VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA

A DISTINCTIVE CULTURAL MAGAZINE OF (A Half-Yearly Publication)

Vol.39 No.1, 77th Issue

Founder-Editor : MANANEEYA EKNATHJI RANADE

Editor : P.PARAMESWARAN

INDIAN WOMANHOOD THROUGH THE AGES

(This is the edited reprint of the Vivekananda Kendra Patrika with the same theme published in August 1975) EDITORIAL OFFICE : Vivekananda Kendra Prakashan Trust, 5, Singarachari Street, Triplicane, Chennai - 600 005. The Vivekananda Kendra Patrika is a half- Phone : (044) 28440042 E-mail : [email protected] yearly cultural magazine of Vivekananda Web : www.vkendra.org Kendra Prakashan Trust. It is an official organ SUBSCRIPTION RATES : of Vivekananda Kendra, an all-India service mission with “service to humanity” as its sole Single Copy : Rs.125/- motto. This publication is based on the same Annual : Rs.250/- non-profit spirit, and proceeds from its sales For 3 Years : Rs.600/- are wholly used towards the Kendra’s Life (10 Years) : Rs.2000/- charitable objectives. (Plus Rs.50/- for Outstation Cheques) FOREIGN SUBSCRIPTION: Annual : $60 US DOLLAR Life (10 Years) : $600 US DOLLAR VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood Through The Ages INDIAN WOMANHOOD THROUGH THE AGES

CONTENTS

1. Editorial 1

2. The Vedic Pageant 4

3. Women in Rig Veda B.S.Upadhyaya 13

4. Out of the Mists of Antiquity 18

5. The Epic Women 21

6. - The Ideal Women Smt.Prema Pandurangan, M.A. 30

7. Draupadi and Sita 33

8. Kaikeyi and Manthara 41

9. Taara (An Extract from Rajaji’s writings) 44

10. Kunti - A Model of Woman’s Uprightness 45

11. Manu and His Psychology of Womanhood Gleanings from “Kamayani” and 51 “Manu Dharma Sastra” 12. The Age of the Later Samhitas, Brahmanas and 55 13. Role of the Women in the Religious History of Tamil Nadu A.Subramaniam 57

14. Women in Tamil Sangam Literature P.N.Appuswami 64 15. The Position of the Women in Karnataka during Chalukyas of Badami Miss. B.N.Sarvamangala 74

16. The Distilled Wisdom of Ages 78

17. Women in Silappadikaram and Manimekhalai A.Subramanian 83

18. Basava’s Benediction Dixit P.V. 88

19. The Transition to the Archives of History 94

20. Sakuntala Extracts from Rabindranath Tagore 101

21. Redemption of Women In Deval Smriti 106

22. Women in the Imperial Age of Kanuaj Extracts 107 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood Through The Ages 23. Glimpses Corridors through the of History S.C.Dube 112 24. From the Genderless One to the Duality of Man and Woman Padma-Bhushan V.Raghavaiah 120

25. The Oriental View of Woman Ananda Coomaraswamy 130

26. The Burden of My Tale Satya 133

27. The Position of the Women before the Advent of the Moghuls 137

28. The Middle Period K.M.Panikkar 139

29. Borrowed Customs M.Mujeeb 143

30. The Divine Messengers 148

31. Kannada Women Who made History P.V.Dixit 153

32. From the Annals of History 156

33. Ahalyabai Holkar and a Regiment of Women Prof. P.Mahadevan 158 34. Changing Pattern of Tribal Womanhood in North-East India Prof. J.Ganchaudhuri 160

35. Speaks 164

36. The Paths of Change 169

37. Women and the Freedom Movement S.Ambujammal 173

38. Women Patriots of India 176

39. Women’s Liberation: An Episode in Bengal Basudha Chakravarty 178

40. Sr. Nivedita - The Dedicated 182

41. Holy Mother Sri Sarada Devi Swami Pavitrananda 191

42. Sri Aurobindo’s Vision of the Mother Sri Aurobindo 197

43. Pen Portraits of Some Forgotten Flowers 199

44. Sarojini Naidu Ali Baig 211

45. Women In India-Past, Present, Future Smt.Louella Lobo Prabhu 215

46. Liberation of Women In India and Its Limits Kamala Spolia 221

47. Lib or no Lib-He cannot live without them D.P.Sudha 227 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood Through The Ages 48. Women’s Liberation Movement Nandini Mehta 228

49. Indian Woman-Her Position In Society Dr.(Mrs.) Radhakrishnamurthy 238

50. Social Service 244 51. Hingne Stree Shikshan Sanstha, Poona 251

52. A Splash of Colour 253

53. The Gracious Octogenarian Visalakshi Narayanaswamy 259

54. Pioneering Women of Tamil Nadu 260

55. A Veteran Speaks Kuyilee Rajeswari 265

56. D.K.Pattammal The Divinely Endowed Minstrel Kuyilee Rajeswari 268

57. Bihar’s Master Craftsman 271

58. Sri Sarada Math-Its Origin and Growth Pravrajika Amalaprana 272

59. The Temples of Learning At Salem 275

60. Women and Social Work 276

61. The Healing Touch 281

62. An Appeal through the Ages 284 63. The Women’s Liberation Movement and its Relevance to India Mrs.Shashi Deshpande 287

64. Vaidik Nari Risi Dr.Roma Chaudhri 295

65. Three Tamil Epic Heroines Prema Nandakumar 300 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages

EDITORIAL

Indian Womanhood Through The Ages

THE CONCEPTION OF WOMANHOOD The earliest formulation of this scientific EAST AND WEST truth is to be found in the concluding lines of the Purusha Sukta hymn, held in great he conclusions of modern scientific veneration by all inheritors of Vedic Tresearch have established, among other tradition. Prajapati, having created the things, the fact that many an old-world worlds out of Himself, broods over all, myth is an allegorical or symbolic partaking of both male and female, presentation of the laws of nature which properties and yet transcending them as are basic to all creation. A significant case well. He has for his spouses Shri and in point is that all nature is androgynous. , and shines resplendent through In the inanimate sphere it has been explored day and night with stars and suns through matter, force, and power down to surrounding him, ‘Shrischate lakshmischa the positive and negative elements patnyau, ahoratre parsve, nakshatrani imbedded in energy. Biologically, we have rupam, asvinauvyaktam.’ its analogue in the distinction between male An indistinct, if not confused, echo of it and female. But the remarkable feature may be detected in the Biblical version of about this differentiation is that the Creation. According to it, God first created component parts are not separate or Adam and then, finding that he lacked disparate or mutually exclusive, but that companionship, took out a rib from his body each runs into the other interminably and as he lay asleep, and fashioned out of it inextricably. This is the androgynous woman to be his companion, complement property of all creation as a logical corollary and consummation. Mankind’s generation of which we have arrived at that point was still a far cry, and, to account for it, where, theoretically, male can be Adam had to disobey God, commit sin and, transformed into female and vice versa, as punishment for it, had to be expelled partly through natural processes and partly from paradise. This is the myth of the Fall with the aid of surgery. Such sex- of Man from a state of pristine innocence, transformations are now a common place and it is attributed to the frailty of woman of modern biological experiments. his wife Eve ! Here may be detected the 1 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages germ of the idea of the superiority of man economic speculation is obsessed with the over woman, and it has been a decisive idea of inequality of the sexes with a factor in, the shaping of Western civilisation reciprocal proneness for each to blame it synchronously with the origins and spread all on the other, largely it would seem, to of Christianity. It has crystallised a major score a debating point here or there. attitude to life itself which is almost Suppression, discrimination, exploitation exclusive to the West, and to which may and similar pejorative terms are handy be referred the confused evolution of missiles in this ‘battle of the sexes’ as European culture. ‘Cherchez waged in our own time. But La femme’ is still the the issues that are unalterable fixation of the highlighted are, in the last Western man to his analysis, peripheral and do counterpart, -Woman. not, indeed cannot, touch, The primitive Christian much less change, the Church assiduously fostered stubborn facts of nature. this attitude, and to it we Chief of them is the owe the twin phenomena of obligation to motherhood monasticism in its most which is squarely laid on extreme and bizarre forms, the woman and woman as well as a detestation of alone. It is not difficult to woman as the fans et origo show how the driving spirit of all human ills. So we may underlying the Women’s Lib say, without inaccuracy, movement is a revolt that man not only exploited against motherhood and the woman for his most imperious needs but, ineluctable corollary of it, namely, the at the same time, gave her a bad name to rearing of a family. This is the heart of the preserve his own dominance inviolate! What matter, as we may infer from the fact that is now known as the age of chivalry’ was a the word’ culture’ which we bandy about breakthrough from such odious so freely and unthinkingly, stems from the obscurantism to the opposite extreme of root idea of ‘kula’ which is the bed-rock of idealising her into a goddess on earth, to home and family. It is not an accident that act as a curb on man’s predatory and wherever you find this militant movement libidinous instincts and impulses. What has gaining ground, there you invariably find uniformly eluded the grasp of the Western the slow decay or actual break-up of the mind is the unalterable truth of their family and the consequent dissolution of a separate incompleteness. This is where our whole structure of civilised living. The own (Hindu) concept of woman as maid, ancient Hebrew moralists stressed again mistress and mother gives the picture in and again how ‘Righteousness alone its totality a true and inspiring view of exalteth nations ‘. To it we have to add creation. the logical conclusion that such A great deal of modern political and righteousness can flourish only in a well-

2 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages regulated family. That is an imperfectly the earth’, but transcends both earth and grasped truth underlying the continuing heaven and stands as a symbol of vicarious vitality and stability of the Hindu ethos. sacrifice without ignoring or falsifying Taking this for our clue, we may trace how nature. She has inspired all the heroic it has operated in our own social, philosophic women of our history in modern times, and and cultural milieu through the ages. The her role has been to save our culture as concept of Ardhanariswara informs the cult often as it faced a threat to its vitality. of which is the ever-lasting spouse Though frail as the trembling leaf and of Siva, while seemingly functioning all the yielding like water, she is also Durga, the time with sovereign independence. In none destroyer of all weaknesses and evils of of our ancient records can we find any life. She is also the creature of a new order specific relegation or demotion of woman out of the burnt-out ashes of the old, and below man. She is the object of uniform thus renews life in perpetuity. reverence whether as child or maid or wife To those who remember woman in a fit of or mother. In fact it is her crowning glory absent-mindedness or uneasy conscience, to be hailed and worshipper as Mother. a ritual tribute to her for one year might The Western idea of patriotism is foreign if seem an appropriate amends. We have no not repugnant to us. In our own case it is such uneasy obligation cast on us because Matriotism - worship of the mother we celebrate her manifold powers in wherefore we have made the earth itself thought, word and deed all the time - our Mother and worship her in-protean consciously and unconsciously. It is the ways. It has become intertwined with our modern Indian man who is proving recreant religious susceptibilities as we may easily to his trust, and poses a threat to our conclude from the decisive role this social and spiritual stability; and only our sentiment had played in our modern women can redeem him from his prodigal renaissance as well as in the national ways. ‘Women’s Lib’, in our midst can only struggle for freedom. A detailed survey of demote her from her regal throne to a level our national history from ancient times of equality with man which would profit would conclusively show that woman qua neither, but would hasten the disintegration woman was never discriminated against. of her unique Integrity. Both of us-men Rather she always rules whoever may reign. and women-have been rendered backward In all the annals of myth and legend, by the tragedies and ironies of our modern romance and recorded history, the history; but even so, it is the restraining unageing charm and varied appeal of hand and indomitable will of our women Woman and Womanhood have nowhere that have helped us realise our frailties found such puissant expression as in the and follies. Her task today is to rediscover heritage of India. Woman has played every her Golden age in a modem context, and part that man can, and has beaten him in our duty is to create the conditions of her her unique power to mother heroes. In Sita, resurgence as the custodian of our culture. we have the paragon of womanhood for the entire world and for all time. She is ‘of

3 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The Vedic Pageant extended to the fairer sex. The progress in fine arts like music and dancing depends a good deal on the facilities given to women for specialising in them. A study of their dress and ornaments gives us an idea of Childhood and Education the wealth of a community and enables us to obtain a glimpse of its progress in trade, NE of the best ways to understand mining and metallurgy and the skill in in- the spirit of a civilisation and to O laying, tailoring and embroidery. appreciate its excellences and realise its The degree of freedom given to women to limitations is to study the history of the move about in society and to take part in position and status of men in it. No class its public life gives a good idea of the nature of similar importance and extent as that of its administration and enables us to know of women was placed in infancy of society how far it had realised the difficult truth in a position of such solute dependence that women too have a contribution of their upon men, and the degree in which that own to make to its development and dependence has been voluntarily modified progress. How far a religion stands for and relaxed naturally serves as a rough justice and fair-play and how far it has test of the sense of justice and fair-play succeeded in exploding prejudices and developed in a community. The marriage shibboleths of a primitive age can be seen laws and customs (in particular) able us to from the position it assigns to women in realise whether men regarded women its ritual and theology. The nature of its merely as market commodities or war prizes, philosophy can well be ascertained from or whether they had realised that there is the observations of its philosophers about after all her husband’s valued partner, the nature and worth of the fairer sex. whose cooperation was indispensable for The history of the position and status of happiness and success in family life. The women is therefore of vital importance to rules about sex morality enable us to know the student of Hindu Civilisation. the ethical tone of the society and In ancient times in all patriarchal societies ascertain how far men were prepared to the birth of a girl was generally an be themselves judged by the standard they unwelcome event. Almost everywhere the had set for women. son was valued more than the daughter. He was a permanent economic asset of The Touchstone the family. He lived with his aged parents and did not migrate like the daughter to The sense of sympathy that is developed another family after marriage. in a community can very well be tested by the treatment it metes out to the widow. Daughter too, a pride of the family The genuineness of its appreciation of the value of education can be ascertained by The available evidence shows that in India finding out whether its benefits were too in early times the daughter was not as

4 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages welcome as the son. The same was the happiness of his son (Ap. G.S., XV, 12-3). case in Vedic period. The Atharva Veda Stories in Sanskrit dramas and novels show contains charms and rituals to ensure the that daughters received from their parents birth of a son in preference to that of a and other relations the same affectionate daughter (III, 23 ; VI, II). The latter’s birth, treatment as sons. Nay, some of them like however, was not a source of consternation Devayani were too much fondled and to the family in Vedic and Upanishadic ages. became spoilt children. The Goddess of Nay, we find one of the early Upanishads Fortune was regarded as residing in the recommending a certain ritual to a house- person of the unmarried daughter. holder for ensuring the birth of a scholarly Till about the beginning of the Christian daughter. In cultured circles such a era Upanayana or the ceremonial initiation daughter was regarded as the pride of the into Vedic studies was as common in the family. In lower sections of society where case of girls as it was in the case of boys. the custom of the bride-price prevailed, The initiation ceremony was followed by a the birth of a daughter must have been a period of discipline and education, which welcome event; however, no literature is was regarded as very essential to secure preserved reflecting their views. a suitable match. The Atharva Veda The reasons why daughters were relatively observes that a maiden can succeed in less unpopular in ancient India during the her marriage only if she has been properly early centuries are not difficult to trained during the period of studentship understand. They could be initiated in Vedic (Brahmacharya). studies and were entitled to offer sacrifices That women are, like Sudras, ineligible for to Gods ; the son was not absolutely Vedic studies is the view of a later age ; in necessary for this purpose. The marriage pre-historic times lady poets themselves of the daughter was not a difficult problem; were composing hymns, some of which it was often solved by the daughter herself. were destined to be included even in the The dread of a possible widowhood did not Vedic Samhitas. According to the orthodox very much weigh upon the minds of tradition itself as recorded in the parents; for, as will be shown later, levirate Sarvanukramanika, there are as many as and re-marriage, were allowed by society twenty women among the ‘seers’ or authors and were fairly common. of Rig Veda. Some of these may have been mythical personages; but internal evidence Affectionate treatment to daughters shows that Lopamudra, Visvavara, Sikata Nivavari and Ghosha, the authors of Rig Once the temporary feeling of Veda I.179, V.28, VIII.91, IX.81.11-20, and disappointment was over, the family took X.39 and 40 respectively, were women in as keen an interest in the daughter as it flesh and blood, who once lived in Hindu did in the son. On his return from a journey, society. The authors of X.145 and 159 are the father used to recite a prayer (mantra) undoubtedly ladies, though it may be for the welfare of his daughter just with doubted whether their real names were the same solicitude as he did for the Indrani and Sachi, as recorded by tradition.

5 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Among the authors and scholars to whose naturally cultivating these subjects with memory a daily tribute of respect is enjoined great devotion and enthusiasm. Besides to be paid at the time of Brahma Yajna, a studying the , many of them used to few ladies are also seen to figure; they specialise in Purva- Mimamsa which are Sulabha, Maitreyi, Vadava Prathiteyi, discussed the diverse problems connected and Gargi Vachaknavi (As. G.S., III, 4,4). with Vedic sacrifices. This science is a very These ladies must have made real dry and difficult one, perhaps even more contributions to the advance of abstruse than mathematics; but still a very scholarship; otherwise their names would large number of ladies used to take deep not have been recommended for daily interest in it. A theologian named remembrance by posterity for all time to Kasakritsni had composed the work on come. It is a great pity that we should Mimamsa called Kasakritsni; lady scholars, know nothing about these lady scholars who used to specialise in it, were except their names; their works have been designated as Kasakritsnas (Mahabhashya, all lost, probably forever. IV, I, 14; 3, J 15). If lady scholars in such a technical branch of study were so Women Students numerous as to necessitate the coining of a special term to designate them, is it not Women students were divided into two reasonable to conclude that the number classes, Brahmavadinis and Sadyovahas. of women, who used to receive general The former were life-long students of education, must have been fairly large? theology and philosophy: the latter used to prosecute their studies till their marriage Lady Scholars at the age of 15 or 6. During the eight or nine years that were thus available to them When the reaction against the Vedic for study, they used to learn by heart the sacrificial religion gave a stimulus to Vedic hymns prescribed or the daily and philosophical speculations at about 800 periodical prayers and for hose rituals and B.C., lady scholars did not lag behind in sacraments in which they had to take an taking an active interest in the new active part after their marriage there is movement. Yajnavalkya’s wife Maitreyi ample evidence to show that, like men, belonged to this class. She was more women also used to offer regularly their interested in finding out the way to Vedic prayers both morning and evening. immortality than in setting new fashions in dress and ornaments. In the philosophical Brahmavadinis tournament held under the auspices of King Janaka of Videha, the subtlest philosophical Brahmavadinis used to aim at the very high questions were initiated for discussion by excellence in scholarship. Down to about the lady philosopher Gargi, who had the the 4th century B.C. Vedic and philosophical honour to be the spokesman of the studies attracted the main attention of distinguished philosophers at the court. society. We therefore find ladies also She launched her attack on Yajnavalkya,

6 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the newly arrived philosopher, with an holy life which was to be led at the altar admirable coolness and confidence. ‘Just of truth and duty. The couple was to take as an experienced archer’, says she, ‘would particular care in properly performing the get ready to attack his enemy with two rituals connected with the Garhapatya fire piercing arrows kept at hand, so I assail kindled at the time of their marriage. you with two test questions. Answer them Prescribed sacrifices to gods and manes if you can.’ The topics of her enquiry were were to be regularly offered. And finally so abstruse and esoteric in character that the couple was to perpetuate the race by Yajnavalkya declined to discuss them in raising and training a numerous progeny, public. The searching cross-examination of so that oblations may forever continue to Yajnavalkya by Gargi shows that she was be offered to gods and ancestors. A later a dialectician and a philosopher of a high age, which had developed the system of order. (Br. Up.III, 6 and 8). Maitreyi was the four Ashramas, pointed out that the another lady student of Vedanta; she was whole society depends upon the house- reading under the sages and holder for its maintenance; the Brahmachari, Agastya. Some of these lady philosophers the Vanaprastha and the Sannyasi can used to remain unmarried throughout the hardly exist without active help from a life in order to carry on their spiritual zealous and conscientious class of house- experiments unhampered. holders. The house-holder is as necessary for society as the breath is for the body. Marriage in the Vedic Age The Spinster Marriage was well established in the Vedic Age, but it was also regarded as a social Such being the views of society about and religious duty and necessity. This was marriage Since very early times, it was the case even in the Indo-Iranian period. naturally regarded as normally necessary According to the Avesta oblations offered and desirable for all. Vedic literature often unto Gods or ancestors by a maiden or a refers to the spinster; Amajuh one who bachelor are unacceptable to them (Ashi grows old in one’s parent’s house, is the Yashta, c, X. 54). A Vedic passage says significant expression used to denote an that a person, who is unmarried, is unholy. old maid. The usual cause that compelled From the religious point of view he remains maidens to remain unmarried was some incomplete and is not fully eligible to serious physical defect or disease. Such, participate in sacraments. This continues for instance, was the case of Ghosha, who to be the view of .the society even now; could not marry till she was cured of her the modern practice of keeping betel nut skin disease by the favour of gods-Asvins. by one’s side in the absence of the wife or In the age of the Upanishads hundreds of the older one of having her image to youths began to enter the monastery indicate her symbolical presence at the time without caring to marry, and some maidens of a sacrament are both due to the same like Sulabha began to follow their example belief. Marriage opened a new period of with a view to achieve spiritual salvation.

7 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Age of Marriage children of maidens were not unknown to society, and we get references to their Girls were married at a fairly advanced age occasional exposures as well. is in the Vedic period. The precise age is not sometimes represented as rescuing them. stated, but from the Avesta we learn that maidens were usually wedded at the age Child Marriage of 15 or 16 in ancient Persia (Vendidad, 14, 15) The very term for marriage, Udvaha Some other arguments advanced to prove carrying away (of the bride) pre-supposes the existence of child marriage in the Vedic a post-puberty marriage, for it shows that age may be briefly considered here. It is immediately after her marriage, the bride true that in two passages of the Rig Veda went to her husband’s house to live as his (1; 51; 13 and 1; 116; 1) the word arbha wife. A perusal of the marriage hymn (X. has been used to denote the bride and 85) shows that the bride was fully mature the bridegroom. This expression, however, and quite grown up at the time of the denotes tenderness rather than childhood, marriage; she is expressly described as for Vimada who has been described as an blooming with youth and pining for a arbha bridegroom is seen to be defeating husband. A hope is expressed that the bride his rival in battle and winning his bride. would forthwith take over the reins of the This is possible only in the case of a full- household from her parents-in-law. This grown youth. would have been possible only in the case The Vedic marriage mythology referred to of grown up brides, at least 16 to 18 years Soma, Gandharva and Agni as the earlier of age. divine husbands of the bride; her human husband was the fourth one. Writers of Unmarried Girls this period began to advocate the view that the different signs of impending In the Vedic literature there are several puberty manifest themselves at different references to unmarried girls growing old ages. They pointed out that one should in their parents’ houses, and the Atharva forestall them all by marrying the girl at Veda is full of charms and spells intended the age of 8 or 9. for compelling the love of a reluctant man or woman. At least some of these spells Parental Control must have been used by maidens and bachelors not succeeding in winning the The Vedic literature does not refer to affection of the party desired. There are parents controlling the marriages of their references to lovers following their sons and daughters, though they must beloveds, giving them presents and doubtless have played an important part yearning for mutual company. In one case in arranging and financing them. On the we have the reference to a maiden pining other hand we have references to beautiful for a husband approaching a youth anxious brides selecting their own husbands. for a wife. Under such circumstances, Kshatriya circles in society even conceded

8 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages to grown-up brides the immediately take the reins exclusive right of selecting of the household from her their own consorts, as is elderly relations. The proved by the custom of elders of the Vedic age swayamvara or self-choice. treated the brides with very great consideration, Sagotra Marriage regard and affection. They, on their part, used The present day rule, to observe proper which prohibits marriages decorum and treat their between persons of the elders with utmost same gotra, was unknown deference and reverence. to society for a long time. They could, even, join The very conception of them - at the common gotra as a group of persons table, and take part in connected with one conversation. another by spiritual blood relationship was unknown in Shared Privileges the Vedic age. The prohibition of sagotra and sapravara More vital for the wife’s happiness is the marriages does not go back to a period treatment which she receives from her much earlier than c. 600 B.C. husband. Since Indo-Iranian times the husband and the wife were regarded as Re-marriage the joint-owners of the household. The Vedic word for the couple, dampati The Atharva Veda in one place refers to a etymologically means the joint-owners of woman marrying again, very probably in the house. The Avesta (Yashta, 15, 3) the life-time of her first husband; it lays describes the husband and the wife as down a ritual intended to unite her Manopaiti and Mana Pathni, showing permanently in heaven with her husband. thereby that they were equal partners and Her second marriage of course pre- joint-owners of the common household. supposed a divorce. Vedic marriage ritual, however, does not enjoin the duty of obedience upon the wife. The Wife Both parties take the same vows. It was well recognised that the wife was Early in the history of our civilisation, brides the ornament of the house CR. V. 1; 66;3); naturally received affectionate and nay, the wife herself was the home. The respectful treatment in their new homes, home management was under her direct as they were grown up and educated at charge and ordinarily, her views were to the time of marriage. The Vedic marriage prevail there. It was she who used to rouse hymn lays down that the bride should the servants and assign them their proper

9 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages duties CR. V. 1, 124, 4), and thus arrange ideal was of a large family. The Vedic father for the normal running of the household. was anxious for ten sons; the number was Early Indian literature does not recognise, reduced to eight in the Smriti period. even theoretically, the power of physical correction in the husband. In practice also The Family Ideal it was probably very rarely exercised in the Vedic and Epic times. A few lines may be conveniently devoted The normal relations between the husband here to the delineation of the family ideal. and the wife were determined by the The words of a Vedic Sage may be quoted principle that there should be an absolute in this connection. The husband and the identity in their aesthetic, material and wife are to be of one mind ; the matron is moral interests. This principle was to be noted for the sweetness of speech; recognised in the Vedic age, and is brothers and sisters are to be of one approved by later Dharma Sastra writers, accord; sons are to be smart and intelligent like Manu and Apastamba. It is also so as to carry on and further the work of emphasised in the marriage vow taken by the father. The Vedic age required the the couple that they would invariably co- householder to tend three sacred fires, operate with each other in the realisation Ahavaniya, Garhapatya and Dakshineya. of their aims and ambitions in the spheres Social thinkers of a later age pointed out of life, wealth and spirituality. Social that this can be best done only by showing conscience was outraged if a couple did proper respect to parents, by promoting not honestly live up to its marriage vow. the welfare and happiness of the wife, children and servants, and by offering willing The Ideal Couple and effective help to sacrificing public workers. The ideal love and harmony between the husband and the wife have been beautifully Polygamy described by Bhavabhuti. The dearest friend, the essence of all kinship, the The Vedic gods are also monogamous. In fulfilment of all desires, a veritable treasure, practice, however, polygamy often the very life itself, all these is a husband prevailed in the rich and ruling sections of to the wife and vice versa. Their love is society. It was fairly common among kings uniform both in prosperity and adversity, and nobles, who often found it a useful and adjusts itself to the surrounding instrument in strengthening their political circumstances ; it affords the best solace power by contracting numerous but to each other’s heart; old age does not judicious matrimonial alliances. The rich diminish its flavour; when the veil of reserve probably regarded plurality of wives as a drops down in course of time, it develops proof of their wealth, reputation and social into an ever abiding affection. position. References to polygamy arc fairly India then needed more and more men and numerous in Vedic literature. There are women to develop the country, and so the some observations in the late Vedic

10 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages literature to show that polygamy was well Muslim days, others maintain that Hindu established in certain sections of society. ladies used to wear veils even before the In later times also society thought it to be advent of the Muhammedans. The available nothing unusual that men should have evidence on the point is of a dubious several wives; it, however, regarded it as nature, and can be manipulated to support a grievous sin if a woman transgressed her either view. It therefore requires a very husband and transferred her affection to careful scrutiny. another person and married him. There is no doubt whatsoever that the purda was unknown down to c. 100 B.C. The Widow In Indo-Iranian times women could move quite freely in society, and manage the Let us now attempt a resume of the position family farms if necessary. The same was of the widow from age to age. We find the case in Vedic age. We have shown that down to c. 300 B.C., her position on already how girls were often educated the whole was fairly satisfactory. The pre- along with boys. historic custom of Sati having died down, Nor did the things change after the she was not required to immolate herself marriage. Vedic marriage hymn requires the on the funeral pyre of her husband. If she bride to be shown to all the assembled was disinclined to lead a life of celibacy, guests at the end of the marriage ritual. she should either contract a second The hope was further expressed that the marriage or have recourse to Niyoga, the bride should be able to speak with latter hardly differing from the former in composure in public assemblies down to earlier times. The custom of tonsure was her old age. The presence of ladies in social absolutely unknown. Her only disability was and public gatherings was a normal feature a proprietory one; where she was not in Vedic times. It was quite welcome to regarded as an heir to her husband’s society. Whenever anything charming or property. This was, however, more or less graceful is to be described, Vedic poets a theoretical disability. Niyoga and re- usually think of the gaily attired lady, going marriage being common, it was very rare out for a function, as the standard object for a widow not to have a son; so what of comparison (R. V., IV, 58, 7 ; X. 168, 2 ; she could not claim as an heir to her etc.). From the Nirukta, (c. 500 B.C.), we husband, she could get as a guardian of learn that ladies used to go out to courts her minor son. of law to establish their claims of inheritance (III. 5). Purda There is no reference to any Purda arrangement being made for their Considerable discussion has been going on attendance. Nor does Rig Veda I, 167, 3 as to whether the Purda system was contain any reference to the Purda system. prevalent in ancient India or not. There is a divergence of opinion on the point. Some held that it was quite unknown in the pre-

11 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Occupation Participation in Administration

In the Vedic period the Aryans were mostly Let us now see what part ordinary women occupied in military or semi-military took in the administration of the country. activities, as they were engaged in the There were democratic assemblies in Vedic task of subjugating the country. They had age. It is thus probable that some ladies therefore to rely upon a greater degree of used to take an effective part in the public co-operation from women than was discussions of the democratic assemblies necessary in later times. Women used to of the age, In the later Vedic period, the take an active part in agriculture and in state of affairs changed; a text expressly the manufacture of bows, arrows, and other informs us that women no longer went to war material. The Samhitas also refer to public assemblies. female workers in dyeing, embroidery and basket-making. It is interesting to note that Religious Participation the Vedic Samhitas have special words to denote Female workers in the above crafts, Marriage, and not renunciation, was the which have disappeared in later literature. ideal recommended to society by Vedic This circumstance would show that women religion. The woman therefore was not an even in higher circles were manufacturing impediment in the path of religion; her bows and arrows, cloth and baskets in Vedic presence and co-operation were absolutely period, but gave up these plebian necessary in religious rites and ceremonies. professions in later times. This naturally increased her religious value. The teaching career was the most common. Man could not become a spiritual whole, This is quite clear from the coining of a unless he was accompanied by his wife; separate word to distinguish a lady teacher gods do not accept the oblations offered from a teacher’s wife. The latter was by by a bachelor. The husband alone cannot courtesy called Acharyani; but if a woman go to heaven; in the symbolical ascent to was herself a teacher, she was to be heaven in the sacrifice he has to call his designated ‘Acharya’. As we have already wife to accompany him on the occasions shown, some of these lady teachers would (S. Br., V, 2, 1, 8). A son was indispensable specialise even in abstruse and difficult for spiritual well-being in the life to come, branches like theology and philosophy. Lady and he could be had only through the wife. teachers teaching grammar, poetry and She was thus indispensable from the literature must have been more common. spiritual and religious point of view. This It is not improbable that among their pupils, circumstance was responsible for ensuring occasionally there might have been male her a religious status as high as that of students as well. Some of the lady teachers her husband. were remarkable for their eloquence and The wife took an active part in family depth. sacrifices. Like the husband, she too had to perform a special Upanayana on the occasion of some sacrifices. She had her

