from the air, or from the surface. In that case the pollutant can be in liquid, solid or in gaseous phase. The energy (e.g. solar) is also a limiting factor. The damaging factor in those cases possibly the poisoning, radiation (radioactive or solar), contamination and the degradation, what can affect the soil and its related groundwater. The society uses more than a million kinds of compounds that can affect the soil among other natural sources. But the possible contaminants are less than that. The most generally known contaminants have a concentration value (given in mg/kg or ppm, and μg/l in case of water) according to the 6/2009. (IV. 14.) KvvM-EüM-FVM Hungarian joint regulation. If the concentration values are above, that it generates health issues, disabilities or damages. The sources of soil (water, rock) contamination are uncountable. But the main sources are the landfills, the military areas, the industrial areas and the agricultural activity.

4.1.3. Geoheritage

The international literature shows that geoheritage, focused on geology and geomorphology, globally, is now important for natural resource management, land management, research, education, and tourism (Brocx 2007). Geoheritage in detail concentrate on the variety of minerals, rocks and fossils, and petrogenetic features that

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS indicate the origin and/or alteration of minerals, rocks and fossils. It also includes landforms and other geomorphological features that illustrate the effects of present and past effects of climate and Earth forces (McBriar 1995). Gellai and Baross (2005) as well as Kiss et al. (2007) give a detailed description of the Hungarian geoheritage history. At the beginning of the XIXth century only the soils and the forests owned protection. However later (Déchy 1912) constantly intensified the action to preserve the nature and the environment. Currently conservation values types 25 are distinguished (Figure 5) by law: minerals, mineral associations, fossils and natural cavities (caves). So the purpose of the geological conservation (geoheritage) is the protection of e.g. special areas and geological key sections, which has a scientifical, educational, cultural and aesthetics role. This includes natural exposures, drilling cores, key sections, caves or even special geomorphological shapes. The database of the Hungarian geological keysections can be found on the website of the Geological and Geophysical Institute of Hungary. To develop a map database, the best geological background was chosen. It is the Geological Map of Hungary on a scale of 1:200 000 (Gyalog and Budai 2007). All key sections include the database has the following properties: the code, the names, coordinates (in EOV – Unified National Projection – system), character (e.g. quarry, road cut, etc.) of the key section and stratigraphic position of the exposed formation (Chikán et al. 2012).

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Figure 5 Conservation value types

In the case of environmental geology we have to deal with geological key sections and drilling cores as they provide a basis for comparison and reference. The key sections can be important starting points for planning a research or for educational perspective. The nature or geological trails (e.g. at Gánt, Szarvaskő and Jakabhegy), the geological exhibition sites (e.g. Hegyestű and Csólyospálos) and the key sections (e.g. at Boda and at Kismórágy) are also open for the public. The former Magyar Állami Földtani Intézet/Geological Institute of Hungary (now Magyar Földtani és Geofizikai Intézet/Geological and Geophysical Institute of Hungary) produced most of the detailed descriptions of the key sections. The booklet of each keysections includes the detailed mineralogical, petrographic, paleontological descriptions, and

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS also the cross section and the coordinates. The key section of the Boda Claystone Formation (BCF) is important because the formation can be suitable to host hazardous (HLW) waste. Boda Claystone Key section, Near Boda [EOV 572 835; 81 822]

The key section can be found near Boda, north from the fishing lake. The last detailed 27 description was given by Konrád (1998). The 12 m thick section belongs to the upper part of the formation. The outcrop of the Boda Claystone is connected to the perianticlinal structure of the W-Mecsek Mountains. This anticline dips downward to the north and east, whereas it is eroded on the western side and tectonically displaced on the southern side. Flora and fauna that can be used for dating are missing in the formation. The dominant minerals of the formation are quartz, clay minerals, albite, carbonates and hematite. The main component of the section is the homogeneous brownish-red (silty)claystone, and whitish cross laminated siltstone (earlier described as dolomite). Desiccation cracks are common in a bundle of dolomite beds (Figure 6 C picture). The siltstone (dolomite) interbeds are cross or parallel laminated and have a little amount of albite (Figure 6 B picture). The outcrop is built up of four bundles each between 20-80 cm in thickness (Figure 6 A picture) and includes several siltstone laminae. The recognition of cycles in general is based on the alternating occurrence of four main lithofacies (sandstone, siltstone, claystone, dolomite (dolomicrite). From a cycle stratigraphical aspect, the whole formation can be subdivided into three units. These were defined on the basis of the occurrence of dolomite (now siltstone) and claystone in the outcrop, because siltstone and claystone are present all over.

Figure 6 Key section of the Boda Claystone Formation at Boda A: alternation of claystone and siltstone layers, B: cross stratified siltstone (earlier dolomite interbed), C: parallel laminated claystone and siltstone desiccation.

4.2. Solving the Contamination Issue by Using Raw Materials

The “industrial minerals” is a category that relies on the usage of the material (mineral) and not the source of a specific refined mineral. So the fuel mineral (oil) and the metallic mineral (source of metals) are not part of this category and therefore in this

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS textbook we do not deal with it. The main industrial minerals what can be used in on environmental issue are the clay, bentonite, calcium carbonate, diatomite, feldspar, industrial sand and talk. The building material is part of this group as well by its indirect usage. Building stones can be used without chemical changes, therefore they are environmental friendly materials. The main disadvantage is the cost of transportation, so local quarries are used whenever it is possible (zero demand distance). This economic consideration is similar 28 at crushed stones, sands and clays. Crushed stones are useful at replenishment and as a buffering agent.

4.2.1. Clays

The clays can be used in many ways and not just in environmental issues. But on the subject the clays may be either specific mineral: montmorillonite, kaolinite and illite or those sediments whose grains size is smaller than 0.002 mm. Clays generally formed by weathering and breakdown of a rock and the sedimentation or precipitation in aqueous environment. The most common source minerals from which the clay minerals form are feldspar and other silicate minerals. The phyllosilicate with layered structure is similar to micas. They are made up of aluminium and magnesium ions with silica and oxygen atoms linking the sheets. Two kinds of layering can be found in nature: one with two layers (kandite group) and one with three layers (smectite group). According to Tucker (1991) of all clay minerals the kaolinite, the montmorillonite (swelling clays), the illite and the chlorite are the most common. Kaolinite is the most common kandite group clay mineral and generally forms under warm and humid climate in the soil profiles. The acidic water leaches the bedrock (e.g. granite) to form kaolinite. In the smectite group the expandable or swelling clays are the most important what can absorb water within their structure. The expandable minerals are prominent in the case of a high level radioactive waste disposal. The potential host rock the Boda Claystone is partly consists of those minerals. It forms under arid climate. The other three-layer clay mineral is illite which is the most common mineral is sediments and related to mica group. It forms where the leaching is limited. The fourth most common clay mineral is the chlorite, which form under semi-arid and arid climate. The last three clay minerals form as a weathering product of volcanic rocks. The cohesive properties and the result of it cause the clay minerals in suspension to flocculate and forced to form into small aggregates. The usefulness of this property is that if the particles (with a contamination) once deposited the cohesion makes them resistant to mobilization in a flow. These small grain sediments need more specific techniques for identification and interpretation. The two most principal techniques are the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the X-ray

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS diffractometer (XRD).

4.2.2. Talc

Talc is one of the softest minerals. Talc is soft, water repellent and platy mineral. The talc is used in everyday life for agriculture, ceramics industry, paper, personal care and for wastewater treatment as well. Talc is a hydrated magnesium sheet silicate. The talc is hydrophobicity and inertness because the surface sheet does not contain hydroxyl 29 groups. Talc is mainly insoluble in water. The talc mineral can be divided into two major types: talc-carbonate and talc-chlorite. The second one is more hydrophillic and therefore it provides particular functions in the earlier mentioned industries. In agriculture industry talc is used as an anti-caking and an anti-stick coating agent. In personal care business talc is used as a body powder. The talc can help the biological wastewater treatment plants. The particles accelerate the sedimentation of the flocks. Talc is also useful to clean the sewage sludge what can be used as a fertilizer.

4.2.3. Asbestos

The asbestos once was the preferred building material because of it heat-resistant nature. It consist partly of fibrous mineral and partly of chrysotile, the mixed material is used in concrete, in fireproof equipment and cover and for sheet roofing. But in the last decades it has been linked to cancer, so the nowadays usage of it is very limited.

4.2.4. Industrial Sand

Industrial sand contains around 90% of (quartz) silica and little amount of feldspar and micas. The main environmental geological usage is in application in filtration systems. It can be used also for drinking water filtration and for the wastewater mechanical cleaning process. The well sorted (grain size) sand is needed for the effective filtering. The inert silica does not react with contaminants any of the acids, organic or solvents. The sand is also used around the well screen to expand the permeable zone and to filter the water at first. For the same reason the sand can be useable in oil and gas recovery issues.

4.2.5. Bentonite

The name bentonite (E588) originates from the tuff (Cretaceous) near Fort Benton, USA. The main component is the clay mineral montmorillonite. It can be a sodium bentonite or a calcium bentonite. Depending on their genesis it can contain quartz, feldspar, gypsum. The amount of those minerals affects the function of the industrial application. This specific clay is generated from a volcanic ash with the reaction of water. It has a strong colloidal

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS property that is why its volume increases when it contacts with water. The bentonite can be used in environmental remediation, drilling process, oil market, paper industry and in civil engineering and also a good material for cat littering. Bentonite is widely applicable because of its special swelling, absorption/adsorption viscosity and thixotropy properties. The bentonite can be exploited by quarrying at Egyházaskesző, Mátraszele, Pétervására and Mád. According to the measurement of the University of Miskolc the Egyházaskesző 30 and Pétervására bentonite contain more than 67% of Ca-montmorillonite and the Mátraszele bentonite has 40% Na-montmorillonite. The other elements are the kaolinite, quartz, feldspar and calcite, The adsorption and absorption nature are useful for wastewater purification. The bentonite is mixed with soil is a good impermeable layer that protect the groundwater from the contamination. In drilling the thixotropy property is useful. And also used as a drilling mud component for oil and water well drilling. Its role is to remove the drilled sediments in the case of rotary drilling processes. The bentonite is used as a clarification agent in oil, wine, beer and mineral water industry. It can remove the impurities from the liquid phase. The agricultural and other usage is not as important as the environmental industrial one in the case of environmental protection.

4.2.6. Zeolite

Natural zeolites are hydrated (microporous) aluminosilicates with well-defined structure. Most of the natural zeolites occur as minerals and mined many places around the globe. Synthetic zeolites are made commercially and also in widespread use in the industry and in the everyday life. The synthetic zeolites are more expensive because they need high energy-intense chemical processes. But the synthetic zeolites are created for specific purpose - they can have exact ion-exchange feature. The silica to aluminium ratio generally one to one, the natural one can be five to one. The unique porous nature makes the zeolites useful around the world. The major uses are in water purification because of the ion-exchange feature and in the separation of solvents. They often used as a molecular sieves (Figure 7). This feature does not let some molecule through the lattice and that is way it is good for purification of the sewage.

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Figure 7 Zeolite as a molecular sieve

The zeolites can be a catalyst in chemical processes for saving energy; they can remove air pollutants and removing heavy metals from soil or form groundwater. So the zeolite can absorb, hold, release and exchange ions and contaminant (toxins). The zeolite generally formed from the glass component of volcanic ash. This process occurs in hydrothermal medium whit the interaction of basaltic rock and saline environment. Zeolite can form where rhyolitic tuffs transformed into an alternative version of the zeolites. The main Hungarian occurrences are at Dunabogdány (Csódi-hegy), Zalahaláp, Badacsony and at Zemplén Mts. (Bodrogkeresztúr, Rátka, Mád).

4.2.7. Diatomite

Diatomite (diatomaceous earth) is sedimentary rock composed of diatoms which is a single-celled algae. Therefore the deposit built up from silica. As one diatom generation is replaced by another over millions of years, the skeletons began to deposit on the sea bed or on the bottom of lakes forming diatomite deposits. The continental (mainly lacustrine) deposits generally are of lower quality and contain lower resource because of the smaller area available. The diatomite sediments can be found in very few places such as USA, Germany, Czech Republic and Hungary. Due to the frequent widespread occurrence of the diatomite deposits together with volcanic deposits, there is a possibility of silica derived from volcanic ash may be needful for larger diatomite deposits. The overall structure of the diatomite (particles and network of the micro holes) is responsible for the properties of the mineral. The main properties are the low density, high porosity, high surface area, high absorptive capacity and the high silica content. Diatomaceous earth is dedicated to the purposes of filtration because of the honeycomb structure. Every kind of liquid phase can be filtered by diatomite: beer, wine, oil, drinking water, swimming pool water and any beverage. Due to high absorbent capacity and the high surface area it is a clean-up material for waste remediation industries.

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The main Hungarian occurrences are Erdőbénye (Tokaj Mts.), and Szurdokpüspöki (Mátra). Both are Miocene in age as has a lacustrine origin.

4.2.8. Alginite

Alginite is a sedimentary rock made of algae biomass (Botriococcus braunii) and decayed volcanic tuff. The algae biomass was altered under anaerobic condition, and deposited in a (basalt) volcanic crater ring. Because of the high organic content the alginite is a type 32 of an oil shale. The alginite generally has a high content (weight %) of humus (e.g. Pula 25 % and Gérce 10%), phosphorus (up to 0.6%), potassium (up to 1%) and magnesium (up to 1%). The mineral composition is the following: montmorillonite, illite, dolomite, calcite, gypsum, quartz and feldspar. For a one meter of alginite 15-20 thousands of years needed. The loose sand soil is upgradeable by alginite and become a good soil for plants after 4-6 years. For reclamation activities the alginite is excellent because its absorption nature. One kilogram of alginite is able to store around one litre of liquid (mainly water). It can be also used for water treatment. The main Hungarian occurrences are Pula, Gérce, Várkesző and Egyházaskesző.

4.2.9. Perlite

The perlite is generated frequently from the alteration of volcanic ash. The process is where felsic lava goes through a high water content sediments. The perlite usually contains water, which expands into steam on heating, producing a foamed structure. With the increasing heat the perlite expand to ten times porosity than the initial one. It means that if the original density is around 1100kg/m3 the expanded can as low as 30 to 150 kg/m3. The main features why the perlite is widely used in environmental remediation and in waste water filtration are the microporosity and the high surface area after heating. The most important extractive countries and mineral deposit owners are Greece, USA, Mexico, China, Turkey, Italy, Hungary (Pálháza). Pálháza located in north-east Hungary at the north part of the Tokaj Mts, which is the biggest in Hungary. The quarry is permanently under mining since 1959.

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5. Case Studies

5.1. Radioactive Waste Disposal

Nuclear power plants produce most of the radioactive wastes and produce half of the 33 electricity in Hungary (Paks Nuclear Power Plant). The country can enjoy the benefits of the nuclear power, but have to cope with its problems. One of them, maybe the biggest, is the disposal of radioactive wastes. In Hungary The Public Limited Company for Radioactive Waste Management (PURAM) has the deal with disposal questions. One part of the problem is the wastes which already exist, the other part is that accumulate from the decommissioning progress. Beside the site selection and exploration the public acceptance is also important part of the project. In 1998 the first major safety assessment was prepared within the framework of a PHARE project for the Üveghuta site. More scenarios were presented, the normal, which does not include any disturbing events. The other is the extreme scenario which includes climate change, unknown faults and partly unpredictable events etc. The different types of radioactive wastes are typically categorized by the level of radioactivity, and potential hazard. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) created a definitions describing for radioactive wastes. These terms are applied in most of the countries. The following descriptions of the specific terms are based on IAEA documentations: Short-lived and long-lived wastes: These terms refer to a given radioactive element’s half-life. Those with half-lives longer than approximately 30 years are generally considered long-lived. Low-level wastes (LLW): contain a negligible amount of long-lived radionuclides. In Hungary those are produced by peaceful nuclear activities in industry, medicine, research and by nuclear power operations. This kind of waste includes items such as small tools, gloves, clothes, paper, glass and filters. Most of them have been contaminated by radioactive material. Intermediate-level wastes (ILW): contain lower levels of radioactive and heat content than high-level wastes, but they must be shielded during transportation. Such wastes may include resins from reactor operations. Commercial engineering processes are being used to treat and immobilize these wastes. Disposal of LLW and ILW in surface or shallow burial is practiced widely. But in Hungary the underground geological repository is realized at Bátaapáti. High-level wastes (HLW): arise from the reprocessing of spent fuel from nuclear power reactors through which uranium and

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS plutonium can be recovered for re-use. These wastes contain transuranic elements and fission products that are highly radioactive, heat-generating and also long-lived. The HLW mainly liquid and spent fuel, the latest is not reprocessed in Hungary so it may be considered as high-level waste. Alpha-bearing wastes: These are transuranic, plutonium contaminated material, or alpha wastes. The wastes can be disposed of in a similar way of HLW. 34 It is important to mention the amount of radioactive waste compare to the industrial waste. The amount of the industrial waste in 2005 (European Commission) was two billion ton/year, the toxic waste was 40 000 m3/year and the High Level Radioactive waste was 240 m3/year. Two years earlier in Hungary (110/2002 XII. 12) the total amount of waste was 68 million ton/year, the radioactive waste was 465m3/year and the HLW was 5m3/year (PURAM). The location of the waste can be near the surface (LLW), subsurface (low and intermediate level waste LILW) and deep geological repository for HLW and spent fuel. Before the placement of the radioactive waste it has to be collected, selected, compacted, conditioned and stored. There are many ideas about the placement of the waste. Some of them are unrealistic (replacement in space, in ice sheets or in deep sea), some are down to earth like the geological repository. The unrealistic idea is to put a radioactive waste in the ocean is technically prohibited. But earlier in the sixties and seventies there were many supervised dumping of low- and intermediate level wastes into the ocean. The idea was that to dispose waste in areas of rapid sedimentation (it would be covered by sediment in a short amount of time) and in deep-ocean trenches (where a subduction pull the waste down to the Earth interior). The main problem with those that we cannot control the spreading of a waste; the retrievability and the monitorability is poor (Angino 1977). Both could have advantages as well, like great distance from the society and there is water for dilution. One of the proposals that burying radioactive waste into ice sheets (Greenland, Antarctica) might work. The idea is to place the container onto the ice surface and its melt it way down, and the whole would refroze and isolate the waste. The problem with that is the ice sheet itself, a dynamic feature that can respond radically even to a minor disturbance. The long-term deep geological disposal is a nationwide potential option for the isolation of the radioactive wastes from the geo- and biosphere during thousands of years (sometime hundreds of thousands of years). Many different types of host rocks were researched in Hungary from this side, granite and claystone. The salt domes can be a good hostrock for example in Germany (Morsleben) or in New- Mexico. But worldwide the claystone/mudstone (Hungary, France, Switzerland), the granite (Hungary, Canada, Finland, Japan, Korea, Sweden etc.) and in some places the ignimbrite (Yuca Mountain

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USA) and the tonalite (Finland) are the main hostrocks. Though the (plastic)clay is the most suitable formation to place the radioactive wastes. The clayey host rocks show some advantages; the significant capacity for sorption and ion exchange. Two types of barriers used to mention when talking about (deep) geological disposal, the engineered and the geological one. The first one usually built up of another two, the direct capsulation with a backfill material (bentonite) and the concrete cover of a tunnel or shaft. The geological barrier supposes to active itself when the engineered barrier 35 loses the ability of protection after a long period. Those two barriers will protect the nature and the society from the long half-life isotopes.

