Remapping the Sino-Japanese Dialectic: Sino-Japanese Interplay in Linked Verse Compositions of Japan, 14th to 17th Centuries Kai Xie A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2017 Reading Committee: Paul S. Atkins, Chair Edward Mack Ping Wang Program Authorized to Offer Degree: Asian Languages and Literature ©Copyright 2017 Kai Xie iii University of Washington Abstract Remapping the Sino-Japanese Dialectic: Sino-Japanese Interplay in Linked Verse Compositions of Japan, 14th to 17th centuries Kai Xie Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Professor of Japanese, Paul S. Atkins Asian Languages and Literature This dissertation examines the juxtaposition, interaction, and integration of what Japanese authors conceived of as “Japanese” and “Chinese” elements in linked verse compositions of Japan from the 14th to 17th centuries. Through examining un- or under-explored forms of linked verse, it shows the multiple dimensions of Japanese conceptions and representations of “China” and the complexity surrounding the Sino-Japanese relationship. A significant part of this dissertation is devoted to the discussion of Sino-Japanese interplay in wakan renku (linked verse in Japanese and Chinese) and wakan haikai (popular linked verse in Japanese and Chinese), in which verses written in vernacular Japanese and verses written in the form of classical Chinese (kanbun) were composed in alternating turns. In some cases, the Chinese verses comprehensively imitated precedents by Chinese authors, and they iv formed a very distinctive world from the one created by the Japanese verses that generally maintained Japanese poetic traditions. These linked verse sequences thus display a juxtaposition, confrontation, and integration of two entities that vary greatly in terms of poetic topoi, idea, sentiment, and style. In many cases, however, the so-called “Chinese” verses deviated from Chinese poetic traditions. Sometimes they draw upon vernacular Japanese poetry. Sometimes individual Chinese verses build on Chinese poetry but are linked in a Japanese way. Sometimes the Chinese verses do not make sense in Chinese; they only take the form of Chinese poetry but juxtapose it with vernacularized, Japanese content. These examples show the instability and hybridity embodied by the “Chineseness.” The boundary between Japanese and Chinese verses is greatly blurred and confused. Meanwhile, these examples reveal that the Sino-Japanese relationship within literary texts produced by Japanese authors is not unidirectional: vernacular Japanese texts also exerted influence on kanbun texts, making them diverge from Chinese poetic traditions. This dissertation also studies Japanese linked verse that heavily engaged with Chinese elements, focusing on compositions by the circle of Matsuo Bashō, the best-known poet in early modern Japan. On the one hand, I explore various ways Bashō’ circle appropriated Chinese literature in the “Chinese style” popular linked verse, demonstrating that their absorption of Chinese literature and thought on the spiritual level contributed to sublimating popular linked verse into a serious art. On the other hand, this dissertation seeks to demonstrate that Bashō’s reception of Chinese texts was sometimes mediated by Yamaguchi Sodō, who had profound knowledge in Chinese studies and was also a respected poet of popular linked verse. The existence of mediums between Chinese literature and Japanese reception casts doubt on a neat division of “Japan” and “China”. v Acknowledgement First, I am deeply indebted to the chair of my dissertation committee, Paul S. Atkins. Knowing my interests in linked verse and Sino-Japanese interactions, he showed me the volumes of wakan renku sequences transcribed and annotated by the scholars at Kyoto University, which planted seed for my dissertation project. He also designed and taught a graduate seminar on Japanese linked verse, which greatly deepened my understanding of the genre. Not to mention that he has provided professional guidance and insightful comments throughout the process. Edward Mack, who was also a committee member, has always been inspiring. His classes and conversations with me greatly fostered my skills of critical thinking. Wang Ping, although joining my dissertation committee relatively late, always offered help promptly when I needed. In addition, I would like to express my sincere gratitude toward David R. Knechtges, who was originally on my dissertation committee. I greatly benefited from learning classical Chinese literature from him. He has always been so supportive and encouraging, and his guidance and advice have been illuminating. He offered to help even after his retirement. I have also profited from taking classes from and having conversations with other professors at the University of Washington (UW), including but not limited to, Davinder Bhowmik, William Boltz, Kyoto Tokuno, and Zev Handel. Thanks are also due to my professors at the University of Massachusetts Amherst (UMass), especially Doris G. Bargen, Stephen D. Miller, and Stephen M. Forrest. Their classes inspired my