12 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages own hut in the sacrificial compound, and Women In Rig Veda also her own cow to provide her with sacred milk during the sacrifice (S. Br., X, 2, 3, 1 ; B. S. UPADHYAYA XIV, 3, 1, 35). In the early Vedic period, the duty of chanting musically the same songs seems to have been usually The Zenith of Power performed by the wife, later on it came to be entrusted to a special class of male HE Rig Vedic age saw the zenith of priests called Udgatris. The wife used to Tpower and influence which the Indo- pound the sacrificial rice. She participated Aryan woman wielded in her household. She with her husband in the preparation of the figured so much in daily life that the Aryan offering, the consecration of the fire, the seers, accustomed to think of a man offering of the oblations and the concluding constantly in company with his wife, could ceremonies. not imagine their gods as lonely. The participation in sacrifices pre-supposed We find the invocations addressed to a god Vedic study. Girls devoted themselves to accompanied by his wife, the goddess. “The it during their maidenhood. The initiation spirit”, says an authority of repute, “of the ceremony (Upanayana) of girls took place religion in India intuitive, brooding, waiting, as regularly as that of boys at the normal has much of the essential feminine in it’. time. This was the case as early as the Much of the freedom, rights and aspirations Indo-Iranian age. The Parsis have still of the Indian women of later times were preserved this custom ; Navjot ritual, which lost to them, but the very goddesses of corresponds to Hindu Upanayana, is even the Rig Veda embody the dream of India’s now performed by them regularly in the future womanhood and reflect its case of girls as well. In India, the initiation aspirations. of girls used to take place regularly down Aditi is personified freedom, the eternal to the beginning of the Christian era. It mother of all beings, who frees men from will thus be seen from the above discussion all their bondage. “ Whatever sin we have how the position of women on the whole committed”, says the Rishi, “may Aditi sever was fairly satisfactory. The custom of Sati us from”. Indrani is the imperious mistress and Child marriage did not exist to embitter of the household whose oblations make the lot of the woman. How she was Indra, her spouse, strong and great. Vak, properly educated and given the same the eternal cosmic energy of the universe, religious privileges as man, how she could is the omniscient, all-pervading counter- have a voice in the settlement of her part of the Master of the entire creation, marriage and occupy an honoured position and she aids Him in the administration of in the household, how she could move His unlimited dominion. Saraswathi is the freely in family and society. Where then patron of fine arts and learning. And that did her decadence start? lovely Usha, the breath and life of all beings, yet the pointer to decay and destruction, is the embodiment of womanhood in all its

13 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages stages of the maiden, wife and mother. corn, making fire by friction of sticks, The Rishi loves her as he loves his wife, milking the cow, preparing curds and adorned with clothes of variegated colours, clarified butter, and doing other household and he feels attracted by her charming work of the kind. She inherited her father’s person as one by the winning, intriguing property in her own right in the absence beauty of the female dancer. To her are of a brother, enjoyed the right of addressed some of the most impassioned maintenance in her father’s family until her hymns containing the best poetry of the marriage or until death if she chose to Rig Veda. remain unmarried all her life, wrested her dowry from her paternal possessions, which The Goddess as a reflection of what was thus formed her ‘stridhana’, and could give seen actually away her ornaments as largesses to Brahmins on the occasion of her marriage. The description and imagery of the She was free to choose her husband. goddesses were nothing but a reflection of what the seers saw and thought of their The Aryan Marriage own women in their household. It has been said that “among the early Aryans, the The maiden was given away in marriage to paternal and maternal tie and even the her freely chosen match when approved whole family bond was intensely strong. If by the parents, or by the brother in their the father was venerated as the food absence. At the time of the nuptial supplier and protector (Pita) the mother ceremony, when the pair took the seven was beloved as the meter out (mater) of steps together, the bridegroom emphatically daily nourishment, the arranger of the addressed his bride: “ Become thou my household, measuring and ordering its partner, as thou hast paced all the seven affairs as the moon (also called mata) steps with me. Apart from thee I cannot measured time. To the Aryan family the live. Apart from me do thou not live. We father and mother were gods manifest.” shall live together, sharing alike all goods and power combined.” The Daughter in the Aryan Household The Rig Veda contains no evidence of divorce obtaining in practice. The very idea The daughter, who became a curse to the was almost abominable. Says Margaret E. Hindu family of later times, was Cousins, “Neither must marriage be legalised affectionately caressed and fondled by her licence, ruinous to body and soul, wrongly parents and brothers who lavished her with enforced as a duty or a necessity. Such presents at the time of her marriage. She things belong to the reign of the human was an untiring worker of the Aryan brute. True marriage is sacred, and divorce household - plaiting mats, weaving cloth, is against all occult and spiritual law.” sewing with unbreakable needles, bringing In the Aryan marriage both the human and water in jars, squeezing juice from the Soma the spiritual elements were properly plant for the purposes of worship, thrashing blended. We must not forget that man,

14 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages after all, is a bundle of weaknesses, an could be given and taken freely. At times embodiment of feelings and sentiments. they became mothers of great personages Here the companionate system of marriage of the Rig Veda. The mother or wife, fails to satisfy us. To work it properly the however, does not seem to have inherited entire class of human institutions, social landed property in her own right. She was as well as political, will have to be yet the mistress of her entire household revolutionized and re-fashioned to the very and the omission did not very much offend depth of their foundation. We cannot be her. She was brave, noble and virtuous. too much utilitarian. We cannot act as The desire for the son was earnest both unconscious limbs of a machine. The as a military as well as a religious need, process would be too mechanical, the and the daughter was considered the very marital bond too frail. Man cannot live alone. breath of life of the family. Widows were He is a dependent being and he must have generally remarried soon after the death somebody to care and feel for him of their husbands, and the custom of sati particularly in his old age. The Rig Vedic had died out as the existence of the Aryan considered marriage a sanctity. To widows would show. Inter-marriages him every incident of marriage had between the Brahmins and the Rajanyas considerable significance. He felt a kind of as well as between Aryans and the non- responsibility implied in his very being. His Aryans were frequent and common. The existence was a sort of heredity, which, Indian woman was never greedy of wealth he conceived, he must pass on to the or power. undying line of his posterity. Polygamy during the Rig Vedic age was only Dress and Ornaments a privilege of the few - the kings, nobles and their priests. Polyandry was not The Rig Vedic woman dressed in woolen obtaining in the community, although a few and also perhaps in cotton clothes dyed in references to it in the Rig Veda would show various colours. There were about four that there did linger a few cases here and pieces - the upper and the lower garments, there and that the poet could yet think of the occasional head-dress and the all- it and allude to it. covering shawl. The common ornaments Monogamous marriages were the general that she wore were the necklace, the ear- rule and the common people, the visas, rings, the armlets, the wristlets, the anklets, wedded a single wife. and the like. But the use of the nose-ring is conspicuous by its absence. Women wore Motherhood long hair, oiled, combed it and knit it in long, broad plaits. The Rig Vedic woman was at her greatest They applied unguent to the eyes, in her motherhood. Her strength lay in her perfumed their person and used several children. She was not considered a chattel. other items of toilet. The several items of Slave girls also on several occasions their furniture included their boxes and bed- became wives of influential Aryans and steads. A particular kind of high bed is

15 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages associated with them. these amazons.

Freedom of movement Women of Athens and expression and Sparta-A Comparison Indo Aryans gave their women enough liberty of It has been rightly movement. There was no pointed out by the seclusion of women and Langdon-Davies that consequently no purdah there was no woman and they went unveiled to question at Athens festive gatherings. A because all women noted fair was the Samana, were as mere where the maidens flocked vegetables, and there to make merry and find a was no woman husband. They even spent question at Sparta their nights there. They because both men and had the right of self- women there were expression and could freely little better than talk of their own marriage. There was rarely animals. Moreover, Sparta, the eugenic any restriction on their free choice of a paradise and the first and only practitioner husband. of the equality of the sexes, has left literally Indo Aryans well recognised the truth nothing to posterity but a record· of embodied in the dictum - Ignorance is implacable attachment to life, like that of weakness, knowledge is power, and so they a dog which has its teeth fixed immovably prepared their women for power. They in the neck of an enemy ten times its size. taught them music and dancing, the It was not so in India. The social adjustment religious lore and warfare. They had among of the sexes was so perfect that we find them great women Rishis like Ghosha, Apala, no complaint on the part of the woman Lopamudra, Visvavara, Surya, Vasukara’s against the authority of the man. At least wife, mother of the Gaupayanas, Indrani, never did an Aryan woman cry out in Sarparajni, Mamata, Yami and many others. distress in the manner of Medea, who said, Vispala, the warrior wife of king Khela, and “Of all things that have life and sense we Mudgalani were experts in the art of women are most wretched, for we are fighting. compelled to buy with gold a husband who The Rig Vedic society set up a high order is also worst of all the master of our person. of morality and there were hardly any And on his character, good or bad, our whole instances of adultery among married fate depends.” It has been rightly held that women. Non-Aryan women joined the army the Greek civilization never succeeded in in large numbers and the Aryans did not giving redress to the eternal complaint and consider it bad morality to attack and kill that married life and its duties were never

16 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the highest Hellenic ideal. Athens, it is aptly Grihyasutras, the Smritis and such other pointed out, for all its intellectual grandeur, treatises, all sang the same note and died out and Sparta for all its eugenics completed the ruin of women. Women became hopelessly degenerate. All that themselves bowed to these restrictions and was good and valuable as human accepted them as their only lot. experience passed away by way of Greek The Aryan social system degenerated and literature to later times and younger it enunciated the suicidal policy of child civilizations. Almost all the ancient marriage and seclusion of woman. Child civilizations have been effaced from the marriage produced widows and seclusions, world; India and China alone have endured fear of men on the part of women. This the ravages of time and remain alive to fear, says Mrs. Cousins in her inimitable this day. India is still living, however weakly, style, is a miasma. It is the nadir of in her continuity and she alone solved her degradation in social affairs, and remains woman problem in the past. to this day a slur and a stigma on both sexes. The great Rig Vedic personages like Towards decadence at the close of the Indrani, Mudgalani and Vak were forgotten period and in their place there stepped in the seemingly high-statured women of the At the close of the Rig Vedic period there epics reflected in the shadow of their set in bad times in the history of social glorious husbands. And then these same India and restrictions were gradually were followed by an unbroken crop of pigmy imposed on the freedom of women. Men women, who could not bear themselves took upon themselves to think and plan up, could not even lean on the arms of for their women, who henceforth sank into their husbands, but had to be carried. But a secondary position where they began to now this crop is also nearing its reaping play a second fiddle to their men. The idea time. There is audible the sound of a of purity of blood caught hold of the Aryan vigorous re-shuffling under the surface of mind and it generally dominated all their the Indian society and the stirrings of a activities. Purity of blood as an ethnic new life are discernible. The lame has found principle is a fiction and the admixture of legs to tread and the dumb a tongue to races has been a vigorous common truth. express himself. There is a surge of desire The law-givers of India in the post-Rig Vedic for emancipation and an urge for pushing period strove and struggled to devise ahead. A mighty wave of freedom has means to keep their blood pure and thus captured the hearts of women all over Asia. ran after an unrealizable mirage. They prescribed rules for early marriages and banned freedom of women in deed, speech and even thought. They enjoined upon them to identify themselves wholly with their husbands and reduce themselves to nothing in action as well as desires. The

17 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Out of the Mists are the storehouse of ancient Indian history, certainly lack in what may be of Antiquity described as chronological sense. But chronology alone is not history. The cultural and social aspect of it which is a true mirror Ancient Indian Conception of History of a people and civilisation have been well maintained in ancient Indian writings and HE ancient Indian conception of history traditions. An eminent scholar, R. C. Dutt Twas quite different from the Western remarks “ ... There is a difference between conception, so much so that MacDonnell the records of the and the records was lead to think that “History is the one of other nations. weak spot in Indian literature. It is, in fact, ..... Ancient Hindu works are of a different non-existent. The total lack of historical character. If they are defective in some sense is so characteristic, that the whole respects, as they undoubtedly are, they course of Sanskrit literature is darkened are defective as accounts of dynasties, of by the shadow of this defect, suffering as wars, and so-called historical incidents. On it does from the entire absence of exact the other hand they give us a full, chronology.” connected, and clear account of the Indian traditions as well as literature, which advancement of civilization, of the progress of the human mind, such as we shall seek in vain among the records of any other equally ancient nation. The literature of each period is a perfect picture - a photograph, if we may so call it - of the Hindu civilization of that period and the works of successive periods form a complete history of ancient Hindu Civilization for three thousand years, so full, so clear, that he who runs may read it.” He continues, “And those who have pursued Hindu literature through different periods of ancient Hindu history, are equally aware that they form a complete and comprehensive story of the progress and gradual modifications of Hindu civilization, thought and religion through three thousand years.” All these literary sources, particularly the Epics, which acquaint us with the civilisation of the Hindu people, are mainly based on tradition.

18 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Tradition and History Tradition gradually compiled in History It is difficult to agree with Pargiter’s assertion that the Now the ancient traditions Kshatriya and Brahmana and ballads variously known traditions were different, for, as Akhyanas, Itihasa, Purana, in the Epics, , and Gatha and Nara Samsi, Vedas the story of Brahmanas contain glorious deeds of is intermingled with the tales heroes sung by the Sutas and of royal dynasties. The and are thus the genealogies of the kings and sources of Epic poetry. Rishis really existed when the Gradually when the art of great Epic was written and writing developed these were well-known to those heroic traditions were well-versed in ancient lore. compiled. This task was done The ancient traditions - tales according to Indian tradition known as Puranas and narration of facts, by , (which means a compiler) who which was Itihasa (Iti-Ha-Asa so it actually after compiling the Puranas took up the was) are often quoted in the Epics as old composition of the great Epic, which he history. Rightly does Pargiter observe, “our meant to be an Itihasa. knowledge of the most ancient times in India mainly rests on traditions. Almost all Importance of Tradition and History the information therefore comes from traditions,” and “Tradition is human The hold of ’s story on the Hindu mind testimony concerning the long past; hence persists to this day. Valmiki’s introduction it is not to be discarded simply because it that he was writing about the most contained discrepancies.” renowned king of his time as well as the dynastic chart of Pargiter would show Preservers of Traditions beyond doubt that Rama’s story has a historical background. These traditions were very well preserved Indian tradition refers to the as in the hoary past by the Sutra - the “ Adi Kavya.” Valmiki was the originator of Puranika, the - a genealogist the ornate style of poetry. The main story (Vamsa-Samsaka), and the Vadin - an of Ramayana consists of Book I to VI, eulogist (Stavaka). The Ramayana and the though it is Book II to VI according to some Mahabharatha mention all these. The scholars. Puranavids (such is the epithet of Sumantra in the Ramayana) although never esteemed The as an Itihasa as much as the Veda-knowing Brahmanas, were greatly respected in the court-circles. The Mahabharata, primarily an Itihasa, puts forward great claims. It is a Samhita,

19 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Purana, Akhyana, Katha, Dharma Sastra, reference to the context. Still it must be Kama Sastra and Kavya. It is the chief of stated that social ideals were tending all the Sastras, greater than all the Vedas, towards a condition where women were and enables man to attain heaven and assigned a comparatively low position in emancipation. Originally it was meant to the social set up. be the history of victory - ‘jaya’, then it In the Mahabharata, however, one is assumed more extended dimensions and confronted with numerous contradictions came to be known as “Bharatha” - the while approaching the subject of the history of the great Bharatha dynasty. As status of women. These are due to the the ancient Indians saw life as a whole vast time factor as well as to the with its various aspects, no ltihasa was differences in ideals and practices followed complete for them unless it dealt with the by various races of India. From the immense manifold aspects of human life, so as to data at our disposal it will not be an improve and help society. exaggeration to state that this Epic specially deals with the condition of women Date of the composition of the Great In India from pre-historic times to the age Epic when neo- of the Puranas was finally being evolved i.e. the condition of The Ramayana being mainly composed by women of the entire Hindu period. a single author presents more or less an The women as depicted in the narrative ideal point of view to be followed. Many part of the great Epic preserve their different customs of the non-Aryan tribes independence in thought as well as in are described but they clearly show a action. They mostly speak for themselves. tendency to adopt similar Aryan ideals. These portions of the Mahabharata present Thus, in adjudging the position of women an account of women, who rose to great in Ramayana one is not confronted with heights in every field, such as in the contradictions. It is true that as it is a domestic, in the service of humanity and popular human poem - sometimes women in the emancipation of the soul. But the as depicted, show human weaknesses. But Mahabharata also traces the story of the either they are seen to return to the ideal fall of women in their status in Hindu at once, when advised by someone (as in Society. By the time the didactic portions case of Kausalya when she was reminded were written the social and religious status of her duty once by Rama and at another of women had declined. She was denied time by Dasaratha) or (as in the case of Vedic education and was married when she Kaikeyi) the forces of goodness are too had no idea of matrimony. At home, she powerful for their evil tendencies which are entirely depended on men-folk. She was defeated betimes. Women mostly follow the no more a real partner in her husband’s ideals and are respected, but the passages mundane and spiritual efforts but a mere decrying women (although some of them devotee and follower. may refer to interpolations due to ascetic influence) are few and can be justified with

20 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages in society in which foetus-murder was The Epic Women considered to be a crime, there could be no possibility of exposure of the female infant.

n impartial effort to interpret the Place in the family: Birth of the daughter Astatus of women in the Epics will provide the opportunity to correct many Daughter-adoption was frequent enough. erroneous ideas about the status of Sita, Kunti, Sakuntala and Pramadvara were women in the past. For “history gives us all adopted daughters. It may be argued the information about the evolution in the that Sita, Sakuntala and Pramadvara, had past and is necessary to understand the just fallen to the lot of their adoptive present” and History by exhibiting to us a fathers but they could have been easily great number of different societies, disposed of to others by them just as king prepares us to understand and tolerate the Uparichara gave away Satyavati although variety of usages ; by showing us that she was gifted with beauty and possessed the societies have often been transformed, every virtue. The birth of a daughter was it familiarises us with the variation in social sometimes desired as the affection felt for forms and cures us of a morbid dread of her and the son-in-law was much greater change. The Epics are historical works ; than that felt for the son. The merits of particularly the Mahabharata is a great Kanya Dana as well as the worlds attained history in this respect, as it deals with on a son being born to one’s daughter were various types of societies, which show factors that gave some importance to her vicissitudes in the status of women. birth. The race of spirited heroines and great The brother less daughter was known as scholars were later transformed into mere putrika dharmini which meant that her son shadows of their masters. How this came was to inherit his maternal grand-father’s to pass gradually is a long story. property and perform his funeral rites. Yayati attained heaven through the grace The Maid, her status and her education of his daughter’s son, even though he had sons. Some passages do prove that The status of women in a particular society daughters were considered as sons, and may be judged by the manner in which that they inherited wealth and kingdoms. the birth of a female infant is received. It Thus from the religious point of view as has been established by the Indian and well as that of inheritance the son was European scholars that the exposure of not utterly indispensable. On the contrary, the female child in the Samhitas as there are examples to prove that some discussed by some foreign authors was people were eager to have daughters. For never a fact. it was ordained that by performing Sraddha From the Epics it is clear that the doctrine on the second day of the bright fortnight of non-violence was gaining ground. Thus one got several daughters. According to

21 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages one passage the good result of visiting a Maidens considered auspicious certain holy place was getting a hundred daughters. As rewards for penances It was the general belief of society that performed, bright and famous daughters the Goddess of wealth resided in maidens. were born. Chastity was considered to be a perfect ornament of womankind. The maiden, as Why the birth of a daughter was a the personification of chastity was naturally source of anxiety thought to be propitious. Thus their presence was required in auspicious Surely the daughter in those days, as even ceremonies like coronations. They went out now, was a source of anxiety, in as much to welcome and to send off the distinguished as she was to be given away in marriage. guest. When the heroes went to battle, Her future welfare and happiness depended they touched the maiden along with other entirely on the character and ability of her lucky objects. future husband. It was a great worry for the parents to find a suitable husband, Rights and Privileges obviously a more difficult task in an age (i) Nature of protection given by the when the daughter too may have had a society and the family voice in the matter. Generally, a father only laments the birth It was natural that such a symbol of of a daughter when he is unable to get an auspiciousness and an object of affection eligible match for her. It was only in these was to be en sufficient protection by the circumstances that she has been declared society and family. It was also essential a source of pity and distress. for guarding chastity as well. Of such importance was protection of a maiden that An object of affection the kings were aimed, despite their multifarious duties, to protect them. The life of daughters and even adopted Perhaps, this protection which was a social daughters at their parental homes proves duty of the king was given to those maidens that they were brought up with great care who were orphans. It was, however, the and affection, and were never to be duty enjoined upon a father to protect his displeased. Some fathers felt equal daughter. But it appears that they had also affection for the sons and daughters. The great independence in their fathers’ homes. example of Devayani indicates that sometimes fathers were so fond of their (ii) Legal Rights daughters that they even spoilt them. Such was the power of Devayani over her father Generally after marriage, except in the case and the tenderness felt by him for her that of Putrika, the daughter had nothing to do the Devas instruct Kacha to please her in with her parental home and property. A order to gain the knowledge of Sanjivini married daughter, however, had the right from Sukracharya and he acts accordingly. to inherit her mother’s dowry.

22 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages (iii) Domestic duties - helping the societies, perhaps this period, in which parents Vedic, religious and philosophic education is mentioned to have been imparted to The duties of the maidens at home were women, corresponds roughly with the mostly for preparing them for their future Upanishad and the Sutra period. These career i.e. the domestic life. The greatest works contain enough evidence of the duty a house-holder was to entertain the intellectual activities and educational guests. As a practical part of their attainments of women. Draupadi’s lively education, daughters performed this duty discussions remind one of Gargi and Maitreyi at their parental homes. Shakuntala offered of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. Aswalayana a seat, water, and Arghya to Dushyanta Grihya-sutra records Samavartana while her adoptive father was absent. The ceremony for the girls. daughters of poor people might have helped their fathers in their daily work for Traditional Education Satyavati served her father by plying the boat. In the traditional (ancient) view the aim of education was not limited to mere Education intellectual attainment. Character building was considered an indispensable function From the accounts of the heroines it of education. Listening to the stories of appears that the responsibility of educating Itihasa and Purana, which were handed the daughters was fully realised by the down from generation to generation, was parents. There is corrobrative evidence. considered highly conducive to a sound The epics being hero-lauds present no data character. Therefore, this item had an of this. However, the fact cannot be denied important place in the scheme of education. that Epic heroines were highly educated. In this way one gained considerable wisdom and sagacity. The girls too had a right to Intellectual and Religious Education listen to the Itihasa and Puranas.

Certain passages in the Epics prove that Military and Physical Education the maidens were given Vedic education. Women were able to perform sacrifices Although later a Kshatriya woman was given alone, even without their husbands. In the military education, in the Epics themselves Ramayana, Kausalya on the eve of Rama’s there is no evidence that such education installation offered oblation to fire, reciting was imparted. A few cases, that might be ‘mantras’. Similarly when Vali was going to cited in favour of such a presumption would fight Sugriva, Tara performed ‘swastyayana’ not bear close scrutiny. For instance there with the chanting of ‘mantras’ and so also is the case of Kaikeyi helping Dasaratha. Kausalya when Rama was going to the forest. As the great Epic records many strata of

23 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Education in Arts: advanced more and more. Thus Gandhari, (1) The Sixty-four Arts by bandaging her eyes, blinded herself. She could not help her husband in any way The sixty-four arts mentioned by various and also denied the care of a mother to Sanskrit writers have been referred to in the princes. It would have been the Mahabharata also. The slave girls of difficult for those under whose charge the the kings used to be well versed in these. princes were committed, to chide and Vatsyayana recommends these sixty-four correct them when they went wrong. By arts as arts of women to be taught to the virtue of their position as parents, Gandhari daughters of rich families, princesses and and Dhritarashtra could have guided the ganikas. These arts include a liberal scheme in their impressionable years. But of education for women, which was suited they were both unable to perform this duty to their aptitude. Proficiency in these arts on account of their artificial and natural meant hard work, required ample leisure blindness. The wives of the Kauravas weep and immense expense. for Draupadi’s fate, but not a single one of them could exert any influence and check Merits of Home Education her husband from performing inhuman atrocities. Gandhari and these princesses Some Epic women like Gandhari, who were not Sahadharminis in the true Lopamudra, Anusuya, Sita, Draupadi and sense of the term, were also responsible Savitri acted as great educative forces in for tragedies that followed after the game those times and are still examples of ideal of dice and the war. Indian womanhood. It may not be possible In the same way ’s mother and to state definitely the system of education Mandodari failed to bring him to the right then prevalent. path. But they were better in the sense that they at least made efforts. Sita, when Defects of Home Education exiled, suffers quietly the unjust treatment meted out to her by Rama. Fiery Home education had also its defects. It personalities like Sulabha and Vidula are appears to have developed the virtues of cited as ancient examples. There are some heart but not so much the powers of examples like those of Draupadi and Kunti, intellect. Thus the social instinct did who still wielded great influence, but surely develop but at the cost of individuality. In the race of heroines like these was dying. the family atmosphere of love and affection Most of the Kshatriya ladies lacked self- one thinks of giving only. This attitude has confidence and assertive individuality and certainly great virtue, but it was pushed were incapable of exercising their to the extreme in the ideal of Pativrata. benevolent influence. In short, that As for the Pativrata there was no God other development of personality, which true than her husband, the ideal of Sahadharmini education promotes by bringing one in received a great set-back and started contact with the outside world had not losing ground as the ideal of Pativrata taken place in them. A sound academic

24 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages education could have developed these greatest preceptor of her children and thus qualities of personality, but such a of her race and society. The Epic mothers development could not be promoted by the performed all these duties with great care home education, which was necessarily and a sense of social responsibility and limited in scope and therefore inadequate were regarded as an integrating force in for the purpose. It was really a great society. Sons repaid the affection and care tragedy in the life of a nation where its of the mother in a humble and respectful women-folk could understand the right path manner and protected widowed mothers, but were helpless to pursue it. whose position was never degraded or neglected in the family by the fact of her Social Status widowhood. Exaltation of mothers led to mother-worship and to the custom of Although marriage, as means for the addressing sons after the mother’s name. fulfilment of a maiden’s natural and And even the ascetic ideal which belittled inevitable goal of life was always desired, all other worldly relationship did not affect she was never sacrificed at the altar of the superior position of the mother. The marriage. Her intellectual attainments and social position of the step-mother was physical endurance made her capable of similar to that of the mother. working out her own emancipation, the greatest good to be achieved by all human The Widow beings. In marriage she had freedom and possessed independent judgment to select No social stigma was attached to her life partner. widowhood and the widow was not Home was the centre of the activity of considered as an inauspicious creature. No women and the wife was assigned the special life of austerities and fasts was central place in it. In fact the wife was prescribed for her by the composers of the considered synonymous with the home. Epics in the form of “ Vidhawa Dharma” as There she performed her onerous duties was done by the later writers of the through unremitting services and was a Puranas. Nevertheless widows born and partner of her husband in the pursuit of bred in pativrata ideal thought widowhood the four Purusharthas, that is, Dharma, as a great calamity and led a life of penance Artha, Kama and . Gaining by advice and chastity. Sometimes they even left and experience of elders and protection of home for forests to perform penances and her husband, she was cherished and austerities of their own accord. In Epic respected, for on women depended the narratives penances were not imposed upon prosperity and future progeny of the family. them. Generally they did not sacrifice As a mother, woman occupied a place of themselves on the funeral pyre of their great honour and prestige. The social code husbands. prescribed a conduct of veneration and Thus while the honour of women was well respect towards her. She was considered protected by condemning and punishing the creator, nourisher, educator and the adulterous men, women were not treated

25 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages harshly for similar crimes, as long as the But in the didactic portion of the Great honour of her high caste was not involved. Epic it is more marked and more rapid. Many She was considered as “Abala” and indignities and insults are heaped upon therefore most of her failings were women. Woman is mentioned as insatiated attributed to the carelessness of men who with carnal pleasures, lascivious, immoral, should have protected her. Although the heartless, fickle, inconstant and therefore husband of a sinning woman had the right easily seduced, root of sin and evil, to punish her, she was never to be greatest illusion created by the Brahman abandoned and was always to be with the help of Atharvan rites for the maintained. The attitude was that of hating downfall of men. She was incapable of being the sin rather than the sinner. guarded and of keeping a secret. It was due to the inferior character assigned to Fallen Woman women that they were to be kept under perpetual tutelage throughout their lives The attitude of society even towards a and were classed among possessions and fallen woman, that is, to a prostitute, in property. some respects was quite different from the usual one. She was considered auspicious Particular Social Vicissitudes and her presence was required on ceremonial occasions. She was not treated In ancient Indian literature the strange as an out-caste for she appeared with phenomenon is that whereas the status of maidens to welcome distinguished guests women in the Vedas and in the narrative and heroes. parts of the Great Epic is satisfactory, later in the didactic portions it deteriorates. This Inferior Status in Society is due to certain internal changes in society, when the Aryans were fighting deadly wars The above-mentioned data indicate a place with the non-Aryans and women were of respect and honour occupied by women fulfilling all the economic needs of society in society in whatever position they were and managing the family alone. They were placed. But women were gradually losing to be producers of many heroes for the this honourable position in society as well secular needs of the society. So the as in family. This was not due to any sudden custom of Sati was abolished and re- revolution but was prompted by certain marriage was introduced. As useful attitudes towards women from the hoary members of society the position of a woman past as well as due to certain vicissitudes was exalted. The religion of sacrifices through which society was passing. In (Yajnas) was also in her favour, for yajnas certain fields, deterioration in the status could not be performed without a wife. The of women can even be traced in the Vedas, Aryans appear fully established in North in the narrative parts of the Great Epic as India in the Epics and due to the well as in the Ramayana, which is otherwise development of the Dasi system, Aryan full of lofty ideals and noble sentiments. women were not fulfilling the economic

26 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages needs of society alone as before. Still “the spoken dialect of the age had begun Draupadi’s description of her household to differ considerably from the language of management and the religious needs of the Vedic hymns and the theory had found society indicate that the older traditions universal acceptance that to commit a and conditions as described in the Vedas single minor mistake in the recitation of prevailed. the Vedic mantras would produce most The ascetic attitude, which is not found in disastrous consequences to the reciter. As the Vedas and the Brahmana literature was a natural consequence, society began to developing. It was perhaps because of the insist that those who wanted to undertake non-Aryan contact or may be due to any Vedic studies must be prepared to devote other reason. The idea of impurity attached a fairly long period of about twelve to to woman was taking hold of society. All sixteen years to the task, as a these conditions are more marked in the consequence lady Vedic scholars began to didactic portions. Not only was woman be rarer and rarer. Similar reasons may be ignorant herself but she lost her religious put forward for the denial of the Vedic or social status and was ascribed a vile education for girls in the Epic recensions”. character. Causes leading to Child marriage Women Ascetics and Performers of Penances Being ignorant, a maiden naturally lost her power of judgement. Her freedom in the Religious as well as literary education was selection of her future partner sometimes not imparted to girls. Women were led to unhappy results in married life. This considered incompetent to perform and the vile and fickle character attributed sacrifices. The wife of a learned preceptor, to women firmly established the theory of Deva-Sharma talks in prakrt - a clear perpetual tutelage of women. As a indication that women were not given consequence the right of selection of the literary education. Ruchi could only speak future partner passed to the guardians of in Sanskrit when she was hypnotized by maidens. It was rather difficult to find a Vipula. Many reasons have been advanced suitable person in order to ensure the by scholars for the fast disappearance of daughter’s future happiness. Moreover, the Vedic education from amongst women. One various limitations and restrictions which of the reasons was that sacrificial religion were being imposed for contracting marriage was becoming highly specialised, and led to further difficulty in finding out an naturally this as such took years to be accomplished bridegroom. The competition completed. The marriageable age for girls, in finding out the bridegroom, the denial of everywhere lower than that of boys, was education to women, the rigid idea of in the later recensions of the Epics lowered chastity as an imperative qualification of further still. Therefore, they could not be the bride as well as women led to the imparted an education which took years custom of child marriage. to be completed. According to Dr. Altekar, Child marriages and other reasons given

27 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages above were responsible for the deterioration polygamy and keep concubines and in the position of the wife. Formerly she prostitutes, but slight faithlessness on a used to be a religious partner of her wife’s part was at times punished by death husband in the true sense of the term. But sentence. Vigilant watch was always kept it was natural for the uneducated and child- on her morals. bride to look up to her educated and After the husband’s death, even for virgin mature husband as a preceptor and deity. widows a life of penances and austerities Thus at home from the position of a partner was recommended in the didactic parts of her position became that of a disciple and the Great Epic. Such a life was followed of a devotee. their own accord by the widows in the narrative part after they had settled their Ignorant Mothers children and performed worldly duties but it was never recommended formerly for The woman who was once a Sahadharmini widows much less for virgin widows. in the Vedic rituals, now remained a Remarriage for widows was not practised custodian of customs, superstitions and and the extreme form of pativrata ideal rites without mantras. As the theological culminated in the custom of Sati, a custom education was the only intellectual not found in the Ramayana but traceable education available in those days ; women, in the Mahabharata. The group suicide by denied of the benefit of this education had the widows in the Mahabharata may be their intellect completely clogged and due to their social insecurity and the unoriented. This was a great calamity for insignificant position they occupied. liberal Hindu culture. This led not only to Because of this insecurity the custom of the extinction of the Brahma-Vadinis but Sati probably gained further ground. to a more pervasive damage to society by making room for the vitiating influence of Freedom of Thought, Movement and ignorant mothers. Her individuality, in case Action she had any, was submerged in that of her Lord. Polygamy further deteriorated Women in earlier portions of the Epics and woman’s position. Woman’s position in the in the narrative one possessed freedom but family became psychologically insecure and gradually they were being denied these by jealousies among co-wives, danger of the time the didactic portions were written. domination of co-wife’s sons in old age Sulabha and Draupadi could discuss deep further added to her miseries. metaphysical subjects and took part in The advice given to wives to obey even learned discussions with great ease. Even wrong and unrighteous commands of their when faced with great calamity in Kuru husbands indicates that women were not Court, Draupadi does not lose her balance even considered rational beings. Wife was of mind and challenges the Kuru elders with for the enjoyment of the husband or for her doubts, which they were unable to producing progeny for his line. remove. The great Yudhishtira was many Men as described in the Epics could practise times confounded by her.