5.1.1. Disposal of Low and Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste (Ófalu; Bátaapáti, Mórágy Granite)

In the late 1980’s the first attempts were made to find the best place for the Low- and Intermediate Level Waste (LILW) but it stopped because of the public rejection. The new site selection for the underground disposal of LILW started with the overall screening of the country in 1993 (Balla 2004). After four years of screening the Bátaapáti (Üveghuta) site and the Palaeozoic Mórágy Granite Formation was selected for the final disposal. The research area geographically belongs to the Geresd Hill and geologically to the Mórágy Block. In this project beside the technical and geological factors the public relation and communication was a big part of this process. In 2005 after the surface investigation a local referendum was held in the village of Bátaapáti what accepted the idea to have the LILW site and then in late 2005 the national Parliament voted for it positively. To have the civil support, four Public Information Associations were established at the beginning of the projects and the “Local Public Control and Information Association” (TEIT) is one of them specifically for the repository at Bátaapáti was founded in 1997. The estimated amount of operational radioactive LILW from Paks NPP is about 18 000 m3, this amount does not include the waste from the dismantling of the Paks NPP. The surface investigation (boreholes, trenches, monitoring) started in 1997 and in 2003 the Hungarian Geological Service dedicated that the Bátaapáti area is suitable to host the LILW in the Mórágy Granite Formation. The last period of the ground based investigation showed that further underground investigation was needed. The site was vertically divided into two levels: the top what is 60 m above sea level and have at least 100 m of unweathered granite and the bottom which is 20 m below sea level. In 2005 the underground research started with the implementation of two parallel inclined tunnels. The research program ended when the two tunnels reached the level of the planned disposal chamber. During that period numerous test were carried out such as geophysical measurement and rock mechanic tests.

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The detailed description of the investigation and the Mórágy Block is covered by hundreds of thousands manuscript and smaller number of research paper. The final interpretation and the summary of the ground-based research were published in 2004 in the “Annual Report of the Geological Institute of Hungary, 2003”. It covers the entire topic related to the site selection. The underground research results were published also in countless manuscript and in some research papers. And also one of the results of the investigation is the “Geology of the North-eastern part of the Mórágy Block” geological 36 map and its explanation. The Palaeozoic Mórágy Granite Formation is composed of mainly granitic rocks. It was formed by the mixing of felsic and mafic magmas. Therefore three main rock groups can be divided in the Formation: granitoids, mafic enclaves and leucocratic dykes. The evidence of the mixing is the type of contacts among the rock types and the similar mineral composition of them. The crystallization was followed by a greenschist metamorphic facies (Király and Koroknai 2004). During the underground investigation the three main rock group were separated to more than ten subcategories. The Mórágy Block has a dense network of veins and faults variable in size and orientation. During the underground research more than 30 000 tectonic objects were documented. The mineral composition of the veins as follows: quartz, K-feldspar and epidot veins are impermeable; argillaceous veins are increase the permeability of the fissures, but can retard the radioactive elements and the carbonate veins are the most permeable of the three types. The granite as a host rock was found almost impermeable so the water migration is only possible through the factures. To avoid the water migration through the fractures a safety distance had to be applied. In the hydrogeological point of view the area have very low conductivity zones. The sealing zones divide the separate hydrogeological blocks around the site. Those blocks have no connection with each other in hydraulically meaning. The only possible connection route is through the weathered granite what can be found near the surface. But this does not make the area unsuitable for the repository because the blocks are behaving like basins, which have outflow only on their top (Nős et al. 2012). According to the information from PURAM in 2008 the surface part of the National Radioactive Waste Repository (NRWR) in Bátaapáti started to operate normally. From the date of opening of surface buildings 3000 drums with the content of low and intermediate level radioactive wastes were delivered to the Technical Building. And in 2012 the underground part of the NRWR was carried out. With this moment the final disposal of low and intermediate level radioactive wastes started. During the implementation of the repository two parallel tunnels, each with length of 1700 m were excavated parallel, at distance of 25 m from each other. The length of K-1 chamber is 90 metres and its

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS depth from the surface is about 250 metres. In the K-1 chamber 510 concrete containers can be disposed, that means about 4600 drums with radioactive wastes. In 2014 the excavation of the next two chambers has started.

5.1.2. Disposal of High Level Radioactive Waste (W-Mecsek, Boda Claystone)

The staff of the Department of Geology of the University of Pécs is involved not only in the research and the interpretation of the results but also in directing and supervising 37 the research, beside the respective prime contractor. The research is carrying out by uncountable researchers. The short presentation (after Konrád and Hámos 2006; Halász et al. 2010) is only an outline of the geological research. For the detailed information of the results see the short term and the mid-term research project carried out by the Mecsekérc Company financed by the Hungarian Public Agency for Radioactive Waste Management (PURAM). The short term project ended in 1998 and an eight-volume report were published. Before it the geological environment was investigated by the exploratory tunnel (Alfa-tunnel, URL) from 1994 to 1999. The 5-year-long (2003-2008) mid-term research project was also carried out by Mecsekérc Ltd, but it was not completed due to financial problems. The next research project will start in 2014 and will cover several boreholes, trench, geophysics investigation etc. In Hungary, high-level radioactive waste is produced by the Paks Nuclear Power Plant. During its operation, spent fuel is deposited into an interim storage facility. After the decommissioning of the nuclear power plant expected to happen between the years 2025-2030, the reactor itself and its immediate surroundings will also be classified as high-level waste (>5×108 kBq/kg, or 2 kW/m3 radioactive energy production). For the safe deposition of the waste, a geological environment is needed that can prevent the dispersal of radioactive elements in case of a failure of the insulation materials. A country-wide screening (BIT Ltd by Kovács and Haas 2000) found the Upper Permian, 800-1000 m thick Boda Claystone Formation (W Mecsek Mts.) the most suitable to host the radioactive waste. To assess suitability, examinations were carried out as early as the beginning of the 1990s. The intensive study of the area started in 1995 and included geological mapping, drilling and in situ examinations in a shaft excavated from the uranium ore mine. (Because of the closure of the ore mine the shaft has become inaccessible.) The results available so far show that the Boda Claystone occurs in three tectonic units of the Western Mecsek Mts. It is the recent phase of the research that should determine which of the three blocks should host the underground research laboratory. Suitability of the formation and the geological environment can be assessed after the underground in situ measurements. If the formation is found to be suitable, then the construction of the final disposal facility can be expected to happen around the middle of the century, approximately 500 metres below the surface.

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The most important aspects of evaluating the formation are geometry/extension, water transmissivity, homogeneity and seismic activity (Konrád, Hámos 2006). The evaluation of the Boda Claystone Formation as a host rock was carried by BIT Ltd by Kovács and by Haas, (2000). They created a list of consideration (categorized to quantitative or qualitative type) and weight them in a 1 to 5 scale. Under the consideration of the geometrical suitability of the formation five different categories were divided. The most important by weight is the thickness of the formation with 38 suitable horizontal area in the investigated depth range. The next is the primary confinement performance of the formation and its geological environment. In that 17 subcategory were created such as: the complexity of potential host rock and its geological environment; average permeability of the main rock; Influence of recent stress regime on the self-sealing processes and recent Eh of primary porewater. The secondary confinement performance of the formation topic has 12 subcategory for example: occurrence and incidences of non-recultivated boreholes and other underground structures and their effect on the target zone; radiation and thermal stability of host rock in the neighbourhood of HLW/SF; stability of host rock as a geological barrier against the geochemical and anthropogenic effects caused by mining (solubility, influences of hypersalinity, tolerance for acids and alkalines, etc). The long- term stability of the formation and its geological environment is fully a qualitative factor. It contains the evaluation of temporal variability of hydrogeology in geological past; deal with the evaluation of seismicity; the probability of the re-activation of the faults and the probable geodynamic event. The other is more about the engineering and geotechnical side of the investigation, and partly about a social, political and economic effect of the programme. The last one which partly belongs to geology is the environmental effects of the site-characterisation programme and the possible establishment of repository. It includes the possible influence of research and the establishment of the repository on the protected geological-, natural environment; the possible influences on environmental protection of the operating surface facilities and the possible influence of pollution of subsurface waters on the operation of repository. Fedor et al (2009) present the new conceptual model in the Boda HLW/SF project and describe seven different barriers (Figure 8). Every barrier has specific, scale-dependent (e.g. fractured porosity, mineralogical inhomogeneity) and general properties (e.g. geotechnical, hydrodynamic etc. characteristics).

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Figure 8 The new conceptual model of BCF Project after Fedor et al. 2009.

The high thickness (1000 m) and the mineralogical and lithological homogeneity are favourable characteristics. The joints are closed and most commonly filled with calcite. The presence of swelling clay minerals results in a natural self-sealing capability of the joints. The formation is suitable to store hazardous waste also because of the high isotope adsorption capacity of its clay minerals (Hámos et al. 1996, Varga et al. 2005). The Boda Claystone Formation was deposited in a subsiding basin on the southern margin of the Permian Europe. It is underlain by an extensive rhyolitic volcanic succession (Gyűrűfű Rhyolite) that indicates continental rifting. The intramontane basin with playa lakes developed under arid climatic conditions. The major part of the formation is built up of sediments deposited in a playa mudflat, with intercalations of lacustrine and fluvial origin. The source rocks were granite and rhyolite. The oxidation state of iron, the desiccation cracks, the occurrence of analcime and its diagenetic form albite all reflect an arid depositional environment. The cycles of the sequence were controlled by climatic changes. Due to burial (4-6 km), the sediment turned into claystone (silty claystone, clayey siltstone, albitic claystone, albitolite). The claystone body was affected by the Cretaceous and Neogene orogenic movements and became tectonised to various extents (Konrád et al. 2010). Since the formation is located in the shear zone of a large-scale flower structure, tectonic activity is crucial in assessing suitability. During the Quaternary and – according to the GPS measurements (Grenerczy, Gy) and the in situ stress measurements (Kovács, L.)

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– up to today, the area is under compression and being uplifted. The investigation of the Late Miocene to Pleistocene sediments indicated that fault activity in the past few million years has only been present along the mountain fronts, while the block between the MDZ and the HMZ is slowly being uplifted as one body (Konrád, Hámos 2006).

5.2. Reclamation and Contaminated Land Site Investigation

Based on a general rule of environmental protection (1995. évi LIII.) from 1996 the 40 National Environmental Program started. Under the current legalisation the reclamation investment projects has three different phases in Hungary. The first is fact-finding in which the spatial containment of contamination, the pollutant type, the quantity and the achieved limit has to be identified. After that the suitable remediation technology has to plane. The technical intervention is the next step, which cover the whole remediation project. The last one is the monitoring. The monitoring starts before the remediation and ends at least four years later. The aim of the reclamation is to improve the disturbed land (soil, vegetation, water) and to achieve their capability equivalent to the predisturbed condition. The remediation is the process of removing, reducing or neutralizing industrial soil, sediment and water contaminants that threaten human health and/or ecosystem productivity and integrity. Usually the site characterisation is the first step of the reclamation and/or the remediation process. It includes the current overview of the field activities, the identification of potential sources of pollution and other data such as current production, production history and former sources of pollution. Also include the knowledge of the company production strategy and the allocation of their budget in the case of hazard.  Analysis of archival data, including information obtained from the local workers;  Disclosure of pollution and the definition of vertical and horizontal extension;  Environmental geological features;  The pollutants and the physical and chemical characteristics of the site;  Interpretation of the geological environment and human health risk, taking into account of the land use, routes and exposure limits;  Possibility of spreading of contamination;  Selection of the remediation technology and recommendation for the remediation limits. For the most suitable remediation techniques (best available technology BAT) we have to determine the phase of the contaminant. It can be solid, gaseous, liquid and vapour phase. In the case of a contaminated soil or water (for example at the Former

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS briquette factory at Nagymányok area) more remediation technology is applicable. The two basic technologies are the ex-situ (off-site) and the in-situ (on-site) treatments. The off-site handling starts with an extraction and disposal of a contaminated soil or water. In the case of a soil it can be a soil washing procedure followed by a treatment of waste water. The microbiological and enzymatic treatments are also frequent. In the case of contaminated water the pollution resupply has to be prevented. The physical isolation can be a possibility but with the funnel and gate system we have a better solution. To 41 clean the contaminated groundwater or soil, reactive barriers have to be used to treat the contamination. It is a passive remediation method (Figure 9) which contains a wall (funnel) and the contaminated water flows through the high conductivity gaps (the gates). The non-permeable wall lead the contaminated groundwater to the gate which is permeable and the gate may contains zeolite, active carbon or iron granules. The funnel can be made of sheeting, concrete, clay or bentonite. The shape of the funnel can be U-, V-shaped, linear, or circular.

Figure 9 Remediation technology of the Funnel and Gate system

The other worldwide know remediation technology is the pump-and-treat system (Figure 10). Basically it involves pumping water to the surface for further treatment. In a wider sense where the withdrawal from or injection into the subsurface is part of a remediation usually called pump-and-treat system.

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Figure 10 Pump and Treat remediation system (eurssem.eu)

5.2.1. Water and Soil Contamination Caused by Industrial Activities (Nagymányok area)

The case study was carried out in 2013, and the following description is based on my and my college’s work. The project was supported by the Nagymányok City Council, the Ocean Optic and by the University of Pécs. The case study is focused on environmental assessments of impacts by former briquette factory at the Nagymányok area in South Hungary. The (former) industrial zone is located in a northern valley of the East Mecsek Mountains. Until the 1990s this company was the largest briquette factory in Hungary, where the coal powder was cemented by bitumen. Until today, the demolition works are is still incomplete, the remnants of a demolished buildings (bricks and concrete fragments) and non-demolished concretes are left lying around the area. Former investigations concluded that the area is highly contaminated by TPHs (Total Petrol Hydrocarbons) and PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic

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Hydrocarbons), but this conclusion based on only four samples. Our sampling sites were selected on the basis of the source of the contaminations and then we covered the whole area in equal distribution. The samples were analysed for TPHs, PAHs and for heavy metals. The area was heavily contaminated by TPHs and moderately heavy metals (such as Cu, Cr, Co and Pb). Highest contaminant concentrations were found around the former industrial buildings, especially between the boiler-house and the coal-pillbox. In the industrial area the mean 43 of the detected values is below the upper limit of the legal exposure values, but among the former industrial buildings higher (e.g. toxic level) concentration values were detected in multiple samples. Concentration values that do not generate health issues, disabilities or damage according to the 6/2009. (IV. 14.) KvvM-EüM-FVM Hungarian joint regulation. The Eastern Mecsek region was described by many authors (Nagy 1971, Némedi Varga 1987 and Somos 1965). Their works were focused mainly on the geological description of the area. Until today no one dealt with the environmental risk resulting from the area without treatment. Therefore the Nagymányok area represents the potential source of contaminations because of the non-rehabilitated abandoned buildings and the living stream flowing through the industrial zone. The contamination can migrate into the water and will accumulate in the sediments and mainly in the soil. For analytical purposes the majority of the collected soil samples (A1-A6, B1-B6, C1-C6, D1-D6, E1-E6, F1-F6) were obtained from the surface (10-30 cm). Additional three test pits (to a maximum depth of 100 cm; BC4, D5, X1) were dug by an excavator. The location of the samples and the test pits were influenced by the extension of the concrete-covered surfaces; consequently the regular net-pattern sampling system was impractical and non-feasible. A small creek flow across the contaminated area through the covered canal two sludge samples (Phf, Pha) were collected, from both side (inflow, outflow). The gas chromatographic results clearly indicate that the whole studied area is contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons (Figure 11). Heavier hydrocarbon type contamination has been proved in the majority of samples, and some cases diesel oil type contamination has also been found. Contamination types detected by the Raman Spectroscopy results corroborate our findings obtained by the GC-MS analytical technique. The Raman shift evaluation based on “fingerprint” characterization where the known PHCs sources were compared with a results of the polluted samples. However, in some cases, significant differences were observed between the results of the two analytical techniques. This is likely explained by the local analyses of the Raman Spectroscopy, as in this case the laser beam of the spectroscope induces and collects information from the solid and extracted (liquid) phases of the samples. Using rapid methods give the possibilities for a collect and evaluate amount of samples,

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS which characterize the spatial distribution of the contaminated area.