interest in premodern Japanese literature, and their encouragement gave me confidence to pursue my research interests in a PhD program. I have greatly benefited from my correspondences with Sato Hiroaki on haiku, haikai, and Japanese literature and culture in vi general. I got to know him when he was an adjunct professor of UMass, but he has been so supportive even after I graduated from there. Besides constantly provided invaluable resources and advice, he also introduced me to poets and scholars who share an interest in haiku and haikai. I appreciate the help that librarians at UMass and UW provided. Whenever I have a question about how to find resources for my research, Sharon Domier always knows the answer. I thank Saeko Suzuki for obtaining copies of wakan haikai sequences for me from the Tenri University while she was participating a workshop in that area. I would also like to thank the Graduate School at the University of Washington Seattle for awarding me the Presidential Dissertation Fellowship, which released me from one semester of teaching. Moreoever, thanks are due to the generous financial support provided by the Elizabeth Kerr Macfarlane Endowed Scholarship. Last but not least, this dissertation would not have been possible without the love and support of my family. My husband, Tao Hu, supported my decision to go to Seattle for pursuing my PhD, and we overcame the difficulty of keeping a long-distance relationship for five years. My son, Asher, who just turned 10 months, is a miracle of my life. Although writing dissertation while taking care of him has not been easy, the joy he has brought to me and my family is limitless. Because of him, I am even more motivated to work hard for my career and my family. I cannot say enough thanks to my parents, who have always been there for me and have been patient and loving even when I was weakest and most frustrated. vii Table of Contents Introduction 1 1 Poetic Dialogue between the Elites and Zen Monks: Linked verse in Japanese and Chinese 11 Renku by Zen monks 12 Wakan Renku 16 “When Blowing Dew”: A 100-Verse Wakan Renku Sequence 24 Conclusion 47 2 Approaching Japanese Linked Verse: Linked Verse in Japanese and Chinese in the Court 51 Renku and Wakan Renku in the Court 52 Diary Entries about Wakan Renku Gatherings 54 Individual Wa and Kan Verses in Wakan Renku Compositions in the Court 60 Linking and Progression of Wakan Renku Sequences 68 Renku by Zen Monks after the 1500s 77 Conclusion 83 3 Hybridity, Visuality, and Play: Popular Linked Verse in Japanese and Chinese before the 1680s 85 A Brief History of Wakan Haikai 86 A Blurred Boundary between Wa and Kan Verses 90 Wakan Haikai as a Distinctive Poetic Form 97 Kanji as a Vehicle for Visual Textuality 100 Conclusion 112 4 From Form to Spirit: Infusing Chinese Elements in Japanese Popular Linked Verse 115 Creating Visual Impact 118 Infusing an Alien World 126 Absorbing Poetic Essence of Chinese Literature 139 Conclusion 159 5 Mediating Between Chinese Studies and Bashō: Yamaguchi Sodō and his Interactions with Bashō 163 Yamaguchi Sodō 164 Sodō and Bashō as Haikai Buddies 170 Sodō’s Kanshi in Correspondence with Bashō 178 A Poetic Dialogue between Wa and Kan: “Sunlight on Gable” 194 Sodō’s Role in the Establishment of the Bashō Style 202 Conclusion 216 Conclusion 219 Bibliography 223 1 Introduction “China,” or at least what Japanese authors conceived of as “China,” is ubiquitous in classical Japanese literature.1 There is abundant scholarship (especially in Japanese) that scrupulously examines how a specific Japanese text imitates, draws upon, or (and) transforms Chinese sources. In English language scholarship, David Pollack and Atsuko Sakaki think beyond the “‘objective’ facts of cultural influence” and focus on the general way the notions of Japan and China were conceptualized and represented in Japanese literature, which they analyze within the framework of a Sino-Japanese dialectic.2 Specifically, Pollack regards this Sino- Japanese relationship as a “dialectical relationship between the antitheses of alien form and native content.”3 Sakaki argues that “the China/Japan polarity, manifested in a variety of contrastive images, persists” from the tenth to the twentieth centuries.4 This dissertation also deals with the Sino-Japanese relationship as imagined in Japanese literature, but it tends to deconstruct the Sino-Japanese dialectic by presenting the multiplicity and instability embodied by the “Chineseness” and highlighting the complexity surrounding the Sino-Japanese relationship.5 It focuses on the genre of linked verse, a poetic form in which a 1 In this dissertation, “classical Japanese literature” refers to literary works produced before 1868 in Japan, regardless of the language in which the text is written. 2 David Pollack, The Fracture of Meaning: Japan's Synthesis of China from the Eighth through the Eighteenth Centuries (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986) and Atsuko Sakaki, Obsessions with the Sino-Japanese Polarity in Japanese Literature (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2006).