28 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Economic Status to kill her. Although woman was to be honoured and respected in theory, she The women characters in the Epics are could be sold, pawned, dragged in court generally spirited wives and mothers, like and treated roughly with the utmost Draupadi, Kunti, Gandhari, Sumitra and to disrespect. Privileges accorded to her were some extent Sita. Self abnegation and self- sometimes flouted, although it must be said sacrifice for righteousness is the dominant that such cases were rare. Sometimes note of their character. Theirs was selfless chivalrous attitude leads to honour and love which requires no reciprocation but respect of woman. which is at the same time not blind to faults inherent even in those who are the objects Conflict and Final Adjustment of their affection. A true Sahadharmini like Draupadi, was considered to be a pativrata In the religious field superstition took hold first, but the connotation of pativrata of her, in the family, man dominated her. gradually changed and she became a slave She lost her personality and individuality and blind follower of her master. Draupadi, completely. Thus she became a quantity Kunti and Gandhari acted as guiding and negligible, a vessel to produce progeny, correcting forces of their times. They and an article of enjoyment. Occasionally worked for the cause of righteousness, old ideas that woman should be respected justice and duty. There is another set and honoured are repeated, but with an composed of Sita, Savitri, Damayanti who ulterior motive for she was socially useful. were much concerned about their duties This was merely lip homage. It may be and faithfulness and needed no contended that women felt satisfied for reciprocation for these but they are ideals there was no woman’s problem in ancient that have guided Indian womanhood India. But woman as an individual was through centuries. The world has a singling hardly existing by the time the didactic of the ideal and the common in every portions were written. She was merely a society. So if there were Spartan mothers piece of property. Thus the race of like Sumitra and Gandhari, there were also Brahmavadinis, Sahadharminis and Spartan others who were just ordinary, like Kausalya, mothers was sacrificed at the altar of social and even below ordinary as Kaikeyi. Simple convenience and was lost for centuries to women or women proud of their beauty come. With this the downfall of the country like forgot their duty, but Ahalya is and its people was inevitable, for in her an example of human failing and yet, disregard all action was futile as has been realising her cousin she gets rid of those well said in the Mahabharata, (XIII. 46.6). effects through penances and austerities. - From The Status of Women in The Epics. By Dr. (Miss) Shakambari Jayal. Variety

Woman’s position deteriorated to such an extent that fathers sometimes ordered sons

29 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Sita-The Ideal Woman suffering in the household of an infatuated Smt. PREMA PANDURANGAN, M.A. lord. Trijata is an exception to the demon world. In contrast to the studies, Valmiki’s delineation of Sita is completely analytic ALMIKI’S epic sets forth the ideal moral and detailed. It takes into account all the Vvalues and the way they are integrated aspects of the woman’s role in human life. in the personality of Sri Rama. One of the Sita is a paragon of beauty and many a contemplated titles of this epic is Sitayah royal prince longed for her hand in marriage. caritam Mahat - the great story of Sita. Her father bestowed her as the prize of The Ramayana is a rich and variegated valour to the unmatched hero who bent canvas presenting a splendid variety of the colossal bow of Siva. We hear very characters sensitively portrayed, ranging little of the twelve years of married life of from the gods to the animal world. His Sri Rama and Sita in Ayodhya, before their portrayal of women characters is as banishment. They must have been happy significant as his presentation of the men. and an understanding couple. The master-poet Valmiki presents his heroine in as admirable a light as his super- Sita’s Intrepid Courage and Inalienable man Rama. Love

Other Female Characters Adversity is the true test of the character of any individual and more so in the case Among the women characters, Sita stands of women who love security above all things out as a thoroughly integrated, full fledged, in life. Sita stands out as a glorious complete and perfect woman. She emerges exception, vowing to live a life of unity as an ideal Hindu woman through all the with her husband, determined to sink or vicissitudes of her life. Kausalya is an ideal, sail with him in all circumstances. Sri Rama loving mother. Ahalya errs but recovers from asks Sita to stay back at home, when he the cures of the sins. Manthara is a proceeds to the forest to fulfil the vow of manipulator, a time server, a villain of the his father. The dialogue between the two piece highly vindictive and wreaks reveals in depth the strength of Sita’s vengeance on Rama. Kaikeyi is the personality. She is not intimidated or fear- unsteady good woman who can be swayed stricken by the horrors of the forest and to take any stand by appealing to her self- the troubles of a forest life dwelt upon by interest. She is not firm and fundamentally Sri Rama. She is an ideal wife and she has good. Anasuya is an example of a perfect no life apart from Rama. There is complete wife. Surpanakha is a passionate, pervert identification of herself with his. She is not demoness. Sabari is an ideal devotee. taken in by all the good sermonisings of Tara is a diplomatic queen, adjusting herself Rama. She literally taunts him: “I think of to the moral codes of a para human world. my father. He sought all the worlds for a Mandodari is the monument of patience bride-groom and at last he got you. If he 30 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages thought he got hold of the best man for though he does not agree to it. The caution me, he was a fool. What he had got was a compels admiration but not consent. While woman, a cowardly woman dressed like a disagreeing with her opinion, he expresses man”. (II-30-3).2 Rama does not take happiness at her moral companionship. He offence at this, and compliments her on says: Sita’s wailing and Rama’s anguish at her intrepid courage and inalienable love her separation have received classic for him. He assures that he will never be utterances in the matchless mellifluous separated from her. The great warrior that verses of the Kiskinda Kanda. The verses he was, he answers the taunts by his are an eloquent commentary on Sita’s magnificent single-handed quelling of the nature as an ideal beautiful wife. In the 14,000 demons headed by Khara and period of banishment Sita’s one thought is Dusana, Sita too accepted the answer to Sri Rama. The poet in the words of her taunts by a non-conformist expression observes she did not perceive of her love for him by embracing him openly. trees, nor flowers, but only saw Rama, all the time, in her heart.” She is sorrow Sita’s Insight and Power of Reflection personified.

Sita was not only bold but was critical and Her super-human power of endurance cautious in her judgment. When the sages in Chitrakuta approached Rama to kill the Her powers of endurance are almost demons and save their sacrifices from superhuman. She knew how to wait and demonic raids, he assured them that he was unconquerably persuaded about Rama would give them security by destroying the as the supreme redeeming power. We have demons. At this juncture, the intelligent the confirming evidence from Hanuman Sita gives an insight into her powers of about her single-minded devotion to Rama. reflection. She questions Rama’s propriety This was reciprocated by Rama. in giving assurance to the sages. While She could encounter temptation in the doing so, she sums up the ethical absolutes face. The dialogue between Ravana and of Sri Rama, namely his unswerving Sita bears this truth. The demon king tries adherence to the impeccable loyalty to his all the viles and art of a super-subtle villain. wife. She asks him why he should be at He utters her, cringes before her, intimidates war with the demons without provocation. her, lets a horde of his woman-folk to While raising this objection, she is not slow persuade her, threatens to kill her for a to word it in memorable words : barbarous breakfast. All this is of no avail Vina Vairam ca raudrata...... before this Rock of Ages. She is not Snehacca Bahumanacca smaraye impatient. With masterly disdain, yet with tvam na Sikshaye a humanity to correct the erring, she “I am not teaching you anything. I remind “threatens, flatters and advises” him. She you of what you already know, out of laments: “Are there no good people in regard and friendship for you.” Sri Rama . Are there no honest men who care feels happy at the wise counsel she offers, for righteous conduct and would you not

31 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages be guided by them? There must be many she endures to illuminate and glorify the good people. I suspect that you do not character of Sri Rama to make it follow them. You do care for good people untarnished. Her powers of endurance are who are here. Seeing at your mind is bent marvellous. upon evil courses, I gather that although Valmiki’s portrayal of Sita is not a lifeless there are good people to give you proper model of perfection. He was aware of the guidance, you do not listen them.” failings of a woman in sorrow. We get a peep into this aspect of Sita’s character Her compassion for sinful men when she suspects needlessly the innocent Lakshmana, of a design to appropriate her. She advises Ravana to delight in his own Her stinging words throw him out of the woman. She terrifies him by recounting the path of duty and the abduction of Sita effects of the sin of adultery. She advises ensues. That is the beginning of the him to restore her to Rama and save himself. tragedy. The words of Sita, in this scene, Sita’s counsel discloses her powers of clear disclose the intensely human nature of a linking and compassion for sinful men. She woman who deeply loves her husband. Sita is the embodiment of kindness. Parasara is a perfect woman, “to warn, to command Bhatta describes her as ajnana nigraha and to comfort”. Her cruelty to Lakshmana (innocent of punishment). Valmiki has was not born of hatred for him, but out of immortalised it in a celebrated half verse: her love for Rama. The radiant monk Swami “There is none who does not err. She says Vivekananda, and the illustrious Right this to Hanuman, when he promises to kill Honourable Sastri alike acclaim her in their the demonesses who troubled her.” lectures. The monk exclaims “Sita is unique, that character was depicted once and for Ordeal through fire all. There may have been several , perhaps, but never more than one Sita. Sita’s boldness never fails her in the most She is the very type of the true Indian distressing situation. After the battle, Sri woman, for all the Indian ideals of a Rama in unbelievable words declares that perfected woman have grown out of that his mission is over after killing Ravana and one life of Sita. All our mythology may that she can go her way. These words vanish, even our Vedas may depart and rend her heart like poisonous arrows. Yet our Sanskrit language may vanish forever, she stands all this and accuses Rama of but so long as there will be fine Hindus speaking the language of a barbarian. living here, even if only speaking the most Courage is the badge of her tribe, rectitude vulgar patois, there will be the story of its foundation, firm faith is its root. She Sita present, mark my words. Sita has gone comes out pure from the fire ordeal. into the very vitals of our race. She is Again she falls under a situation when Rama there in the blood of every Hindu man and abandons her on the pretext of a scandal woman. We are all children of Sita.” involving his acceptance of her after ten month’s stay in Ravana’s kingdom. This too

32 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Draupadi and Sita mother. It is as if Sita were an orphan. There is a description of the greatness of her father, a ruler of the Janakas, but this greatness of his is of no help to Sita in her times of need. RAUPADI and Sita are heroines of the two Indian epic poems, the D A web of kinship Mahabharata and the Ramayana respectively. Both are daughters of the In the Mahabharata story we have an earth: Sita because she was found during account of over three generations of the ploughing for a yajna (sacrifice), and people tied together with the whole web Draupadi because she came out of the of kinship. Gandhari, who on her marriage yajna fire itself. Both were wed in a to a blind man (Dhritarashtra) had bound Swayamwara and each was given to a man her eyes with a strip of cloth, had her who proved himself the best archer of his brother Shakuni stay at the Kuru court, time. One was exiled for fourteen years, intriguing on behalf of his sister’s children. the other for thirteen, and the lives of Kunti, the widow of Pandu, was guarding both, for one reason or another, were her five children with the help of her father’s fraught with extreme agonies. But despite people. Draupadi’s parents and brothers these similarities, the overall impact of the were very important allies of the five two is one of immense contrast, because brothers, Dharma, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula the entire content and style of the two and Sahadeva. The tale of Arjuna’s books are diametrically opposed. daughter-in-law Uttara and her brother Uttar forms a lovely sub-story. The great Mahabharata and Ramayana a grandfather Shantanu and his son Bhishma comparison have an important role in the development of the story. Thus the background of many Mahabharata is a record of human beings individual lives : brothers and step-brothers, with human weaknesses. The entire older and younger generations, wives of Ramayana, on the other hand, is in praise brothers, uncles and nephews, relations by of an ideal man and the Ramayana is marriage and many others with their principally the story of one man, with the intricate rivalries and alliances give other characters serving as a background Draupadi her many dimensions. to set the hero in relief. Besides Rama stands Till the day they married Draupadi, the Sita. She has parents as well as in-laws, were moving incognito from town but her parents’ home is a home in name to town, They had escaped from a horrible only. Of her relations with her in-laws we death planned for them by the Kauravas, hear a little more, but in this context too and were afraid of letting their enemies the characters remain sketchy. Sita goes know that they are alive. In the court of into the forest with Rama and is finally Drupada they sat, under assumed swallowed up by the earth, but we do not identities, among a group of poor Brahmins. hear a single protest from her father or 33 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Arjuna’s success in the contest won for parents and the duties of a householder, the Pandavas not only a beautiful wife but he had to be married. Moreover, the also powerful allies. With these and the younger brothers had access to an elder Yadavas to back them they could ask for brother’s wife, but over the younger their share of the Hastinapura kingdom. brother’s wife an elder had no right. Thus Through their marriage to Draupadi they the marriage of the younger brother before got a wife, status and a kingdom. the elder deprived the elder of his social, familial and religious rights and for this Draupadi a symbol of unity and reason such a marriage was considered a solidarity sin. Had Arjuna married Draupadi first, his elder brother could not have married her. As the daughter of a powerful, and noble On the other hand, Dharma as the elder family, Draupadi was the living symbol of had the right to marry her though she had the ’s new position; but more than been won by Arjuna. In his grand-father’s that as the wife of all five she was the generation, Bhishma had won a girl and source of their unity and solidarity. The given her to his brother. If Dharma alone day Arjuna won her and brought her home had married Draupadi all five would have his mother unwittingly said, Whatever you had the right to her, but the text suggests have brought today, share equally with the following reason that this alternative your brothers as always’. Then she saw was rejected and she was solemnly married the lovely young girl ! How could she be to each. As the discussion about what to divided among the five? Dharma told Arjuna, do with Draupadi went on, the eyes of the ‘Brother, you won her; you marry her.’ five brothers were fastened on her with Arjuna answered, ‘How can I commit the unconcealed desire which did not escape sin of marrying before you and Bhima, my the shrewd observation of Kunti. Finally, elder brothers? You are the eldest; you through her wisdom and a stratagem of marry her.’ Vyasa the dilemma was resolved so that Draupadi became the wife of all five and Draupadi - the Wife her marriage to all five thus destroyed any possible seeds of dissension. Arjuna was right. From the Vedas and the Kunti had watched over the Pandavas until Brahmanas onward it was considered not the day of their marriage after which only contrary to good etiquette but sinful Draupadi assumed the responsibility. for the younger brother to marry before the elder. If he did so, the guilt not only Like a boat, she saved the Pandavas fell on both brothers, but also on the parents who had consented to the marriage. The Very soon after her marriage Draupati reasons for this are clear. In ancient times saved her husbands from utter ruin. In the the eldest had the right of succession and dice game Dharma had not only lost his inheritance. To be able to perform the entire kingdom but had staked his own wife. shraddha (offerings to the dead) of his Dragged into the assembly of the Kauravas

34 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages she was shamefully dishonoured. Finally, As Draupadi had the right to share in the fearing that the indecency had gone too splendour and greatness of her husbands, far and would have terrible consequences, so now she had the responsibility of sharing Dhritarashtra intervened. To Draupadi he their suffering and disgrace. The Pandavas’ granted three favours. With the first she other wives had taken their children and freed Dharma as the crowned king; with gone to their parents’ homes. Draupadi sent the second she freed the remaining four. her children to her parents - they had to Then saying, ‘If my husbands are free and be educated so it would not do to keep armed, that is enough for me’ ; she refused them in the forest - but she herself stayed the third favour. Skillfully asking the with her husbands. She was not one to favours, without making any demand for suffer in silence, however. She clenched herself, she had saved all the Pandavas her fists and cursed; she burnt with anger. from degradation. again summed it When her brother Dhrishtadyumna visited up as : ‘Up till now we have heard of many her in the forest, she wept continuously beautiful women in the world, but no and cried with bitter rage, I have neither woman has done anything equal to what husbands, nor brothers nor father. If I had, Draupadi has done here today’. The do you think they would have stood for Pandavas and Kauravas were burning with my being insulted like this?” anger and in that conflagration no one can say what might have happened, but Life in the forest Draupadi has re-established peace. Like a boat she has saved the Pandavas, when When everyone had left she again brought they were about to drown in a sea of up the subject, trying in vain to persuade disgrace! The taunt that they had been Dharma to take revenge against the saved by a woman infuriated Bhima. But Kauravas. though Karna had said it maliciously, it was Fortunately, however, Draupadi was not free true. to brood over the past. Even in the forest she could not escape the responsibility of Exiled to the forest being a daughter, daughter-in-law and wife of the great kings. From morning to night The word used for the period spent in the she was busy. She had to make her forest is the same in the case of Draupadi preparations for the vitally important rites and Sita - Vanavasa (leading a forest life) conducted by Dharma and the family priest. - but there the comparison ends. Draupadi Despite the Pandavas’ limited means, they was driven to the forest by her husband’s could not stint in the performance of the addiction to gambling and the consequent ceremonies. Nor did the Pandavas escape loss of his kingdom. Sita’s forest life on the obligations of hospitality, obligations the other hand, was the result of her prescribed by the Kshatriya code and by husband’s idealism and sense of duty. It political considerations as well. Hundreds was a self-imposed ordeal. The Pandavas, of guests - Brahmins and others - were however, were forced into exile. continually coming and going, giving

35 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Draupadi even less solitude and leisure than Furthermore, the war in Mahabharata was she had in the palace. When she was not a real war, bringing grief to victor and working she had to sit and listen to the vanquished alike. long-winded tales of the guest rishis. All Draupadi’s full-grown children were dead, this time she was reconciled to her fate her father’s clan nearly destroyed. As the and dwelt continually on her hope for dying had said, she and Dharma revenge. would reign over a kingdom of widows.

Sita’s exile compared to Draupadi The end of a Yuga

Sita’s exile was un-shadowed by hatred The end of the Mahabharata is not merely and suffering. For more than twelve years the end of Draupadi. or the end of the she lived in a continual honeymoon. Pandavas or of their clan. It is the end of Occasionally there were just enough cruel a yuga. Each agony of that dying yuga beasts to give one a few delightful shivers. Draupadi suffered in her own person. When To Sita herself the memory of her exile her sons were treacherously killed, she was so idyllic that during her pregnancy wept and complained for the last time. From she craved for only one thing - to go back then on we hear her voice no more. to the forest. In Rama’s war against Ravana it is true The story of Rama and Ravana with their that Sita was the one and only cause. But armies of monkeys, bears and demons that Draupadi was the cause of the war in seems more a fantasy than a fact. the Mahabharata - at least the main cause Draupadi’s troubles were human, brought is definitely not true. The seeds of war on by people of this world and particularly had been planted on the day Dhritarashtra by her own husbands. was denied the throne because of his In almost every episode, insult is piled upon blindness, and Pandu was made king. insult, constantly adding fuel to the hatred in her heart. Two words keep recurring in Draupadi the faithful wife reference to Draupadi - nathavati anathavat ‘having husbands, but like a How little Draupadi mattered can be seen widow’. She was the wife of the five but in ’s offer to give her and a share bereft, the daughter of a rich house but of the kingdom to Karna, if he would join like an orphan, she had brave allies but the Pandavas. Fortunately, Draupadi had she was alone. This was the pity of her no inkling of this contemptible bargain. In situation. Every time she was dishonoured, the opinion of some, it is true, such an her husbands and father-in-law stood arrangement would have been to Draupadi’s watching in silence. They had to; they liking; for they claim she loved Karna. were powerless. Only twice was she saved; However, this opinion too is entirely once by a divine miracle, another time unwarranted. The Mahabharata makes no secretly by Bhima. attempt to idealize its characters ; in every character it brings out the good and the

36 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages bad. If the thought of anyone other than The daughters of the earth that of the Pandavas ever entered Draupadi’ mind, we can be sure that the Sita was a daughter of the earth because Mahabharata would have mentioned it. She she came out of the earth; Draupadi was had never so much as looked at Karna. a true daughter of the earth because her According to the critical edition, Karna feet were firmly planted on the ground, didn’t even attempt to win her in the her heart was in the world defined by her Swayamvara. In the whole of Mahabharata, marriage and the family, within the Draupadi and Karna had nothing to do with boundaries of her father’s house, father- one another. The notion that she loved in-law’s house, her own palace. Her him came in a later Jain Purana, not in the sensitive pride, her willingness to sacrifice Mahabharata itself. The Draupadi of the herself and her faithfulness to her husbands Mahabharata stormed and raged, but to were the qualities appropriate to her the last moment she remained a faithful country, time and clan. She was wife. There is not a single incident in her extraordinary, but this very life that casts the slightest suspicion on extraordinariness was born out of the her. ordinary values of her time. The account of Sita’s suffering should have When Dharma lost the dice game and been in the kavya tradition; suspicion of Duryodhana sent a slave to bring her into heroine, the clearing of her name, and the assembly, she sent the slave back, finally, reconciliation - the structure saying, “Go into the assembly and ask if exemplified in Kalidasa’s Shakuntala. Dharmaraja has become a slave before he Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, and other great staked me”. Duryodhana replied, “Come into poets have felt that the abandonment of the assembly, you will get your answer!” Sita was unjust. In short, that one event When she refused to come, Duhshasana is a blot on the ideal portrait of Rama; but dragged her into the hall. in that very event Sita was transformed There she stood weeping, but with fury from being a shadow of her husband to a she asked the question again. person in her own right, with her own The question Draupadi asked rested on a - sorrows, her own humiliation and the difficult and complicated legal point. Even opportunity to face them entirely on her Bhishma, who had often taken the part of own. the Pandavas in quarrels with Dhritarashtra Draupadi’s life has nothing comparable to and Duryodhana, was unable to give an this event. Her sorrows, her humiliations answer, perhaps for fear of compromising are realistic ; they are not merely brought Draupadi. in to embellish the poetry; and their If Bhishma told her that her husband’s rights resolutions take place on the level of the over her did not cease, that even though real world. he became a slave, she was in her power and he had the right to stake her, her slavery would have been confirmed. If Bhishma had argued that because of his

37 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages slavery her husband had no more rights over her, then her plight would have been Draupadi’s first mistake truly pitiable. Nevertheless no one had liked her The Dilemma pretensions to wisdom and Dharma never forgot it for the rest of his life. In the Draupadi’s question had put all of them in forest, too, Draupadi sometimes tried to a dilemma. Bhishma hung his head. Dharma show off her learning before him, but was ready to die of shame. Draupadi was defeating Dharma in learning was standing there arguing about legal impossible; each time he quickly silenced technicalities like a lady pandit when what her. She had made many mistakes in her was happening to her was so hideous that life that were forgivable but by putting on she should only have cried out for decency airs in front of the whole assembly, she and pity in the name of the Kshatriya code. had put Dharma into a dilemma and Draupadi at that moment called on neither unwittingly insulted him. The fact that the man nor god, but from the way garment insult was unintentional did not make it after garment kept appearing to replace forgivable. Though she was only a young the one Duhshasana tore away, it seemed bride of the house, she had spoken in the as if the power of the universe itself had assembly of men something she should awakened to protect her. Still she kept have known she must not do. Beyond that, insisting on the question of Dharma’s right to pretend that she could understand to stake her. Finally Duryodhana said, “Ask questions that baffled her elders - that your husband this question. We trust was inexcusable arrogance. These two Dharmaraja’s wisdom and judgment so much things wounded Dharma and did nothing that we will abide by his decision.” to add to her good name. In the Draupadi’s question and Duryodhana’s Aranyaparva, Dharma called her a ‘lady cunning answer cut Dharma to the quick. pundit’ - hardly a complimentary epithet in the eyes of the Kshatriyas of the Obtains Freedom Mahabharata. Gandhari and Kunti could give advice to their sons because they The hall filled with ominous threatening were older, experienced women. For a young noises, the evil had reached its climax. bride to show off her intelligence in the Duhshasana, exhausted and ashamed, presence of her elders was a grave mistake. turned away. Vidura arose, greatly troubled, This mistake Draupadi apparently never and said to Dhritarashtra, “These deeds understood and Dharma never made her will bear terrible consequences; intervene aware of it. What she had done was the now and save the clan.” Frightened at all result of her earthly, violent, but basically that had happened, Dhritarashtra freed simple nature. Draupadi and granted her three favours and with them she obtained the freedom of her husbands.

38 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The other mistake She recognised the hurt in Dharma’s words, the contempt too. For the first time in her There was, however, another mistake that life she pitied the king from her heart. Often Dharma revealed so openly that even in the forest she had commiserated with Draupadi could not fail to understand it. him about his position, but each time she They settled their affairs and took the opportunity of set out on the last pilgrimage. starting a new discussion, Month after month the six pointing at his wretched walked in single file. Then one condition to awaken the day Draupadi suddenly fell warrior in him, so even her down. Bhima stopped. pity was a kind of Idiotically he asked, ‘Why did goading. The king never she fall?’ gave in to her. As mildly ‘Look, won’t you - she’s fallen’ as he could, he would try Bhima said. ‘Why did she fall?‘ to gloss over what she ‘Bhima, keep going. She fell said. He never told her because she loved Arjuna the what he was feeling. Only most’, Dharma answered today in a single without looking back. sentence he had told Draupadi fell down. Nakula, what he thought was her Sahadeva, Arjuna and, last of one defect, and in so all, Bhima fell down one after doing had laid bare the the other. Dharma alone went life-long wound in his ahead with his dog. heart. Draupadi understood Dharma’s The Great Journey frustration and for a moment she felt regret. True Draupadi had fallen, but But only for a moment. she had not toppled over She smiled to herself and dead. A terrible fatigue had remembered the day of overwhelmed her. She could the Swayamvara. After not take a single step more. Arjuna had won her she Lying there she heard Bhima‘s had married all five of question and Dharma’s them one after the other. answer. This was the Great Didn’t the king realise a Journey in which no one waited for anyone little of the pain she had experienced then? else. Putting her hand on her head she lay She had to kill her own mind. At least in waiting for death. But she was conscious. her actions she had treated all five alike. Dharma’s words stirred memories, and in Perhaps the mind couldn’t be killed her last moments scene after scene came completely. Actions could be made equal, before her eyes. but could the same amount of love be

39 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages measured out of the heart for each of the In the same sense that Draupadi was five? If she had loved Arjuna most, was earthy, so was he. She was a daughter of there anything astonishing about that? the earth, he was a son.

Is love one-sided? Bhima’s last effort

Her mind stopped a moment. What does it Draupadi heard a dragging sound, then a mean to have loved? Ulupi, Chitrangada, great sigh. Her whole body quivered with Subhadra - Arjuna had loved so many fear. She had been waiting quietly for the women. Or had he? Had Arjuna given his moment of her death. Was a wild animal heart to any woman? Women had loved coming? A hyena? In all the days of walking him but he had given his heart to Krishna. on the plateau they had seen no animals. She knew how from the beginning from the Better that it fastened on her throat at settling of Indraprastha, Arjuna and Krishna once, without mauling her. She closed her would sit talking by the hour. In their talk eyes hard. As she lay waiting for the un- there was always some new idea perhaps named danger to strike, suddenly a shadow about building a city; but they talked as fell over her eyes. A curtain had dropped friends, each one speaking from his heart between her and the sun. A low deep voice and listening to the other. No woman could called, ‘Draupadi’. It was Bhima’s voice. It win Arjuna’s heart. Is love always like that? was he who had dragged himself, gasping Is it always one-sided? I pine for someone with effort, over the ten, fifteen feet that who doesn’t return my love, someone else separated them. On the way he had seen yearns for me. Suddenly, as if shocked, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva lying dead she stopped. The realization pierced like and had thought Draupadi must be dead lightning; there was one who had given too. When Draupadi, frightened at his his whole life for her. She sighed with her approach, had quivered, he had caught new understanding. Again pictures came with joy this sign of life. ‘What can I do for before her eyes ; Bhima along with Arjuna, you?’ The words came out with difficulty. fighting the enemies outside the It was the same question he had asked all Swayamwara pavillion; Bhima ready to burn his life, but in this situation it was utterly his brother’s dice-playing hands when she meaningless and incongruous. Draupadi was dragged into the assembly; Bhima was smiled. Bringing Bhima’s face close to hers. so angry he had to be held down by Arjuna; she said with her last breath, ‘In our next Bhima, comforting her when she was tired; birth be the eldest, Bhima; under your Bhima bringing her fragrant lotuses; Bhima, shelter we can all live in safety and joy!’ drinking the blood of Duhshasana; Bhima, plaiting her hair with gory hands. Arjuna could have killed Kichaka, but it was Bhima who did. How many things she remembered - greedy Bhima, rough tempestuous Bhima, always railing at Dhritarashtra and Gandhari.