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Figure 11 TPH contamination of the former briquette factory

Risk Assessments are the followings:  Emission: the area of the mazut tank and pump station has a continuous pollution supply.

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 Characteristic transport processes: biological availability/accessibility, groundwater leakage, overland flow, transportation and relocation of soil particles.  Direct exposal routes: direct contact with skin due to precipitation or groundwater, direct contaminant intake by dust particles due to swallowing.

 Prevailing wind direction: The effect of the dusting is reduced by the prevailing 45 SW-wind direction. However the settlement is directly bordered by the contaminated area to the NE.  Land use: well-secured, partly closed former industrial area, transit is allowed towards a vineyard district.  Primary contaminant: Hydrocarbons, primarily mazut.  Secondary contaminants: heavy metals.

5.2.2. Reclamation of the Former Uranium Ore Mining Sites

The uranium ore mining and the processing of the leaching took place from 1955 to 1997 in the Mecsek Mountain (South Hungary) near Pécs. The final report of the uranium ore mining was finished in 2000 by Barabás and Konrád. After 1997 the Hungarian Government decided to close the mine because of economic reasons. The other aim was to carry out a site remediation to ensure long term environmental protection. The remediation had to be done at the mined areas and also around and on the heaps. The remediation programme started right after the closure and still under process. The planning and the large scale remediation were carried out by the Mecsek- Öko Zrt (Division of Radiation 2010), and from 2014 the PURAM is the implementer and the owner because of the merge with the Mecsek-Öko Zrt. The whole project is owned and financed by the Hungarian Government. The first phase took place from 1998 to 2008 which included the closure and the start of the site remediation near Pécs. During the remediation several hundred thousand tonnes of contaminated soil were removed from several places. Those sites were the tailings ponds, the waste rock piles and the abandoned working places. The end of the large scale remediation was in the year of 2008 when the groundwater remediation, the environmental monitoring and the maintenance of the engineered disposal systems was done. However the programme and the monitoring have to continue for several years. According to MECSEK-ÖKO, the objectives of mine closure were the protection of the ground water, minimization of radon exhalation, reduction of the risks of surface subsidence and elimination of the hazards associated with unprotected mine openings at the surface. The closure of mines included some steps for safe withdrawal from the tunnels and shafts ensuring the safe flooding of the underground mine. For example, removal of

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS contaminated rocks and materials (trucks, cars) and backfill them into the shafts, and then landscaping the area. During the years of mining almost 50 million tonnes of rock were excavated and 26 million tonnes of them of low to higher-grade ore were processed. Two types of ore processing were used: alkaline heap leaching for the low-grade ore and conventional mill acid leaching for the higher-grade ore. The mining site was close to the drinking water aquifer of Pécs and the nearby settlements called Pellérd and Tortyogó. Now the 46 PURAM (earlier Mecsek-Öko Zrt.) is responsible for restoring the environment after the uranium ore mining. The remediation included among many others the clean-up of the contaminated soil, the groundwater and the heap-leaching site remediation, the closure of tailing ponds and waste rock piles. During the remediation different kind of problem occurred. The company has to face with the contaminated water from the mine, the waste rock pilles, the heap leach pads and with the tailing ponds. The mine water treatment plant at Kővágószőlős is treating the water from the mine. In late 2014 the water level will reach its licensed level if the recharge of the mine water will remains the same as it was in the past. The pumping of the water from the mine will last almost forever, because of the protection of Pellérd and Tortyogó water catchment areas. The waste rock pille number three is the main one (located near Kővágószőlős) and containing mine waste and also the storage location for material from the heap leach pads. The sludge from the water treatment plant is disposed on the top of the waste rock pille. In addition to the top the rest of the pille was rehabilitated. And also the other pilles were rehabilitated during the remediation project. Near to the former mine (number I) site and next to the ore processing plant heap leaching was performed. Two heap leaching site can be found in almost 50 ha area. The bottom of the pads was covered by double plastic liner to protect the soil from the contaminated water. The heap leaching process involved crushing low-grade ore and rejects from the radiometric sorting stage to smaller than 30 mm, placing the material on the pad and applying a leaching agent that percolated through the material and collecting the leachate at the bottom of the heap. The leaching agent consisted of a sodium carbonate and bicarbonate solution. Uranium was recovered from the collected leachate by an anion-exchange process at site. The barren solution was returned to the top of the piles. The anion-exchange resin was taken to the mill where regenerate was processed for the production of yellowcake. The reclamation concept for the heap leach piles foresaw the washing of the leached material with mine water and treatment of the water for removal of uranium, relocation of the leached material to an extension of Waste Rock Pile No. 3, removing the liner and finally placing inert top soil on the

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS former pad area (Bánik et al. 2011). One of the greatest tasks after the closure of the uranium ore mining was the reclamation of the tailing ponds. Half of the costs were spent on that project. Almost 20 million tonnes of chemically treated residue in the form of slurry containing water with a high salt content, stored in two tailings ponds with a total area of 165 ha. According to the IAEA publications the important steps in the reclamation of the tailings 47 ponds area are the followings:  discharge of the stored free water;  establishment of morphology with relocation suitable for regulated collection of precipitation water;  construction of belt ditch and drainage channel system;  construction of special multilayer (sandwich-structure) covering layer, to reduce the emission of radon gas and the infiltration of precipitation water;  establishment and operation of an active water restoration system for decontaminating the territory around the tailing ponds area polluted by 40 years of leakage of highly polluted tailings water, in order to ensure the safety of the surrounding drinking water aquifer. A water quality restoration facility is operated on the site because the groundwater is contaminated around the tailing ponds. To protect the water catchment areas (Pellérd and Tortyogó) many drainage and water extracting wells operating around the ponds permanently.

5.2.3. Reclamation of the Former Coal Mining Sites

Many areas of the Mecsek Mountain are affected by the remains of the former coal mining. The Mecsek region contains the only black coal source of Hungary with the “Lias” age. The deposit reaches the greatest thickness near Pécs with the total of 1200 m. But it divided into many coal seams by marly sandstones layers (Némedi Varga, 1998). Coal mining has a long history back to the 18th century when a small scale surface excavation took place. A hundred years later under the „Első cs. kir. szab. Dunagőzhajózási Társaság (DGT)” supervision a larger scale mining started. In the late 20th century economic and political reason leads to the closure both the underground and surface mining (owned by the Mecsek Coal-Mining Company). Nowadays the Pannon Power Company tries to deal with the rehabilitation and the reclamation. In recent years two companies are trying to start to use the coal by different technologies. The Calamites Kft. just opened an old abandoned mining place but closed soon after the opening. The Wildehorse Energy most advanced project is the Mecsek Hills

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(Underground Coal Gasification) UCG. Their aims to produce synthetic gas (syngas) through the partial in-situ combustion of coal, a valuable fuel gas that will be fed into a power plant to produce electricity (Wildhorse Energy). During the mining activity different type of contaminations, landscape changes and hydrological problems occurred. In the late 50’s contaminated air (by sulphur-dioxide) were recognized and later the deep excavation caused surface subsidence. The largest subsidence had a maximum surface level drop of 27 m (Balázs and Kraft 1998). During 48 the underground mining (both coal and uranium) activity lowered the groundwater table, and it caused many springs to dry. After the closure of all shafts, the water table started to recover. Nowadays the Pannon Power Company is about to recultivate the areas concerned after the mining activity. The main problems are the financial background. Under a government decree the majority of the financial resources necessary for the land rehabilitation of all surfaces and underground mine shall be ensured by the state. In the northern area of Pécs and the range of Misina made up of Lower Jurassic clastic sediments with black coal seams (Mecsek Coal Formation). The coal bearing layers were deposited in fluvial, deltaic and coastal swamp environments. Fossils are represented by many plants remains and gastropods, but the main fossils are the Komlosaurus reptile footprints. The black coal was mined for more than 200 years and one of the biggest open pit mines is the Karolina Pit. The mining began in 1968 and closed in 2004. The pit is cover around of 120 hectare with the length of 1200 m, width 600 m and depth ca 115 m. The left open pit mine supposed to be the base for land rehabilitation and the owner prepared land rehabilitation plans which will include (in the unknown future) the landscape rehabilitation with the backfill of the pit with the barren rock extracted during the mining period. The surface to be formed in this way will receive a 40-centimeter topsoil and grass will be grown in the entire surface followed by afforestation in an area of almost 65 hectares. In fact the reality today is much worse. The today man-made landscape has some alien properties (Lóczy et al 2007) which can lead to the auto compaction of the spoil heaps. The rising of the groundwater level may lead to slope instability and slumping. During rainy years the water table in the pond can rise above 140 m altitude and it flow into the nearest water-course. The water has high sulphur and dissolved salt content which are above the permitted limits. Deep subsurface mining had four sites: Zobák Central Shaft, Diagonal Air Shaft, Béta Shaft and the coal preparation plant in the area of Altáró. According to Pannon Power the Komló-Zobák Shaft closure started in 1999 by collecting and transporting the pollutants to the surface. A year later the subsurface mining areas closure took place,

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS followed by infilling and capping the mining areas open to the surface. The next step was the infilling the Central transport and air shaft of Zobák. The final reclamation of the spoil banks of the Zobák and Béta Shafts was performed by levelling the surface of the lands by eliminating level differences, flattening steep slopes, afforestation and grass growing to harmonize with the landscape. Carrying out our long-term obligations, for the evaluation of the effects of the mine closure on the environment a water monitoring and a movement monitoring system was setting up. As part of the water monitoring 49 system 6 new boreholes were drilled beside the 2 existing ones. Until today there were only 5 events when the owner had to refill due to subsidence of the infill material. The Vasas open pit mine is also owned by the Pannonpower Company where the excavation started in 1983 and finished in 2004. During the mining the owner created the environmental impact assessments plan for the closure and for the reclamation for the Vasas North open pit mine. The technical operating plan was also created for the closure and for the reclamation, but it did not take place until today. The plan was made for the 2005-2012 period. It includes the plan for the replenishment to the 270 mBf level. The abandoned coal pit reached the 200 m depth (from the former surface) during the operation. The pit can be replenished by using the rock material of the “South” mining dump”. According to the calculation of the owner it means almost nine millions cubic meter material. The landscape has to meet with almost the original one, which is 270 mBf because of the Vasas-Belvárd stream, what is collecting the rainwater. In 2011 the Pannon Hőerőmű Zrt. had the licence for reopening the pit, but it is still under process. In the case of the operation the company has to follow some requirements according to the regional National Inspectorate for Environment, Nature and Water decree (198-54/2011). This decree says that during the operation the best available technology (BAT) has to be used. Also some requirements for the water-, air conservation and also for the noise and vibration control. The monitoring for dust, water, air and for the plants has to be made during and after the mining operation. This permit is valid for five years; if the owner does not start the process the permit will be repealed. The effects of UCG at Mecsek (Wildhorse UCG) According the historical and newly gathered information of the Mecsek Coal Formation, the effects of a possible UCG combustion would be rather low. The stratigraphic setting of the formation is very fortunate. The aquitard coal formation is covered by 100-1000 meter thick (depends on the location) “covering marl” and “covering sandstone” formation with rather low permeability. The distance and the characteristic of the covering layers help to decrease all the underneath effects.

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The chemical effects considered low due to the far lying water aquifers and the also low porosity fault infill materials. According the latest leak-off pressure test results the whole formation can be considered as aquitard, decreasing the risk of a possible contamination to low. The radius of the possible thermal effects is assumed to low, due to the low water content of the formation that would help to carry the heat. The low permeability of the formation also decreases the possible thermal effect radius. 50 According to the old mining experiences in the region, mining under 500 meters below surface does not have any surface effect in time. If the future UCG cavities would lie under this depth we can expect zero surface subsidence. If the future exposures would touch the coal above this depth we might expect some surface movement, so these workings can only be carried out after a detailed investigation. According to the above information the mechanical effects considered low if the depth of the combustion is 500 meter or more. If the combustion is closer to the surface then the mechanical effect would be moderate to high depending on the depth.

5.2.4. Case Study at Garé Former Waste Disposal Site

Garé has a bad reputation in Baranya County because of the former hazardous waste landfill and the not completed incinerator. There are many research reports and environmental impact studies tried to deal with the problems of the landfill area. Each presented a different result about the raison d'être of the landfill, the amount of contamination and about the suitability of the incinerator. The debate between the bureau and the locals has been dragging on for years, and still not finished. It shows that before a bigger investment a wide range of research is needed from more ways than one. The investment report should contain a complex geological-geomorphological, the economical and the social geographical evaluation of the territory. The negative impact of hazardous waste landfill has a direct feat on the environment and the society. Therefore a wider and a closer research are needed before a landfill site selection. Instead of the historical presentation of the area – which is well-known because of the huge press coverage – we would like to present the geological background after Konrád and Barabás which has less publicity. The media covered the whole process from planning during the licensing until the reclamation. The site is located between the Mecsek and the Villány Mountain (Baranya hills) among Garé, Bosta and Szalánta village on the comb with an erosional valley surrounded. The Upper Carboniferous succession (sandstone, conglomerate, anthracite and sericiteslate) is the oldest known formation of the area. The Upper Carboniferous rocks are covered by almost 250 meter of Upper Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments. The 100-300 m thick Upper Miocene (Pannonian) sediments are built up of clay, clayey marl and

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS sandstone. Above those two to five metres of lower Pliocene red claystone appears. At the beginning of the Quaternary under semiarid and semi humid climate the weathering and aerial erosion took place. Later the cooler climate drove the geomorphological processes. Nowadays the higher elevated places covered by loess sediment. The first impermeable layer is the Pliocene variegated clay and red clay, and also important the paleosol strata which divided the loess succession. When it brakes, the water can flow through and a periodic spring will form. 51 The loess has a k=10-4 and 10-5 m/s transmissibility and the loamy soil has around k=10- 6 and 10-7 m/s. The Pannonian sediments have the lowest filtration coefficient around k=10-7 and 10-8 m/s. But this cannot be an impermeable level, because of the complex structure of the succession (the sandstone layers are the weaknesses). Three kinds of waters can be dividing in the area: Pleistocene artesian, subsurface groundwater in loess sediment and contaminated groundwater. The artesian water is drinkable according to the regulation but the groundwater is contaminated partly by the landfill and partly by agricultural and by social activities. But the main contaminator is from the landfill. The monitoring wells are working since the beginning of the project but the monitoring itself was poorly constructed. The contamination rate was higher and higher year by year, and also the newly drilled wells reached the contaminated groundwater. The interesting part is that during a rainy period more contamination was detectable in the wells and in the springs. It means that the isolation from the geological environment was not well constructed. Also, the geological environment was not suitable for that kind of hazardous landfill. At the end of the revision (Konrád and Barabás) it turned out that the area was not suitable even for a temporary landfill because of the not well organized research. There was no hydrogeological monitoring about the water level in the wells. The water quality and the water level measurement should be done together; it does not happened here before. Finally all the waste was removed from the area by 2001, but the contaminated soil and sediments still there. The cleaning of the groundwater is still under process with good results.

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6. Applied Methods in Environmental Geology

South-Hungary provides a wide range of highly relevant environmental and geotechnical case studies. These include site visits to the LILW site at Báatapáti, TPHs contamination 52 from abandoned mines and active landslides in the Danube Valleys near Dunaszekcső. Field work includes surveying skills, rock engineering to the Bátaapáti LILW tunnel, site investigation visits Nagymányok, former briquette factory, as well as contaminated land studies at abandoned quarries. After the fieldwork, and sampling the researchers or technicians are also involved in laboratory work covering several methods. This includes standard laboratory tests covering the physical and mechanical properties of samples. The aim is the experiments to learn hydrogeological concepts. Basic laboratory test includes pH, grain size analysis, TPHs tests. For the essential investigation you will need an excellent geochemistry, analytical and IT laboratories and also a wide range of and GPS based field surveying equipment’s and maybe geophysical equipment’s as well. Application software in the IT laboratories such as ArcGIS, ACAD, CorelDraw, Surfer, Rockworks as well as other professional software is all important during the projects. For ground investigation you should possess advanced knowledge of ground investigation invasive techniques, some basic geophysical methods, sampling methods and in-situ tests. One project includes the following activities: preparatory work, collecting archive maps, literatures and archive cores. After a desk-top study the field work is the next step. It starts with a walk over survey, detailed investigation, borehole drilling, exploratory trench digging, geophysical measuring, and sampling. After a field work and sampling some laboratory work is needed, such as grain size analysis, petrography, XRD, XRD etc. When once all the information is collected the map drawing and report writing succeed. The final task is to publish the results for a wider audience. Scientific study needs some basic knowledge of calculation to understand how the Earth system operates. Those techniques can be quite sophisticated but many of them are useful in day-to-day activities. In measuring features on the maps or on the field (e.g. depth of a borehole) we obtain a quantity and units. The standards we use in most of the countries are the SI system. But for example the English unit differ from the SI system therefore we need to converse it. The SI system allows us to make a simple conversation from one set unit to another: 1 kilometre (km) = 1000 meters (m) = 1000000 millimetres (mm). Much easier to work with the SI than the English system: 1 mile = 5280 feet = 63.360 inches. The numbers in environmental science sometimes are too small and sometimes too large. For a speeding communications and

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS calculations we often use the exponent (in the case the power of 10), what is tacked to a 10 and multiplied by another number to indicate the size of a number. If it is a positive exponent we need to increase the number in the front, it is a negative we need to decrease the number. For example: 2 x 105 means 2 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 2 x 100000 = 200000. We can use the exponent for smaller numbers. 3 x 10-8 means we move the decimal point over eight spaces to left and the number is: 0.00000003. In a case of the Earth history we use millions and billions of years but we also use the mega 53 for million and giga for billion. The full ranges of this prefixes are in the Appendix. To know some basic calculation and conversation techniques are also necessary in environmental sciences. The percentage determines some part of a given amount of quantity. It is useful to calculate the fraction rate of given sediment or the percentage change in something over period of time (ozone). The conversion in many different units may need some knowledge as well. If we work with SI it is quite simple (as mentioned above), but easily can confused with convert grams/cubic centimetres (gm/cc or gm/cm3 or gr/cm3 to pounds per cubic foot: 1 gram / cubic centimetre = 62.4279606 pounds / cubic foot. But we do not have to go to the United Kingdom the get confused with the conversation. It is far enough to look back in Hungary: from 1960 the SI system is recommended but from 1980 it is forbidden to use other metric than SI. To work with the old system we need to know the conversation rate. For example 1 Hungarian mile = 8353.6 m or one Hungarian arpent = 0.4321 ha and so on.

6.1. Health and Safety Regulations

The hazards are always inherent of fieldwork. Each country has a field safety regulation. So check it in advance if you plan to work in other country than your home. Students, teachers, employers and workers have obligations under the Act. There is a wide range of possible hazards, so before field work a risk assessment must be performed, considering to the weather-, terrain-, medical conditions and accessibility to water or food. Risk Assessment and Hazards:  Terrain: Slips, trips and falls, electric shock, cuts and abrasions;  Water: Drowning, disease (leptospirosis, tetanus, hepatitis);  Weather: sunburn, dehydration, hypothermia, hyperthermia;  Plants and animals: stings and bites, poisoning from plants (contained within the plant or on the plant);  People: personal attack/abuse due to misunderstanding of the nature of the work, aggressive behaviour;

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 Medical conditions: risk of illness in the field, tiredness, allergies, phobias, lack of physical fitness. In Hungary the Hungarian Labour Inspectorate takes care of the Hungarian labour law. According their website (2004 march) the Hungarian Labour Inspectorate is a central agency under the control of the minister of employment. – It’s legal status, duties, and competences are defined by the Government Decree No 295/2006 (XII.23)., on the Hungarian Labour Inspectorate. 54 If you spend more time in the field it is a good idea to have an emergency kit with you and always safer to work in pairs especially in remote areas. Even in Europe carry a water bottle and some food, like energy bar, chocolate for fast energy when needed. If you are not expert of how to prepare for a field work, ask the senior geologist or your mentor. General deficiency for beginners is the lack of water, food, suitable clothes and/or gear. The lack of water can be fatal under hot climate. Even under temperate climate you will need more water than usual. Dehydration can occur in couple of hours even in Hungary. Do not forget the wind chill factor, during winter and in cold rainy weather.

6.2. Site Investigation

Site investigation describes the process of carrying out investigations on land to determine whether there is contamination present and to collect sufficient, suitable data for the purpose of risk assessment. The investigation is normally carried out in several stages. These stages range from a desk studies to a full intrusive investigation using trial pits and boreholes etc and the sampling and analysis of materials (Nathanail and Nathanail 2003). Walk-over survey is the type of survey which is an essential part of the site investigation. This is the most cost-effective part of the investigation. During the site investigation both field and laboratory methods must be used. It should be combined with the desk top survey for the best results. The work starts with a desktop survey and during the walk-over survey we can check and make additions to the information already have. The information will be collected from two sources, fieldwork and consultation with the locals. The information from both methods is essential and it provides valuable data which cannot be obtained. The whole investigated area and its surrounding area must be visited on foot and collect as many data as possible. The residents, the company workers, the local authorities, builders and rangers should be questioned to obtain the benefit of their local knowledge about the area. A well-developed report is produced from the information collected from locals and at the investigated site. The report must contain the following information depend on the goal: e.g. soil and rock types, tectonic structures, groundwater, made ground, slope angel, vegetation, mining and quarrying and access to the

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS site. The source of the information for desk study is e.g. maps (topographic and geological), air photographs, report, journals, handbooks, manuscripts, well records, borehole records and mining records. Before site investigation Risk Assessment must be done. The risk assessment and analysis include the:  Baseline study; 55  Hazard identification;  Exposure assessment;  Concentration assessment;  Contaminant assessment;  Significance assessment;  Uncertainty assessment;  Risk quantification.

6.3. Field Methods

The main source of environmental geological data can be collected on site. The most common and accessible is the outcrop and in most of the time available for geologist. The trial pits usually open for short period of time, the drilling cores get gappy over time, because of the bad handling, mainly for archive cores. Shafts and tunnels are available for years but with limited access. The only full value documentation is possible after the tunnel blast because the wall will be covered by concrete. Regardless of the site or the type of exploration the examination may take an hour or more (except cores, larger outcrops). The description must be objective and the challenge is to see as much as possible within distinct time. Also field sketch record contain a lot of information sometimes even more than a photograph. The sketches will last longer than a photo on a flash drive. Basic fieldwork consists of moving from outcrop to outcrop or from one site to another, depends on a purpose of the survey. The step by step investigation might be the following:  Overall situation of the outcrop considering to the nearby outcrops, stratigraphical situation, rock types;  Study the outcrop from moderate distance, look for orientation, the shape and the dimension of the bodies;  Study the contact surface between the strata; are there any colour or texture differences?

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 The examination of fresh and weathered surface, identification of minerals and rock grains, also their size and distribution;  Primary fabrics and structures;  Measuring the direction of magma flow, or depositional current direction;  Are there any folds, foliation or cleavage can indicate folding; 56  Examination of tectonic situation, faults, displacements, the presence of breccia along the faults can be important;  Determine the geotechnical state of the rocks, porosity, stability, permeability;  Time for measurements: the thickness of each layered unit, structural attitude, folds and faults dip and direction;  Search for fossils;  Sampling.

6.3.1. Sub/Surface Exploration (drilling, trial pitting, geophysics)

In applied environmental geology the basic information is originate from the geological background. The rocks may transport, store and emit the pollutant. Either in fluid, in solid or in gas phase. To extract information for rock we have to explore them. In an excellent case we have outcrops, archive cores, etc. But in reality we have to carry out a complete research project. That may include mapping the territory, boring, drilling, trial pitting and make the geophysical measuring on surface or in wells (logging). The drilling is the most expensive method but gives you a wide range of information when one interpret together with the logging results. The exploratory trench and trial pitting are useful in remote areas and in the backcountry which may lack of outcrops. The tunnel exploration is used only in special research. Also, the exploratory tunnel will be part of an industrial implementation. For example at Bátaapáti Site (LILW site) the first 500- 600 m of the tunnel was evolve for research but later at the end of the investigation it became a carrier tunnel.

6.3.1.1. Drilling

Several drilling method have been developed because of the purpose of the investigation and the different geologic conditions. Particular drilling methods are employed in certain areas because of the costs. The drilling process may depend on various factors (Figure 12) such as depth, diameter, lithology and purpose of the project (e.g. with core or without core). Drilling methods can be divided into two groups. The most common is without core where only the chips are the only

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS concrete information about geology. The other and the more expensive one is the drilling with core. The later give more information about the lithology.

Drilling Geological method data source 57

Shallower Smaller than Dry Core Water level than 20 m 100 mm

Drilling fluid Water 20-100 m 100-500 mm Chips (water, air) sampling

Bigger than Casing Geophysical Water 100-300 m 500 mm hummer log quality

Water 300-500 m Video temperature

Deeper than 500 m

Figure 12 Drilling methods depth diameter.

The oil and gas industry use mainly the rotary technology where no core is available. For water well drilling we use the same methods. There are two general groups for drilling without a core. The first method does not use drilling (circulation) fluids: displacement boring, solid-steam auger, hollow-steam auger and the sonic drilling. The second group is where the circulation fluids carry all the chips (drill cuttings) to the surface: direct rotary drilling, reverse circulation rotary drilling, cable-tool percussion and the air percussion Down-to-Hole Hammer. The drilling methods where the final result is a core use different bits. The most common one is the surface-set diamond core bits for core and the fixed and the rolling cutter bits. The very detailed description of this subject is indirectly or directly related to drilling boreholes can be found among many others in Nguyen (1996) and in Devereux (2012) books. The borehole and core documentation techniques are slightly differing from the one we use in the outcrop. In the boreholes every time geophysical logging were made. The detailed description of the well logging methods can be found in the following subchapter. The manual hand drawn core logging was the accepted method in Hungary before the PC world. Usually it was 1:100 or 1:200 to scale and therefore sometimes it reached more than 10 meters of paper roll. It includes all the information from grain

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS size to facies. Then geologists started to use PC’s and work in databases, sometimes with PDA-s. In 2002 the MÁFI (Geological Institute of Hungary) introduced a number of new methods in geological-tectonic documentation processes (Gyalog et al. 2004). This was the digital data input with a pocket PCs, therefore it improved the quality and the quantity of the database in a given time period. The full core (only the unbroken sections) scanning was the second innovation. For this purpose in ImaGeo core scanner was used. This personally developed application 58 (Maros and Pásztor 2001) supports the optical imaging of the superficies of cylindrical cores made up of joinable pieces with high resolution. Interpretation later was made by the CoreDump software module. The core sample scanner based on a rotator- and a sensor system. The rotator turns the core sample around its long axis. During the rotation the sensor maps the outer hull of the core (see the full technical description in Maros and Pásztor, 2001). The spatial resolution of the sensor is approx. 326 DPI in both directions. The output format of the scanner is uncompressed TIFF image with 24 bits/pixel colour depth. Each TIFF file contains a piece of the core sample (broken or cut, because of technical reasons). The file name includes the start and the end value measured in meter form the starting point of the borehole. Each file contains some extra black areas on both sides because of the irregular breakage of the samples (Figure 13). Once the core is scanned the core can be oriented to its original situation with the use of borehole televiewer measurements. With this method the true depth values can be defined.

Figure 13 Scanned image of the borehole Ib-4 (646.76–647.44 m)

with “upward” marks on the core. The yellow vertical line on the image is an elastic ribbon which is intended to stabilize the fractured core.

6.3.1.2. Trial pitting, exploratory trench

Both methods are extremely useful when no or not enough outcrop available on site. Trenching as an exploratory method is the most eventual of all geological subsurface exploratory methods and the trial pitting is for soil profile exploration. It allows us to explore

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS a continuous section. Many capable (quaternary) faults can be detected from exploratory trench exposure what may remain undetected. In the case of a nuclear power plant or radioactive waste repository planning the age of the faults are crucial. Lithologic contacts, soil boundaries, sedimentary structures, and potential tectonic structures can be mapped. Trenches must be well located, survey-controlled, excavated safely and adequately shored, logged in detail and properly diagnosed (Figure 14).

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Field-work

Geodetic Digital Digital video Layout measurements images record

Preliminary Image sets detailed Detailed Environmental Instrumental (tape, compass) (full trench lenghts) thematic imgaes geological overview

Office work

Fair copy Interactive Technical multimedia key data geological (video documentation documentation)

Grouping True to Patterning Geological Environmental Photomontage Linework summary scale of profiles

Image selection, Multimedia Multimedia Map and profile Scanning Indexing image calibration, Program Program complitaion Digisting Colour filling tone development development Control enhancement Controls Controls Input, control Input, control Control

Figure 14 Field- and office work performed during and after trench mapping (Gyalog et al. 2004)

The first step is the trench setting, then the geodesic survey and the siting of the marker points for later identification. The marker points must locate along a straight line and must be well visible

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS in the pictures. The tectonic and geologic documentations need a high resolution photo base; at least a 20 mpixel resolution for each photo. In each photo two marker points must be visible. The end product can be made in Autodesk or any GIS based software where the photo montage is georeferenced. During the fieldwork a low resolution A/4 size montage is enough with the grid on it for the more precise documentation (Figure 15).

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Figure 15 Field scetch of a trench (Konrád)

The basic geological documentation includes all the measurable information, faults, pitches, tilting of the layers the stratigraphical conditions and the petrology. The documentation must be made on the base photo and then the drawing and the notes. All the measured data must be put into a database. The database includes the technical data (place, date, name of the exploratory trench, distance from the marker point etc.), the general petrographic data (depend on the rock, it can be any type of rock with detailed description) and the other data (photo number, sample number, description, comment). The tectonical documentation includes among many others the type of a fault (normal fault, reverse fault etc.), the dip and the direction of it, the displacement distance and the joints and pitches. The fair copy documentation is also part of the work; it

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS has to be done after the fieldwork. The sampling is also part of this work (see the later subchapter).

6.3.1.3. Geophysics, logging

The geophysical investigation is the study of the Earths by quantitative physical methods and includes by measurement of physical properties and modelling of the physical behaviour of natural materials. The well-logging and the ground based methods 61 are the most commonly used in environmental geological investigations. The basics of the theoretical knowledge can be found in many books and can achieve it by participate the Basics of Geophysics course. In this chapter we give only an overview of the field methods and its applications. The Geological Field Guide Series “Field Geophysics” part published by Wiley is a useful field handbook. Most of the geophysical measurements are made in the field but most of the interpretation made in the office. The fields used in geophysical surveys usually by natural ones and sometimes by created artificially. This leads to the broad classification of geophysical methods into passive and active types respectively. The most common used methods are the: gravity, magnetic, radiometric, electric current, resistivity, SP and IP, electromagnetic, ground penetrating radar and seismic reflection and refraction methods. The geophysicist does not use all of it in a same time. The use of methods are always depends on the aim of the investigation and on the investigated area. For the disposal of radioactive waste some of the methods were used in boreholes and some were used on the surface. The spatial geological and hydrological characteristic of the formations are the main aim of the exploration by using those methods. During the exploration the spatial homogeneity of the formations (Mórágy Granite and Boda Claystone) were and going to be investigated with seismic and magnetotelluric survey. Electromagnetic and complex electromagnetic surveys were used to investigate the fractures. The gravity method base on small differences in rock density what produce changes in the Earth’s gravity field. These features can be measured using portable instruments (gravity meters). The gravity field is increasing from the equator (equatorial sea-level gravity of 9 780 490 g.u.) to the pole (about 9 830 000 g.u.). The different types of rocks, ore bodies and caves can reduce the gravity field in different scales (sedimentary basins: about 1000 g.u., ore bodies: few g.u.). The topographic effects can be as big as 20 000 g.u.. For geological purposes the gravity change usually measured to an accuracy of 0.1 g.u.. During the interpretation of a gravity work some correction has to be made, these processes called gravity reduction. It includes mainly the latitude, free-air, Bouguer and the terrain correction. The magnetic method is one of the oldest geophysical techniques; it was used in the Middle Ages to find ore bodies. The strength of the magnetic field is measured in nanoTesla (nT). The Earth’s

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS actual field shows that neither the magnetic equator, nor the magnetic poles coincide with their geographic equivalents. The North Magnetic Pole is in Northern Canada and the South Magnetic Pole can be found somewhere in the Southern Ocean. Differences between the directions of true and magnetic North are known as declinations. The North and the South Pole for unknown reasons at unpredictable intervals trade places. The so called geomagnetic reversals can be normal (the magnetic north coincides with the geographic north) or reversed (the magnetic north coincides with the geographic south). 62 These changes help us to create the Magnetic Polarity Time Scale which is the base of the magnetostratigraphy. The radioactivity of the rocks is measured by the gamma-ray scintillometers. At the beginning most of the equipment was created for uranium search but nowadays the main aim about public health application. The radioactive decay produces alpha, beta and gamma radiation. The purpose of the radiometric spectrometry is to estimate the concentration of the potassium, uranium and thorium. This method used primary as a geological mapping tool to find the changes in lithology and detect mineral deposits. Ground penetrating radar use the reflection of short bursts of electromagnetic energy. It was first used to determine the ice thickness. Nowadays it used to study e.g. subsurface landfill, pipelines, buried objects (barrels, tanks) and bedrocks. The depth which the ground penetrating radar waves can reach is depending on the lithology (including soils and groundwater) and on the frequency of the antenna, but the maximum depth is around 30 meters. The seismic methods are the most effective of all the geophysical techniques. This geophysical survey, which involve large field crews, bulky equipment and complex data processing are the most expensive methods. Any mechanical vibration is initiated by a source and travels to the location where the vibration is recorded. These techniques provide detailed information about subsurface layering and rock geomechanical properties using vibrations. These vibrations are seismic waves, which include compressional wave and shear wave. The well logging techniques can be separated to four types: complex well logging, acoustic sidewall televiewing (Borehole Television BHTV), high-sensitivity flowmetry and technical logging. The applied log combination is always selected to provide the maximum information for a reasonable cost. The available logs (Geo-Log Ltd.) cover a wide range from simple traditional methods, like the well-known electric survey, to the sophisticated high-tech imaging logs. The most frequently used log types are the: apparent resistivity (normal and guard), micro resistivity, spontaneous Potential (SP), conductivity, magnetic susceptibility, natural gamma ray, spectral GR, density, neutron porosity, full wave sonic log, temperature, deviation (inclination/azimuth), acoustic televiewer (transit time

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/amplitude), optical televiewer (optical image of the borehole wall), flowmeter (impellor and heat pulse), fluid conductivity, optical transparency and the pressure.