40 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Kaikeyi and Manthara your sake. To please you he would jump into fire. Do what I tell you. Do not be afraid”. “Unless Rama is sent to the forest. your A drama of human emotions wish will not be fulfilled. Rama must be sent away. Only then the position you get AIKEYI, who had looked upon Rama as for Bharata will be real and lasting. her own son, was enmeshed in K Remember this. Mind you, do not weaken”. Manthara’s arguments and became Manthara repeated again and again that helpless. Rama must be sent to the forest. “Do not “Indeed, I am afraid,” she said. “Tell me delay. What needs to be done, do at once. what we should do. Am I to be a servant It is no good strengthening the tank-bund to Kausalya? Never, Bharata must be after the waters have been drained out. crowned. You are quite right. And Rama Remember what I have told you. Everything must be sent to the forest. But how shall depends on your firmness. Victory is yours, we get all this done? Tell me. You are clever if you do not yield”. and know the way”. Kaikeyi in her anger believed that Dasaratha And she clung to Manthara. In Kaikeyi’s had really been treacherous to her. Then eyes at that time Manthara’s crooked frame and there, stretched on the ground, appeared handsome. This is not a joke; it divesting herself of all ornaments and is a subtle psychological phenomenon. putting on a face of intense grief and anger, “This is indeed strange, Kaikeyi,” said she looked inexpressibly beautiful. So rich Manthara. “Is it for me to tell you how this and versatile was her beauty. could be brought about? Have you really The sinful thought had found lodgment in forgotten? Or, are you only pretending? But her mind and her whole nature was if you want me to say it, I shall do so. transformed. The fear that she would lead Listen. a slave’s life, and that even Bharata’s life “Demand that he should crown Bharata was in peril, had got hold of her. For the instead of Rama. This will be the first of first time in her life she cast aside the two gifts the king, Dasaratha, promised. sense of shame and sin and hardened her For the second gift, ask that Rama be sent heart. Heaving heavy sighs, profusely to the forest for fourteen years”. perspiring, and with eyes closed, Kaikeyi, “Do not be frightened. Do not fear to ask. beautiful like a Naga goddess, with Do not think it sinful to demand this, Do unbraided hair, lay there on the floor, the what I tell you. It is only if Rama is sent disheveled tresses sprawling like a bird shot into the forest that his hold on the people down by a hunter. The flowers and jewels, will relax and disappear in course of time, which once adorned her person, lay and your son’s position will be secure”. scattered in the darkness of the room, like “Bound by his promise the King will finally stars on a midnight sky. come round. I know how passionately he Dasaratha entered Kaikeyi’s chamber to tell loves you. He would give up his life for her the happy news and spend in pleasant

41 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages talk the whole night preceding the coronation. The junior queen’s residence was a beautiful palace with lovely gardens and tanks, birds playing in the water and peacocks dancing with tails spread out and trees resplendent with blossoms. In Dasaratha’s happy mood it appeared unusually beautiful that night. He asked a maid-servant where the Queen was. Folding her hands in reverence, the girl said: “Lord, the Queen is angry. She is in the inner chamber.” The surprised King entered the room. And he saw a sight which amazed and distressed him, for there she lay on the bare floor, with draggled robes and disheveled hair, like one in mortal pain. She seemed too full of anguish even to look at him as he entered. The poor guileless King, all unconscious of having given any cause for offence, behaved with the doting fondness of an old husband and seating himself by her on the floor, stroked her hair and strove to console her with loving words and caresses: “You know my absolute authority. I can give and I can take as I me your wish. It shall be done. I swear it. please. Anywhere, to anyone, I can do I swear it on all that I love most.- on you, what I wish. Ask of me anything and it the dearest among women, and on Rama, shall be done at once.” dearest to me among men. I swear in the Kaikeyi sat up. And she began : “No one name of Rama: Whatever you desire, I shall slighted or dishonoured me. But there is do, I promise you, I swear.” something which you can do and you must “Do you promise? Very well,” she exclaimed. do it for my sake. Give me your word that “Swear again in the name of Rama. you will fulfil my desire. Then I shall tell Whatever you wish I shall do. This is my you what it is.” sworn word.” Hearing this, the unsuspecting old man was She stood erect and with folded hands, filled with joy. Possessing absolute powers, turning in the four directions, invoked in a he had no doubt that he could fulfil her solemn voice the heavenly powers to wishes whatever they were and so boldly witness and confirm the oath. “Oh ye Gods! and joyously he said: “ Well, Kaikeyi, tell You have heard and witnessed the promise

42 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages given to me by my husband. Sun, Moon itself? The answers to these questions and Planets, you are my holy witnesses: gleaned from the book undoubtedly erase Ye, Five Elements! You have heard the the evil characteristics from Kaikeyi’s promise. nature. He who has never broken his word, my husband, has sworn to do my wish. Bear The Play at a weak moment witness to this.” She was extremely beautiful. And she was The two boons a favourite consort. She could have sown the seeds of her selfish desires in his mind Kaikeyi said: “Remember you have made a and carefully over a long period, persuaded vow. You have given a pledge. You have him to nominate Bharata as the future king, sworn in the name of Rama. The gods and and schemed the rest of it all. If she were the five elements have witnessed your a scheming woman she would have promise. I shall state my wishes. Your achieved her end more cunningly; she ancestors never broke their word. Prove would not have done it in so clumsy a yourself their worthy descendant by being manner as to be responsible for her true to the word, you have given. With husband’s death and invite condemnation the preparations now afoot for the from all, including her own beloved son. coronation, crown my son Bharata, This is She might have felt a tinge of jealousy, my first wish. The second boon that I and disappointment in her mind, as the demand is, send your son Rama to live in coronation ceremonies reached their the Dandaka forest for fourteen years. completion. Every mother wishes the best Remember your solemn vow which you for her child and Kaikeyi’s surely would have cannot break. The good name of your great felt a touch of unhappiness that her son dynasty is in your hands.” She spoke the could only have the second best, always. terrible words that would mark a series of Manthara was waiting for this opportunity. unfortunate events - Rama’s exile, Sita’s Playing upon Kaikeyi’s mind in a abduction, her own widowhood and untold psychologically weak moment, Manthara agony and shame for her innocent son. achieved her end. Kaikeyi had been a loving mother to Rama, During the brief spell, when Kaikeyi acts all along. Had she been mean and selfish with adamantine resolution and brings about by nature, she would have resented Rama’s her own condemnation, she acts as one very birth, and his presence. No-where in possessed; and possessed indeed, she was the Ramayana, prior to the Pattabhisheka by the evil mind of Manthara. is any evidence of a mean or unkind thought in Kaikeyi’s mind towards Rama. Did she not then know that Rama would be the future king? Were she selfish, would she not have wished the honour for Bharata, and schemed for Rama’s elimination then

43 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages “Ah my hero,” she wept Taara embracing the wounded (An Extract from Vaali. “How many heroes Rajaji’s writings) have you laid low and now you lie low yourself ! And you have left me here!” HERE was panic in Taara rolled on the ground T when the and lamented: news came that Vaali had “Leaving dear Angada an been slain by an archer, and orphan and myself a the Vaanaras fled hither helpless destitute you and thither in hopeless have gone on the journey confusion. Taara, seeing from which there is no this, laid aside her own grief return. My Lord! My hero!” and like a queen put “I care for nothing,” said courage in her husband’s Taara. “It is for Sugreeva subjects saying: to perform the obsequies “Till this day you walked and to look after Angada. before the King to battle! What is there for me to Why then do you flee in do -? Can a thousand fear now? There is no Angadas equal in my eyes danger for you. Rama my husband? With him I killed Vaali only to make shall enter the house of Sugreeva king. Your lives Yama. That alone will are in no danger; you will please me.” only have a different ruler; Vaali, unconscious till now, that is all. You need not fly opened his eyes for the or fear.” last time and addressing Sugreeva said: When she tried to go to the spot where “Brother, we two could have been friends her husband lay dead, the Vaanaras and reigned happily over the kingdom ; but stopped her saying: “We shall crown it was not given to us to be so wise and Angada king and we shall make safe the happy. I have entrusted to you Angada, fortress. We shall defend the town against my son, dearer than life itself to Taara and Sugreeva and his allies.” me. And be kind to Taara who was not But she said: “Now my noble lord is dead, only a blameless and affectionate wife, but nothing matters.” And boldly she went also a very wise and far-sighted counsellor.” straight to where Rama and Lakshmana Like a flowering creeper embracing a forest were standing. tree felled down by an axe, Taara lay on When she saw her husband lying wounded the ground, clinging to Vaali. to death she could not control her sorrow; With fear and hesitation, Rama gently she sobbed and cried. approached the weeping Taara. But there

44 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages was no sign of anger on her face. The words she addressed to the slayer of her Kunti - A Model of husband were worthy of a hero’s queen. “ Woman’s Uprightness With the weapon with which, O Warrior, you killed my husband, kill me too and enable me to join him. Even in heaven, he will not Men acted, Men directed, Women be happy without me. Do not fear it would suffered not be a sin. It will be a meritorious act to unite husband and wife. This will cleanse HE making of some lives is entirely in your sin, your treacherous slaying of my Tthe hands of others. That was the case husband.” of women in the times of Mahabharata. Valmiki says that at this stage Taara knew Their happiness, their sorrows were decreed the truth of Rama’s incarnation and saw by men to whom they belonged. Men acted, in him. The traditional belief is that, men directed and women suffered. like Sumitra, the mother of Lakshmana, Gandhari, Draupadi, Subhadra were all such Taara, the wife of Vaali was a jnani, a women but they were given at least a few knower of Reality. Though at first she hated years of wealth and well being. Rama for his treachery, yet when she saw him face to face she saw his divinity, so it Enter: Kunti is said. Even on a rational basis, Taara comes out Kunti alone among them seems to have as a diplomat, an expert in statesmanship. been born to endure only sorrow. A dozen She had the intelligence to anticipate years of happiness were too few to coming events. What had happened had compensate for her long life of sorrow and happened. By his address and good fortune, humiliations. Every man in her life Sugreeva had secured the alliance of Rama; contributed to her unhappiness. She never Vaali was no more; Angada’s welfare was said anything directly blaming her husband all that she could care for hereafter. Could but she did reproach him! father bitterly. Angada afford to antagonise Sugreeva, ‘As a spend-thrift squanders his money with Raama and Lakshmana ready to unthinking, so did my father give me away support him bow in hand? Peace, not war, when yet a girl to his friend.’ was indicated. Kunti’s father was a Yadava Prince called Hence, when she concealed her anger from Shurasena. A very dear friend and cousin Raama and put on an appearance of called Kunti Bhoja, who hadn’t even a patient submission to events, she was daughter, asked his friend Shurasena for really securing the best interests of Angada the gift of Kunti and Shurasena gave her and winning for him the compassion and away. sympathy of all. The magic formulae

The adoptive father employed Kunti to serve and win the favour of a Brahmin sage 45 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages called Durvasa, who was famous for his The sage curses Pandu magical powers as well as his bad temper. Service in this context meant personal The Mahabharata says that there he service: being at the beck and call of the incurred the wrath of a sage and was sage, doing all his bidding. The sage was cursed that union with a woman would so well served by her that he went away prove fatal to him. Pandu must have known pleased. He promised progeny to the king this lack in himself. There does not and gave Kunti some mantras (magic otherwise seem to be any reason for his formulae) by which she could compel any retiring to a forest with his two Queens in God to beget sons upon her. She was full the prime of life. All the Kuru kings were of curiosity and recited one mantra to see addicted to hunting but that could not have what happened. It was the mantra calling been his reason, for they did not take their the Sun-God, who came, and she conceived Queens with them to the hunts. Pandu had a son from him. Kunti’s old nurse kept the gone to the forest with the intention of whole affair a secret and when the baby living there. Did he intend that some other was born, she put him in a box along with man should beget children on his Queens? a lot of gold and floated the box on a small Did he wish to carry out this plan away river. from the capital so that nobody should Her own father gave her away to a friend. know the identity of the fathers of the One life-long sorrow was born of this children? He did get his five sons in this action. Her adoptive father gave her in manner. Why did he remain there after marriage to a sterile man; and all the rest getting the sons? Possibly in the hope of of her sorrows were a result of this union. getting some more.

Pandu her husband The sons are born

Pandu, her husband was the king of Pandu begged Kunti (the senior Queen) to Hastinapura. Kunti, therefore, was the conceive so that she may have some sons. queen. What kind of privileges she enjoyed At this request Kunti told him about the as Queen we do not know. She herself gift given to her by the sage Durvasa. This mentions just once, at the very end, what was also an opportunity for her to reveal she had when a Queen. Pandu, as became the existence of Karna. According to the a king, went on a conquering expedition, custom of those days, such a child could defeated many a king and brought immense have become a legitimate son of Pandu, wealth as tribute. He presented it all to but Kunti at that time had no idea what his blind elder brother Dhritarashtra and had happened to her son or whether he himself went to live in the Himalayan forest lived at all. She, therefore, never said with his two queens, Kunti and Madri. anything about this child. Kunti got three sons from three Gods - Yama, the law giver and God of death, Marut, the God of winds and storms, and Indra, the King of Gods.

46 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Kunti’s eldest son, Yudhishthira (called in spite of her remonstrances possessed Dharma) was born before Duryodhana, the her and died, according to a curse, in the son of Dhritarashtra. After three sons were moment of his fulfilment. Just then Madri born to Kunti, the younger Queen Madri heard Kunti coming with the children and begged Pandu to get a magic formula for cried out, “Kunti, hurry and come alone. her from Kunti as she did not want the Keep the children away!” Kunti at once stigma of barrenness. Kunti agreed and guessed what had happened and came gave a mantra to Madri. Madri is supposed rushing, wringing her hands. to have called the heavenly twins, handsomest among Gods, and gave birth Pandu’s death: Kunti’s fury to twin sons. When the King asked Kunti for another magic formula for his younger “All is lost, all is lost,” she wailed. She saw Queen, Kunti gave a characteristic reply, the dead king lying by the side of Madri. “I was a simpleton to give a mantra to this She could not contain her fury. “I scheming woman. She was clever enough protected him all these days. How could to get two sons with the use of just one. you tempt him? Indeed, you are to be If I give her another, god knows how many congratulated that you looked upon your sons she will have. For all I know she might fulfilment in the face of the king in your establish her superiority and gain the upper arms!” Poor Madri could only murmur, “I tried hand. Now we will, neither of us, have any my best to dissuade him but he would not more children.” listen!” Kunti went on unheeding, “I am the senior wife, and it is my duty to follow the Kunti was not to become the queen dead husband. Get up, take charge of the children.” These words make one feel that if Madri had twins, Pandu might have got more sons. Madri chooses the only way out After Kunti’s refusal to have any more children, the whole family might have Madri was standing stunned and trembling, returned to Hastinapura. Pandu was the but these words brought her out of her king and Kunti could have taken her position stupor. In one moment of horrible clarity as the Queen and the sons would have she saw her futile life stretching before been the heirs to the throne. This was her in unending misery and chose the only what Kunti had striven and hoped for. But way out. She said in a firm but pleading this was not to be. voice, “Kunti, he died because of me. Let One day while wandering in the forest me follow him. Let me give him in heaven Pandu saw Madri unaccompanied by the what he desired here. I could never be children or servants. Madri was in the bloom impartial between your children and mine. of youth and famous for her beauty. In On the other hand I am sure you will look fact Bhishma had paid an enormous bride- after mine as your own. Take them in your price to secure her as a wife for Pandu. care, Allow me to follow the king.” Pandu could not resist the temptation and

47 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Rivalry and intrigues not going to allow the junior and more beautiful Queen to have more children than Rivalry and intrigues among co-wives in herself. She knew the preference of the Kshatriya households had been an King for the beautiful Madri and her first important part of the past history of India. outburst was due to spite and jealousy. Without Kaikeyi and Kausalya there would But her claim that she had guarded the have been no Ramayana. Draupadi who was king’s life so jealously was just. On the life the foundation of the Pandavas’ greatness of the king depended the security of her had to acquiesce, though none too sons, who would have in due time graciously, in Arjuna’s bringing Subhadra succeeded their father to the throne. as the younger co-wife. A thousand years Pandu was the fourth man in her life to later Kalidasa depicted his political drama contribute to her miseries: her two fathers, round the rivalry of Dharini, Iravati and father and foster father, Karna and now Malavika. Still more recently, the whole her husband. When everything had seemed course of Maratha History was shaped by within reach, his one rash act dashed the competition for power among Shivaji’s Kunti’s hopes. Pandu and Madri escaped, wives and their sons. perhaps to enjoy companionship and bliss Madri burnt herself on the king’s funeral in heaven, as poor Madri had said. But Kunti pyre. Madri’s lot in choosing death was had to travel the hard stony path of her indeed hard but the life which Kunti was life alone. left to drudge alone was equally hard, if not harder. The young princes Kunti comes out as a hard and unjust woman on this occasion. Hard as she Kunti returned to Hastinapura with the five always was, she was rarely unjust. In a children. patriarchal, polygynous society a woman’s These years of Kunti’s life were status depended entirely on the position comparatively peaceful. Hardly had Kunti of the man who was either her father or heaved a sigh of relief when fresh troubles husband or son. The highest that a arose. Though the Pandavas were received Kshatriya woman could hope for, was to as princes, they were not acknowledged be the eldest wife of a crowned king and as sole heirs to the throne. Dhritarashtra to give birth to his eldest son. To have continued to rule though uncrowned and more sons than the co-wives was also a quarrels broke out among the cousins. means of securing, if not the love of a Kunti’s Bhima, a hefty fellow, delighted in husband, at least the position of the chief frightening his cousins. Apparently they in Queen. their turn tried to poison him. Kunti’s children proved themselves to be quick in Kunti’s series of miseries learning the art of weaponry. Her eldest son Yudhishthira was well liked because of Kunti did not want the stigma of barrenness his good looks, learning, wisdom and to attach to Madri but she was certainly deportment. People already pointed to him

48 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages as the heir to the throne. It was against Krishna negotiates this background that Dhritarashtra planned to remove the Pandavas from the public Kunti’s suffering and hope during the year eye by sending them to Varanavata. of her sons’ exile is very well described in Though fully aware of the plot, Kunti and Udyogaparva. Draupadi chose to go into Pandavas kept Purochana off his guard by exile with her husbands, leaving her children pretending to lead normal lives. Kunti, as behind. Kunti, though not in exile, suffer befitted the mother of princes, kept an greater agonies because she had to live open house. Every day Brahmins and among the enemies and witness their hundreds of poor people enjoyed their prowess and prosperity. When Krishna went hospitality. to negotiate a treaty with the Kauravas he called on her. The moment she saw him The escape she fell upon his neck and burst into tears, recalling all the calamities that had befallen The night they escaped, Kunti had to walk her since child hood. for miles. After sometime they all reached She sent a message with him for her sons a deep forest where even the guidance of Her words clearly reveal her mortifications, the stars failed. All rested under a tree the hopes for the future and her unbending and sent Bhima to bring some water. When will. In this message she uses a phrase to Bhima came back and saw his mother describe herself which shows that in spite sleeping on the ground he lamented the of the laments she had thought her own fact that a woman of her status had to life worthwhile. She talks of herself as going leave the palace and sleep on the bare from on deep pool into another. She was earth. Kunti, however, would not have the daughter of a king. She became the judged herself to be badly off at all. She eldest wife a another king. When her son had foiled the plot of her son’s rivals. As a became the king of Indraprasta, she became Kshatriya woman that was enough for her. the queen-mother. She was deprived of her right to the queen ship by a rash act The exile of her husband. She was deprived of her right to the queen-mother position by a On the day of the wedding Kunti entrusted rash act of her son. And not this eldest the care of the sons to Draupadi. She felt son, followed by his obedient brothers, was that she could now look forward to a quite about to propose a disastrous truce which life, but as usual, her hope was in vain. would bring nothing but contempt from the Her eldest son gambled away his kingdom. contemporary Kshatriyas. This time, being old and frail, she could She sent messages through Krishna to al not accompany her sons into exile and had her sons. She admonished Bhima and Arjuna to remain in Vidura’s house. This position not to forget their humiliation. She said of dependence was harder for her to take “Yudhishthira is the very soul of dharma than all the other privations she had Tell him, ‘by your behaviour you are suffered during her lifetime. destroying dharma’. A king who forgets his

49 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages dharma goes to hell and drags with him all One wonders how Kunti could undo the his subjects. What was yours by the right wrong she had done to Karna after his of inheritance from your father has been death. From her point of view the reason lost. Recover it. Make it your own. Your for what she did was obvious. ‘You let me behavior pleases the enemy. No shame is grow up without a Kshatriya’s sacrament’ greater than that I should live on other was Karna’s lament at their last meeting. people’s charity while you are still alive. It was Kunti’s firm belief that a man could Remember the dharma of the Kshatriya. Do attain heaven if he was cremated according not throw your ancestors, younger to the rites due to his status. She must brothers and yourself into hell.” have felt that it was the least she could Her words were like the lash of a whip. do for Karna. Their aim was only one - to spur her eldest Whatever the others might have said, son to fight. Doubtless, Kunti’s heart too Dharma’s condemnation of her was was made of steel. sweeping and merciless. Dharma is said to have mourned the loss of his brother The humiliating task bitterly. He even blamed Kunti for the entire Mahabharata War. The words in which Karna later spurned her were even harsher than these. She Her unbending will need not have gone to Karna. But the idea that weaning Karna away from Duryodhana Just before the end Kunti once again would foil Duryodhana’s plans effectively showed her unbending will. After living for made her undertake this humiliating task. fifteen years with Dharma, Dhritarashtra She told Karna who he was and asked him and Gandhari decided to spend the to join forces with his five brothers. She remainder of their lives in the forest. tried to tempt him by saying that in joining Kunti also made up her mind to go with her other sons as their brother he would him. ‘I have never served the older people gain Kshatriyahood. in my family. Let me do so now by waiting Throughout Kunti’s life we get alternate upon my old father-in-law’. glimpses of meanness and nobility. One is At this the Pandavas broke out into a loud repulsed by the Kunti who blamed Madri lament. Hearing the lament, Dhritarashtra for her husband’s death; but the same said to Gandhari, “Tell the daughter-in-law, Kunti showered her love on Madri’s orphaned ‘You have suffered much. You should spend children all her life. your remaining life in comfort with the The war was over and the sad and difficult children’.” Kunti would not listen to anyone. task of identifying the dead bodies and The children talked on. Draupadi, weeping, giving them the proper last rites was being followed Kunti. Kunti walked on for a while perform: ed. Kunti chose this time to reveal in silence. They would not stop following to Dharma the fact that Karna was her her. She dried her tears and addressed first son and as such his elder brother. Dharma, using his patronym. “Pandava, all you said is true. When you lay down in

50 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages despair, I had to whip you into action. You Manu and His Psychology had gambled away the Kingdom. Happiness had fled from you. Your kin despised you. of Womanhood You were sinking and I pulled you up. I prodded you so that Pandu’s house should Gleanings from “Kamayani” and “ Manu not become infamous. I had to wake you Dharma Sastra” out of your lethargy so that this daughter- in-law of mine might not be insulted again. Children, as Pandu’s wife and queen I Manu the Man enjoyed my kingdom fully. I performed religious sacrifices. I gave large gifts to HE Epic poem by Jaisankar Prasad, Brahmins. I drank the sacred soma juice. I T‘Kamayani’ describes Manu as “a man sent the message with Vasudeva not of complexity, weakness, strength, because I lacked anything. I have no longer ambition, loyalty, discontent, passion and any wish for enjoyment of this life. This is fire”, an amalgam of characteristics that the time for me to practice austerity, serve make him a human being of tossing my parents-in-law and thus attain heaven emotions. His emotions were highly so as to meet my husband. Don’t follow conflicting, yet each equally strong as the me. Go back! other. They seem to have ripped him apart, In the forest Kunti waited on them faithfully. as it were. His laws reflect his conflict Every day she led them to the river Ganges greatly, particularly the ones relating to for their bath and brought them back. The women and women it would appear from children came once to see them. They all the history of the times, had played no wept again. small a part in Manu’s life of emotional Vidura died first. Sometime later there was storms. A man of fiery passions, he had a great forest fire. Sanjaya, with the three apparently been carried away by the power older people, wanted to run to safety. The and vitality of womanhood. Yet, as an old people refused to move. They bade individual of strong will, he rebelled Sanjaya to save himself. against the same power. Deeply and totally Kunti, with her two companions, sat down involved with women, he had realised with in a yoga pose, calmly awaiting the fire. terror the sway that woman exerted over She died, as she had lived, without man and rent apart by this passion and bending. fear, he contradicts himself at once by idolising woman and then dashing the idol down at one stroke. “Women should be honoured and adorned by fathers and brothers, by husbands and also by brother-in-law. Where women are honoured the gods rejoice, but when they are neglected, all rites and ceremonies are fruitless. Where women grieve, that family 51 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages quickly perishes. But where women do not traditions unquestioningly. It is the grieve, it ever prospers. Houses on which emotional kind : artists, poets, etc. who unhonoured women pronounce a curse rebel against the norms. Manu, the perish, as if by magic. Woman is the emotional man was neither an artist nor a instrument of prosperity, a source of joy poet, but emotional as he was he rebelled to the gods, and she deserves honour from against the existing rules, and he turned a all,” says Manu at one point. reformer. Here is, Manu as a man, overwhelmed by Men, who want to be reformers are his love and desire for woman, exalting her constricted by the scope and limit of the to an altar as only a mad lover could. society of their time. Traditions bind them; “Though destitute of virtue, pleasure- they cannot go too far, or bring about too seeking, devoid of good qualities, yet a drastic a change. Changes that are drastic husband must be worshipped by a faithful in nature, even when conceived, have to wife as a god. No sacrifice, no vow, no be reserved for a future date, to be slowly fast can be performed by a woman without and gradually introduced. So it was in the her husband. If she obeys him, she fulfils case of Manu. her part, she will be exalted in heaven. A He chafed at rigid restraints on women. wife who wants to be with her husband Better than anyone, he was aware of the even in death should never displease him; woman as a human being, as a being of she who controls her thoughts, words and flesh and blood, her weakness and deeds, and does not disgrace her husband, strength, and tried to adjust the code to will live with him even in death,” he says in this form of woman. Manu’s deification of yet another place. Here he is Manu the women is not that of a Shakti worshipper’s, law-giver, setting a rule for the general but that of a man who seeks beauty and benefit of society. Knowing woman as he art personified in his woman and adores did, recognising her passions and fires her for it. Hence Manu did not fail to within and knowing them to be a power, recognise the possible weakness of the against which weak men would undoubtedly human being ill her. He expected her to fall fail, he sets barriers upon women, in strict from her pedestal, and tried very social injunctions. By these injunctions, he desparately, with restraint, in tune with makes a frantic effort to bury the fiery the times, to provide for it. passions in woman and tame her, that her Thus, he stressed, “in the case of her power may not destroy the social husband’s death, the wife should lead a structure. faithful and pure life, of meditation and prayer for his onward journey to the realm Manu the Reformer of the beyond. She was to live the rest of her life self-controlled, chaste and patient. The conflict of Manu does not stop with She was to fulfil the duties prescribed for this play of emotional involvement with her as though her husband were living. A women. He is also totally involved with wife who remained faithful after the death society as a whole. The ordinary men follow of her husband would join him in heaven,

52 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages even if she had no children.” She was and he tried for a condition to alleviate warned about the dangers of yielding to this injustice. That is Manu the reformer. desire. “ Fidelity was the main virtue of widowhood as it was in married life. A He provides for divorce woman who, from the desire to have an offspring, violated her duty towards her He saw the injustice imposed upon women deceased husband, brought disgrace on by socially disgracing them, if they were herself. Offspring begotten of another man deserted by the husband. He visualised the was unlawful. Nor was a second husband emotional conflict of human beings living necessary for a virtuous woman. She who unwillingly together tied down by forsakes her husband because he belonged meaningless religious and traditional to a lower group, was a contemptible restrictions, chafing against them, yet not woman. By violating her duty towards her daring to break away. With remarkable husband she lowered herself to the animal daring he came forward to provide for stage.” divorce. He also said, “however, should a childless Here he introduced a clause: “A husband widow desire to have a child, she should should live with his wife for one year even be allowed to beget one from a relative or if she hates him. After that they must part. her brother-in-law by special permission.” She who disrespects her husband, is passionate, drinks, is of bad conduct, Recognition of the Mother instinct rebellious, diseased, and mischievous, should be superseded by another wife. On From this we find that he recognised the the other hand, a woman should not be force of the mother instinct in a woman, compelled to live with a mad husband, a and being sympathetic he tried to make mentally defective man, a eunuch, one provision for it. Further more while the destitute of manly strength or one afflicted earlier traditions implicitly felt that a woman with diseases. She should be allowed to should live true to her husband after his separate from such a husband after death as much as during his lifetime, Manu receiving her share of property.” recognised the human angle overlooked by them. He felt for the emptiness, loneliness Mutual love and purposelessness of a widow left without even children. He realised that as an “A husband should live with a barren wife ordinary human being, a woman could not or with one whose children die, for ten or go through such a life. A woman lived by eleven years, but must separate from a her instinct to care for some creature. With quarrelsome wife immediately. A sick wife, her husband gone and with no children, kind to her husband and virtuous in for whom could she care? Without a conduct, may separate if she desires. She meaning where would her life steer itself? should never be disgraced.” These questions could have bothered Manu Manu strongly felt that marriage was to be based on intelligent understanding