6.3.1.4. Shafts, tunnels

This method is extremely expensive, and most projects do not merit its application. The only use of tunnels in Hungary is during preliminary exploration for underground waste repository sites. 63 Because of the high cost of the tunnel exploration it does not let the geologists to use this method so often. But during any kind of mining methods the geologists can collect data for further research and mainly for the given project. Typically the tunnel exploration used only for radioactive waste repository investigation. Therefore the Bátaapáti (Üveghuta) project was the only one in the last couple of decades. That is why we use this as an example. The project called the National Repository of Radioactive Wastes (NRHT, Bátaapáti, Üveghuta). During the underground exploration the tunnel drifting started in 2005 at Nagymórágy Valley. During the excavation all the drift face and the mantle were subjected to geological-tectonic mapping. The tunnel drifting was foregone by pilot boreholes. The documentation was carried out by the MÁFI (Geological Institute of Hungary) professionals. The exhaustive description of the documentation process and the software and hardware description can be found in Gyalog et al. (2010) paper. All the geological features and the tectonic elements were documented after the photo- shoot with the special equipment developed by MÁFI. The whole process was carried out in two phases. The first was made from a proper distance because of the risk of falling rocks from a roof. The second phase made under favourable conditions right after the arch support if needed. The geological and tectonic data sheets were filled upon the in situ field report, but in the tunnel the geologist used the classical field notebook. The underground mapping was followed by an office work. The underground made photoset were the base of a 3D model. The model let the geologists to compose a photomontage of any view. Six geodetic positions were added to the model so therefore it was georeferenced. Several different mapping methods were elaborated for various mapping conditions including a fully digital and an entirely manual “exercise book” method as extremes. Some of them were dropped but some others were deployed in practice. For example at the begging in 2005 the photomontage was made underground right after or during the documentation. The printer was connected to a laptop; therefore the whole equipment was too cumbersome. Later it was changed to a more moveable “photorobot”, which was easier to use. The other reason of the modification was the security (some smaller but unexpected collapses and drops of bits of rocks could destroy the equipment).

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The workplace was not a walk in the park: “Though mining areas established in granitic rocks are comparatively clean the continuously floating dust, the muddy conditions of the region to be mapped, the occasionally several dm deep pools at the face as well as the water dropping or flowing from the fractures proved to be the major enemies of all tools driven by electricity. Due to the constant time pressure mapping was executed simultaneously with other mining work phases pushing the face progressively further away from the mapping staff. Under these circumstances it was a considerable 64 achievement that the continuous digital mapping was maintained during the whole process of tunnel driving.” (Gyalog et al. 2010). The underground documentation followed by from the creation of the face map to the tunnel environment maps in numerous steps. The first phase was a creation of a face map, than a 25 to 50 m long section of the mantle map, than the 1:1000 scale tunnel map what display the tunnel environment as well. The final phase is the broader geological environment map by the 1:5000 scales. During the everyday work we created a 1:200 scale tunnel map in a fictive plane in 2 m height of the tunnel.

6.3.2. Sampling

Generally a soil or rock sample has two types, the undisturbed and disturbed samples. Undisturbed is usually taken by part of a block of soil or rock, or by drilling with special equipment. Disturbed samples are taken from spoils or from drilling. The collected rock or soil samples can be used to make petrographic identification, to measure small scale structure, to engineering studies include porosity and permeability measuring and also to geotechnical studies. The samples must be as fresh as possible; the amount is depending on a grain size and the purpose with it. The samples must be placed in bags, and must be labelled correctly. Oriented samples are collected for later study of structure and fabrics. The cores can be oriented after drilling. This is important in the case of a contaminated liquid phase flow. Sampling according to the standards (depends on a country) must be applied to both solid (rock, soil) and to water sampling. General rules are (Budai et al. 2004):  The sample must represent the observed beds or outcrop;  Sample collected for testing can meet the requirement of the given test;  The circumstances of sampling, packaging, preservation (if needed) and transportation requirements must be met;  Each sample must have an individual identification includes the code, place of sampling, coordinates, date, sampler name and the purpose of the sampling. A protocol must be filled for each sample. It contains the code, the date, the place, the coordinate, the type of a sample. Also the

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS maps name, the scale of it, a short macroscopic description of a sample and the amount of the sample. The type of investigation has to be marked e.g. petrographic composition (DTA, grain size distribution, XRD), radiometric measurements (gamma spectrometry, rock mechanic) or other type of investigation (pH, K-Ar dating, palynology or electrical conductance.

6.3.3. Field Hydrogeology 65 The field hydrogeology is a broad topic; many good books are available for example from Brassington (2006) and Fetter (1994). This subsection can be divided to two parts. The first is the source of the samples and the testing methods, the second is about the type of measurements and the information we can get from them. Many authors describe how wells can be used to investigate chemical and physical parameters of the aquifers. Moreover, there is a wide range of article about the well construction, about the aquifer test and about the sampling issues. Those tasks are of importance in scheduling the remediation of an aquifer. The field measurement of basic water quality parameters (see a case study about Nagymányok area) pH, dissolved oxygen and electrical conductance can be done before the laboratory analysis. Constructing a monitoring well has to be a well-planned process. Those can be used to collect groundwater samples and also for hydraulic tests. During the boring (with a drilling rig) soil and rock samples should be collected (Figure 16) at a specified depth interval.

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66

Figure 16 Well drilling and sampling near the Drava river

The drilling method depends on the depth of the needed borehole and of the soil or rock type. For deeper holes the rotary drilling (water and mud) is common and cable drilling and solid-steam is for shallow holes. Once the hole is ready casing material is added to finish the well. The casing is made of a solid pipe. The screened section allowed the water to the hole but not the sediments. The first task is to measure the water level in the wells. It can be done with cloth tape, steel tape or with an acoustic well probe. For a longer period of a water level change we use e.g. Dataqua logger. The most common test in the wells is the slug test and the pumping test (Figure 17).

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Figure 17 72 hours long continuous pumping test at Dráva-basin

With the pumping test we can determine the transmissivity and storativity of the aquifer. A pumping test may last 24 hours or more. The observation wells should locate closes enough to see the connection and the interaction. At the beginning the rate of drawdown is rapid, but then it get slower. Therefore we have to measure the water level at least every 30 second at the beginning. The best way to get a complex accurate database data logger must be used. The Theis method is used to measure the transmissivity (Lohman 1979) but in practice it involves too many assumptions. After the end of the test recovery measurement has to be made in the test wells. This data can be used to calculate the aquifer transmissivity. During the whole well test and also during the groundwater sampling or any filed work the field notebook must be filled simultaneously with the work. Do not bother us if the field notebook gets muddy or dirty. A dirty piece of notes may turn out to be important, but the empty clean is useless. One of the commonest mistakes is to postpone the completion of the notebook. It will cause information lost. The data can be record into the classic field notebook or directly into the electronical one (ArcPad, laptop, tablet etc.). The most important dissolved solids in groundwater are Ca2+ , Na+, 2+ + 3+ 2- - Mg , K , HCO , SO4 ,Cl and SiO2 (Fetter 1994). The secondary ions are iron, nitrate and fluoride. The origin of the anions and

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS cations of the water are multifarious. The most common anions and cations have the following origin (Cserny 2008): Anions  Cl- - from the sea water vapour and some silicate;

-  HCO3 - from carbon dioxide content of the air and some carbonate; 68 -  NO3 - organic origin and from surface contamination;

2-  PO4 - organic origin, fertilizer and detergent;

 SiO3 - from silicates;

2-  SO4 - from rocks. Cations  Na+ - from silicates;  K+ - from silicates but at relatively high content it can be a fertilizer contamination;  Ca2+ - in the case carbonate it can have a high value;  Mg2+ - higher in dolomitic rocks;  Fe3+/2+ - from rocks;

-  NH4 - organic origin, sometimes form silicates.

The pH is measure of its reactive characteristics. The pH is a negative logarithm of the H+-ion. It shows whether a liquid phase is acidic (pH<7), neutral (pH=7) or basic (pH>7). The pH can be measured from 0 to 14. The freshwater pH is normally around 6-8. It can determine with an instrument or with a litmus paper. The aquifer and rocks can be characterized by the hydraulic conductivity, the permeability and the transmissivity. Those factors were described by uncountable authors. What we need to mention in this textbook is the unit and some formulas. The conductivity (cm/sec, m/sec) is characterized by both the liquid and the rocks or soils in which the fluid flows. The shape of the grains, the square of the grains and the properties of the fluid affect the conductivity. The permeability is measured in “darcy”, one darcy (D) is equal to 9.87 x 10-9 cm2 and one millidarcy (mD) is equal to 9.87 x 1012 cm2. The hydraulic conductivity of the sediment will resist the water flow. If small area available for flow, low hydraulic conductivity will be experienced, if large grains and large area available for fluid flow, large hydraulic conductivity will be experienced. Determination of the hydraulic conductivity or the permeability can happen: empirical

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS formulas, calculations, laboratory experiments, on-site (in-situ) methods such as infiltration testing, well testing or with indirect test e.g. geophysics. According to Domenico and Schwartz (1990) the followings are the representative values for various unconsolidated sedimentary materials (Table 1), for sedimentary rocks (Table 2) and for crystalline rocks (Table 3):

Table 1 Unconsolidated sedimentary materials (Domenico and Schwartz 1990) 69 Unconsolidated Sedimentary Materials Material Hydraulic Conductivity (m/sec) Gravel 3x10-4 to 3x10-2 Coarse sand 9x10-7 to 6x10-3 Medium sand 9x10-7 to 5x10-4 Fine sand 2x10-7 to 2x10-4 Silt, loess 1x10-9 to 2x10-5 Till 1x10-12 to 2x10-6 Clay 1x10-11 to 4.7x10-9 Unweathered marine clay 8x10-13 to 2x10-9

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Table 2 Sedimentary rocks (Domenico and Schwartz 1990)

Sedimentary Rocks

Hydraulic Conductivity Rock Type 70 (m/sec)

Karst and reef limestone 1x10-6 to 2x10-2

Limestone, dolomite 1x10-9 to 6x10-6

Sandstone 3x10-10 to 6x10-6

Siltstone 1x10-11 to 1.4x10-8

Salt 1x10-12 to 1x10-10

Anhydrite 4x10-13 to 2x10-8

Shale 1x10-13 to 2x10-9

Table 3 Crystalline rocks (Domenico and Schwartz 1990)

Crystalline Rocks

Hydraulic Material Conductivity (m/sec)

Permeable basalt 4x10-7 to 2x10-2

Fractured igneous and 8x10-9 to 3x10-4 metamorphic rock

Weathered granite 3.3x10-6 to 5.2x10-5

Weathered gabbro 5.5x10-7 to 3.8x10-6

Basalt 2x10-11 to 4.2x10-7

Unfractured igneous and 3x10-14 to 2x10-10 metamorphic rock

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There is a correlation between the electrical conductance (EC) and the total dissolved solids (TDS). EC measurements can be used to estimate the concentration of TDS. The typical units for electrical conductance are millisiemens (mS) and microsiemens (µS). There are no linear correlation possibilities between the EC and TDS (because the EC is ion dependent), but as the higher TDS as higher the EC as well.

The dissolved oxygen shows the O2 saturation of the water. At a field we can measure it with a specific instrument. Near or at the surface the water shows a high level of DO, 71 except where the chemical and biological processes consume the oxygen (COD and BOD). The chemical oxygen demand (COD) can be define with strong oxidizers, the unit is mg/l O2. The biological oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen is needed by aerobic organism to break down organic material.

6.3.4. Field Description of Rocks and Soils

The detailed field descriptions of rocks were described by many authors. Sedimentary rocks by Tucker (2011), metamorphic rocks by Fry (2013) and the igneous rocks by Jerram and Petford (2011). But those field guides suit mainly for geologists with strong geological background. In everyday life, not only geologists deal with environmental geological problems. Environmental scientists, environmental engineers and also mining engineers among others usually have to face with those problems. This chapter is dedicated to those, who have theoretical background knowledge but with little practice. The following can see as a guideline. The subsections in this chapter will give a short and tight explanation about the most important field property of the rocks. Rocks are divided into three groups based on mode of formation. These groups include the following.  Igneous rocks: These are formed from the solidification of molten material;  Sedimentary rocks: These are formed from the accumulation of fragmental rock material and organic material or by chemical precipitation;  Metamorphic rocks: These are formed by alteration of existing rocks through the action of heat and pressure. All the three type of rocks can be described with the following properties: colour, grain size, texture, fabrics, structure, weathered state, alteration and rock name. These can be the basis of the field description of any rocks. The differences will be the details. If the field notebook contains all of that information the detailed field mapping can be done. Each type of rocks has different description methods, and we use different field logs for them. On known areas we have to carry the one which suits the area. As we mentioned above, the database and the text description is also compulsory on the field. At the end of each subsection we present the database type log template.

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Colour The colour can vary in any ways; the main task is to give the weathered and the fresh broken colour. The colour description has to be interpreted by the RGB/CMYK colour codes or by the Munsell colour chart. The chocolate brown, the sky-blue, the coffee brown/black and the milk-white are not the proper name for rocks. Grain size Very coarse grain greater than 60mm boulders and cobbles visible to naked eye Coarse grain 2-60mm gravel visible to naked eye 72 Medium grained 60μm-2mm sand visible to naked eye Fine grained 2-60μm silt partly visible to naked eye Very fine grained smaller than 2 μm clay not visible to naked eye

Weathered state Description terms for weathering grades (Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party 1977).  Fresh: no visible sign of rock material;  Faintly weathered: discoloration on major discontinuity surface;  Slightly weathered: material and discontinuity surface; all the rock material may be discoloured by weathering and may be somewhat weaker than in its fresh condition;  Moderately weathered: less than half of the rock material are decomposed and/or disintegrated into soil; fresh or discoloured rock are present either as a continuous framework or as corestone;  Highly weathered: more than half of the rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated into soil; fresh or discoloured rock is present either as discontinuous framework or as corestone;  Completely weathered: all rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated to soil; the original mass structure is still largely intact;  Residual soil: all rock material is converted to soil; the mass structure and material fabric are destroyed. There is a large change in volume, but the soil has not been significantly transported.

Field estimation of hardness: Ten categories can be used on the field, five for rocks and five for soils. This method is useful, but we have to keep in mind that under pressure the rocks behave differently. So this categorization is valid only for field surface surveys. In fact we can use it for cores as well, but we have to mention it in the notebook. A good example for this problem is the Boda Claystone Formation. The claystone is really compact under pressure, for example in cores or in the research tunnel 1000m deep. But if you visit the key section of the formation (detailed descriptions see above) the claystone is falling apart because of the lack of pressure.  Very hard rock: more than one blow of geological hammer needed to break the sample;  Hard rock: the hand size sample can be broken with a single blow of geological hammer;  Soft rock: up to 5mm indentations with sharp end of pick hammer;  Moderately soft rock: too hard to cut by hand into pieces;  Very soft rock: material/sample scramble under soft blows with the sharp end of a geological pick hammer;

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 Very weak rock or soil: brittle may be broken by hand with little difficulty;  Very stiff soil: soil can be cut in by fingernail;  Stiff soil: soil can be form in fingers;  Firm soil: soil can be form only by strong pressure;  Soft soil: soil easily forms by fingers. 73 Hardness generally measured according to Mohs’ scale. Knives or coins sometimes hammer can be used to test the hardness of a mineral. Just to keep in mind that the scale is the following: 1. talk; 2. gypsum (finger nails, soft metal); 3. calcite; 4. fluorite (bronze coins); 5. apatite (most glass, and most steels); 6. feldspar (hard glass, hard steel); 7. quartz; 8. topaz; 9. corundum; 10. diamond.

6.3.4.1. Field description of sedimentary rocks

The very detailed description for sedimentary rocks was described by Jámbor (1975) among others. The sedimentary rocks are important, not just as a potential host rocks for high level radioactive waste, but also because of their permeability. These are the most vulnerable rocks. Therefore special attention should be given. The field survey is really important, to record the main properties of the sedimentary rocks. In the following we try to give you a detailed list of the possible properties partly based on Jámbor (1975) manuscript, which is good starter for the text description. We have chosen as a base because his description is widely known and used in Hungary. The following properties must be recorded: name of the rock; colour; texture; grain size; sorting; carbonate content; quantity, shape and position of the characteristic minerals; quantity and quality of the cement; position, quality, quantity, facies and condition of the fossils; volume weight, smell; reflectivity; hardness; absorbency; dehydration capacity; swelling capacity; discolouration, permeability and porosity. The last couple properties are the main important factors in environmental geological issues. Those properties can affect the spreading velocity and the absorption and/or adsorption capacity of the contaminant transport. Therefore we will only particularize those properties. It is important to mention the detailed subdivision of the grain size scale. The phi scale is not useful on field and sometimes impossible to measure the grain size precisely during field survey. 0.5 mm (medium sand according to the Wentworth scale) is the smallest size what definable without a sieve. I would say that laboratory work needed for an accurate description of a smaller grain size. Other grain size can be determined by the naked eye, but it won’t be accurate. Concerned size classes are the medium sand, fine sand, very fine sand, coarse silt, medium to very fine silt, clay and mud. Three categories are typical in sedimentary rocks based on the texture: clastic, crystalline texture (resulting form mineral growth) and crystalline texture resulting from diagenesis. The

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS clastic texture’s primary element is the gain size what is linked to the kinetic energy during transport. Sorting is the other important factor; it can be estimated with a hand lens. The determination can be made by remark a smallest and largest grain that make up to the finest and coarsest 10%. The bulk can be dividing between these two limits. The best way to define the sorting is by sieving the grains. The roundness can be very angular, angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded and well rounded. It reflects mainly the duration of transport and the hardness of the material. If e.g. the sediments 74 contain different degrees of rounding of quartz (or any grain) within one size class, it shows that the grains are from two different sources. Fabric is used to determining the current direction (by mica plates or fossils), the orientation of bedding and also give information about sedimentary environments. The crystalline texture resulting from mineral growth can be classified into two groups: inorganic and biogenic. The oolitic and pisolitic and pelletal crystalline texture results from inorganic precipitation and where certain substances accumulate. The general biogenic texture results from accumulation of skeletons of plants and animals. Diagenetic textures form after the sediment is buried and while it is being transformed into rock. Naming the rocks can be difficult sometimes but the classification primarily base on the composition or gain size. We do not want to give a detailed description of the rocks, but the categories and the correct nomenclature are important. Sandstone textural classification: wacke, arenite, greywacke, classification on the basis of the kind of grains comprising the rock: quartz and quartzite, feldspar and lithic grains. Rudites conglomerate or breccia, clast-supported or matrix supported. Lutite well sorted siltstone; mudstone is a mixture of clay- and silt-sized particles Shale is a lutite with a flaky cleavage. Limestone composed mainly calcite or aragonite, according to grain size: calcirudit, calcarenite and calcilutite or micrite, according to sorting (Dunham 1962): grainstone, packstone, wackestone, mudstone according to kind of particles (Folk 1959): bioclast, pellet, oolite (pisolite), intraclast and micrite. Dolomite same classification as limestone, but has to mention the diagenetic textures. Evaporites according to the mineral species: anhydrite, gypsum, halite…

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Carbonaceous rocks peat, lignite, brown hard coal, black hard coal and anthracite. Phosphorite, Iron-rich rocks, siliceous lutites (diatomite, radiolarite, spiculite) and volcaniclastic lutite are less common in some places.

6.3.4.2. Field description of metamorphic rocks

The metamorphosis is driven by pressure (P) and temperature (T) at various scales and 75 by some chemically active fluids. The types of the metamorphosis are regional, burial, contact, hydrothermal and cataclastic. For a detailed description see for example Fry (1984), Winkler (1976) and Philpotts (1989), but many authors deal with metamorphic rock classification. To identify the grade of the metamorphism (Figure 18) on a field you should know the most important index minerals: o very low grade (anchim/zeolite facies.): zeolite, illite, shale; o low grade (epim/greenshict facies): sericite, chlorite, epidot, phyllit, serpentinite; o moderate (mezom/amfibolite facies): micas, quartz, amfibolite, garnet; o high grade (katametamorphism): mica, quartz, albite, eclogite, sillimanite.

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76

Figure 18 The grade of metamorphism

Foliation is the result of the parallel organization of e.g. micas in a plane perpendicular to the maximum principal applied stress. Slate, schist, and gneiss are three common foliated metamorphic rocks (Figure 19).

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Figure 19 The foliation and grade of metamorphism (Columbia.edu)

We give you a short list of the most important features of metamorphic rocks which are important to write down to the field notebook: rock-type (e.g. hornfels, garnet amphibolite) rock-type association (migmatite, ophiolite), compositional category (mafic, felsic), facies, metamorphic grade (low grade), index minerals, structure, texture, fabric, and the protolite if known. There are several conflicting meanings in the usage of the term: texture, structure and fabric. According to Fry (1984) the structure refers to disposition in three dimensions of compositionally identifiable portions of rock which are of larger size than individual grains (boudins, beds, etc). The texture refers to shapes produced by grain outlines, taking several adjacent grains together. The fabric refers to overall directionally imparted to a whole rock by preferred orientation of elements within it. The proper usages of prefixes are also important when describing metamorphic rocks. Such as meta-, orto- and para-. For texture and fabric description the first step is general impression of a rock (fissility, fabric, etc.) Then a detailed sketch is needed and also must be recorded the statements of time relationships, statements of the grain texture or fine structure features to which fabrics correspond, orientations, structural relationships between fabrics, sense of asymmetry and the correspondences of local fabrics to regional patterns (Fry 1984). A useful alternative classification in the field or for hand specimens is based upon the degree of recrystallisation of the original minerals, and so grain size and the degree of foliation (Table 4 The classification of metamorphic rocks by texture) are important.

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Table 4 The classification of metamorphic rocks by texture

Grain size Fine Medium Coarse

Poorly foliated Hornfels Marble, quartzite Marble, quartzite 78 Well foliated Slate Schist Gneiss Well foliated and Mylonite Mylonite, schist Augen gneiss sheared

6.3.4.3. Field description of igneous rocks

The very detailed description of igneous rocks lately described by Jerram and Petford (2011), but for basic environmental research we do not need it in that deepness. There are as many different ways of naming the igneous rocks as many different kind of igneous rocks appear. For field work we use a simple rock classification system based on texture and mineralogy. The reason is that those features can be identified easily by the naked eye (or using hand glass) in the field or from hand samples (Table 5 Classification of igneous rocks based on texture (after Coch and Ludman 1991).). The simplified QASP diagram is useful when naming medium- and coarse-grained rocks during field work using their salic mineral content. And also a triangular diagram for ultramafic rocks which show a properties of olivine, orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene. The two most common ultramafic rocks are harzburgite and lherzolite.

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Table 5 Classification of igneous rocks based on texture (after Coch and Ludman 1991).

felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic Very coarse Granite pegmatite Mafic pegmatite grain 79 Phaneritic Granite Granodiorite Diorite Gabbro Perodotite, dunite Pyroxene Aphanitic Rhyolite Dacite Andesite Basalt Glassy Obsidian Tachylite Vesicular Pumice Scoria Fragmental Rhyolite Dacite tuff Andesite tuff Basalt tuff tuff

The texture of igneous rocks includes the grain size, the shape and the way of which the grain intergrown. Some textures like grain size identify the rocks at a first look (intrusive or extrusive). Some texture is so small (basalt), that we can survey it only in thin section by stereomicroscope. The thin section is a very thin slice of a rock. The grain size is depends on which seed crystals form and which they grow. Also an importance of a cooling rate; which affect the grains size. If it cools slower coarser grain size is the result, if it cools faster smaller grain size is the result. Each texture can link to grain size and to the origin of the crystallization (Monroe and Wicander 1998). The pegmatitic texture means very coarse grain and has an intrusive origin. In that case the crystallization is from extremely fluid magma. The phaneritic texture has minerals what visible to the naked eye, and can be intrusive and/or extrusive origin. It characterized by relatively slow cooling; generally intrusive but can form in centres slowly cooled thick lava flows. Aphanitic textures grains are not visible to the naked eye (because of the fats cooling), for further investigation a thin section is needed. It can be intrusive and/or extrusive in origin. In porphyritic texture some grains are coarse, some fine, and can have intrusive and/or extrusive origin. Phenocrysts (feldspar) cooled slowly than the finer grained. A glassy texture is always extrusive and caused by an extremely rapid cooling. For vesicular texture (porous, spongy) we need rapid surface cooling with the present of gas. In the case of explosive eruption a pyroclastic texture formed. The igneous rocks often described by the proportion of feldspar and ferromagnesian minerals.

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 Felsic rocks: have large amount of potassic and sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar and some quartz;  Mafic rocks: have olivine and pyroxene (ferromagnesian minerals) and some calcium-rich feldspar, but no potassic feldspar;  Intermediate rocks: have minerals between the mafic and felsic varieties;

 Ultramafic rocks: almost only ferromagnesian minerals. 80 The description of the igneous rocks depends on the type of the rock and the aim of the research project. Generally we have to take notes about the orientation and spacing of joints set; aplites, veins, pegmatites or simple contacts of different rock types; igneous lamination or flow banding; mineralogy. Out of this when describing hand specimens the colour, composition, texture, grain size, fabric, mineral identification and finally the naming of the rock has to be done. There is a big difference between field description and thin section description of an igneous rock. The field geologist will name differently the rock; he/she will use a simpler category then the petrologist in front of the stereomicroscope. In a continuous research (like Bátaapáti radioactive waste repository site) the given rock can be named differently during the years. It is a positive development of huge amount of collected information during a longer period of field work and laboratory work. After the identification of most of the minerals the colour index has to be recorded. It is based on the estimation of total percentage of mafic mineral present: leucocratic (0- 33%), mesocratic (34-66%) and melanocratic (67-100%). Because of a greater visual impact of darker minerals the colour index can be overestimated in field notebooks or reports (Figure 20).

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Figure 20 Comparison chart for visual percentage estimation (after Terry and Chillingar 1955)

The mineral identification is also a big (sometimes de most difficult) part of the field or laboratory work. Igneous rocks consist of major and minor minerals. The major and minor usually termed as essential and accessory minerals. The major minerals are quartz in granite, olivine in basalt. Accessory minerals are present in a very minor amount, so they are not in a definition of a given rock. Most of the minerals can be identified in the field with five major properties: colour, cleavage, lustre, habit and hardness.

6.3.4.4. Field description of soils

The field description of soils needs some basic equipment what is partly similar to use during the different type of rocks description. The main difference is the use of the Munsell colour chart.

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Almost each country has its own type of classification. The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is internationally accepted, but in Hungary we use the genetic base typology. The other main classes are the climatic base (Dokuchaev), the morphology base (USDA) and the FAO base classification. According to FAO the soil classification can be divided to three stages: the early system (base on a soil forming factor), the later development (base on the processes occurring in the soil itself) and the modern classification (base on a soil properties and diagnostic soil horizons). “When is a 82 diagnostic horizon diagnostic: - only when it suits the whims of the classifiers” (FitzPatrik 1983). The USCS classification is based on grain size and the soil behave related to the water contents. The basis of the classification is the percentage of gravel, sand, silt ad clay; the shape of the grain size; the plasticity and compressibility characteristics. The soils are divided as coarse grained soils, fine grained soils and organic soils. The first step is on the field is to divide the fine soil from the coarse soil and to recognise whether is an organic soil or not. If it is a coarse soil we have to take notes about the proportions of particle sizes (Figure 21); the maximum particle size; grading; particle shape; particle strength/hardness; other material; colour; and some geological information. In case of a fine soil the following information has to be added: plasticity; presence of coarse material.

Plastic behaviour CLAY >35 % Fine soil Quick/dilitant SILT behaviour

Material Fraction SAND finer than 0.06 mm

GRAVEL Particle size <35% Coarse soil composition COBBLES

BOULDERS

Figure 21 Soil classification by USCS

The sampling methods must be precise and have to follow the current standards. The laboratory methods differ in many countries because of historical reasons. It leads to different and

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Table 6 Checklist for field description of soil (after Schoenberger et al. 2012)

Property Characteristic information Grain-size Gravel, sand, silt, clay, lean clay, etc. Size distribution Percentage of clay, silt, sand, and gravel of fraction Particle shape Flat, elongated Particle angularity Very angular; angular; subangular; subrounded; rounded; well rounded Gradation Describe range of particle sizes, such as fine to medium sand or fine to coarse gravel, or the predominant size or sizes as coarse, medium. Fine sand or coarse or fine gravel. Cementation Weak; moderate; strong Mineralogy Type of minerals Plasticity of fines Nonplastic; low; medium; high Dry strength None; low; medium; high; very high Dilatancy None; slow; rapid Toughness near plastic Low; medium; high limit Moisture condition Dry; moist; wet Colour Munsell colour chart Structure Stratified; laminated; fissured; slickensided; blocky; lensed; homogeneous; etc. Consistency Very soft; soft; firm; hard; very hard Relative Permeability Low; medium; high; fractures, open

6.3.5. Laboratory Testing

Environmental geology problems most of the time needs some laboratory work as well beside the fieldwork. To be able to work in a laboratory we need a lot of background knowledge. Nevertheless some of them can be done by a well prepared scientist or technicians. The other more complicated methods such as XRF, XRD, ICP-MS etc. need more knowledge and a specialist to interpret the measured data. Therefore those methods are beyond the scope of this textbook, we only focus on some basic preparation methods. We need to know the purposes of the investigation during the sampling because we can determine the type of a laboratory method. When collecting a sample we have to keep in mind the

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS sampling standard for each sample type. To collect and store the water sample needs more caution during the sampling and transportation than a single piece of granite for hand specimen or for thin section purpose. The field sampling reports contain the “type of laboratory test” part where we have to check the needed ones (Table 7).

Table 7 Type of laboratory test

Type of laboratory test 84 2+ Bulk Chemistry CO 2  FeO  Ignition Loss  Fe x  Minor Elements: As  Pb Cr  Zn Na  Cd  U  Cu     Ni  Mo  Sr  Zr  Se  V  Ba Hg   Th  S  Mn Co  Ag  Sn W  Y    Other: Mineral Composition Other Radiometry DTA pH  Moisture:   X-ray Diffraction Conductivity Ash Content:    Pol. opt. microscopy  K-Ar radiometric age Specific radioactivity   Microanalyzer  Mineral Separation Gamma spectrometry   Granularity  Palynology Rock mechanics  Other: thin section, grain-size distribution

The first step in the laboratory is the sample preparation. All of the followings techniques can be done by almost every earth scientist. Grain size distribution can be done by a sieve, particularly for fine grained sediments. Sieve incorporates the fine grained particle classification and liquid filtration. It is suitable for particles distribution analysis of grains, silts or the solid content of the liquid in the laboratory. Laboratory XFD Flotation Cell is provided for flotation of ore samples. And the flotation machine can be used for the separation of the nonferrous black metal as well as the separation of the non-metallic materials such as the coal fluorite and the talc. The crusher apparatus is used for fast crushing of rock, ores and other similar materials with the equivalent hardness. It is compact and of rugged construction for general laboratory. The vibrating grind mill is specially designed for the preparation of the powder specimen for the test of XRF. The mills have a complete function, high efficiency and low noise. The mill can smash and

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS blend various products of different materials and granularity with dry or wet methods. The thin section preparation can be done manually or partly automatically. After cutting rock sample with a cutter machine we can create our thin section with a lapping machine. The lapping machine is able to accurately produce thin sections down to 30 micron. It's helpful to have polarized and binocular microscopes in the laboratory. These 85 microscopes offer a larger field of view than a hand lens. Microscopes with magnifications up to 10x aren't too expensive and are available through a number of suppliers. The glass base can be replaced with masonite, both can provide an opaque background and as a more sturdy alternative to something that scratches and breaks easily. Polarised light microscopy uses plane-polarised light to analyse structures (Figure 22) that are birefringent; structures that have two different refractive indices at right angles to one another such as minerals. Polarized light microscopy is capable of providing information on absorption colour and optical path boundaries between minerals of differing refractive indices, in a manner similar to bright field illumination, but the technique can also distinguish between isotropic and anisotropic substances.

Figure 22 Oolite Thin Section in Polarized Light (Nikon Corp.)

Left: Oolite illuminated with plane-polarized light; middle: Oolite as imaged through cross-polarized illumination; right: Oolite (above) imaged with crossed polarizers and a full-wave (first order)

6.3.6. Basic Field Instrumentation for Site Investigation

Geologists need a number of items and equipment for the field. Some of them are essential e.g. hammer, compass, acid, camera, field notebook, hand lens, map scales and tape, and some are not. The type of instruments used in the field depends on the type of research being carried out. In practice the equipment’s used in routine site investigation is limited and normally consists of classical tools and measuring device. The list of potential equipment’s are listed below. Adhesive tape, ArcPad, aerial photographs, altimeter, binoculars, camera, chemical (acid), cold chisel, colour pencil, compass,

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS clinometer, eraser, safety goggles, safety helmet, gloves, grain-size card, geologist hammer, hand lens, maps, mineral hardness set, field notebook, pocket knife, GPS, sample bags, scale, watch, first aid kit, geologist imagination, pedometer, rucksack, map case, pocket stereoscope, cord, paper for wrapping samples, box for fossils, charts, tables, stereograms, trowel, shovel, chisel, funnel, needle, auto. Personal equipment’s: food, water, rain gear, spear socks, spear t-shirt, thermos, opener, knife, sunburn cream, toilet paper, lip salve, medicine, whistle, headlamp with spare 86 battery, smart phone, bivouac, clothing for the climate, laptop.

6.4. Environmental Geological Mapping

“The main task of environmental geological mapping is to carry out methodological research with special emphasis on the environmental condition, sensitivity and vulnerability of areas with different geological build-up; endangerment of water bodies; industrial, agricultural, mining and construction impacts affecting the geological environment and the resistance of the geological environment to environmental impacts. Representing the environmental condition, sensitivity and vulnerability of the geological agent on maps. Through environmental geological mapping, as a result of the revaluation of map data in the light of environmental geology, maps of different scales are compiled in accordance with and meeting the requirements of the Unified National Geological Map System” (MFGI). The aim of the collection of environmental geological maps is to present the geological information for environmental protection, waste disposal, groundwater protection and management. Based on the data of geological investigations and mapping different kind of environmental geological maps can be created. The map will consist of tectonic situation, basic geological information, quality and vulnerability of groundwater, and some environmental geological recommendations. Geological maps have provided the key to finding mineral resources, landslide hazards, sinkhole susceptibility, aquifers, potential earthquake epicentres, delineation of ecosystems, volcanic hazards, land suitable for buildings and contaminations pathways. The base of the environmental geological map is the “basic” geologic map which graphically shows the location of rocks, unconsolidated surface material and tectonic structures at the Earth’s surface, or below the ground (tunnel’s geological maps e.g. Bátaapáti site see earlier). The map uses different colours to represent one particular age of rock. The patterns show the type of the rock (e.g. limestone, sandstone). To create a geological map the geologist begins a mapping process by collecting all the available information in the field and form archive documents (journals, manuscripts, maps and reports). In the field the geologist should systematically observe and measure all the outcrops along roads, trails, remote areas, than along rivers and streams and also in

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS urban and artificial (quarries, excavation for buildings) territories. In each exposure the location must be recorded in advance. This can be a GPS coordinate with a short text description in to the field notebook about the location. Do not forget to mark the location on the topographic map (Figure 23) or aerial photo if available. The field notebook should include the detailed description of the rock type, texture, structures (strike) formation (rock unit) and fossils if present.