53 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages between husband and wife. In short, it was conflicting feelings. Manu is strife to be mutual love. He felt the necessity personified. for faithfulness in the bond of marriage, but emphasised its importance for both Relevance of Manu in the present husband and wife. He felt that a man should society remain faithful to the thought and memory of his departed wife. It was evident whose Manu, the Man, the reformer, is relevant cause he was trying to espouse, but he now, and will be relevant always. His had to do it carefully, lest his words should recognition of human nature, human be totally drowned in the denunciation of emotions and psychology as a basis for the society of the day and their purpose formulating a code for social groups is ever would be lost. relevant. What becomes irrelevant is the Constantly, he kept close to the human Law set by Manu in its application to level and considered individual emotions as present times. By breaking away from the against generalised rules. So he said, “if injunctions of times earlier to him, Manu desire persists, a man should marry from a sets the example that change is the lower group. In the case of the woman, essence of progress. By adhering to the she should try and remain pure and rules set down by him, we discard Manu in controlled. But if desire persists, she should his essence. Manu as a man, in his bold be allowed to beget a child or two in the struggle to provide for a society of human manner indicated above, and nothing more.” beings and not tradition etched idols that Here, again, the broad-mindedness of Manu could be relevant to all times. is evident, when he advocates endogamy. He strongly felt that marriage within one’s own group was best. Yet, he recognised that in any region, more than one race of people were bound to live, and as such inter-racial alliances were bound to crop up. He was opposed to social ostracisms, for here again, he permitted a certain amount of race mixture, though with some reservations. Manu knew too, that like him, there would be men, in future generations who would make a bold attempt to, break away more and more from these rules. He himself had not advocated all the changes he wished to bring about, cribbed in by the society of the times. We see him fighting all the time against past injunctions, as well as his own

54 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The Age of the Later Rudrayaga and Sitayaga continued to be performed by women alone, and when the Samhitas, Brahmanas husband was out, the service of the and Upanishads sacrificial fire continued to be entrusted to the wife. In the cultured families, women used to recite their Vedic prayers morning and evening, and perform sacrifices on their husband’s behalf, when they were HE changes which took place during otherwise preoccupied. Tthis period in the position of women were gradual their proprietary rights Marriage and Equality of Status continued to be unrecognized, the only exception being in favour of marriage gifts The marriage age of the bride continued of moveable property. to be about 16. In practice if not in theory brides had some voice in the selection of Women Initiates their partners in life, and Svayamvara was fairly common in Kshatriya circles. The In the higher sections of society the Sacred marriage ideals and the mutual relations initiation (upanayana) of girls was common, and rights of the parties continued to be and they subsequently used to go through more or less the same as they were in the a nurse of education. Some of them used earlier age. Divorce was permitted to the to attain distinction in the realm of theology wife, though the permission was not and philosophy, and a considerable number extensively availed of. The Sati custom was of women used to follow the teaching altogether unknown, and the widow had career. the option of remarriage either with her There was, however, a gradual decline in brother-in-law or with an outsider. Naturally female education as the period advanced. there was no tonsure of widows. Purda The stem of sending out girls to famous was altogether unknown, but women had teachers or centres of education came to ceased to attend public meetings. be discouraged; has laid down that only near relations like the father, the brother How did inequality set in ? or the uncle should teach them at home. Naturally therefore religious and secular Before we proceed to delineate the picture training became possible only in the case of the condition of women in the of the girls of rich and cultured families. As subsequent periods, let us pause a while a consequence there arose a tendency to to consider the causes of the phenomenon curtail the religious rights and privileges of of a relatively better condition and status the average women; many functions in the of women in these early centuries, as sacrifice, which formerly could be performed compared to what it became in subsequent by the wife alone now came to be assigned epochs. It is well-known that there took to male substitutes. Some sacrifices like place a continuous and gradual

55 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages deterioration in the position of women as of the enslaved population was not yet a whole during the next two thousand years available to the Aryans for the tasks (c. 500 B.C., to c. 1500 A.D.) How are we mentioned above. to explain this phenomenon? Usually we find that the condition of women improves as society advances to modern times. How The Sati custom not revived is it that there is an exception in the case of the position of women in Hindu The exigencies of the political situation in Civilisation? the Vedic period were responsible for the The relatively more satisfactory position abolition of the prehistoric Sati custom and of women in the two epochs was due partly the sanctioning of Niyoga and remarriage. to political and partly to religious causes. Like Hitler and Mussolini, Vedic chiefs were As a rule, in a community, which is civilised anxious for heroes, more heroes, and still and is moving in search of pastures fresh more. The gospel they preached to the and new, women occupy an honourable householder was not of eight sons of the position. Men are mostly engrossed in later days, but of ten. The non-Aryans were military or semi-military activities, and they probably outnumbering the Aryans, and have to rely to a very great degree on the they were anxious to have as strong and help and co-operation of women in the numerous an army as possible. Under these normal spheres and activities of family life. circumstances it would have been a Under such circumstances, women can suicidical policy to encourage the revival clearly and convincingly demonstrate to of the obsolete custom of Sati to prohibit men that they are not parasites, but useful widow remarriage. Society came to the members of society, whose co-operation definite conclusion that its vital interests is valuable in securing prosperity in peace demanded that the custom of Sati should and victory in war. be interdicted and that widows should be allowed and encouraged to marry and Diversities in occupation between men multiply the stock. and women Participation in Religious Duties It would appear that the general freedom and better status which women enjoyed Another factor responsible for the relatively in the Vedic age were largely due to men satisfactory position of women was the being engrossed in the work of conquest influence of religion. Asceticism was at a and consolidation. Women used to take an discount in the Vedic age. Maidens and active part in agriculture, and the bachelors had no admission to heaven. manufacture of cloth, bows, arrows and Gods accepted no oblations by the other war material. They were thus useful unmarried It was essential to offer the members of society and could not be ordained sacrifices to Gods for procuring therefore treated with an air of patronage happiness and prosperity both here and or contempt. The cheap or forced labour hereafter and they could be properly

56 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages performed by the husband and the wife officiating together. Wife was not an Role of the Women in impediment but an absolute necessity in the Religious History the religious service. This circumstance naturally helped to raise her status. To of Tamil Nadu enable her to discharge her religious duties properly, it was necessary to ordain that By A. SUBRAMANIAM her upanayana should be duly performed; this ensured a proper training and education to girls. It required at least half a dozen OMAN, “the better-half” is the basic years to complete the educational course; Wunit of family in a society, has always that naturally rendered early marriages played a significant role in the cultural life impracticable. When girls were properly of India. Ever since her birth, a girl is noted educated and married at the mature age for simplicity, quietness and submission to of 16 or 17, a considerable regard had her protector, irrespective of her age and naturally to be shown to their own likes status. In this paper an attempt is made and dislikes at the time of the marriage. to enquire into the role played by women Love marriages were also inevitable when in the religious history of the land with girls remained unmarried to that advanced special reference to Tamil Nadu. Sources age and were moving freely in society. for such a discussion are both numerous It will be thus seen from the above and varied because every writer from Rig discussion how down about 500 B.C. the Veda up to Dr. S. Radhakrishnan speaks of custom of Sati and child marriage did not the greatness of woman and her unenviable exist to embitter the lot of the woman, position in the cultural set-up of India that how she was properly educated and given is Bharat. the same religious privileges as man, how she could have a voice in the settlement Woman - her position in Society of her marriage and occupy an honoured position in the household, how she could According to a Greek myth, human society move freely in family and society and take was originally composed of both man and an intelligent part in affairs and how it was woman, and some God divided each being possible for her to take to a career, if so into two and these separated halves are urged by inclination or necessity. continually searching for one another. So Source: The position of Women in Hindu it is ideal for the woman to think herself as Civilization, by Dr. A. S. Altekar. ardhangi. However, when we go to the earliest literary evidence on the position of women the picture is somewhat confusing. In the entire range of Rig Veda no desire is expressed in any context for the birth of a daughter. Atharva Veda even deprecates her birth.

57 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages There are references to mystic charms for the work of a single individual. For instance, undoing the effect of a female foetus and Rig Veda speaks of at least four Manus.’! for changing it into a male one. During the period of the Upanishads the Women in Tamil Literature position gradually changed and certain rituals are prescribed to be performed by Coming to the earliest stratum of Tamil the man who wants a learned daughter to literature, namely those of the Sangam be born. Mahabharata says that Goddess period, only a small part of the collection Lakshmi resides without fail in a daughter. is religious. Ramayana extols the merit of women by Tirumurugarruppadai (226) speaks of mentioning that the unmarried girls were ambalams where women-folk, especially the first to consecrate Rama with holy those brought as slaves from the enemy water during his auspicious bath Manu, the land were engaged in cleaning the shrines law-giver, says that a woman does not with wet cowdung, decorating them with deserve freedom. flowers and lighting perpetual lamps. Women due to their constantly changing The anonymous author of the Periplus says temperaments should not be called as that women came to Kanyakumari in large witnesses. “A woman should not be left numbers to bathe and dwell in celibacy. unguarded and a man who fails to protect Fear born of love, shyness and implicit her can be reprimanded.” acceptance and retention of elderly advice It is the same Manu, who says that where without question are the traits ideal to a women are honoured there Gods are woman according to Tolkappiyam. So a pleased to reside. Yajnavalkya extends this woman played more passive role in society. dictum further by commenting that those Purananuru (II. 85-86) says that who seek the welfare of the country should housewives talked to a stranger only always honour women by giving gifts of through a medium, let it be a pillar or even ornaments, clothes and dainty food on a rafter. holidays and festivals. The Sangam society consisted of many Manu prescribes that a woman should help types of women such as dutiful house-wife, man to fulfil his religious duties. The female ascetics and a separate group of discharge of her household duties courtesans. constitutes her daily worship.” Houses on The Sangam Period decayed with the dying which unhonoured women pronounce a of trade with foreign countries like Rome. curse perish as if by magic. “To be mothers It was followed by the onslaught of warrior- were women created” . like people from Central India and Deccan, The reluctance on the part of Manu to namely the Kalabhras who themselves were give full freedom to women has perhaps to driven from there by the rising power of be explained that the contemporary society the Guptas. did not permit it. Moreover his reaction to Until the rise of the Pallavas of Kanchi, the women’s position varies considerably picture of Tamil Society is bleak. Even the because Manava Dharma Sastra was not sources belonging to the Pallava period

58 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages speak only of the royal pomp and charities even today. We learn that all the members endowed on learned groups of Brahmanas of the Trust managing the Mariamman by them. Temple at Pondicherry are women.” The role of women in high society during It was once believed that a devout wife the Chola period was varied, important and should die at the moment her husband generally pleasant. The King’s palace had breathes his last. This dictum can be slightly 72 departments (niyogas) in theory and a amended and put as ‘unless circumstances large number of women were attached to demanded a house-wife must die along with the establishment. Women were held in her husband.’ such high esteem that one woman was Women of the Sangam age believed that even appointed as a member of the the self-immolation of a Sati would lead committee for Justice (nyayathar) her to the world of the Devas (puttelir- However, women belonging to the ulagu).Purananuru says that Perungo- economically viable section of the ppendu, the queen of Bhutappandiyan community had to undergo great hardships. committed sati. An inscription from Tiruvottriyur near Manimekhalai speaks of an attempted sati Madras, records the assignment of five by Adirai, the queen of Saduvan. women with their descendants for husking Viramadevi, one of the queens of the Chola paddy in the temple. There was an acute Emperor Rajendra-I entered his pyre on his famine during the period of Kulotunga death. Chola-III and a Vellalan sold himself and Thus women of the highest ranks in society his two daughters as slaves to a temple showed their attachment to their husbands for 110 Kasus. by performing sati. However it is not quite There was no discrimination in imparting clear whether all sections of the society education to women. For example In Batuta followed the same practice. (1333-45 A.D.) says there were thirteen schools to provide instructions to women Devadasi at Hanaur. Sri Appayya Dikshita (1520 to 1592 A.D.) is also believed to have jokingly Courtesans formed a distinct class of remarked: ‘In our village Achchalamma is women even from the days of the Rig Veda. well known’. They are described as well-versed in all This incident happened when he was once the 64 types of performing arts and their returning to his native village from one of clientele ranged from the ruling monarch his dialectical tours. The women of the to a common man in the street. Law-makers locality were drawing water from the were perturbed by their learning and they common well. On seeing the palanquin put strictures on a house-wife being very carrying the great man they called out “Here learned. comes the husband of Achchalamma”. In House-wives were always engaged in spite of Dikshita’s academic genius he was attending to the day-to-day needs of the only “Achchala’s husband” to them. The household, and they did not have enough spirit of independence of women is reflected time to concentrate on these arts like

59 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages music, dance, painting, etc. So a man Woman - her role in religious life chose to quench his aesthetic thirst in the company of a courtesan - that is, she gives Religion is a technique for the establishment him what he could not expect from his wife. of a relationship between man, the known However, many a household and the and the natural and God, the unknown and economic stability of the family, were the supernatural. Even from pre-historic brought to shambles by the courtesan, times man believed in polytheism and most because her only aim was her client’s purse. of the divinities were associated with We witness the dedication of eminent certain natural forces and human instincts. dancers to famous temples as Devadasis Thus Goddesses were made consorts - only from the time of the Cholas. The embodiments of beauty and fertility. refined institution of Devadasis had thus a Tamils of the Sangam age permitted all blessed beginning. religions to flourish. They preached The chief duty of the Devadasi was to fan ritualistic, supplicatory aspects of religion, the chief Deity with Chauris, clean the as well as the tapas of the contemporary shrines and to dance before the God during type. Tolkappiyam refers to God festivals. appropriate for various love - situations The Devadasi was married to God and thus (tinais). However the religion of this age she never became a widow. In the marriage did not mature into any philosophical ceremonies the God was represented by system and had no elaborate mythology an icon or even a sword. An old man of her of its own. community tied the tali for her on behalf of The period immediately posterior to the God. Luck and Sanctity were attached to Sangam Age was the Golden Age of her mangalasutra. It was a custom of the heterodox sects, like Buddhism and Jainism. day that, whenever a girl was to be These sects tried to fill the vacuum married, the Devadasi prepared the tali for created by the absence of popular religion. the would-be bride by placing a bead or They did have royal patronage and mass two from her own tali. following mainly because they afforded When the Devadasi died, all the services easy religious practices, greater intimacy in the temple, to which she was attached, of the worshipper with the worshipped and were stopped. Her body was covered by a above all the religious literature in the cloth removed from the image of the language of the common man. presiding deity and flowers from that image Towards the beginning of sixth century A.D. were placed on the body. It was also came a fresh wave of neo-Hinduism customary that the temple should provide popularly called the Bhakti cult. The native the fire to light her pyre. Usual services in religion saw a rejuvenation and resurgence the temple were resumed only after the in the untiring efforts of its propagators, body had been taken out of the temple for namely the Alvars and the Nayanmars. cremation. Their sole aim was to re-capture the lost confidence of the common man. They toured every temple in the land, made large

60 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages scale renovations of temples and sang the born but a true devotee of God, he was glory of God in simple hymns. Time also immediately excommunicated. Athuloi favoured their mission which luckily wanted to prove the righteousness of coincided with the gradual degradation in Periya Nambi’s action. When once Lord the personal conduct and discipline of Ranganatha was being taken in procession monks and bhikkus of the heterodox sects. through the street she suddenly came out This movement was carried on in later of the house and appealed to God to give centuries by great savants like Sankara, the judgment. It is said that Ranganatha Kumarila, , Madhva, and Vedanta approved Periya Nambi’s action and he was Desika. Womel1 did participate in various consequently reinstated at his usual post movements described above and their role in the temple.” The other type of women can be studied under three of four heads. were those who were actually involved in the Bhakti movement. Vasuki Andal Some women thought that service to their husband was service to God. Thus Vasuki, Andal, “the best exemplar of bridal wife of Tiruvalluvar, performed many mysticism,” was the daughter of Periyalvar miracles by her faithful devotion to her and was a native of Srivilliputtur, a husband. Once she was drawing water township about eighty kilometers south- from the well in their garden. On hearing west of Madurai. Periyalvar was only an her husband’s call, she ran into the house appellation conferred on this pious to attend to him. The bucket with its water Vaishnavite, when he “ blessed” the Lord remained arrested in that very position till with his Tiruppallandu. According to she returned to the well. Tiruvalluvar tradition Gada - Andal of later times - was always kept a conch-shell and a needle by born in the 97th year of Kali age (circa his side while taking his food, to feed the seventh century A.D.). insects with the grains that were strewn Periyalvar found the child when he was around his plate. He did not have the plucking tulsi leaves to prepare garlands occasion to use them until the death of for the lord. Gada considered Ranganatha Vasuki. as her consort from her childhood and her Tilakavati (7th century A.D.) took upon passion grew with her age. She got the herself the weeds of widowhood on hearing name of Sudikkodutta - Nachiyar as she that Kalippagai, to whom she had been used to wear the garlands herself to feel betrothed, had been killed in the war satisfied that they were fit for the Lord between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. before sending them on to the temple for More daring is the boldness of a small girl decorating the Lord. of Srirangam by name Athuloi (11th century One day, the priests of the Srirangam A.D.). Her father Periya Nambi was one of temple were commanded by the Lord to the preceptors of Ramanuja, but when he proceed to Srivilliputtur and bring Gada to chose to perform the last rites’ of a low- Srirangam with full temple honours. On

61 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages reaching the Ranganatha temple Andal it as her mission in life to change the entire walked to the deity reclining on the Sesha Chola country into an abode of God on couch, ascended the couch itself and stood Earth. She dedicated everything to God - by the side of the Lord for some time. She her riches, times, energy and above all her merged into the Divine and disappeared. descendants. To her goes the credit of Andal identified herself with one of the having converted the dynasty of Chola Gopis. Her hymns are included in the First Emperors into “a dynasty of temple builders thousand of the collection called Nalayira and religious socialists.” Divyaprabandham. Other female luminaries of the movement Two poetic works are attributed to Andal. include Mangaiyarkkarasi who fought for The first Tiruppavai consisting of thirty Saivism in the land of alien faith, even hymns is regarded as an offering to though her husband - the monarch was a Goddess Katyayani to whom the vrata is staunch Jain, and Karaikkal Ammaiyar was made in the month of Margazhi (December- the only woman to be included in the galaxy January) for securing an adorable person of Nayanmars. There were also lay as one’s husband. The setting of this work worshippers among women who showed is said to have been borrowed from the their devotion to God by pious acts. story. The other work of Andal is the Nachiyar Alagi Tirumozhi having fourteen sections of ten hymns each. It is a work reflecting her One such woman was Alagi of Tanjore (11 mind when she imagines and dreams of her th century A.D.). It was the time when marriage with Lord Ranganatha. the great temple was being built. Every Andal’s remarkable achievement shows that day Alagi went to the temple site and her becoming the bride of God is “not for watched the artisans and engineers at seeking forgiveness of the sins of mankind work. She also wanted to do her share of ... but for lightening the burden of the Earth work in the monumental project. So she by putting down evil and evil-doers and took a few pots of butter milk spiced with for bringing triumph to dharma and sukrtas.” ginger, mustard and curry-leaves to the site daily and gave each artisan a cup of Sembian Mahadevi cool and refreshing butter milk. The work was nearing completion and Alagi suggested Sembian Mahadevi was a royal patron of that a block of granite that was lying waste the highest order in the spiritual in her garden and be used for carving out advancement of the Chola society. She was the top most block of the vimana in the a queen of Chola Gandaraditya-I (A.D. 950- temple. The artisans were grateful for her 957). The King had a tragic end in a battle. refreshing drinks and complied with her Sembian Mahadevi placed his brother on request. The Lord was so pleased with her the throne and directed Chola mite that he told the Emperor Rajaraja I, administration on spiritual lines during the in a dream that He was happy to reside in reign of the next four monarchs. She took the abode provided by

62 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Alagi. The Emperor also honoured her by Teluram, a nearby settlement. She was raising a temple-garden in her name. It is ruling in that part of the Pallava kingdom said that the present Municipal Office in on behalf of her minor son, Budhyankura. Tanjore stands on the very site where Another set of inscriptions similarly provide Alagi’s simple hut once stood. a record of gifts of jewels and ornaments. A mistress of the western Chalukya king Woman - Her acts of charity Vijayaditya, Vinapotigal by name, performed the hiranyagarbba at Mahout The general dependence of woman on man and presented to the deity a pedestal, set did not prevent her from making religious with rubies, with a silver umbrella over it. endowments in her own name. Royal Kundavai, the elder sister of Rajaraja Chola- personages thought God as a human being I consecrated the metal images of and provided for the material needs of the Nataraja, Uma Maheswara and Dakshina temple. Numerous ladies from the chief Meru - Vitankar in the big temple at Tanjore queen of empires to the casual employee and gave a number of jewels to the temple. in the palace- kitchen appear as donatrixes The technical terms occurring in these in many epigraphs. Some women erected inscriptions recording the gifts of jewels new shrines. Thus Pazhiyili Siriya Nangai, relate to the methods of setting gems in wife of a local chief in Pudukottai area, gold, the different parts of the ornament enlarged the rock cut temple at Narttamalai and details regarding the lac (arakku) by adding mukha mandapa, balipitha, and which sometimes formed the core of the rishabha-mandapa and also made provisions ornaments. The threads (Saradu) into which for daily worship and offerings to the God. pearls, gold beads and pendants were Perumbidugu Perundevi repaired the strung were made of twisted wires. Sockets Satyagirinatha Perumal temple at (Kevanam), frames (Ummachchu or Tirumayam and granted a village for its- Sattam) and Pesi (?) are also referred to. upkeep. One of the queens of Uttama Chola A few records speak of a type of dance- built the Mahadeva temple at Tiruvallam drama (Sakkai Kuttu) in which women took of stone and provided for maintaining a part. An inscription from Dalapatisamudram bower-garden. (Tirunelveli District) says this type of kuttu Some of the endowments were meant for was enacted by three women in the temple, performing special festivals on auspicious twice a year during festive days in Chittirai days. (April-May) and Purattasi (October- Among the copper-plate charters recording November) months. Another record from land-gifts the Gunapandyam plates of Kiranur (Thanjavur District) provides for the Queen Charudevi is unique in the sense performance of five of this kuttu. that she is mentioned as an independent An interesting feat of a dancer is described donatrix. The set was obtained from in an epigraph. Uravakki was an expert in Gunapandyam (Guntur Dt, Andhra Pradesh). performing the sandhhikuttu and the It records a gift of four nivarttanas of land contemporary Chola King Raja Raja-III was by her to the temple of at

63 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages so impressed by her performance that he Women In Tamil named a village after her as Uravakki Nallur. Sangam Literature Conclusion By P. N. APPUSWAMI

From the foregoing account it is clear that the women of Tamil Nadu had always The Tamil Land remained an essential and encouraging force in the religious life and upliftment of HE home-land of Tamil, about two the society. Without understanding their Tthousand five hundred or so years ago, role some scholars mark them as perpetual was a territory roughly shaped like an minors. This is not correct. Even from the equilateral triangle. Its base lay on the legal point of view, we know that a girl north, and its apex at Kanyakumari in the received her share of property in the form extreme south of India. It is referred to in of Stridhana at the time of her marriage. old literature as being bounded on the north Further the Dharma Shastras say that a by Venkatam (Tirupathi Hill), on the south woman could inherit the property of an by Kumari, and on either side by the sea. issueless brother or even a son. The whole of modern Tamil Nadu and a Thus the women of Tamil Nadu have played good part of modern Karnataka and Kerala, a remarkable role in the stresses, struggles were parts of it. The southern section of and successes of the Indian Womanhood the Eastern and Western Ghats and their through the various ages. off-’shoots formed its mountain region. On the west a number of small swift rivers ran their rapid course from the Ghats to the Arabian Sea. The relatively broad eastern plain was irrigated by a few bigger rivers, notably the Kaveri and the Vaigai, which flowed into the Bay of Bengal. It was here that the Tamil folk lived, ruled, warred and loved, over two thousand years ago. This territory had long been known in north India as Dravida, with no specific connotations. This term was applied by the nineteenth century philologist Dr. Caldwell to a group of languages spoken mainly in the south. The ethnologist Risely borrowed the term and applied it to a certain ethnic type. Later ethnologists and anthro- pologists do not normally use the term in learned publications. In fact, in scientific usage there is no Dravidian race and no 64 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Aryan race, but the two terms are used The Jains were by this time finding their only in linguistic or perhaps cultural way to the south also. contexts. Politicians may attach other senses to them, but in doing so they have The Language and Literature no good scientific basis! How and when did Tamil evolve into a highly The People literary language and a capable medium of expressing the moods and the behaviour Tamil Nadu has been aptly described as an of the people? When and how did the Tamil ethnological museum Negroid, Proto- country feel united as one people, though Austroloid, Proto-Mediterranean, Alpine, it was under the rule of some major kings Armenoid and Nordic elements, have gone and minor chieftains who often warred with to make up this racial mixture! So we find each other? These and many similar in the Tamil country today a tangle of racial types, whose origins date from far-off times. While it is impossible to unravel these, it is well to recognise that such a tangle exists. With the advent of the Aryans in South India, early in the first millenium B.C., there was further inevitable fusion between the races. And none today can distinguish the native warp from the foreign woof’ The epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata contain some references to the Tamil people and their three kingdoms, but conservative scholars and cautious historians are inclined to believe that these references are not authentic, and are interpolations of late redactors. Historically the three Tamil kingdoms appear together for the first time in the 3rd century B.C., in the inscriptions of Asoka ... It seems likely that questions are clouded by the fog and mist the three Tamil kingdoms were by then in of the myths and legends of pre-history. their traditional locations and the context How much were they influenced by their in which they are mentioned shows that neighbours and how much did they influence they were already receiving elements of them in respect of language, culture, social Aryan culture, whether Hindu or Buddhist. behaviour and patterns and the arts and crafts of government? It is repeatedly

65 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages stated, however that, from time in matters of language, religion, polity and immemorial, the Tamil country consisted of social structure were not thought of as the three kingdoms - Chera, Chola, and any more fundamental than those between Pandya. other regions of India in the past the whole Round about the beginning of the Christian genius of Indian civilisation has favoured a era we find that the Tamil people had wide diversity, political, social and cultural, developed their literature to an amazing within the broad frame-work of eternal degree. The beginnings of that literature Aryan Dharma, liberally interpreted which are lost in pre-history. Even then there prevailed throughout the sub-continent. must have been a large body of poetry, And at most periods India has flourished since all the early literature of ancient and developed in that diversity. nations are uniformly poetic in form. Much of this ‘poetry’ must have been poor in Sangam Poetry quality and has been deservedly lost. But in the course of years, owing to the impacts This great literature of the ancient Tamils of several factors, a body of good poetry must have consisted of thousands of loose did spring up and was cherished by an poems of various grades of merit. Sometime understanding people. How long it took this after the beginning of the Christian era, poetry to grow and mature we have no the best of that poetry was put together means of knowing now. by poets of distinction and discrimination The earliest extant literature of the Tamils at the direction of persons of authority. perhaps dates from the First and the Nine anthologies were so prepared, eight Second centuries A.D. Some scholars would of short poems and one of ten much longer like to put it in earlier and some would put poems. The shortest of them consists of it later. The later history of the relations three lines and the longest of very nearly of Dravidian and Aryan speakers is one of eight hundred lines! increasingly closer cultural influence. I know These constitute what has come to be of no evidence of mutual antipathy or of a known as Sangam Poetry, from an consciousness of any great difference unconfirmed tradition that all the poets between northerner and southerner. There represented in these antholozies were was no strong sense of polarity either in members of an academy at Madurai. the world of politics or in that of religion, Though the words and the syntax of the between Dravidian speakers and Indo- poems are archaic and the background Aryan speakers, between the north and often unfamiliar, the language is flexible as south. Each recognised the other as a well as terse, ‘adjective packed, participle member of the Aryan community and as an crowded’! Most of the poems are real gems, inhabitant of the great culture-region full of feeling and wrought with care and known as Bharata Varsha. This is not to they combine idealism with realism and say that there were no differences or that classic grace with indigenous energy and these differences were not recognised. But strength.’ They are ‘marked by a directness the distinction between north and south and human interest rare in later times, and

66 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages furnished many vivid pictures of social and childhood to old age; of many occupations, economic life, rural and urban’! ‘In their from ambassadors to the lowest grades of antiquity and their contemporaneity there working men and women: of men who lived is not much else in any Indian literature by their cruelty and women by their beauty; equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil of people in all moods of joy and sorrow, poems. In their values and stances, they of pain and pleasure; of playing children represent a mature classical poetry; with the world before them; of the passion is balanced by courtesy, sorrowing widow and the grief stricken transparency by ironies and nuances of widower, of both of whom the world seems design, impersonality by vivid detail and lost. leanness of line by richness of implication. The anthologies have included the poems These are not just the earliest evidence of about five hundred poets and poetesses. of the Tamil genius. The Tamils in all their About forty of them are women; and one 2000 years of literary effort, wrote nothing poetess (Avvai), has fifty-nine poems of better! ‘The earliest lyrics are first rate, hers in the anthologies. All the women poets their brevity and tenderness perhaps help are respected members of the court and raise their quality’ says Rt. Hon. V. S. we find them moving with equal ease and Srinivasa Sastri. freedom with the king and the courtiers - a truly remarkable achievement in an early The Information civilisation. We find among the poetesses a queen, a couple of princesses, a noble However, apart from the epigraphical woman, a demonolatrous priestess, a potter evidence of Asoka’s edicts just beyond the woman, a couple of women belonging to borders of Tamil country, the few the trading and agricultural classes and inscriptions, in Jain caves in the interior, hill tribes. They follow different religions, and the rather slender foreign notices, we and occupations. have no matter of fact evidence of how What do these contemporary poems tell the people lived and what they did, in those us about the women of those days? They far-off days. But the rich and varied and tell us that women moved freely almost detailed information to be found everywhere; sang and danced ; praised among the 33,000 lines of poetry (actually and scolded (were petted and pampered), there should be 36,000 lines, but 3000 have drank wine and ate meat and shared both been lost), afford us a detailed though with their kings and patrons; that they somewhat coloured picture of those times. dressed well, wore flowers and perfume; These pictures by men and women of and loved and chose their partners in life; imagination, yet of clear vision and rejoiced with’ them, pined in their absence; accurate expression, provide us with some and were on the whole happy as children, believable material. We get fair enough wives and mothers and enjoyed life to the pictures of the men and women in many full. classes of society, from kings and queens These poems of long ago were not meant to slaves and harlots and of all ages, from to give photographic views of· the men

67 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages and women of those days and of the social over a kingdom or a principality? Did any and politically disturbed conditions in which of them with all their patriotism and their they lived. They were rather the brave warrior blood, ever command an imaginative expressions of the poets’ moods army? Were they skilled in the arts of war? set against a somewhat idealised context. We find that like the poets, the poetesses Mostly, they relate to kings and chieftains too were given gifts of money and and to the higher middle class society, elephants. Did they buy, own, or inherit, though now and again we have pictures of any immoveable property or any houses or the poor and the lowly. Their kings and lands and make them their own ? As a chieftains are all men of valour and are general rule or custom, were all women generous and discriminating patrons of trained in the arts of peace, in poetry, poets and poetesses. In the love poems music, song, and dance? Some of the the men are mostly rich ; or they journey women undoubtedly were highly skilled in to distant lands, beyond the mountains and all these, but what about the others? There the wild uninhabitable regions, - lands in are no accurate answers, for the poets which a different language is spoken, in have not sung about them. But yet, quite quest of wealth. And, generally, they come a few facts emerge about them from back in a tall chariot of their own, having childhood to old age, both directly and gathered the desired riches. We are not indirectly. told where it was exactly that they went to nor what they did to acquire wealth nor Young Children anything about the talent they had which was not appreciated at home but valued Children are longed for, arid women pray abroad. But they go forth and come back for them to the gods, offering their gods home to gladden the hearts of waiting both worship and presents. The children’s spouses who are all beautiful and young. lisp is praised by the poetess Avvai. Another What about the others? poet praises their pranks as charming. It is regarded as a mother’s duty to bear and Some Questions nurture children, to feed them with her own milk and then with milk and honey (in golden Several other questions arise about that bowls) ; coaxing them to eat and drink by society for which we find no answers or showing them a pet bird, or a young moon; even indications. Did the queens who sat or occasionally threatening them with a in the royal court, and apparently moved monitory finger or stick; or even frightening without inhibitions, share the royal throne, them by recalling the awful tiger. or did they sit apart as lesser creatures Nevertheless, little children pout and sulk, than their male partners? Had the kings and lead their mothers and nannies to many more than one Queen? Why did not poets a chase. Parents and children play together sing in praise of the beauty, grace, with toy rattles. Slightly older girl children goodness and learning of the Queens? Or romp in the dusty streets, building toy did they? Were there any queens who ruled houses, and playing with dolls, and brightly

68 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages coloured balls, where boys tease them of their houses or in nearby groves or by pulling them by the hair, plucking off their the seashore. They sometimes yield to the flowers, and destroying their toy houses. call of their bodies and become man and wife in all but the wedding ceremony. Older children and adolescents Sometimes the women are betrayed. Occasionally they elope eluding the careful Bevies of slightly older girls play with watch of the parents. molucca beans or at hopscotch; and pick Sometimes the girl does not respond to flowers, and string them into chaplets and the young man’s love and sometimes also garlands ; or go for a swim in nearby pools it is the other way round, as when a king or mountain streams or tanks. They braid or chieftain does not respond to the love garments of leaves and flowers and wear of a large number of adolescent girls. Often them. They sing and dance with gay he does not even know of her existence. abandonment. They go out to guard the Unrequited love of this sort is the theme fields of maturing corn and to drive away of a fairly large number of poems in later parrots and other birds, and smaller beasts, literature. Sangam Literature has at least by singing and shouting and sounding many one instance recorded in a poem by the kinds of rattles and other noise-making daughter of a nobleman whose love for the gadgets. Teenagers and adolescents are king is unrequited. often thus sent to the fields by their But there is no mention of what happens mothers or nannies ; and some-times they to the women who love in vain or to those go out on their own. who have been betrayed and lament about Thoughts of love in such ideal surroundings it. There is no poem of a girl jilting her enter their hearts. Young men come there lover after she began to love him. by chance or design and are coyly welcomed, when they make their advances. Wedding The girls’ companions and even nannies, help the courtship. Love in the Valley is a The secret lover is urged by the girl and fairly long poem describing the origin, course by her companion and nannies, to declare and culmination of such a love. Love’s openly his love to her parents and to have trickery is a little gem. “Where love, marriage duly celebrated. When the parents dialogue, and human mix”, blend. agree an auspicious wedding day is fixed and celebrated with the beating of wedding The Course of Love drum and tabor. The bride and bridegroom look up are ‘Arundhati’ the Lady of chastity, Sometimes the lover is bashful or diffident, with a wish that the bride’s constancy but the alert little lady keeps the course should be as great. And the sacred neck of love by an innocent little stratagem, as ornament indicative of marriage seems to in the poem The Swing - A Love Gambit, have been worn. There was much feasting The lovers have trysts and meet in secret, and rejoicing on the occasion, and publicity. by day or by night, in the neighbourhood

69 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages House Keeping Desertion and Widowhood

The wife cooked One of the gifted poetesses Velli with solicitous Veetiyar was apparently deserted care, and the by her husband and makes a futile newly married search for him. What really husband praised happened we do not know. But her cooking as her pitiable condition is referred delicious and a to by Avvai, We have a poetess gentle smile played who is a queen too, who after on her face. The the loss of her husband and who heart of the wife after scolding those around her was glad, at her who try to prevent her committing married felicity and suicide (sati), ends her life on her she wished husband’s funeral pyre. everybody well. A A widow takes off her bangles list of such wishes and her jewels and bewails her is really a revelation of the goodness of loss. She does not attend to her hair-do her heart. Let the showers fall, let the and sometimes has her head shaved. She rice-fields be fertile, may corn increase and offers oblations (pinda) to her deceased milk flow in plenty, let oxen thrive, may husband; and observes fasts and vows. hunger be destroyed and disease be swept She eats the poorest food and that too, away, may gold abound and beggars irregularly. She mortifies her body by lying throng (donor’s gates), may’ virtue and on pebbles without a mat spread. But there good triumph and let vice and evil be is no mutuality of such sorrow in respect overthrown and all fraud wiped out, may of the sexes. The widower too generally the Brahmins chant their hymns and may bewails his own condition; it is more self- the king be victorious and prosperous, and pity than the suffering of a loss, except may he ever be impartial. This indirect perhaps in one instance where a widowed preaching of morality and good conduct is king really laments his loss and asks how it through a double door of woman, ladies is that his grief had not strength enough and maids. The attendant maids of a noble to kill him. It is almost comparable to the lady say that these are the wishes episode of Ruru and Pramadvara, narrated expressed by her. There are several poems in the Mahabharata. by Avvaiyar preaching morality and good conduct to kings and others and general Dress, Ornaments and Decorations exhortations for peace and goodwill. In one poem it is stated ‘what we seek is not Men and women all over the world, in all riches or gold or their enjoyment, but grace, ages and at all times, have desired to look love and virtue.’ better than they are and they have used art to improve nature. Dress is worn not

70 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages so much to hide as to show off and jewellery silk. Some dress worn by foreigners mostly is mostly an attractive pointer. Dress was apparently stitched. material and the manner in which the Young women sometimes wore garments costume is worn and draped, vary from of plaited leaves and flowers, particularly climate to climate, region to region, period when they were among themselves, or to period and almost from person to person. sporting in the hill glades and tarns. They So it was in those far-off days in the wore a separate dress for bathing (but we southern end of India. have no more information about this bathing The costume material of those days costume). consisted mostly of cotton. The yarn was Men and women wore ornaments of gold spun and often woven too, by the ladies. and silver. Coral, pearl, rubies, emeralds Spinning was the main occupation of and diamonds, were the usual gems used widows, who had ample leisure. Everybody and quality blue sapphire which rivalled in wore a lower garment round the loins and beauty fresh and glistening blue lilies. somewhere down below the knee and as Ornaments were worn on the head, at the far as the ankle. The poorer people and ears, around the neck and over the bosom, the workers and generally the men wore on the arms, and at the wrists, waists, only one garment. But the richer women and ankles. Strings of gold coins are and the upper class men wore two pieces, mentioned. The jewellery was kept safely the second one being worn and draped over in special caskets. They wore flowers too, the left shoulder and generally left hanging on the hair of the head, at the ears, round in front and behind. The women wore this their necks, arms, and waists, blue and piece round their torso and also draped it white lilies, jasmine and other flowers, both so that it covered the top of the head and loose and strung as garlands, chaplets, or part of the face. girdles. They wore lotuses made of gold. The cotton material was both coarse and They used make-up of different sorts. They fine, the finer material being compared to set beauty marks, on the forehead; tipped the vapour of milk and the slough of snakes. their eye-lashes with a salve of collyrium; Silk was used and floral designs were often had designs of various kinds painted on worked into the garment. These were their breasts and shoulders; had their washed and laundered by a special class hands manicured; and had their soles and of people. Some clothes were dyed in instep painted with red paste. They used colours. Women spun yarn and this mirrors of burnished metal. They wore paste occupation seems to have been a major of sandal on the breasts, body and arms one with widows. They seem to have worn and used scented oil for the hair. a sort of brassier or bodice, but not They had their hair dried and perfumed with stitched, and we do not know of what the fragrant smoke, of sandal wood and material it was. Hunters and their women wore it in plaits according to fancy or had of highlands wore garments made from skins it knotted, as in the paintings at Ajanta and hides and some of the richer folk wore (which date from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D.). Umbrellas and

71 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages sandals for the feet are mentioned, but flowers and tender leaves, for we do not know whether women used them. ornamentation; played ball; built toy- houses of ‘sand or mud’; played in Dance, Song and Music playgrounds; swung high and low on swings; watched bull fights (really, seizing the There are many references to the love of bulls); chased crabs on the seashore; dance, song and music of the ancient Tamil attended dramas and dances; watched the people. It was, as in all early civilisations, tight rope dances of men and women partly a religious ritual and more commonly acrobats; bathed and swam and dived, in an expression of their joy of life and gaiety. pools and rivers and the sea; watched and The girls sang from their perches in the participated in festivals; played with each fields and at play; the women sang at home other in the water pelting each other with and in the camps of war to allay the pain flowers, sprays of water from syringes of the wounded soldiers; they sang to the particularly in the freshes of rivers; lazily gods, and at demonolatrous (shrinistic) sat on mounds by the sea or on land, worship and sooth-saying; professional lady counting the boats afloat or the war- musicians sang in royal courts. The lute, chariots or even the carts of the vendors the lyre and the drum - drums of various of salt going in caravans. kinds are mentioned. In one anthology of medium length poems we find that while Occupations the words were by a poet, they were set to music by an expert musician both the Like the men, the women employed names are mentioned at the foot of each themselves in all kinds of occupations. The poem in the anthology known as Paripatal. most common occupation was house- The royal court partronised dancers as well. wifery, running the house, doing the cooking The people had their own folk-dances. and ordinary household chores - with or Several such dances are mentioned by without help according to wealth and name. station. They cooked, they spun and wove and bore and brought up children. In Pastimes girlhood they played without a care and sulked and peeved and were fondled and A few indoor and outdoor sports and cherished, fed and disciplined by their pastimes are mentioned at which women mothers, who coaxed and wheedled, took part. Some simple games with scolded and threatened, and helped them Molucca-beans and coloured balls; taking dress and look nice and watched them grow strolls in the moonlight, in the courtyard, up into personable young women, who were or terrace; rearing pet dogs and birds; made love to and responding, married the playing with dolls and children; and men of their choice. This was normal. gossipping; these were some of the Some with special talents and inclinations, pastimes mentioned. Outdoor, they picked became dancers, songstresses and players on the harp or the lutes and went from

72 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages court to court and were duly rewarded with priestesses (some of whom it is guessed, worthy gifts of ornaments and other were exotic women imported into the presents. Some became priestesses, sibyls, region) and devil-dancers and diviners. soothsayers and devil-dancers, diviners, Offering of rice mixed with blood and rich and some became poetesses. Some offerings, were made to placate the deities employed themselves in less rewarding and win their favour. They were prayed occupations, mat-weaving with Palmyra to, and gifts and offerings promised and leaves, washing and laundering, spinning made to them, in order that they may grant and weaving and as governesses and them the boom of children. They nannies. Whether some of the lowly worshipped the crescent moon. They occupations went by birth (which meant prayed for rain or for shine. They bathed perhaps according to the opportunities in rivers and pools in the morning dew of easily available) or whether they were December-January. And as in all the taken up for reasons of lack of other skills, countries of the world, and at all times, or aptitudes or talent, we are not told. women were the more ‘faithful’. Some of Some who lived in the highlands, were them became nuns, and were attached to huntresses. Others who lived by the sea nunneries and places of worship. They became fisher women, vendors of salt and were also the upholders of morality. We fish and dried their nets and mended them. find women poets admonishing kings about And there their lovers found them on ‘the their standards of behaviour. white sands which looked like moonlight spread’. Women In Youth and Old Age In the poets’ eyes all were beautiful and all smelt sweet and all were equally worthy From childhood to widowhood the poets of being loved and all were loved. In fact and poetesses have dealt with women. the fishy smell of the seashore, with its What did they do in their old age? What to nets, dead and dried and drying fish and do in old age must have been a problem its women with similar odours, are described even then to the old, but perhaps not to as if they smelt of lotus and jasmine. That the society in which they lived. The old is the best and worst of poetry, a fine women were respected members of society excess which makes ‘every goose a swan’. and made themselves useful and were not a nuisance. Poetess Avvai who was the Religion - Beliefs and Practices most famous of the women poetesses included in the anthologies. She goes from The three gods of the Hindu Trinity were Court to Court; praises her own king and known in those days and some minor deities patron ; felicitates him on the birth of a gods and goddesses. Muruga (known as son and heir; praises his valour, generosity, the Red God) and Indra, were also prime and discernment; scolds him when he favourites, whose festivals were delays his gifts; soothes him when he lies celebrated. Demonolatry (a local form of wounded; taunts his enemies; advises them Shamanism)was a prevalent cult, with its to seek peace; and now and then tells the

73 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages world some of the truths of life - job enough The Position of the for anyone. Ordinary women, in their old age too, worship their husbands, and show Women In Karnataka the young how to behave and, when during Chalukyas widowed, observe fasts and ceremonies, eat poor food, sparingly and irregularly, as of Badami mentioned already. (6th century A.D. to 8th century A.D.) Patriotism and Valour By Miss B. N. SARVAMANGALA

As the people lived almost in a near state “THE honour accorded to women in society of war all the time, patriotism was regarded is a good indication of its refinement and as a prime virtue. Guarding the person of moral elevation.” Judged by this standard, the king on the battlefield, shielding him Karnataka, in ancient days, may well be from harm by giving up his own life, are proud of its records. The Chalukyas of praised in some poems. One poem says Badami held sway over extensive regions that (an old woman) proudly points to her of the Deccan for about two centuries from body as a lair stature where a tiger lodged the middle of the sixth century to about for a little while before going for the kill. In the middle of the eighth century A.D. This another poem, a mother is sure that her dynasty not only produced many mighty son cannot be a deserter and vows that Emperors like Pulakesi II and Vikramaditya she would cut off her breasts which gave II, who distinguished themselves among the him suck if he had been one and so goes Chalukya Emperors as great conquerors, into the field of battle sword in hand and far-sighted administrators and benevolent when she finds her son’s mutilated body rulers, but also produced many Queens like among the foemen slain by him, she feels Durlabhadevi, Kadamba Mahadevi, Vijaya happier than on the day she gave him birth. Bhattarika, Vinayavathi, Lokamahadevi and Trailokya Mahadevi who equally In Brief distinguished themselves along with their husbands in war and administration, Woman had a great deal of freedom, of literature and arts, religion, and arts and movement, behaviour and choice of architecture. The Chalukyan princesses and occupation. They moved freely, in all queens occupied a significant position in circles, in cities, villages, in the hills and in the glorious cultural history of Karnataka. the plains, as equals of men and of each The position of women during this period, other. Levels of society or wealth and was not one of servitude as is sometimes poverty, did not seem to matter. They supposed. Women had an honourable freely mixed without any distinction of status in society. The Queens took a leading grades. part in public activities and even ruled as Sovereigns.

74 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages According to the legend preserved in some Mangalisa to grant endowments in favour of the inscriptions, the Chalukya Dynasty of Mahakuteswara. Even after her wasted by an adventurous princess of husband’s death, it seems, she was ruling Karnataka. Though her name is not known this province, which includes the villages to us she was the Chief Queen of of Pattadakal, Kendur, Aihole, and other Vijayaditya, who was the earliest ancestor adjoining villages. In this context it is of the Chalukya family. He is said to have interesting to note that Mahakutesvara been defeated and killed by “Trilochana group of temples was considered as one Pallava ‘. Vijayaditya’s wife was pregnant of the earliest group of Lakula seat temples at that time and took refuge at a place of Saivism in Karnataka. Kadamba called ‘Mudivimu’. There she was given Mahadevi, who was the chief Queen of the shelter and brought up by one Vishnu famous Chalukya monarch Pulakesi II, (610- Bhatta Somayaji. In course of time, She 642 A.D.), is described in the inscriptions gave birth to a male child, which was as possessing such good qualities like Nyaya named as Vishnu Vardhana. Having learnt (political wisdom), vinaya (humility), Dana of the disaster of his father from his mother, (charity) and Sadvritta (good conduct) as Vishnu Vardhana when he grew up went to the famous matrons like Savitri, Suvarchala, a hill called ‘Chalukya Giri’ and there did Arundhati, Swaha and Sachi. penance and invoked the aid of Goddess To please his chief queen Mahadevi, Nanda Bhagavathi Gowri. Through divine Pulakesi-II, made generous and rich help he obtained his royal insignia back endowments to eleven brahmanas of and founded the Chalukya Empire. He took different gotras, who were all well versed revenge against the Pallavas, who in Veda, Vedanga and eighty branches of humiliated his father and on the souvenir Tarka. Ambera the daughter of Pulikesi-II, of victory over them, he married their was a devotee of Shiva and made many princess. endowments. “This legend clearly indicates how an Vijaya : The veritable double of Saraswati adventurous widow of Vijayaditya, brought Karnataka, under the Chalukyas, witnessed up her posthumous son in such a heroic one of its best and most glorious periods manner as to revive the Chalukya powers of History as much striking in the military again. sphere as in the cultivation of arts and Durlabhadevi, the princess from Baptura literature. They gave generous patronage family, played a very important role in the to Sanskrit poets and created a favourable life Pulakesi I (540 to 566 A.D.), who was atmosphere in which Sanskrit learning the real founder of the Chalukyas. He flourished, and stimulated the production performed Asvamedha, Agnichayana, of Sanskrit literature. Agnishtoma, Vajapeya, Bahusuvarna, Vijayabhattarika, who was also called as Pundarika and Hiranya Garbha religious Bijja, Bijjika and Vijaya, was the Queen of rites. Like her husband, Durlabhadevi was Chandraditya, who was the eldest son of a good philanthropist. Though her family Pulikesi II. She was a good administrator deity was Vishnu, she ordered her son and a great scholar in Sanskrit. She is

75 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages mentioned as reigning for sometime after Lokamahadevi and her sister Trailokya- her husband’s death. She is well known in mahadevi, the princesses of Kalachuri Sanskrit literature as the authoress of the family, were married to Vikramaditya II famous historical work ‘Kaumudi Mahotsava’. (733-745 AD.) They have patronised the religion and arts, art and architecture in a Ganga Mahadevi blazes the trail large scale. Loka-mahadevi built Lokesvara or Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, Ganga Mahadevi, was the chief Queen of (Pattadakal was the meeting ground of the Vikramaditya I, (655-681 AD.), who was North Indian and South Indian styles of the other son of Pulikesi II, revived the architecture) to commemorate her Chalukya supremacy after the period of husband’s victory over Kanchi thrice. This nearly thirteen years. temple displays great unity and co- She was accompanying her husband in his ordination. Indeed it is a great monument, military campaigns and reminding him of his and Perry Brown’s tribute is amply justified. duties of religion and requesting him to He says that the amount expended, not grant generous endowments to temples, only on the whole but on each detail, is learned Brahmanas and other religious incredible and that every one of its grey institutions. weather-worn stones, in spite of the Ganga Mahadevi’s daughter-in-law passage of centuries, is yet warm with life Vinayavathi, the chief queen of Vinayaditya and feeling. The architects of this temple (681-696 AD.) was a great patron of were Sarvasiddhi Achari Gundan, Bala religion and literature. Vinayavathi installed Devan, Damodaran, Changam and Pallappa. the idols of Brahma, Vishnu and Lokamahadevi honoured the leader of Maheshwara in the capital Badami and gave architects, Gundan by awarding the title gift grants to several Brahmanas. It is said “Tribhuvana Achari”; the architect that the metropolis of Badami was adorned renowned in the three worlds. with several thousands of Brahmanas, who Lokamahadevi, was also supposed to have were proficient in fourteen Vidyas. The given patronage to ‘Achalan’ who had fourteen Vidyas are :- 4 Vedas, 6 studied ‘Bharata’s Natyasashtra’ in detail Vedangas, phonetics, prosody, grammar, and knew everything about the technique etymology, astronomy and ritual, purana, of drama and acting. He was a dancer as logic, mimamsa and law. She was also well as an actor. He dominated the field of accompanying her husband in the drama in such a way that he was called conquests. Vinayavathi’s illustrious ‘Natyasivya’ or one to whom actors paid daughter Kumkumadevi, who was married homage. Perhaps he was the Karnataka’s to the Alupa ruler Chitra Vahana, kept up first great actor and dancer. the glorious traditions of the Chalukya Trilokyamahadevi, built the temple of Queens. She was a great devotee of jina Trilokeswara near Lokeswara temple, similar and constructed ‘Anesejjiya Basadi’ at in design and construction of the latter Rurigere (Modern Lakshrnesvara) and made one. It contains on some of its pillars many endowments in favour of that Basadi. sculptures depicting the famous fables of

76 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the monkey and the crocodile and the in commity, with the laws laid down by monkey and the wedge from the ancient law-givers. Panchatantra. Hiuen Tsang’s account Courtesans No account about the women of the We have references to courtesans who Chalukya can be complete without flourished in society and were held in high Hiuentsang’s account. According to his esteem. They were renowned for their account, “the women wore a long robe beauty, wit, and other accomplishments, which covers both shoulders and falls down as well as their wealth and luxury. There is loose. The hair on the crown of the head an instance of a courtesan Vinopoti, who is made into a tail, all the rest of the hair called the King Vijayaditya her sweetheart hanging down”. Hiuentsang’s statement (prana-). She was rich enough to about dress and ornaments of women is grant a golden seat, a silver umbrella and confirmed by the temple sculptures of land of 800 measures (?) to the temple of Badami and its neighbourhood. The figures, Mahakuta. Another Badipoddi, the daughter both male and female, in the rock-cut of Govindapoddi, a courtesan attached to temples, have a variety of ear-rings, the temple, gave excellent. . . (name lost); necklaces, armlets, bracelets, girdles, rings she had given a horse chariot, an elephant and elaborate head-dresses and coiffures. chariot, land and an ‘ubhayamukhi ‘ (cow). The folds of the dress, distinctly a sari Yet another Challabbe get the pillars (of among female figures and delicately carved, the temple) constructed as the votive sometimes finely striped. Belts were offering to God Vijeyesvara. These women common and worn round the waist across did not think that it was beneath their the shoulders and the thighs.” dignity to call themselves courtesans. Vinapoti’s mother’s and grandmother’s names were duly recorded in the plural at the end. Like queens and nobles they made rich gifts to gods and had them inscribed on stone. It appears to have been the practice and a matter of social prestige, particularly among the wealthy classes, to have more than one wife. Not much information is available regarding the other classes of women in society. But it may be surmised that the women in the Chalukya period, followed in this, as in other activities of life, ancient customs and usages and in respect of the upper classes,

77 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The Sangha The Distilled Wisdom of Ages Out of the hundreds of women who joined the Sangha, only the composition of 73 Theris have come down to us. These are UCH of the wisdom in the world is of varied length, some are limited to one accumulated from the experiences of M verse, some two, some three and some those that have seen life in all its diversity. are longest. These songs give us an insight Epics, ballads, folklore and folktales are all into the lives of the Theris. It is remarkable bundles of this treasure of wisdom. Wisdom that these Theris come from all classes of and old age are often coupled together. society - from the palaces of Kings to the Intelligence and wisdom can also be the quarters of the fallen and the untouchable. property of younger individuals. But the Anyone who was genuinely earnest about wisdom that an old person acquires is religious life was accepted by Buddha into polished by maturity and experience and the Sangha. They were not of equal age; from an amalgam of raw- material, the best some joined the Sangha as virgins; some is sorted out, strained, processed and then were widows and others were advanced in handed over to generations to come. age. Of these Gathas, the longest one was composed by Sumedha. She was the The word “Theri’ means ‘one who has grown daughter of the chief queen of the King of old with knowledge’ and Gatha means a Kroncha and was born in the city of ‘song’. Hence it is a collection of songs by Mantavati. Anikarta, the King of Varanavati, the Buddhist nuns. Theri-Gatha is included wanted to marry her. He himself came to in the Buddhist Canon. It is in the second woo her, but she refused and according to of the Tripitakas - the Sutta Pitaka. The her wishes, her parents initiated her into songs were preserved first orally and it Buddhism. was during the reign of the Mauryan King that they were classified and written down. The Gatha The Mother of the sangha In the course of her long poem of 75 verses, she describes her birth, parentage and After the death of Lord Buddha’s mother renunciation. She was brought up tenderly Maya Devi, Gautami Devi became the Chief and educated well; she was a good orator Queen of King Shuddhodana and brought and devoted to religion. She said to her up the motherless child as if he were her parents: “There is no happiness in this own son. When all the members of transient life - I wish to renounce the world Buddha’s family embraced the religion, she and lead the life of a Brahmacharin”. Her too joined. It was at her request that parents wept and said: “We want to bestow Buddha established an independent Ashram you on King Anikarta; the King of for the Theris. So Mahapajapati Gautami Varanavati, who will be pleased to make can be said to be the mother of the you his chief queen. My child, it is difficult Sangha. 78 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages to lead the life of celibacy, young that you Ishidasi replied : ‘I was born in the house are; one is the path of wealth and power, of Sheshri of Ujjain; I was the only child of the other is the hard life of a mendicant; my parents and brought up with tender think well before you choose.” Sumedha care. A merchant of a high family from replied, “The body is of flesh and blood, Sakera wanted to make me as his subject to death. I would rather choose daughter-in-law. My father gave me in death than a worldly life.” King Anikarta marriage and I went to my husband’s home. hearing her resolve came to the palace I worked with great devotion ; morning and richly dressed in gold and diamond and evening, I used to bow to my father-in- entreated her with folded hands: “Be the law and mother-in-law; I welcomed warmly queen of my all and rule over my people my husband’s sister and brothers; gave and land; bestow gifts with your hands food and clothing to all the members of and do not be so averse to worldly life - the household; everyone got what he or your parents are grieved.” Sumedha said, she wanted. I used to wake up early, finish “I have no attraction for worldly life; one my household duties and then go to my born must die; kings surrounded by wealth husband to greet him. With my own hands, have died; wealth and happiness are I used to dress his hair and decorate him. transitory; they bring sorrow and suffering, I used to caress him as a mother would it is all like a heated iron. Return to your her only child. I cooked with my own hands, home, O king. What can you do when fire washed the utensils and cleaned the is burning in my head?” She then saw her kitchen. In fact, I used to work from parents deeply grieved, but she consoled morning till night like a maid-servant without them reminding them of the transitoriness any rest. Still my Lord did not love me! of earthly life. Anikarta then said: “Bid One day he told his parents ‘I shall not live farewell to Sumedha, for she wants to with Ishidasi.’ His parents said, ‘Ishidasi is follow the path of Truth.” So with the cultured, very active; why don’t you like permission of her parents the princess her? ‘ My husband replied, ‘She did not do joined the Sangha and attained Nirvana. me any harm ; I do not like to live with her. Let me go away, I shall never return’. lshidasi Becomes a nun Next comes Ishidasi or Rishidasi. In her Gatha of 46 verses, she gives an account My father-in-law and mother-in-law asked of her own life. In Pataliputra, called me ‘My daughter, tell us the truth, hide Kusumapura, there were two pious not anything - by what fault of yours has Bhikshunis called Ishidasi and Bodhi. Once this happened ?’ they were engaged in conversation. I replied, ‘I did not commit any fault, nor “Beloved Ishidasi, tell me what made you did I speak to him harshly - still I don’t give up your home and embrace this hard know why he is averse to me.’ life of celibacy in your youth, beautiful and ‘So at the wish of my husband, I returned gifted as you are.” to my father’s house’.

79 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages “My father gave me in marriage a second Jivaka replied : “You are a stainless maid, time to the son of a rich man. After a why have you renounced the world ? Give month, he too, without any fault on my up your saffron robe and let us enjoy in part and in spite of my hard work, sent me this picturesque garden. It is spring; the away.” trees are in full bloom; fragrant is the air. “One day a poor young Bhikshu came for If you listen to me, I shall make you the alms to father’s house, my parents asked queen of my all. You are like a full blown him to give up his ascetic life and become flower. Why should it wither away by this their son-in-law. He married me and stayed vow of asceticism? for a fortnight and then said that he Subha replied with disgust: “Why all this wanted to go back to his old life. So he, talk? This body is the abode of death. Why too, left me.” do you long for it ?” “ I then begged my parents either to permit Jivaka goes on describing her physical me to end my life or to renounce the world beauty, the charm of her eyes and his and go away from home.” desire for her. Subha protests and describes “Soon after this, Bhikshu Jinadatta came the transitoriness of physical beauty and to my father’s house. I expressed my desire at the end plucking out her eyes from their for renunciation. Father and mother sockets presents them to him saying “Here remonstrated, but I was firm. With their are the eyes that you admired so much.” permission I entered the Sangha and The amorous suitor being ashamed of obtained peace of mind.” himself begs her pardon. She returns to “Perhaps, it was not in me to love and be Buddha and it is said that by His grace she loved as a wife. My heart is filled with the got back her eyesight. love that a mother bears for her children. This I could give to all, and to this end Baddha Kundalakesha have I taken to this life.” Of the several other Theris, the life-stories Bhikshuni Subha of some are, indeed, very touching. One such is that of Baddha Kundalakesha. She Next is Subha Jivakambavanika. She was was so named because of her long curly so named as she fell into the snares of a hair. She was born at Rajagriha in the family cunning man called Jivaka. of a rich merchant. She fell in love with Once Bhikshuni Subha was roaming all alone the son of their family priest named in a mango grove of Jivaka. Jivaka came Sarthaka. Sarthaka was a bad character. and stood before her obstructing her path. One day because of a theft he had Subha said, “What have I done that you committed, was caged like a wild beast are obstructing my path? Should anyone and was being led to the execution- behave thus with a recluse? Your mind is ground. Kundalakesha saw him, when he stained, but mine is pure; so behave not was thus being led and told her father about thus.” her love for him. The rich merchant

80 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages liberated him by offering a big ransom and Many years later, the man who married her gave his daughter in marriage to him. daughter was attracted by her beauty and Sarthaka could not be reformed. He wanted married her as well. Utpalavarna and her to steal the ornaments of his wife. So one daughter lived apart from the very day he told her. “When my life was in danger beginning, so mother and daughter did not I made a vow to the deity on the top of know each other. After this marriage, this mountain that I shall give an offering hearing the life story of her co-wife, she if I am saved. So come with me well-dressed recognised her as her daughter. She with your ornaments on, so that we can shuddered at the revelation and renounced both fulfil the vow.” the world and became a Theri. Baddha went accordingly and on climbing the mountain she found out that her Ambapali husband wanted to kill her and take away her ornaments. So she said, “My lord, this Among the Theris some came of the life of mine is yours, these ornaments are courtesan profession. One of these was yours, then why do you want to kill me Ambapali. Ambapali was a famous courtesan and run away with my ornaments?” of Vesali. She was renowned for her beauty. The villain was not moved by these words. She was also rich and had a palace with a So in sheer self-defence she thought of a mango-grove attached to it. Buddha, four clever ruse and said, “Well, my lord, let me or five months prior to his Mahanirvana, have a last embrace before I die.” With came to this grove with his disciples. these words she led him to the edge of a Ambapali, hearing of his arrival, also came. slippery peak and in the guise of an The young and beautiful courtesan was so embrace, she pushed him down the captivated by the teachings of the Buddha precipice and saved herself by running that a change came over her. She invited away, leaving the ornaments behind. To the Buddha and his disciples next day to let such a one as he live, who would not her house. Lord Buddha accepted it to the be corrected by any force would do endless surprise of all. harm to the whole world. She then joined The Lichchhavi King of Vesali came to Lord the Jaina Sangha and later the Buddhist Buddha with a large retinue to invite him. Sangha. The Lord said ‘I have already accepted the invitation of Ambapali’. The Lichchhavi king The reforming revelation was surprised and requested Ambapali to cancel her invitation. Ambapali refused. The Another touching account is that of Theri king offered her a thousand gold pieces. Utpalavarma. She was so named because Ambapali was rich but was only one of the of her great beauty. She was the daughter women of the king’s household. She told of a merchant at Shravasti. After the birth her king firmly that she would not go back of a daughter her husband left her. Due to on her word even if the whole wealth of several causes, she had to live away from the treasury was placed at her disposal. her baby. The king went away. Next day, Lord Buddha

81 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages went to Ambapali’s house with his disciples. After dinner, Ambapali placed her palace and her entire wealth at the disposal of Lord Buddha to be used for the Sangha. She then renounced the world and became a Theri. Among the other courtesans who were accepted into the Sangha are Ardhakesi, a rich resident of Kasi, Padmavati, a courtesan of Ujjayini who was the beloved of King Bimbisar and Vimala described as a Ganika.