87

Figure 23 Intermediate field map

Some geologist use only modern systems and equipment. They do not use the printed maps and classic field notebook instead the ArcPad or similar is the most common used electronic equipment. It has advantages and disadvantages as well. The advantages are that the information is organized in a database, the outcrops has their identity which linked to the database immediately in the field. The main disadvantages are that during longer mapping period on remote areas the battery will be the weakest link. And also the hand drawing will be missing, which is quite important. The best way is to use both, each for their purpose and utilise only the advantages of the techniques.

6.4.1. Applied Geological Maps

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The vulnerability map shows hazardous areas on a scale of low to high vulnerability. We should keep in mind that these hazard vulnerability maps have limitations: they indicate only those types of hazard that may be active under present-day conditions. Mass movement condition can be changed by cutting out trees, or progressive erosion of slopes. The vulnerability maps provide less or no information about the intensity, frequency or time of occurrence of any geological process. The identification of two or more hazards does not means that the area is more hazardous than an area modified by 88 only one geological process. Three levels of vulnerability can be described: low, moderate and high. At low level no action required by the society but frequent monitoring is needed. Those areas not affected by hazardous geological processes unless human activities modify the area in any sense. The moderate level means that detailed risk assessment should be undertaken by geoscientist of geotechnical engineer. Those areas will be vulnerable in certain (extreme) condition such as extreme rainfall, flash floods and earthquakes. The high level of vulnerability areas needs plans to reduce risk and mitigation of risk to existing structures. This kind of areas may have evidence of previous events. In the case of a moderate or high level of vulnerability the site-specific geological-geotechnical evaluations must be carried out. The concept of groundwater vulnerability to contamination was introduced in the 1960s in France (Marget 1968) and later aquifer vulnerability assessment maps were adopted such as DRASTIC (Aller et al. 1987). In recent years the DRASTIC methods become the most common used. It provides a basis for evaluating the vulnerability to pollution of groundwater resources based on hydrogeologic parameters. And also provides an inexpensive method to identify areas that need more investigation and provides an approach to evaluate an area based on known conditions without the need for extensive, site specific pollution data. The following parameters used in the DRASTIC index (United States Environmental Protection Agency):  Depth to Groundwater: the depth from the ground surface to the water table in unconfined aquifer and to the bottom of the confining layer in confined aquifer;  Net Recharge: the total quantity of water which is applied to the ground surface and infiltrates to reach the aquifer;  Aquifer Media: consolidated or unconsolidated rock which serves as an aquifer;  Soil Media: the uppermost portion of the vadose zone characterized by significant biological activity;  Topography or Slope: The slope and slope variability of the land surface;

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 Impact of vadose zone media: the zone above the water table which is unsaturated or discontinuously saturated;  Hydraulic Conductivity of the Aquifer: the ability of the aquifer materials to transmit water. Each parameter is assigned a rate and a weight. Each of the parameters in the model is grouped into ranges of values or broad categories that are assigned a rate from 1-10. 89 6.4.2. Interpretation of Photographs

An aerial photograph is a picture taken from above the Earth’s surface. In environmental geology it is common to use aerial photographs what have been taken from airplane or from satellite. Those photographs are valuable tools for studying environmental phenomena and geology. The stereo photographs were very useful as well, but nowadays 3D models are available almost from everywhere. The biggest and most accessible database is the Google Earth. It provides a wide range of information what was previously unthinkable. One of the most useful and safest equipment for exploration in a case of an emergency (e.g. volcano eruption, landslides or toxic sludge flood) is the multirotor or multicopter. This radio controlled multirotors (hexacopter, octocopter) is a low-budget option for taking photographs from a safe distance. But the interpretation of a photograph requires practice. One of the difficulties is to identify objects. Nowadays most of the people who deal with environmental geology use Google Earth, so the recognition of an object is quite easy. Nevertheless we always have to use the older black and white photographs as well to see the changes in the environment (landslides, changes in vegetation or riverbeds). Some important aspects of features to consider when looking at aerial photograph are listed below (Table 8).

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Table 8 Aspects of features that aid in their recognition on aerial photographs (Avery and Berlin 1992)

Aspect of Characteristics of Features Helpful for Their Identification Features on Photograph s Shape Natural features, such as rivers, faults, coastlines and volcanoes, tend to be irregular in shape. 90 Human constructed features, such as roads or buildings, tend to have regular geometric shapes (landfill). Size Some features, such as homes or highways have approximate size familiar to most observers. Where such features can be located on a photograph, they can be used as a basis to infer the size of other features, such as rivers, open pit mines and abandoned quarries. Pattern Some geologic feature, such as landslides have characteristic patterns. For landslides these patterns commonly include a steep scarp at the top, and a lower area of displaced soil, rocks, and vegetation or human structures. Refer to introductory material in many exercises for descriptions of typical feature related to geologic hazards. Unmodified drainage patterns can reveal much about the underlying geology of an area. Shadow Taller objects will cast longer shadow when sun angles are low. A high sun angle, such as directly overhead of the feature being observed, will create only a small shadow. Low-sun-angle photography, with enhanced shadows, is often helpful in identifying geologic features such as fault scarps. Tone or Water is dark grey or black except where sunlight is reflected. Soil moisture, which is controlled by colour texture and type of soil, largely determines the difference in appearance of different fields on air photos. Texture Roughness or smoothness of features on aerial photographs can be helpful in identifying them. The texture of a given feature on a particular photograph depends on the scale of the photograph. For example a fresh lava flow may appear rough when viewed closely, but will appear smooth when viewed from farther away. Water will often be smooth; surf zone along coasts may; when viewed closely, appear rough. Association When looking at some features, other features are also found. Landslides may cause river to bend or if the landslides is large enough, lake may be created. Linear faults often are zones with more water and therefore greater vegetation. Active volcanoes may have fresh lava areas where there is no vegetation. Site Thinking about typical sites for features can help identify objects on photos. Floodplains are a natural part of river systems.

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7. Skills

7.1. Generic Skills

Knowledge is acquired through indoor class exercises, laboratory practice and mainly during fieldwork. To work as an environmental geologist or to be part of a team you 91 have to possession the knowledge of understanding most of the followings:  The importance of earth science in a natural hazard context;  The limits of the existing methods (use the best available technology) and techniques for hazard assessment;  The wide range of contamination problems, and hazards and their importance to the human and natural environment;  The correct analysis and research techniques for the assessment of many different geological hazards;  The essential behaviour of rock, soil and water and their testing methods in the laboratory or on the field;  The issues of water, soil and ground contamination.

Also have to possession some important cognitive skills like:  Integrate theory and practice and test the hypotheses;  Apply forward-thinking earth science principles to solve a complex problem or hazard;  Show the skills crucial to plan and report project;  Analyse and interpret the results from both field and laboratory test procedures.

With the practical skills possessed you must be able to:  Described and record rocks or soils in natural outcrops and in manmade environment (quarry, tunnel/shaft, road cut) and also in laboratory. Using international and European standards;  Prepare technical reports, research papers and give presentations;  Use scientific literatures efficiently, understand the scientific background and references sources properly;

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 Analyse laboratory and field test data;  Use geological and statistical computation tools and use applied (environmental) geological mapping techniques to present field collected data.

7.2. Award Specific Skills

University students or experts have to achieve many basic skills at different level for a 92 successful fieldwork. The general skills can be separated to three levels. To reach the first level you will need mainly recording skills, for the second you need to record, observe and identify problems and risks. At the third level you have to perform independently full hazard and risk assessment and to deal with advanced design methods. Level one.  Observation: Make a basic field observation, in well maintained field notebook, with respect to the nature of place and the spatial and temporal variation of its components.  Basic Analysis: Manipulate basic field data in the laboratory using appropriate methodologies, and make simple observation with respect to any obvious spatial and temporal patterns and their environmental significance.  Basic Problem Solving: Identify a simple, fieldwork-related, research problem and formulate a basic strategy to try and solve it in the time available.  Recording and measuring: Record basic field data with respect to the physical processes operating at a particular place using an appropriate sampling strategy and, if necessary, suitable instrumentation. Maintain a basic field note book. Record observations and collect appropriate field data both as part of a team and individually.  Safety: Perform a basic hazard and risk assessment at field site, based on a desk- top study and/or field observations/data.

Level two.  Observation and Recording: Make detailed field observations, in a well maintained field notebook, with respect to the nature of place and the spatial and temporal variation of its key components. Organise on daily basis, the recording of observations and the collection of appropriate field data, both as part of a team and individually.  Measuring and Sampling: Collect detailed field data with respect to the physical processes operating at particular

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place using appropriate sampling strategy, and if necessary, suitable instrumentation. Collect and described field samples, using appropriate sampling strategy, in order to characterise a particular physical component of a place and identify the nature of its spatial and/or temporal variability.  Data Analysis: Manipulate field data and/or field samples in the laboratory using appropriate methodologies, and make detailed observations with respect to the nature of any spatial and temporal patterns observed and their environmental 93 significance.  Experimental Design: Identify a fieldwork-related research problem and formulate a full strategy, including explicit experimental/survey methods and design, to try and solve it in the time available.  Safety: As part of a group, perform a full hazard and risk assessment at a field site, based on desk-top study and/or field observations/data.

Level three.  Advanced Design Method: Identify and contextualise within theoretical learning, a complex, fieldwork-related, research problem formulate a full strategy, including explicit experimental/survey methods and design, to try and solve it in the time available. Execute, in a given time-window, a well-design strategy to solve a particular fieldwork-related research problem, utilising appropriate field observations, field data, field samples, and qualitative and quantitative data/sample assessment methods.  Advanced Analyses: Reflect on the effectiveness and appropriateness of a given fieldwork-related research strategy, suggesting how it might be improved or enhanced.  Safety: Independently perform a full hazard and risk assessments at a field site, based on a desk-top study and/or field observations/data.

7.3. Transferable Skills /Report Writing

The completion of any environmental research is usually followed by a report to explain the geology, the environment, the type and the spread of the contamination. In fact scientists spend more time preparing reports than spending time with field surveys and with laboratory works. The good final environmental geological report is about the investigation not about the researchers. Some of them can mix it up. The report has an appropriate structure: title, abstract, introduction, methods, results, explanation, conclusion, extended abstract in English,

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS references, appendix. The extent of each chapter should be the following: summary and introduction 10-15%, literature review up to 20%, methods and material 10%, results 20-30%, interpretation of the results up to 20%, conclusion and acknowledge 5-10%, references maximum 10%. The scientific style is compulsory in every language. The text must be written in clear Hungarian or English, depending on the customer. Also, it has to be brief, simple, punctual and unequivocal. The first step is the preparation, when you collect all the 94 information and data which was collected during field work and laboratory work. After the first draft the revise is important, to check the content and also the grammar and spelling mistakes. The repetition of the words can be confusing all the time, try to change them with synonyms. The exaggeration can be problem as well, but try to avoid the words like perhaps, probably, possibly. Stand up for yourself to your opinions on report. The title page must be clear and simple. Avoid big pictures and figures, but the company logo must be present here. The title has to be as short as possible and as informative as possible. Nice and clear title page show that it is worth to read. The authors name must be present on the front page. The first author done most of the work, but it can change country by country. The summary should not exceed 250 words, but in scientific paper maximum of 200 words. For a shorter report even less, around 100 words. The summary should be written last, and must contain the aim, the methods, the results and the conclusion as well. Possible errors: the authors try to explain the title in this section or include that idea what not present in the report or in the paper. Introduction is needed for the report, to know what it is about. You should present the previous results of the area. Published and unpublished (manuscript) reports as well. This chapter can include the motivation of the author, the theories about the topics and also the conflicting ideas of any author. Map of the district help the readers. For remote regions use more than one detailed maps. Material and methods are part of the main body of the report or of the scientific paper. The exhaustive explanation of each method is not necessary, but the results must be repeatable by the presented way. The used material can be demonstrated here and also the sampling and sample preparation. Results: only the important and representative results have to be in that chapter. Depending on the customer the regional geology, stratigraphy, the type and spreads and the pathways of the contamination can be subsection. Conclusion and/or discussion are the last part of the main body. Sometimes it tells the reader about the author’s recommendations, the cost, the possibilities of remediation, but hypothesis must be

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS avoided. The potential practical application in the case of a scientific paper is essential. References: each scientific paper use different formats. However all the references what you cite in the text must present here even if it is an unpublished work or a verbal notice. You can refer websites, e-mails, chats (Skype, Facebook, Twitter) or anything with the correct citation. Reference should be made without religious affiliation, interest group and exclusion of any of your unloved college. 95 Acknowledge should include the ones whom received help, both in the preparation of the report and in the field. Sometimes it has to say thank you to the sponsors and to the supporters (it can be a foundation, government or a company). Appendixes contain the list of analytical data, sample locations, cross section, graphs etc. The appendix can be longer then the main body in some industrial report. With the achieved transferable skills, the one able to:  Give an appropriate oral presentation;  Communicate effectively in verbally and in (e.g. report) writing;  To use competent and up to date information technology;  Works as member of a team and work independently;  Demonstrate project planning and time/task management skills and as well demonstrate problem solving skills appropriate to an (environmental) geologist.

7.4. Find a Job

Today the importance of the environmental stewardship is unprecedented. As businesses go “green" and society becomes more proactive your role as an environmental geologist (scientist) is to provide opportunities and to participate in projects that will protect the Earth's natural resources and the society one from the other. In the last subsection we would like to give you a short description about what is an environmental geologist what and where they generally work. And also some example about what the employer needs from you as an environmental geologist and what kind of skill you should achieve during your studies and university practice. An environmental geologist is a scientist who studies the interaction between society and the Earth’s natural environment and the impact of various human activities on the environment. Environmental geologists work to keep the environment safe and healthy while also making it accessible and useful for people. They can work for city councils, state agencies, private consulting firms, oil companies,

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS national parks, research companies, research labs, mines, natural areas and many other organizations, performing a wide range of tasks. Most environmental geologists spend their time working in an office doing research and doing fieldwork. Both are commonly required as part of educational and professional activities. In Hungary only a few environmental geologists spend the whole year doing fieldwork, living and working far from home. Nevertheless working abroad in remote areas the working conditions is totally different than at home. Covering large areas on 96 foot or using all-terrain vehicles, boats, helicopters or airplanes can a be a daily routine. In remote areas collecting special samples may also involve covering considerable distances on foot and sometimes travelling a day to reach the sampling place. Some environmental geologist spend their time advocating various environmental issues, lobbying government, companies or civil society organization (NGO) and raising money for hardly contaminated areas. At a minimum, an environmental geologist should hold a bachelor's degree in earth science, geology or environmental studies. Many working professionals (at least 5 years of work experience) have masters or doctoral degrees in geology, earth science or environmental studies, especially if they work as a university teachers or instructors. Environmental geologists spend most of their time in the field, studying geological sites, taking samples, and they also work in an office or lab, performing tests, writing reports and making policy recommendations. It is important to mention that without a (working) experience it is almost impossible to find a job. Most of the companies accept the university practice as a short work experience if it links to the job description.  Minimum qualifications for the above mentioned positions:  Bachelor of Science or Master’s degree in Geology, Environmental Science, Environmental Engineering or Earth Science according to the Hungarian educational system. In other countries such as United Kingdom or USA there are many different, more specified courses available. For example: Applied and Environmental Geology BSc, Applied Environmental Geology MSc, Environmental Geology and Contamination MSc, Environmental Geoscience BSc and MSc, Geological and Environmental Hazards MSc;  40 hrs. HASWOPR (Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Training) required in the UK and in the USA;  Experience with groundwater monitoring, well sampling methods including multi-parameter meter and interface probe;  Soil sampling and soil description experience including the collection and description of soil samples and hand drilled samples;  Sometimes overnight in-county travel is required even in Hungary, such travel can expected to exceed 100% of the

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field time. The valid driving license is also a major requirement especially in the US and sometimes in Hungary, too. The general tasks can be the followings: Basic tasks: o Collect and interpret rock samples and cores from field studies and test for pollutant materials; 97 o Classify and identify fossilized life forms and minerals, chemicals and biological composition to assess depositional environments and geological age; o Study the effects of the erosion, sedimentation and tectonic deformation; o Assess the movement of ground and surface waters and advice in areas such as waste management, route and site selection and the restoration of contaminated sites; o Prepare geological maps, cross-sectional diagrams and reports from field work and laboratory research; o Conduct environmental geological surveys and field studies; o Work as part of a team (i.e. drilling, sampling and routine testing) and overseeing specialty subcontractors. Mid-level tasks: o Analyse data; prepare remedial reports, conduct feasibility studies, engineering evaluations, and cost assessments; and design and implement remedial systems and pilot studies; o Assist the senior project manager to plan, staff, schedule, budget, and ensure quality of work products, consistency across projects, ensure safety of staff, and coordinate with subcontractors and internal support staff, including senior technologists and subject matter experts; o Grow to serve as a technical leader for the site remediation and revitalization practice; o Support the senior project manager in day-to-day interaction with our clients and regulators and present information. Advance-level tasks: o Provide technical advice to clients, members of the public, interest groups, regulatory bodies or local government authorities; o Prepare reports and presentations on the environmental impacts of social activities such as mining or remediation;

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS o Manage projects within the project life cycle (remedial investigation through operations and maintenance); o Manage remediation tasks/projects involving design, permitting, and construction of remedial systems; o The above mentioned tasks are only a small overview of the general requirements. They can vary from job to job and company to company. But good 98 to have those skills (see earlier sections) which are needed to solve those problems. Most environmental geologists would probably describe themselves more specifically by the work (tasks) they do every day.