The others

Besides Mahapajapati Gautami, there were two more members of Buddha’s family who became Theris : one of them being Nanda, daughter of Mahapajapati Gautami, step- sister of Buddha and the other, also known as Nanda, who became a widow and joined the Sangha. Two members of Lichchhavi family also joined the Sangha, namely, (1) Simha, the others who renounced the world and joined niece of Commander of Vesali, who joined the Sangha. Punna, Tissa, Dhira, Mitra, the Sangha as a virgin, and (2) Jayanti. Bhadra, Upasama, Mukta, Dhammadinna, Theri Ubbiri was the daughter of a merchant Sumana Dhamma Sukta, Soma and others. at Shravasti. She was so famous for her Some of them were widows, some beauty that the King of , a Kshatriya Brahmins. by caste, was charmed by her loveliness It is evident that the Buddhist Sangha and married her. A daughter, named Jiva, admitted women into its order. The women was born to them. The king wanted to thus accepted were admitted more on the make her his chief queen. But the death of basis of their determination to enter the her child grieved her so much that she used order and live the life of a Theri, than on to go daily to the cremation ground to account of any material, physical, or social mourn over her dead child. Unable to find attributes of theirs. Their caste, social peace of mind anywhere else she joined status and position and personal character the Sangha, and became a Theri. ceased to exist once they entered the Two girls Chitra and Uttama renounced the order, and thereafter they were just Theris, world in their youth and joined the Sangha. and lived up to the demands of the life Shyama, the companion of the Queen of they had taken on. Kausambi, also became a Theri. There were

82 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Women In work was intended to be a dramatic composition. Silappadikaram and Manimekhalai is a sequel to the Manimekhalai Silappadikaram. It was composed by a merchant called Sathanar. It consists of thirty cantos with no major classifications By A. SUBRAMANIAN as in Silappadikaram. Sathanar was the friend of Ilango Adigal and apparently an AMIL has a very rich literary tradition eye-witness of the events described in the to its credit and the earliest stratum T epic. He was a Buddhist, whereas Ilango of literature belongs to the Sangam Period was a Jain. In both the epics the earlier (roughly between 300 B.C. and A.D. 300). scenes are the ancient Chola capital Scholars have classified Tamil Literature Kaveripumpattinam.That Kaveripumpa- into a few standard types and five of the ttinam was a stronghold of Buddhism during well-known compositions belong to the the early centuries of the Christian era has ‘epic’ types. Silappadikaram of Ilango Adigal been attested by the archaeological and Manimekhalai of Seethalai Sathanar are findings conducted there by the two of these Perunkappiyams. Here we shall Archaeological Survey of India. attempt a survey of the women characters From Kaveripumpattinam the entire events in these two compositions. The spotlight shift to Madurai. The places mentioned in is turned on three of their characters, viz., Silappadikaram are Uraiyur and Malainadu, Kannagi, the heroine, Madhavi, the beloved whereas in Manimekhalai the entire story of Kovalan and hero of Silappadikaram and centres round Manipallavam and Manimekhalai, the daughter of Kovalan Kanchipuram. through Madhavi. Both the epics were edited in modern times by Mahamahopadhyay Dr. U. V. Swaminatha Layout of the Epics Iyer, for the first time in the year 1892. Dr. Iyer compared about 14 manuscripts from Silappadikaram is the earlier of the two various parts of South India for the critical works. It consists of three major parts edition of Silappadikaram and more than (Kandams) and has thirty chapters (Kadai). manuscripts for editing Manimekhalai. It was composed by Ilango Adigal, who was the son of the Pandya King Cheraladan The Story and younger brother of Senguttuvan. It seems the epic was composed after the Kovalan was born in a family of sea-faring prince entered the hermit order. The early merchants called Perunkudiyar. He was the date of this work is attested by its son of Masathuvan. Kovalan’s wife, the references in mediaeval works, such as virtuous Kannagi, was the daughter of Nachchinarkkiniyar’s commentary on another merchant called Manaykan. The Tolkappiyarn, Tanigai Ula (line 526) and couple set up a home with the able Kulottunga Cholan Kovai (line 426). This guidance and assistance of Perumanai-

83 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages kkilatti, the mother of Kovalan. Kannagi wily goldsmith. He was accused of stealing then attended to her household duties of the queen’s anklet and sentenced to death feeding the needy, despensing charities and without proper enquiry. being a faithful and affectionate partner in The news of Kovalan’s untimely end reached life to Kovalan. Madhavi at the riverside, where she had gone to bathe. Kannagi fell down Cosmic Retribution unconscious on hearing it. On recovering, she rushed to the place where Kovalan’s Once, it is stated, Kovalan took part in body was lying and embraced him. Then the auction of a gold necklace, and this she burst into the court of the King transaction landed him in the house of the Nedunchezhian in fury and by breaking her famous dancer and courtesan Madhavi. He second anklet proved that his hasty was obsessed by her beauty, talent and judgment had reduced her to widowhood. accomplishments in the fine arts. She was The shocked king came to an untimely end, the best dancer of the times in the Chola soon followed by his consort. capital. Charmed by her, Kovalan forgot his Her grief and fury knew no bounds. In a house and spent the days with Madhavi. mad rush she plucked out her left breast Kovalan and Madhavi took part in the Indra and threw it at the city of Madurai festival. Each sang songs, in which the pronouncing the terrible curse that the note was suspicion on the part of one for whole city, save the Brahmins, saints, the other. . . . Kovalan then started chaste women and children, be consumed suspecting Madhavi’s fidelity and deserted by fire. At this stage the deity protecting her. On returning to his home Kovalan found the city of Madurai appeared before all his wealth exhausted, and so he decided Kannagi and informed that Kovalan, who to leave the city and go to Madurai to try was called Bharata in his previous birth, his fortune there. The faithful Kannagi had been responsible for the murder of an followed him. Kavundi Adigal, a Jain ascetic ignorant merchant and that his wife Nili met them on their way to Madurai and had cursed that Bharata should also meet accompanied them. the same fate in his next birth. Kannagi One day Kovalan went to the river side for then moved to the west and reached a hill his early morning ablutions and there called Tiruchchenkunru. There she waited happened to meet Kansikan, a Brahmin for about fourteen days and was taken to messenger sent by Madhavi who tried to Heaven. persuade him to return. He declined to As a result of Kannagi’s curse, draught, return. famine and disease ravaged the whole of On reaching Madurai, Kavundi Adigal left Pandya country. It is said that the Pandya Kovalan and Kannagi in the care of Madhari, King Ilanchelian sacrificed one thousand a herdswoman. Kovalan now went out and gold-smiths to Goddess Kannagi to get relief tried to sell the anklet of Kannagi to the from the famine conditions. chief goldsmith of Madurai, and there fell The parents and relatives of Kovalan and into the trap that had been laid by the Kannagi came to Madurai and learnt about

84 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages their sad end. The Pandya King handed in prison. Suspecting her for his son’s over charge of the temple dedicated to murder. She was, however, freed with the Kannagi to Devandi, Kannagi’s foster- help of the queen Rajamahadevi. mother. Ilango Adigal is said to have heard Punyakumara, the king of Nagapura, helped the story of Kannagi from Devandi who was Manimekhalai to reach Manipallavam again. possessed by the spirit of Kannagi. It was at this juncture that Kaverippum- pattinam was destroyed and engulfed by The scene shifts the sea. So she went to the Chera capital of Vanji and offered prayers at the temple The scene is now shifted to Kaverippum- of Kannagi. The Goddess predicted her pattinam. Madhavi left her mother and the future. Masathuvan, the father of Kovalan dancing profession on hearing Kovalan’s (and thus her ‘grandfather’), who had now murder. She joined the Buddhist monastry joined the monastery, advised her to go to as a disciple of Aravana Adigal with her Kanchipuram and serve the brethren there. daughter Manimekhalai. One day Manimekhalai thus reached Kanchipuram, Manimekhalai was sent to the garden to stayed there as a disciple of Aravana Adigal fetch flowers for making garlands where till her last days. she was approached by Udayakumaran who was smitten with love for her. She declined TREATMENT OF CHARACTERS: the offer and went to the island of Kannagi Manipallavam with .the help of the spirit Manimekhala. She had a sacred vision there Kannagi is one of the best depicted heroines and understood that Udayakumaran was in Tamil literature. In Silappadikaram her none other than Rahula, her husband in characterisation relegates all others to the her previous birth. Manimekhalai got the background. At times we are compelled to eternal bowl (Akshaya Pathram) from the see Kovalan only as Kannagi’s husband with sacred tank called Gomukhi with the help no identity of his own. of Dipatilaka. Then she returned to One of the demerits of Silappadikaram is Kaverippumpattinam. Aravana Adigal that it has no child-characters. We only disclosed to her of how Aputra helped get a glimpse of Kannagi as a girl of about people come out of their poverty by offering twelve in the bridal chamber of Kovalan. It food from such a vessel. Manimekhalai is interesting to note that Kannagi is started feeding the needy from that vessel. introduced in the epic before Kovalan”. Fearing Udayakumaran’s intentions, she The character of Kannagi has many facets. took the form of Kayachandika and started We find her as a faithful and loving wife, feeding the inmates of the state prison. when she sets up a separate house. Her One day Udayakumaran approached stead-fastness is admirable; even when Kayachandika taking her to be Kovalan goes to Madhavi, Kannagi never Manimekhalai, and was murdered by the complains about him to her parents. This real Kayachandika’s husband. Marankilli, the is brought out best by the parent’s father of Udayakumaran, put Manimekhalai ignorance of Kovalan’s love life with

85 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Madhavi followed by his exit to Madurai it by smashing the twin anklet in her and ultimate death. possesion. The queen’s anklet contained When Kovalan returned to Kannagi after only saphires. being disgusted with Madhavi’s intentions, Her fury does not abate even at the death Kannagi does not utter a single word of of the Pandyan king and queen. It now reproach at his excesses but is prepared assumes great proportions, and she plucks to give the last pair of anklets to redeem out and throws her bleeding breast with a them from their forced penury. terrible curse on the city of Madurai.” The docile wife that she was, she readily Kannagi is thereafter depicted as a obeys him when Kovalan asks her to follow Goddess. She is regarded as the him to Madurai, unmindful of the physical embodiment of chastity. The Chera hazards of such a long journey. She was monarch sends his forces to the Himalayas accustomed only to a palace-life in her to fetch fresh stones for constructing a parental house, but she does not hesitate temple for her. The stones were purified to live in the simple hut of a herdswoman by resprinkling waters of river Ganges. The at Madurai. temple was consecrated in the Chera She is the very embodiment of chastity. country. We see Kannagi at her best only after the There are some descriptions in the epic death of Kovalan. She is depicted as the which may look super-natural and difficult traditional Indian wife, who willfully fades to believe. Thus, when a prostitute and into the background as long as her husband her man insult Kovalan and Kannagi on their is alive. Though she sees bad omens and way to Madurai, Kavundi Adigal converts dreams at the time Kovalan sets out to them into jackals. The spirit guarding the sell her anklet to the merchant at Madurai, city of Madurai appears before Kannagi to she does not prevent him from going out. remind her of her previous birth. The spirit Both Kannagi and Madhavi see bad omens of Kannagi herself is said to possess that portended evil. Madhavi tries to Devandi, who describes the story to Ilango mitigate the effect by propitiating Lord Adigal and above all Kannagi describes the Vishnu in a dance. future life of Manimekhalai when the latter When Kannagi storms into the King’s palace, visits the temple in Chera country during the Pandyan Queen was narrating to her sojourns. Another important point in Nedunchezhiyan the bad dream she had Silappadikaram is the swift movement of the previous night. Then the king sees events. It has been estimated that Kovalan Kannagi with mud and dirt all over her dress and Kannagi enter the city of Madurai on a and enquires what ailed her. Kannagi Tuesday at dusk and by the Friday that accused the king of having failed in his followed everything was over and the city judgment. She declared that the anklet, was reduced to ashes. for the theft of which Kovalan was falsely Kannagi is a unique heroine ; attempts have accused, was hers and mentioned that it been made to compare her with Sita of contained rubies. This struck the death- Ramayana. It is said that the poet Kamban knell of the Pandyan king as Kannagi proved

86 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages drew inspiration from Kannagi in depicting contemporary society and its set-up would his Sita in the Kamba Ramayana. not permit her to be a partner in Kovalan’s household, as she was born in the family Madhavi of courtesans.

Madhavi, the beloved of Kovalan, is a Manimekhalai dancer of the highest order. She is compelled by contemporary custom to be Manimekhalai is introduced in the epic as a a courtesan. But when she meets Kovalan, grown-up girl stringing garlands. Madhavi she forms an attachment for him that tells her daughter how her father Kovalan proves abiding, though she does not get was murdered in Madurai. Manimekhalai’s married to him. She remains faithful to him flowing tears pollute the garlands intended as if she were a wife bound by sacred for the monastery. Madhavi asks her ceremony. It is, perhaps, her mother who daughter to string another garland. induces Madhavi to get presents and money Monastic discipline had wiped out all from Kovalan for patronage; for, left to earthly attachments from Manimekhalai’s herself, Madhavi would have offered her mind. So when Udayakumaran approaches all to Kovalan and never demanded anything her with the intention of marrying her she in return. evades him. But when he is murdered, it She takes the music competition on the shocks her. This is due to the fact that at sands of Cauvery during the Indra festival that moment she gets insight into his in a sporting spirit and Kovalan’s previous birth. misunderstanding shatters her. When she The description of her pilgrimage to learns that Kovalan had gone to the Pandya Manipallavam, Chera country and Country she sends her messenger with a Kanchipuram shows her as a mature message entreating him to return to her. mendicant, well versed in essential The sudden course of events shocks scriptural and practical knowledge of Madhavi and she joins the Buddhist Buddhism. monastery. Later, she is possibly killed when When she gets a chance of serving the Chola Capital is destroyed by floods. humanity, she whole-heartedly plunges Madhavi is depicted as a woman into the task. She is even compelled to accomplished in all types of fine arts. She take various forms invite royal punishment rejects the type of life followed by other and even danger to her personal safety. courtesans. She does not aim at making The news of Kaverippumpattinam engulfed money but gives all possible comforts to by the sea and the numerous lives that Kovalan as long as he was interested in were lost or bereaved on account of it, her. Her disgust of worldly life is expressed deeply disturbed her. She finds some solace when she declines to participate in the in the advice of Masathuvan and proceeds Indra Festival described in the very first to Kanchipuram to continue her service to chapter of Manimekhalai, Madhavi is thus humanity. an ideal wife of Kovalan, though

87 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Sattanar has taken much pain to portray Manimekhalai as an ideal bhikkuni of that Basava’s Benediction period. Despite her beauty and youth she exhibits remarkable discipline and control. By DIXIT P. V. Thus we find the women characters in these epics are depicted as ideals for the ASAVA the great mystic and social society of that period. The authors were Breformer created a new order out of both mendicants. The period of the the caste ridden society by establishing composition was also marked by the Saran Dharma. He worked tirelessly for the popularity of heterodox sects like Buddhism emancipation of women and also for the and Jainism. Both the works have all the reinstation of the Untouchables. Before essential characteristics of an epic. making any assessment of the ideal society envisaged by Basava and Siva Saranas in the 12th century it is necessary to trace the status of women in the earlier period. This will enable us to appreciate Basava’s contribution in the right perspective.

From Vedic period to 12th century

There is enough evidence to assume that women had ample freedom in all the activities of life and were participating actively, on par with men, in social, political, religious and economic institutions in the Vedic period. There are passages in the Rig Veda, which refer to the case where a daughter is the only child of the family. She is designated as Putrika. Yaska quotes one of these to explain the legal position of the only daughter. According to his interpretation, it means that a brother less maiden (even after she has been given away in marriage) can perform the funeral rites of her father. Not only does this give her right to inherit the property, but it shows that she is legally recognised as equal to the son. References are there in the Vedas to prove the gaiety and freedom with which men

88 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages and women mixed without restraint. The She was declared unfit for freedom (Manu) Samana festival was such an occasion and was protected properly. when men and women mixed freely. From We have a much degraded picture of Indian this the position of a girl in society and society, before the birth of Buddha. Buddha the measure of freedom she enjoyed are full of compassion and humility rose against conceivable. In the description of Goddess caste system and other degenerated Usha we find a reflection of a society where institutions of Brahminism. Though initially there was freedom for both sexes prior to he was not eager to admit women’s equality marriage. Marriage was a union of two in spiritual matters, later he allowed women, persons after maturity. No reference who joined the order of nuns called Theris. regarding age or its limitation, found in later After the death of Lord Buddha’s mother works can be traced in Rig Veda. Maya Devi, Gautami Devi became the chief Some of the Vedic hymns are attributed to Queen of King Shuddhodhana and brought female Rishis. They are Apaala, Attreyi, up the motherless child as if he were her Lopamudra, Shashiyasi, the wife of Taranta own son. When all the members of and Gosha and others. Buddha’s family embraced the new religion, The sixth Brahmans of Brihadaranyaka she too joined. It was at her request that Upanishads opens with the queries of Gargi Buddha established an independent to Yajnavalkya in the court of Janaka. The Ashramam for Theris. Theri-Gatha (song importance of this discussion lies in the of the one who has grown old with fact that women capable of carrying on knowledge) is a collection of songs by the religious discussions were admitted into Buddhist nuns. Theri-Gatha is included in assemblies. The second important dialogue the Buddhist canon and is in the second of is that of Maitreyi and Yiijnavalkya. the Tripitakas - the Sutta-Pitakajainism allowed women into the religious order of Later periods nuns. But the two schools (Svetambaras and Digambaras) differed in their opinion But in the later periods we find women regarding women’s right to liberation. relegated to a lower position. Even in Atharva Veda, from nuptial hymns it appears Restriction of women’s movements that the husband was the absolute master start of the wife and appropriated the dowry as well as the earnings of his wife. After But after Alexander’s invasion and Mahabharat War the restrictions on women’s especially during Muslim conquests in north, free participation in social activities our society restricted free participation of increased. In Mahabharat War, we find the women in social, political, economic and destruction of a generation. Thirty-six lakh religious affairs. She was confined to the men died. More than three million women house. It has been seen that the victors were rendered homeless. Probably for fear follow a double policy of ruining the identity of ‘Sankaar’ freedom was severely curtailed. of a subjugated society. One is complete annihilation. (Recent example in modern

89 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages history being that of Red Indians of very great extent though he met with stiff America). The second is the destruction opposition from the orthodox people of the institution of family by attacking obviously with vested interests. the women. To counteract this, society built up protective barriers or restrictions A greater heretic than Buddha to safeguard women. The Child marriage, Purdha, Johra (group harakiri) were Like Buddha, Basava too was full of consequences that followed. It may be said compassion and preached kindness to all here that the last ‘Swayamwara’ in this creatures. land was that of Samyuktha wife of the What sort of religion can it be, last Hindu king of Delhi. without compassion? Compassion needs must be Society at the time of Basava Towards all living things; Compassion is the root, It was at almost such a stage that the Of religious faith. great Saint reformer Basava stepped in to Lord Kudal Sangam does not care relieve the ills of society. There is much in For what is not like this. common between Basava and Buddha. Basava voiced his protests through the Basava appeared at a time when ‘ sublime medium of his vacanas. The Apadharma ‘ of protective barriers, had to vacanas literally mean spontaneous stay as ‘Nitya Dharma.’ Hindu society was utterances which embody the experiences at its lowest ebb. The social and religious of Basava and his followers. They were institutions were defunct. The 12th century composed in simple, chaste and spoken society in which Basava was born was Kannada and were easily understood by ridden with blind beliefs and superstitious the masses. Another step he took towards faiths, where women were treated as bridging the immense gap that was built slaves. Religious contemporaries with Saran up between man and his own kind was the Dharma strictly discriminated between men establishment of the Anubhava Mandap. and women. Women were denied religious The founding of the Anubhava Mandap was rights. Irrespective of their caste they were a mighty leap towards advancement. It unceremoniously grouped with the Sudras. was here that Vacanas were recited and Orthodox Hindu sections of the society philosophical discourses held. Basava believed that women as a whole were unfit declared the spiritual brotherhood of all who to receive education, unfit to participate would seek the kingdom of God, irrespective in serious discussions and that no freedom of class, caste, sex and status. His was should be allowed to them. To add insult not mere academic prattle. To him precept to injury the women were considered to was wedded to practice. The great be a hindrance to spiritual progress. A organiser that he was, he got together Gruhasta’s life became a mockery. many Followers and established the spiritual Basava strove to redeem the institutions academy. Anubhava Mandap was a spiritual with a missionary zeal and succeeded to a parliament.

90 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages of their own independently. It should be The illustrious members noted here that contributions in religious experiences from women members were not Akka Mahadevi a Queen, Kakkaya a cobler, only heartily welcome but also highly Machyya a waterman, Chennaya an out- valued. caste and Basava, himself a Brahmin, Lingamma popularly known as Sadyonmukte formed the illustrious members of this was married to Hadapada Appanna, who Academy. There is no parallel to this was a barber. He was an able assistant to assemblage of persons both high and low, Basava. Lingamma was the author of a differing in race, creed, colour and sex. All number of vacanas; One of her vacanas joined for a singular purpose the quest for indicate her high spiritual attainment. Equi- spiritual knowledge. vision which is the very bed-rock of spiritual They sat side by side at a common table, eminence is indicated in the vacans where discussed their individual experiences, she compares Kailasa (the abode of Shiva) shared each other’s views, acknowledged to Mrutya Loka (the region of death). their faults if any, being always more ready “What is Kailas ? What is Mrutyu Loka (the to learn from others than to teach. It was region of death). after such deliberations that they reached “What is Kailas? What is Mrutyu Loka? the conclusions which now form the work The things that happen there; known as ‘Sanya Sampadana ‘. It should The same take place here also be noted here that one of the fundamental Hence Sivasaranas do not aspire for principles accepted by aranas of Anubhava Kailas but liberation from re-birth.” Mandap was that, there is no discrimination She defines Sivasaranas as one who has between man and woman. To Basava men won over desires, anger and other worldly and women ‘were equal in the field of bondages. spiritual Sadhana. They were equally Muktayakka’s name is synonymous with beloved of God. He poignantly asks of what that of her brother Ajaganna. Ajaganna was sex is the soul? A considerable number of noted for his secret devotion (Gupta women formed around the Anubhava Bhakti). Muktayakka born at Lakkundi and Mandap, notable among them being, Akka married in a Shaivite family at Masilikalli Mahadevi, Nilambike, Gangambike, had received lessons in Siva Bhakti from Nagalambike, Aydakki Lakkamma, her brother. He was her spiritual mentor Muktayakka, Lingamma, Guddeva, Vajjakka, (). When he passed away, she felt Satyakka and Nimbawa. women took an that she had lost everything in the world active part in the discussions. Some of the and her grief knew no bounds. It was at women saints were married. Basava himself such a time that she met Allum Prabhu. It by his example showed that married life was like Kisa Gautami meeting Lord Buddha. was no hindrance to spiritual progress of Allum consoled her. He replied to all her both husband and wife. He thus stopped searching questions. His answers cover the the senseless ridicule of Grahastha Dharma. true nature of Arman and form an important In the assembly, his two wives participated chapter in Sunya Sampadane. In

91 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Muktayakka we find Gargi’s logical dexterity, or the Divine Mother. He and other Saranas Mahadevi’s austerity, Draupadi’s love for not only recognised the greatness of Akka Lord Krishna, Maitreyi’s aspiration for true Mahadevi but bowed down to her in great knowledge and Ekalavya’s Guru Bhakthi all reverence. combined in one. She is an outstanding character in the history of Indian Akka Mahadevi Womanhood. Varadani Guddevva was a Karma Yogini. Akka Mahadevi was born at Udutadi She was the daughter of Anantarai, a (Shimoga District) to a Saivite couple; goldsmith. She had taken to Sivayoga from Nirmal and Sumati. Akka Mahadevi was a her childhood. Hearing of Basava and other devotee of Chenna Mallikarjuna from her Saranas, Guddevva left her home secretly childhood. He was the sole Lord of her and reached Kalyan. Basava regarded her heart. Evidently she had not contemplated as a great Siva yogi and named her as marriage with any earthly husband. She ‘Danamma’. She actively participated in the would always sing: proceedings of the Mantap. She fought the “I have fallen in love with the Beautiful enemies at Kalyan after the assassination One, who is without any family, of Bijjal and later she and her husband to Without any country and spread Basava’s message travelled without any peer; throughout India. The credit of popularising Chenna Mallikarjuna, Basava’s philosophy in Andhra and Tamil the Beautiful, is my husband. Nadu goes to her. She was a true Fling into the Ere the husbands who are missionary in the modern sense of the term. subject to death and decay” Moligayya, (a king from Kashmir) and his She spent all her time in worshipping Ista wife Gangavati (later known as Mahadevi) linga. came to Kalyan renouncing all worldly But king Kausika a Bhavi was fascinated pleasures and lead a life of austerity. They by her charm and beauty and fell were an ideal couple, highly advanced in passionately in love with her. When spiritual plane. Basava respected them and Mahadevi refused to respond, he held them in high esteem. It is said that threatened to put her parents to death. Moligayya’s straightforwardness did not There are two versions regarding Akka’s spare even Basava and Chenna Basava and marriage to Kausika. In one (By Harihar) that Allum also became a butt of his we read that she married Kausika to save searching scrutiny at some occasion. her parents on condition that he will Gangavari was an ideal wife and there are vouchsafe full freedom in her spiritual vacanas which indicate that she pursuit, which if transgressed thrice, she enlightened Moligayya on complicated would leave him. Kausika could not keep spiritual subjects. his word and offended Sivabhaktas and It is evident from the above that Basava insulted her in spite of her repeated had great regard and respect for women warnings. She walked out of him and went for he saw in every woman the ‘Mahadevi’ to the abode of Mallikarjuna, The other

92 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages version (By chamaras) denies her marriage discussion deals with subtler aspect of with Kausika. It is evident that Kausika metaphysics and is one of the most glorious wanted to possess her as an ornament. chapters in the Sunya Sampadane. Allum He became a saivite and even followed her was not only satisfied with her answers, to Srisailam, and begged her to come back. but joined Basava and other Saranas to She said to the Lord, say, ‘O Lord, your Maya does not give up “enna bhaktiya saktiyu nine, when I have given it up.’ enna muktiya saktiyu nine He used all the vilcs in his make-up to enna yuktiya saktiyu nine.’ retain her but was totally unsuccessful. In this we find a unique example in Indian It was an all consuming urge that had history where highly evolved souls like swept her out of her hearth and home. Basava, Allum, Chenna Basava, not only Then she longed to see Basava the great recognised the greatness and glory of Akka devotee and reformer. Mahadevi but in honouring her they She started for Kalyan singing : honoured all womanhood. “Kalyan is Kailas the saying IS true within Kalyan and without also. Equality of status Who knows the end . . . I see thy true saranas, Basava endowed on woman the equality I have a longing to see your sarana of status, an independent outlook and Basavanna, listen Lord - Chenna freedom of movement that she had lost. Mallikarjuna.” He refused to call her the weaker sex for She lost body consciousness and hence he knew that she was the spring-head of walked with no clothes. Orthodox society spiritual strength. To demonstrate his sneered and looked at her in contempt. precepts he allowed his wives to help him They hurled abuses at her and scattered in the discharge of his political and religious hurdles in her path. Finding her alone, it duties. He never interfered with their seems many made advances. To them she decisions. When during the last days of said, ... “Except Chenna Mallikarjuna all his life he left Kalyan for Sangam, both his men are brothers to me, idiots. Go away. wives stayed at Kalyan to carry on the Oh, brother, I am not a woman, My body is torch that he had lit. Gangambika and not for sale . . . What do you think of me . Nagalarmbika (Basava’s sister) joined the . . How foolish you are. august assembly of Siva Saranas to fight She reached Kalyan after many ordeals. Bijjal and his followers who were indulging A hearty welcome awaited her there. in atrocities, in the name of religion. The Basava immediately recognised her other wife Nilambika wanted to join her greatness and introduced her to the husband, and so she marched towards assembly as ‘enna hetta taye ‘ (my mother). Kalyan. But on her way to Kalyan at Tavasidi But Allum was not so easily convinced. He she learnt about her husband’s death and stormed at her with searching questions, immediately did away with her physical which Mahadevi calmly replied. This body.

93 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Basava condemned child marriage and The Transition to the encouraged widow re-marriage and thereby strengthened the social structure and Archives of History promoted its orderly growth. His contribution towards the emancipation of Women of the Gupta Age women and untouchables is noteworthy and can be equated with that, of Gandhiji ARRIAGE was prohibited within certain in modern times. Mdegrees of relationship and it was preferred within the same caste. Vatsyayana in his Kama Sutra declares that the blessings of (lawful) progeny, fame, and public approval are obtained by a man uniting himself in love according to canonical rites with a virgin of the same Varna. The contrary practice of making love to girls belonging to higher Varnas as well as to other married women was forbidden. Love for women of inferior Varnas, who are sufficiently pure not to have their dishes cast off after meals, like love with harlots and remarried widows, is neither approved nor prohibited, as its object is only pleasure. From this it follows that intermarriages between different Varnas were hedged round with even greater restrictions in the society of Vatsyayana’s time than those contemplated by the Smritis. For, according to Vatsyayana, not only is marriage in the pratiloma order absolutely forbidden, but marriage in the anuloma is put on the same low level.