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8. Acknowledgment

The textbook were made under the tender of TAMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 „’Green Energy in Higher Education. I am using this opportunity to express my gratitude to PURAM and to Mecsekérc Ltd for data and for their useful help. 99 I express my warm thanks to Gyula Konrád for his support and for the professional review and János Kovács for the language editing.

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9. References and Further Reading

Aller. L., Bennett T., Lehr JH., Petty RH. and Hackett G. 1987: DRASTIC: a standard system for evaluating groundwater pollution potential using hydrogeologic settings. USEPA Report 600/2, 87/035 Angino E. E. 1977: High-level and long-lived radioactive waste disposal. Science V. 198, pp. 885-890 Avery T. E. and Berlin G. L. 1992: Fundamentals of remote sensing and airphoto interpretation. Macmillan, New York, 5th ed., 472 p. 100 Balázs F. and Kraft J. 1998: Pécs város településfejlődésének mérnökgeológiai vonatkozásai. JPTE Egyetemi Kiadó, Pécs, 183 p. Balla Z. 2004: General characteristics of the Bátaapáti (Üveghuta) Site (South-western Hungary). Annual Report of the Geological Institute of Hungary, 2003. pp. 73-85. Banik J., Csővári M. and Németh G. 2011: Uranium or mining and remediation of the site on Hungary. IAEA publication. ISBN 978-92-0-169310-5, pp. 125-137. Benkhard B. and Kiss G. 2003: Földtudományi értékek kataszterezése 2002-2003. Környezetgazdálkodási Intézet Természetvédelmi Igazgatóság. Környezetgazdálkodási Intézet, Budapest I-VI. kötet. Berta Zs. And Csicsák J. 2002: Conception plan for the long-term task following the abandonment of uranium ore mining. MECSEKÉRC RT. 2001. 95. p. BIT Ltd. (ed. by J. Haas): Country-wide Screening. Potential Host Formations for Final Disposal of High Level Radioactive Wastes in Hungary. Final report (in Hungarian). Veszprém. 2000. October 2. PURAM Archives. BIT Ltd. (ed. by L. Kovács): Criteria for the Country-wide Screening Determining the Potential Host Formations for Final Disposal of High Level Radioactive Wastes in Hungary. (in Hungarian). Veszprém. 30. May 2000; PURAM Archives. Brassington R. 2006: Field Hydrogeology. John Wiley & Sons 276 p. Brocx M. and Semeniuk V. 2007: Geoheritage and geoconversation – history, definition, scope and scale. Journal of royal Society of Western Australia, 90: pp 53.87. Budai T. and Gyalog L. (szerk) 2009: Magyarország földtani atlasza országjáróknak. Budapest, Magyar Állami Földtani Intézet. 247 p Budai T., Chikán G., Fodor L., Koroknai B., Magyari Á., Mars Gy., Máthé Z. and Konrád Gy. 2004: A feltárás és fúrásleírás részletes terve. - OFG Adattár.54 p. Burns D., Muschamp k., Farqhuar G., Mills M. and Williams A. 2005: Field Descrition of Soil and Rocks. New Zealand Geotechnical Society (NZGS). p. 40 Chikán G., Szentpétery I., Nagy Sz., Kerék B., Selmeczi I. and Csillag G. 2012: Geoheritage in Hungary – present and future. European Geologist No. 34., pp. 19-23. Clayton C. R. I., Matthews M. C. and Simons N. E. 1995: Site Investigation. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Surrey 592p Coates D. R. 1981. Environmental Geology. John Wiley and Son, Canada. 701 p. Coch N. K. and Ludman A. 1991: Cserny T. 2008: Víz és környezetföldtan. Oktatási segédanyag. Sopron, 55 p. Cummins, Arthur B.,Diatomite, in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 3rd ed. 1960, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, pp. 303–319 Déchy M. 1912: A természet védelme és a nemzeti parkok. Term.Tud. Közlöny 546. klny. 1-2. Devereux S. 2012: Drilling Technology in Nontechnical Language. PennWell Corp. 2nd edition. 382 p. Division of Radiation, Transport and Waste Safety 2010: An International Peer Review of the Long Term Care Programme of the Former Sites of Uranium Production, Near Pécs, Hungary Report of the IAEA International Review Team. IAEA publication. Vienna . 84. p Domenico, P.A. and F.W. Schwartz, 1990. Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 824 p Doornkamp, J. C., Brunsden, D., Cooke, R. U., Jones, David K. C. and Griffiths, J. S. (1987) Environmental geology mapping: an international review. Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, 4 . pp. 215-219. ISSN 0267- 9914 Dunham, R.J. 1962. Classification of Carbonate Rocks According to Depositional Texture. In, W.E. Hamm (Ed.), Classification of Carbonate

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Rocks, A Symposium. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 108-121. Evans D. M. 1966: Man-made earthquakes in Denver: Geotimes v. 10, pp. 11-18. Fedor, F., Kovács, L., Benkovics, I., Szűcs, I. 2009: The New Conceptual Model in Boda HLW/SF Project, S- Hungary , in Approaches and Challenges for the Use of Geological Information in the Safety Case for Deep Disposal of Radioactive Waste, 3rd AMIGO Workshop Proceedings, OECD NEA No. 6417, pp. 177-184 Fetter C. W. 1994: Applied Hydrogeology. MacMillan, New York 598 p. Földessy J. editor 2008: Környezetföldtan. Környezetmérnöki tudástár, Pannon Egyetem. 336 p. Folk, R.L. 1959. Practical petrographic classification of limestones. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 19, p. 730-781. 101 Fry N. 2013: The Field Description of Metamorphic Rocks. Geological Society of London Handbook Series John Wiley & Sons 300 p. Gellai M., Baross G. 1995: Fejezetek és gondolatok a földtani természetvédelem kialakulásáról, tartalmáról (és mai helyzetéről), avagy a hazai földtani természetvédelem 569 éve. Földtani Közlöny 125/1, pp. 149-165. Gyalog L., Havas G., Maigut V., Maros Gy. and Szebényi G. 2004: Geological-tectonic documentation in the Bátaapáti (Üveghuta) Site. Annual Report of the Geological Institute of Hungary, 2003. MÁFI, Budapest, pp. 171-187. Halász A., Konrád Gy., Sebe K. and Szederkényi T. 2008: Geological environment of a possible waste repository site in SE Transdanubia (Hungary) In: Lóczy D, Tóth J, Trócsányi A (szerk.) Progress in Geography in the European Capital of Culture 2010 Imedias Publisher. Pp. 271-282. Hámos, G., Majoros, GY. and Máthé, Z. (1996), The geology of Boda site, Hungary. Surface and URL based investigations. TOPSEAL ’96 Transactions, Stockholm,Vol. II., pp. 196-199. Howard, Lonnie V. Hatfield, Kirk. and Christensen, B A. 1995: Minimum cost design of a funnel-and-gate system International Symposium on Groundwater Management - Proceedings 1995. ASCE, New York, NY, USA. p 259-264 http://jogszabalykereso.mhk.hu/cgi_bin/njt_doc.cgi?docid=18866.609597 (visited on March 2014) http://www.eurssem.eu/ http://www.mfgi.hu/en/node/799 (March 17 2014) http://www.nr.gov.nl.ca/ Jámbor Á. 1998: A rétegtani munka terepen. — In: Bérczi, I., Jámbor Á. (szerk.): Magyarország Geológiai képződményeinek rétegtana, MOL, MÁFI, 1981, Budapest, pp. 29–43. Jerram D. and Petford N. 2011: The Field description of Igneous Rocks (Geological Field Guide). John Wiley & Sons 256 p. John W. Barnes and Richard J. Lisle 2004: Basic Geological Mapping. Geological Society of London Handbook Series Wiley 196 p. K. R. McClay 2013: The Mapping of Geological Structures. Geological Society of London Handbook Series John Wiley & Sons 168 p. Kious, W. Jacquelyne; Tilling, Robert I. 1996: This dynamic Earth:the story of plate tectonics. U.S Geological Survey, 70 p. Király E. and Koroknai B. 2004: The magmatic and metamorphic evolution of the north-eastern part of the Mórágy Block. Annual Report of the Geological Institute of Hungary, 2003. pp. 299-310. Kiss G. and Benkhard B. 2006: Kő kövön… marad. Útikalauz látványos földtani, felszínalaktani és víztani objektumok megismeréséhez. Környezetvédelmi és Vízügyi Minisztérium. Budapest 216 p. Konrád Gy. 1998: Jelentés a Bodai Aleurolit Formáció 1995-98. évi kutatásáról. Kézirat, Mecsekérc Zrt. Adattár, Kővágószőlős, 102 p. Konrád Gy. 2012: A BAF Ny-mecseki ismert előfordulási területének elvi rétegsora. Kézirat PTE 2 p. Konrád Gy. and Barabás A: Környezetföldtani tanulmány a garéi hulladékégetőhöz. PTE Földtani Tanszék kézirat. Konrád, Gy. and Hámos, G. (2006), A magyarországi nagy aktivitású radioaktív hulladéktároló telephely kijelölésének földtani szempontjai és az eddigi kutatások eredményei (Geological aspects and results of the investigations carried out to site a high-level radioactive waste repository in Hungary). Acta Geographica, Geologica et Meteorologica Debrecina, 1, 33-39. (In Hungarian). Konrád, Gy., Sebe, K., Halász, A. and Babinszki, E. 2010: Sedimentology of a Permian Playa Lake: Boda Claystone Formation, Hungary. – In. Geologos Vol. 16, No. 1, Poland, pp. 24-41.

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Lohman S. W. 1979: Ground-water hydraulics. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, 708 p. Margat J. 1968: Groundwater vulnerability to contamination. 68 SGC 198 HYD, BRGM, Orleans. McBriar M 1995 Foreword. In: E B Joyce, A report prepared for the Australian Heritage Commission by the Standing Committee for the Geological Heritage of the Geological Society of Australia Inc., Sydney, NSW. Metz B., Davidson O., Coninck H., Loos M. and Meyer L. 2005: IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. Cambridge University Press. 432 p. Nagy G. editor 2002 Hulladékgazdálkodás (egyetemi jegyzet). Széchenyi István Egyetem, 172 p. Nathanail, P and Nathanail, J. 2003; Risk-based site characterisation, Wastes Management, p.49 – 50, CIWM (Chartered Institute of Wastes Management), October 2003 102 Némedi Varga Z. 1998: A Mcsek és a Villányi-hegység jura képződményeinek rétegtana. In: Bérczi I. and Jámbor Á. Magyarország geológiai képződményeinek rétegtana. MOL Rt. – MÁFI Budapest. pp. 319- 336. Newhall C. and Self S. 1982: The Volcanic Explosive Index (VEI): An Estimate of Explosive Magnitude for Historical Volcanism. Journal of Geophysical Research 87. pp. 1231- 1238. Nguyen J-P. 1996: Drilling. Editions OPHRYS 367 p. Nős B., Molnár P. and Baksay A. 2012 Disposal of Low and Intermediate Level Waste in Hungary. Rudarsko-Geološko-Naftni Zbornik Vol 24. pp. 81-85. Oroszi S. 2012: Mit hozott az 1879. évi erdőtörvény? A mi erdőnk 212/04 Paone J., Morning J.L., and Giorgetti L. 1974: Land utilization and reclamation int he mining industry 1930- 71. US Bureau of Mines Info. 61 p. Philpotts A.R. Petrography of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks. Waveland Press Inc, Illinois 188 p. Schneiderbauer, S. 2007: Risk and Vulnerability to Natural Disasters – from Broad View to Focused Perspective. Dissertation uóUnive of Freiburg. 31 p. Schoeneberger, P.J., D.A. Wysocki, E.C. Benham, and Soil Survey Staff. 2012: Field book for describing and sampling soils, Version 3.0. Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE. Sharp R. P. 1988: Living ice – understanding glaciers and glaciation. New York, Cambridge University Press, 248 p. Solti G. 1987: Magyarország alginit és olajpala vagyonának mezőgazdasági hasznosítása. MÁFI kiadás. Budapest. (1987.) Terry, R.D. and G.V. Chilingar 1955. Summary of “Concerning Some Additional Aids in Studying Sedimentary Formations” by M.S. Shuetsov. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 25, p. 229-234 The description of rock masses for engineering purposes: Report by the Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, November 1977, v. 10:355-388, doi:10.1144/GSL.QJEG.1977.010.04.01 Tucker M. E. 2011: Sedimentary Rocks in the Field. The Geological Field Guide Series. John Wiley & Sons 288 p. Tucker M.E. 1991: Sedimentary Petrology (3rd edition) Blackwell Scientific Publication, Oxford. 272 p. Varga, A. R., Szakmány, Gy., Raucsik, B. and Máthé, Z. (2005), Chemical composition, provenance and early diagenetic processes of playa lake deposits from the Boda Siltstone Formation (Upper Permian), SW Hungary. Acta Geologica Hungarica 48/1, pp. 49-68. Vass D., Eelecko M. and Konecny V. 1997: Alginite, a raw material for environmental control. Geology Today, volume 13, Issue 4, pp. 149-153 Winberger L.W., Stephan D.G. and Middleton F. M. 1966: Solving our water problems – water renovation and reuse. Ann. New York Ac. Sci. 136. pp. 131-154. Winkler H. G. F. 1976: Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks. Spreinger-Verlag, 334 p.

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10. Appendix

10.1. List of the Main Source of Law and Regulation

It was not translated to English by purpose, because most of them cannot be found in English. 10/2000 (VI.2) KöM-EüM-FVM-KHVM együttes rendelet a felszín alatti víz és a földtani közeg minőségi védelméhez szükséges határértékekről 104 10/2000. (VI. 2.) KöM-EüM-FVM-KHVM együttes rendelet a felszín alatti víz és földtani közeg minőségi védelméhez szükséges határértékekről 123/1997 (VII.18.) Kormány rendelet a vízbázisok, távlati vízbázisok, valamint az ivóvízellátást szolgáló vízi-létesítmények védelméről. Ezzel összefügg a többször módosított 2249/1995 (VIII. 31.) Korm. határozat az Ivóvízbázis-védelmi Program végrehajtásáról 18/1996 (VI.13.) KHVM rendelet a vízjogi engedélyezési eljáráshoz szükséges kérelemről és mellékleteiről 193/2001. (X.19.) Korm. rendelet az egységes környezethasználati engedélyezési eljárás részletes szabályairól 1993 évi XLVIII. Törvény a bányászatról 1993. évi XLVIII törvény a bányászatról 1994. évi LV. törvény a termőföldről 1995 évi LIII. Törvény a környezet védelmének általános szabályairól 1995 évi LVII. Törvény a vízgazdálkodásról 1995. évi LIII törvény a környezet védelmének általános szabályairól 1995. évi LVII. törvény A vízgazdálkodásról 2000. évi XLIII. törvény a hulladékgazdálkodásról 201/2001 (X.25.) Kormány rendelet az ivóvíz minőségi követelményeiről és az ellenőrzés rendjéről 203/1998 (V.22.) Kormány rendelet a bányászatról szóló 1993. évi XLVIII. törvény végrehajtásáról 219/2004 (VII.21.) Kormány rendelet a felszín alatti vizek védelméről 219/2004.(VII. 21.) Korm. rendelet a felszín alatti vizek védelméről 22/2001. (X. 10.) KöM rendelet a hulladéklerakás, valamint a hulladéklerakók lezárásának és utógondozásának szabályairól és egyes feltételeiről 2205/1996. (VII.24.) Korm. határozat az állami felelősségi körbe tartozó, hátrahagyott környezetkárosodások kármentesítéséről 239/2000 (XII.23.) Kormányrendelet a bányatavak hasznosításával kapcsolatos jogokról, kötelezettségekről 240/2000.(XII. 23.) Korm. rendelet a települési szennyvíztisztítás szempontjából érzékeny felszíni vizek és vízgyûjtőterületük kijelöléséről 276/2005 (XII.20.) Kormány rendelet a környezetvédelmi és vízügyi miniszter irányítása alá tartozó központi és területi szervek feladat- és hatásköréről 28/2004. (XII. 25) KvVM rendelet a vízszennyező anyagok kibocsátásaira vonatkozó határértékekrôl és alkalmazásuk egyes szabályairól 3/1975 (VIII.30.) OVH rendelkezés a vízkútfúrással kapcsolatos szakmai követelmények megállapításáról 30/2004 (XII.30) KvVM rendelet a felszín alatti vizek vizsgálatának egyes szabályairól 30/2004. (XII. 30.) KvVM rendelet A felszín alatti vizek vizsgálatának egyes szabályairól 31/2004.(XII. 30.) KvVM rendelet A felszíni vizek megfigyelésének és állapotértékelésének egyes szabályairól 65/2004 (IV.27.) FVM-ESzCsM-GKM együttes rendelet a természetes ásványvíz, a forrásvíz, az ivóvíz, az ásványi anyaggal dúsított ivóvíz és az ízesített víz palackozásának és forgalomba hozatalának szabályairól

TÁMOP-4.1.1.C-12/1/KONV-2012-0012 ZÖLD ENERGIA FELSŐOKTATÁSI EGYÜTTMŰKÖDÉS

7/2006. (K.V.Ért.3.) KvVM utasítása a környezetvédelmi és vízügyi előirányzatok működtetésének szabályairól szóló 4/2005 (K.V.Ért.3.) KvVM utasítás módosításáról 72/1996 (V.22.) Kormány rendelet vízgazdálkodási hatósági jogkör gyakorlásáról 74/1999 (XII.25.) EüM rendelet a természetes gyógytényezőkről MSZ 12749/1993 A felszíni vizek minősége, minőségi jellemzők és minősítés

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