Vatsyayana and the Smritis

Like the Smritis, Vatsyayana contemplates marriage as being normally settled by the parents (or other guardians) of the parties. Vatsyayana, moreover, adds a detailed account of the methods of selection of the bride that were in vogue in his time. The parents and relatives of the

94 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages bridegroom, as well as his friends to whom says the author, the girl should marry one his wishes have been made known, are to in whom she would find a heaven of move in the matter. Girls suffering from happiness and who would be completely various defects, including defective names, devoted to her. It is better to have a are to be avoided. But according to the husband devoted to herself, though poor sensible view of an old canonical authority, or one supporting himself along though quoted anonymously by Vatsyayana, without parts, than a husband who, though happiness depends on the choice of a girl, virtuous, has many to share his affections. upon whom one’s heart and eyes are set Nor marriage desirable with a man of humble and not on any other. Accordingly, the birth or who is too old or addicted to vice guardians of the girl are recommended to or with a wife and child and so forth. array her in gay clothes when giving her away, and to show her to advantage on Forms of Marriage occasions of festivals and the like. The ceremony of selection of the bride is to Vatsyayana’s account of the methods of result in one or the other of four forms of courtship given above leads naturally to marriage known to the Smritis, namely his description (drawn no doubt from life) Brahma, Prajapatya, Arsha and Daiva. of the three forms of marriage known to Vatsyayana’s testimony also shows how a the Smritis, namely, Gandharva, Paisacha young man could, under special and Rakshasa. More details are given of circumstances, apply himself to win the the Gandharva marriage. When the suitor girl of his choice by courtship. The courtship cannot meet his beloved often in secret, is to take different forms according as the he is to engage the services of his nurse’s girl is a child or a young woman or a woman daughter who is to press his claims upon of advanced age and wooing, when her. When the girl is so prepared, she should successful, is to be followed by a gradual meet her lover at some appointed time and winning of the girl’s confidence. The place. Then the marriage is to be account of Vatsyayana is also important solemnised by her walking thrice round a as illustrating the Smriti rule allowing the sacred fire, brought from a Srotriya and girl in some instances to select her own fed with oblations according to Smriti rules. husband. When this is done, the parents are to be Such a maiden is to pay court to a young informed of the matter, for as the teachers man, handsome, virtuous and intelligent, say, marriage performed before a fire as with whom she had shared her affections witness can never be annulled. After the from childhood, or to one whom she knows consummation of the marriage the relatives to be so deeply smitten, with love as to are to be informed and made to bestow be ready to marry her even against her the girl in the formal fashion under the fear parent’s wishes. The methods of wooing, of social obloquy and punishment in law. which show considerable knowledge of Unlike the Gandharva marriage, the Paisacha human nature, are given in some detail, and Rakshasa forms do not require to be but they need not be quoted here. In fine, confirmed by religious rites and it is enough

95 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages to inform the relatives after consummation in the bestowal of the daughter.’ The literary of the marriage and induce them to give works of the Gupta period themselves her away. Vatsyayana’s view of the relative contain examples of marriage being merits of different forms of marriage is arranged in advance by the parents on both somewhat different from that of most of sides in anticipation of a son being born to the Smritis. For in the first place he makes one couple and a daughter to another. out the Paisacha marriage to be superior Above all they illustrate the strong to the Rakshasa, no doubt (as the repugnance of high-born maidens, though commentator says) on the ground that, themselves deeply smitten with love, to the former is accompanied with violence, select their husbands by their own free though they are equally unrighteous. Again, will. he declares the Gandharva marriage to be the most respected and the best, as it is Female Education attended with happiness, is not accompanied by troubles and negotiations, We have good grounds to believe that girls and is the result of mutual desire. of high families had sufficient opportunities for acquiring proficiency in general learning In the Literature of the Gupta Period during this time. In Vatsyayana’s Kama Sutra princesses and daughters of nobles The literature of the Gupta Age contains are mentioned among instances of women repeated references to Gandharva whose intellect is sharpened by the marriages between the leading characters, knowledge of sastras. In particular, but these are concerned in general with Vatsyayana gives us a long list of sixty- ancient kings or heroes or with fictitious four subsidiary branches of knowledge characters of princes and nobles. The ( vidya) which should be learnt by popular attitude on this point is well women. These include solving riddles of expressed in the artful advice given by the words, chanting recitations from books, wise Kamandaki to the lovelorn heroine in completing unfinished verses, knowledge the Malati Madhava. She says that of lexicons and meters, and so Forth generally fathers as well as destiny have Vatsyayana’s picture of the good wife, authority over the disposal of maidens, the again, shows how she was expected to be contrary examples of Sakuntala marrying sufficiently educated to frame annual Dushyanta, Urvasi marrying Pururavas, and budget and regulate her expenditure Vasavadatta marrying Udayana involve accordingly. rashness and therefore do not deserve to The literary evidence of the Gupta Age be followed. In the historical example of proves that girls of high families, as also the Princess Raiyasri of Thaneswar, her those living in hermitages, read works of marriage was arranged by her father, King ancient history and legend and were Prabhakara-vardhana, the mother meekly educated sufficiently to understand and acquiescing in the choice with the even compose verses. What is more, girls observation that ‘ the father is the judge of high families, and above all those living

96 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages at the royal courts, were usually trained in She honours her husband’s friends, as is the arts of singing, dancing and the like. their due, with gifts of garlands, unguents, Later evidence seems to suggest that there and toilet. She serves her father-in-law were regular institutions where girls could and mother-in-law and abides by their receive their training, sometimes in the commands. When in their presence, she company of male students. Mention may speaks few but sweet words and does not be made lastly of the fact that the laugh aloud. She engages servants in their Amarakosa, a work of the Gupta Age, refers proper work and honours them on festive to words meaning female teachers occasions. Above all, when her husband is (upadhyaya and upadhyayi) as well as gone abroad she lives a life of ascetic female instructors of Vedic mantras restraint. She gives up wearing all (acharya). ornaments excepting the marks of her married state, she engages in religious rites The Ideal Wife and fasts, she acts as bidden by superiors, she does not go out to visit her relations Vatsyayana draws a picture of the good except on occasions of calamities or wife, which carries into greater detail the festivities; when she visits them, she does account in the Smritis and may be taken so only for a short while and in the as usual to be a faithful reflection of real company of her husband’s people. When life. The picture exhibits those qualities of her husband returns home, she goes forth service and self-restraint as well as sound immediately to meet him in her sober dress, household management which have and then she worships the gods and makes remained the hallmark of Hindu wives down gifts. to the present day. Where the woman is Apart from attending to her husband and the only wife, says the author, she is to his parents relations, as well as his friends, devote herself to her husband as though the wife has complete and comprehensive to a deity. She is personally to minister to charge of the household. She keeps the his comforts at table, on his reaching home house absolutely clean, adorns it with and so forth. She shares in her husband’s festoons of flowers and polishes the floor fasts and vows, not brooking a refusal. completely smooth. She looks after the She attends festivities, social gatherings, worship of the gods at the household shrine sacrifices and religious processions, only and the offering of bali oblations three times with his permission. She engages in sports, a day. In the garden attached to the house approved by him. That the husband might she plants beds of various vegetables not find fault with her, she avoids the ,herbs, plants and trees. She collects seeds company of disreputable women, shows him of various vegetables and fruit trees as no signs of displeasure and does not loiter well as medical herbs and sows them at about at the door-step or in solitary places the proper season. She lays by a store of for a long time. She is not puffed up with various provisions in the house. She knows prosperity and she does not give charity how to spin and weave, how to look after to anyone without informing her husband.

97 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages agriculture, cattle-breeding, and draught- addressed to the king by the sage Kanva’s animals, how to take care of her husband’s disciple in the Abhijnasakuntalam, we have domestic pets, and so forth. She frames echoes of the Smriti rules deprecating long an annual budget and makes her expenses residence of the wife with her paternal accordingly. She keeps daily accounts and relatives and admitting the husband’s makes up the total at the end of the day. complete authority over her. Kanva’s own During her husband’s absence she exerts summary of the duties of a wife, addressed herself in order that his affairs may not to Sakuntala on the eve of her departure suffer ; she increases the income and for her husband’s place, is based upon the diminishes the expenditure to the best of Smriti and Kama Sutra rules quoted above. her power. In case the woman has a co- On the other hand, the wife, says Daksha wife she looks upon the latter as a younger after Manu and other authorities cited sister when she is older in age, and as a above, must be maintained by the husband, mother when she herself is younger. while the Brihat-Samhita repeats Apastamba’s penance for the husband’s The older pattern carried over desertion of his faultless wife. In the character of Dhuta, wife of the hero in the The rule of life for the virtuous wife Mrichchakatika, we have a typical instance sketched above from the Smritis and the of the good wife described in the Smritis. Kama Sutra appears to have been generally Belief in the extraordinary powers of the followed in the Gupta Age. Following in the devoted wife (pativrata), which is wake of the older Smritis, Katyayana expressed in the Mahabharata and other declares that the wife must never live apart works, is reflected in a story of Dasakumara from her husband, she must always be Charitra. The attitude of high-born ladies devoted to him. She must worship the is illustrated in another story of the same domestic fire. She must minister to her work, where a woman, repudiated by her husband during his lifetime, and she must husband, declares it to be a living death observe the vow of chastity after his for women of high birth to be hated by death. Again according to Katyayana and their husbands, for the husband alone is Veda Vyasa, the wife is to be associated the deity of such women. Still another story with her husband in the performances of shows now the qualities of economic his religious acts, but all acts done by her house-keeping and absolute devotion to to secure her spiritual benefit without his the husband were highly prized among consent are useless. In thorough wives. accordance with the old Smriti rules is the direction in the Purana, to worship “The Unchaste Wife!” the husband as a god, as well as that of Veda-Vyasa requiring a wife, whose As in the preceding period, side by side husband has gone abroad to emaciate her with ideal pictures of conjugal love and body and refrain from all personal faith we come across numerous references embellishment. Further, in the admonition of unhappy and even unchaste wives.

98 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Vatsyayana’s evidence confirms that of the remains impure till her delivery and next Smritis about the prevalence of polyandry. period, when she regains her purity. This practice was not confined to kings, but extended also to other people. Indeed, The Widow it appears that rich men generally married many wives who were outwardly happy in The Smriti law of the pre-Gupta period the enjoyment of affluence but inwardly requires the widow as a rule to live a life miserable. A woman suffered the misfortune of strict celibacy and self-restraint, though of getting a co-wife if she was stupid, or Brihaspati recommends, as an alternative, incontinent or barren or if she repeatedly that she should burn herself on the funeral bore daughters or if the husband was fickle pyre of her husband. The Smritis of the by temperament. There is a separate Gupta Age followed the older law in branch of Erotic’s dealing with illicit love prescribing a life of vows and fasts as well with married women and a number of as of renunciation for the widow and occasions is mentioned, both in Kama Sutra allowing her to inherit her husband’s and Brihat Samhita, as offering property. But Sankha and Angiras as well opportunities for meeting between as Harita strongly urge her to sacrifice unchaste wives and their paramours. But herself on her husband’s pyre. In the case the actual instances of seduction of married of Brahmana widows, self-immolation on the women, even in the contemporary literature fire was forbidden absolutely or of stories and fables, are limited in number. conditionally by Paithinasi, Angiras, According to the Smriti law, adultery ranks Vyaghrapad and Usanas, while Veda-Vyasa among the Lesser Sins (upapatakas) which recommended it as an alternative course. should be expiated by performances of Literary references show that the custom appropriate penances. The guilty wife, so of sati was extolled by some authors, but long as she does not perform penance, is strongly condemned by others in the Gupta to be treated with studied scorn and period. We have, again, a few instances, neglect and given only a starvation diet. both in contemporary history and fiction, But after she has undergone penance (or of actual or attempted self-immolation of according to some authorities passed her women immediately before or after the monthly period), she becomes pure and is death of their husbands. But as widespread restored to all her rights. Only in extreme prevalence of this practice in the Gupta cases, as when she commits adultery or Age is disproved by the complete silence attempts to kill her husband is she to be of the observant Chinese travellers on this abandoned altogether. The records of the point and frequent reference to widows in Gupta Age point to the continuance of the Smritis and other literature. On the some of the above ideas and practices. whole we may infer, on general grounds, Echoing the liberal view of and that widows in the Gupta Age, as in earlier Yajnavalkya, Veda-Vyas, Atri and Devala times, usually lived the chaste and austere declare that a woman becoming pregnant life prescribed by the Smritis. by connection with a mall of another Varna

99 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages But the remarriage of widows and of other not give back anything. In other passages, women, though gradually coming into the punarbhu’s social status is correctly disfavour, was not absolutely forbidden. defined by placing her mid-way between Hiuen Tsang’s evidence is definitely against the virgin (Kanya) and the fallen woman, the remarriage of punarbhu (re-married and between the queens (devi) and the widow) and her husband, but also for a courtesans (ganika). It follows from the twice-born having a punarbhu as his above, that in the society of Vatsyayana’s principal wife. Katyayana refers to the case time public opinion permitted a widow to of widow be-taking her elf to another man live with the man of her choice, but she regardless of her adult or minor son, and never enjoyed the social status of a deals, under his law of partition and wedded wife. inheritance, with the share belonging to the son of a woman who has left her The Courtesan (Ganika) impotent husband. In so far as the punarbhu is concerned, It appears from Vatsyayana’s Kama Sutra Vatsyayana gives us a somewhat different that because of their graces of form and view of her status. The punarbhu is a manners and accomplishments, a class of widow who, being smitten with love through courtesans enjoyed high social esteem as inability to control her passion, unites in the older times. We learn also from other herself again with a man seeking pleasure contemporary literature that they were and having excellent qualities. In choosing renowned for their beauty, wit and other her mate she follows, above all, the accomplishments, as well as their wealth inclinations of her heart. She possesses a and luxury. Occasionally, as in the degree of independence denied to the character of Vasantasena in Mrichchha- wedded wife. She persuades her lover to katika and those of Ragamanjari and spend money on drinking parties, garden Sena in the Dasakumara charitra, parties, etc. At her lover’s house, she there were courtesans of the better sort, assumes the role of a mistress, being who deliberately gave up their profession affectionate to his wedded wives, generous and after braving persecution, united to his servants and friendly with his themselves with worthy men of their choice. companions. Possessing greater knowledge But in general, the courtesans were of the arts of love than the wedded wife, notorious for their greed and wiles. In the she practises them on her lover in secret. Dasakumara-charita story, to which we She joins in festive gatherings as well as have referred above, we have a very vivid in drinking and garden parties and other account, no doubt drawn from life, of their games. The punarbhu’s connection, unlike up-bringing and training with the sale that of the wedded wife, is not a permanent object of qualifying them for squeezing one. If she leaves the house of her own money from their dupes. Allied to the accord, she has to return to her lover all institution of courtesans was that of girls presents except those given out of maintained in the great temples for the affection, but if she is driven out, she need worship of the gods. Such girls were kept

100 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages at the great temple of Mahakala at Ujjayini Sakuntala in Kalidasa’s time and at a shrine of the Sun-god in city east of Sindh in the time Extracts from Rabindranath Tagore of Hiuen Tsang.

The General Status of Women OETHE, the master-poet of Europe, Ghas summed up Sakuntala in a single The disabilities and inferior status of the quatrain. He regarded Sakuntala as fine women, introduced in the previous period, poetry. (But continued more or less in the Gupta Age. it is not really so.) His stanza breathes not Among the most striking changes during the exaggeration of rapture, but the this period may be mentioned the increased deliberate judgment of a true critic. There recognition in Katyayana of women’s right is a special point in his words. Goethe says to her property and the remarkable rule in expressly that Sakuntala contains the Atri and Devala allowing women molested history of a development - the development by robbers and others to regain their social of flower into fruit, of earth into heaven, status. That women in the Gupta Age were of matter into spirit. not disqualified from the exercise of public This drama was meant not for dealing with rights is proved by the example of Queen particular passion, but for translating the Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Emperor hole subject from one world to another - Chandra Gupta II, who ruled the Vakataka to elevate love from the sphere of physical Kingdom as regent on behalf of her minor beauty to the eternal heaven of moral son in the fourth century and that of beauty. princess Vijaya Bhartarika who acted as provincial governor under Vikramaditya I Simplicity of Shakuntala of the Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi in the seventh century. With the greatest case, Kalidas has created References in the general as well as his junction of earth with heaven. His earth technical literature of the early centuries so naturally passes into heaven that we before and after Christ seem to indicate do not mark the boundary-line between that married women in high families did not the two. In the First Act the poet has not usually appear in public without veils. This concealed the gross earthiness of the fall custom was probably continued in the of Sakuntala ; he has clearly shown it in Gupta Age. The silence of Hiuen Tsang and the conduct of the hero and heroine alike, Itsing, however, indicates that the women show how much desire contributed to that did not generally observe the purdah and fall. He has fully painted all the remain in seclusion. blandishments, playfulness and display of From ”The Classical Age” Bharatiya the intoxicating sense of youth, the Vidya Bhavan. struggle between deep bashfulness and strong self-expression. This is a proof of the simplicity of Sakuntala; she was not

101 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages prepared before-hand for the outburst of austerities, beauty and restraint are passion which the occasion of Dushyanta’s harmonised. There is none of the visit called forth. Hence she had not conventional bonds of society there, yet learned how to restrain herself, how to hide we have the harder regulations of religion. her feelings. The daughter of the hermitage Her gandharva marriage, too, was of the was off her guard, just as the deer there same type; it had the wildness of nature knew no fear. joined to the social tie of wedlock. The With equal ease has the poet shown the drama, Sakuntala, stands unique and deeper purity of her character in spite of unrivalled in all literature, because it her fall - her unimpaired innate chastity. depicts how restraint can be harmonised This is another proof of her simplicity. with freedom. All its joys and sorrows, The flower of the forest needs no servant unions and partings, proceed from the to brush the dust off her petals. She conflict of these two forces. stands bare ; dust settles on her; but in Sakuntala’s simplicity is natural. (The spite of it she easily retains her own different circumstances under which the beautiful cleanliness. Dust did settle on two were brought up account for this Sakuntala, but she was not even conscious difference.) Sakuntala’s simplicity was not of it. Like the simple wild deer, like the girt round with ignorance. We see in the mountain spring, she stood forth pure in First Act that Sakuntala’s two companions spite of the mud. did not let her remain unaware of the fact Kalidasa has let his hermitage-bred youthful that she was in the first bloom of youth. heroine follow the unsuspecting path of She had learnt to be bashful. But all these Nature; nowhere has he restrained her. And things are external. Her simplicity, on the yet he has developed her into the model other hand, is more deeply seated and so of a devoted wife, with her reserve, also is her purity. To the very end the poet endurance of sorrow and life of rigid shows that she had no experience of the spiritual discipline. At the beginning, we outside world. Her simplicity is innate. True, see her self-forgetful and obedient to she knew something of the world, because Nature’s impulses like the plants and the hermitage did not stand altogether flowers; at the end we see her deeper outside society; the rules of home life were feminine soul - sober, patient under ill, observed here too. She was inexperienced intent on austerities, strictly regulated by though not ignorant of the outside world; the sacred laws of piety. but trustfulness was firmly enthroned in With matchless art Kalidas has placed his her heart. The simplicity which springs from heroine at the meeting-point of action and such trustfulness had for a moment caused calmness, of nature and law, of river and her fall, but it also redeemed her forever. ocean, as it were. Her father was a hermit, This trustfulness kept her constant to but her mother was a nymph. Her birth patience, forgiveness and loving kindness, was the outcome of interrupted austerities, in spite of the cruelest breach of her but her nature was in a hermitage, which confidence. is just the spot where nature and

102 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages This indication of the fickleness of royal Desertion love is not purposeless at the beginning of the Fifth Act. The desertion of Sakuntala by the amorous In passing from the Fourth Act to the Fifth Dushyanta, which in real life would have we suddenly enter a new atmosphere; from happened as the natural consequence of the ideal world of the hermitage we go his character, is here brought about by the forth to the royal court with its hard hearts, curse of Durvasa. Otherwise, the desertion crooked ways of love-making, difficulties would have been so extremely cruel and of union. pathetic as to destroy the beauty and Then comes the repudiation. Sakuntala harmony of the whole play. But the poet feels as if she had been suddenly struck has left a small dent in the veil through with a thunderbolt. Like a deer stricken by which we can get an idea of the royal sin. a trusted hand, this daughter of the forest It is in the Fifth Act. Just before Sakuntala looks on in blank surprise, terror and arrives at court and is repudiated by her anguish. At one blow she is hurled away husband, the poet momentarily draws aside from the hermitage, both literal and the curtain on the King’s love affairs. A metaphorical, in which she has so long lived. woman’s voice is heard singing behind the She loses her connection with the loving scene: friends, the birds, beasts, and plants, and “O honey-bee ! Having sucked the mango the beauty, peace, and purity of former blossoms in your search for new honey, life. She now stands alone, shelterless. In you have forgotten the recent loving one moment the music of the first four welcome by the lotus !” Acts is stilled!. This tear-stained song of a stricken heart in the royal household gives us a rude No longer former self shock, especially as our heart was hitherto filled with Dushyanta’s love-passages with O the deep silence and loneliness that then Sakuntala. Only in the preceding Act we surround her! She whose tender heart has saw Sakuntala setting out for her made the whole world of hermitage her own husband’s home in a very holy, sweet and folk, to-day stands absolutely alone. She tender mood, carrying with herself the fills this vast vacuity with her mighty blessing of the hoary sage Kanwa and the sorrow. With rare poetic insight Kalidas has good wishes of the whole forest world. And declined to restore Sakuntala to Kanwa’s now a stain falls on the picture we had so hermitage. After the renunciation by hopefully formed of the home of love to Dushyanta it was impossible for her to live which she was going. in harmony with that hermitage in the way When the jester asked, “What means this she had done before .... She was no longer song?” Dushyanta smiled and said, “We her former self; her relation with the desert our loves after a short spell of love- universe had changed. Had she been making, and therefore I have deserved this placed again amidst her old surroundings, strong rebuke from Queen Hansapadika.” it would only have cruelly exhibited the

103 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages utter inconsistency of the whole situation. his court, she would have only occupied a The picture of Sakuntala in the new corner of the royal household and passed hermitage parted from the friends of her the rest of her life in neglect, gloom and girlhood and nursing the grief of separation uselessness. from her lover. The silence of the poet only It was a blessing in disguise for Sakuntala deepens our sense of the silence and that Dushyanta adjured her with cruel vacancy which here reigned round sternness. When afterwards this cruelty Sakuntala. Had the repudiated wife been reacted on himself, it prevented him from taken back to Kanwa’s home, that remaining indifferent to Sakuntala. His hermitage would have spoken. To our unceasing and intense grief fused his heart imagination its trees and creepers would and welded Sakuntala with it. Never before have wept. The two girl friends would have had the King met with such an experience. mourned for Sakuntala, even if the poet Never before had he had the occasion and had not said a word about it. But in the means of truly loving. Kings are unlucky in unfamiliar hermitage of Marichi, all is still this respect; their desires are so easily and silent to us; only we have satisfied that they never before our mind’s eye a picture get what is to be gained by of the world-abandoned devotion alone. Fate now Sakuntala’s infinite sorrow, plunged Dushyanta into disciplined by penance, sedate deep grief and thus made and resigned-seated like a him worthy of true love - recluse rapt in meditation. made him renounce the role of a rake. The best means of winning: Devotion A moral union

Dushyanta is now consumed He has made the physical by remorse. So long as union of Dushyanta and Sakuntala was not won by Sakuntala tread the path of means of this repentance, sorrow, and thereby there was no glory in winning chastened and sublimated it her. One sudden gust of into a moral union. Hence youthful impulse had in a moment given did Goethe rightly say that Sakuntala her up to Dushyanta, but that was not combines the blossoms of Spring with the the true, the ‘full winning of her’. The best fruits of Autumn. It combines Heaven and means of winning is by devotion. What is Earth. Truly in Sakuntala there is one easily gained is easily lost. Therefore, the Paradise Lost and another Paradise poet has made the two lovers undergo long Regained. austerities that they may gain each other The first Act is full of brilliancy and truly eternally. If Dushyanta had accepted movement. We have there a hermit’s Sakuntala when she was first brought to daughter in the exuberance of youth, her

104 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages two companions running over with The two peculiar principles of India are the playfulness, the newly flowering forest beneficent tie of home life on the one hand, creeper, the bee intoxicated with perfume, and the liberty of the soul abstracted from the fascinated King peeping from behind the world on the other. In the world India the trees. From this Eden of bliss Sakuntala, is variously connected with many races and the mere sweetheart of Dushyanta, is exiled many creeds; she cannot reject any of in disgrace. But far different was the aspect them. But on the altar of devotion of the other hermitage where Sakuntala, (tapasya) India sits alone. Kalidas has the mother of Bharata and the incarnation shown, both in Sakuntala and Kumara of goodness took refuge. There no hermit Sambhava, that there is a harmony girls water the trees, nor bedew the between these two principles, an easy creepers with their loving sister-like looks, transition from the one to the other. In his nor feed the young fawn with handfuls of hermitage a human boy plays with lion paddy. There a single boy fills the loving cubs, and the hermit spirit is reconciled bosom of the entire forest-world; he with the spirit of the householder. absorbs all the liveliness of the trees, On the foundation of the hermitage of creepers, flowers, and foliage. The matrons recluses Kalidas has built the home of the of the hermitage, in their loving anxiety, householder. He has rescued the relation are fully taken up with the unruly boy. When of the sexes from the sway of lust and Sakuntala appears, we see her clad in a enthroned it on the holy and pure seat of dusty robe, face pale with austerities, asceticism. In the sacred books of the doing the penances of a love-lorn wife, Hindus the ordered relation of the sexes pure-souled. Her long penances have has been defined by strict injunctions and purged her of the evil of her first union Laws. Kalidas has demonstrated that with Dushyanta; she is now invested with relation by means of the elements of the dignity of a matron, she is the image Beauty. The Beauty that he adores is lit of motherhood, tender and good. Who can up by grace, modesty, and goodness; in repudiate her now? its intensity it is true to one for ever; in its range it embraces the whole universe. It Home life and liberty of the soul is fulfilled by renunciation, gratified by sorrow, and rendered eternal by religion. This ancient poet of India refuses to In the midst of this beauty, the unruly love recognise Love as its own highest glory; of man and woman has restrained itself he proclaims that Goodness is the final goal and attained to profound peace, like a wild of Love. He teaches us that the Love of torrent merged in the ocean of goodness. man and woman is not beautiful, not Therefore is such love higher and more lasting, not fruitful, so long as it is self- wonderful than wild and untrained passion. centred, so long as it does not beget Goodness, so long as it does not diffuse itself into society over son and daughter, guests and neighbours.

105 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Redemption of Women women who suffered on account of foreign invasions- in Sindh and Punjab. The women, In Deval Smriti the patient sufferers of all injustice, took the maximum toll of a brutal war; destitute women who could go nowhere, littered the ISTORY repeats itself. Problems of scene with their piteous countenances Hhumanity recur over and over again mutely demanding ‘What have we done? with variations in magnitude or in social Why was the blow dealt at us?’ reactions. Hence it was only natural that from time to time a man of wisdom, having Rishi Devala analysed these problems should raise his voice and offer solutions, to save society Their misery shocked a seer of the age- from being torn asunder by these problems. Rishi Devala (c. 800-900). Time healed The recent picture of human misery and many a wound. People built up their lives suffering in Bangla Desh War still staggers again, as they re-built their ruined houses and torments the mind. The entire picture and fortunes and staggered to their feet. of misery in itself is a deeply effective Yet, these women had no hope of re- protest against the destructive power of building their shattered lives. Like used war. The mind shrinks away in utter sense articles they were flung aside by the of shame at the cruelty of human nature, invader who drank his fill to quench his when one bears the cries of the ravaged, lustful thirst. With the typical orthodoxy destitute women and the unfortunate of the Hindu who refuses to touch any children conceived in destruction. soiled article - she was discarded by her The major problem that projects out of this own people. Thus a destitute woman had devastating scene is the fate of these nowhere to go. Hindu orthodoxy did not unfortunate women and children, abused allot her an inch of space to call her own. and unwanted, a fate for which they are She had to exist in the shadow of her in no way responsible. Is this a problem of protectors and her protectors wrapped the only the Bangla Desh War? Everywhere in shadow around them tightly and left her the world from time immemorial, man’s lust out. and greed have resulted in war, leaving in Devala’s sense of justice revolted against its wake this horrible problem, in addition this. To atone for this, he promulgated a to death, destruction and hunger. India, new Smriti. the patient mother of seers and sages, He convened a meeting of Brahmins and had suffered these humiliations in the hands Kshatriyas and placed before the of foreign invaders many a time. Time and assemblage his proposals stressing the again she became the ravaged, destitute gravity of the problem and need for a mother of unwanted orphaned children solution. After the assembled wise men crying out piteously, for a home and love. granted that his proposals were proper and In the 8th century A.D., the sky was rent reasonable he codified them into his Smriti with cries of despair and terror of countless for the benefit of posterity. Thus Sindh

106 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages was saved for two hundred years even Women In the Imperial after the attack of Quasim. At a time when orthodoxy greatly influenced the minds of Age of Kanuaj people constricting their lives-physical and -Extracts emotional, Devala’s statements upholding the cause of these destitute women appear extremely bold and revolutionary. The Background

The law of rehabilitation n the history of the period of Kanauj, Ithe Pratiharas, the Palas and the He firmly says that women who have been Rashtrakutas constitute the triangle of captured by the invaders and forced to forces fighting for supremacy, with the satiate their carnal desires and sometimes imperial city as the trophy. Incidentally the even forced to step out of their own theory that Harshavardhana was not the religious fold, should be accepted back into empire-builder is further substantiated by their own fold and household with due the larger and the more stable empire of respect. Even those who have been the Gujarat Pratiharas. The Rashtrakutas Fertilized by the seed of these destructive emerge in brilliant colours against the back- evil forces, must be accepted back after ground of ancient Deccan. Kabul and Zabul the child is delivered. resisted Muslim infiltration. Medhathithi (c. 850-950), a noted On the cultural side we see Buddhism and contemporary commentator also gives a Jainism eddying into regional backwaters, revolutionary analysis of all previous Smritis the pure founts of Brahmanism and and Scriptures, especially of Manu Smriti. Buddhism coloured by Tantrikism. At the He upheld the Vedic slogan and professed same time an interpretative phase in the that enemies should be destroyed in religious and secular spheres is ushered in. advance. He contended that the ancient In an otherwise dull firmament we notice scriptures should be discarded where they the stars Sankara and Medhatithi lighting fail to apply to the changing times and the paths of religion and law. In new laws be formulated and adopted. Visakhadatta and Rajasekhara, the Tavarikha-I-Sona, a Muslim record of literature of period finds an ornate phase. history also indirectly refers to Devala’s Udbhata, and Abhinavagupta are laws of acceptance of the destitute women names to conjure with in rhetorics. The and the religious out-castes back into the champu finds its orientation. Indian fold. The available parts of his Smritis, pathology and materia medica find their however, refer to the status of children categorical renunciation in Madhavakara born of these incidences and what could and Dhanvantri. The Nagara and Dravida be done for them. types of architecture take definite shape. (Based on Savarkar’s Saha Soneri Pane) The monolith Kailasa temple at Ellora remains a unique achievement with no parallel in the history of Indian architecture.

107 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Female Education women’s competence in poetical skill, to Long before the present period, the Smritis examples of princesses, of daughters of had denied the right or privilege of Vedic higher officials (mahamatra), of courtesans, study to women. By progressively and of concubines, who were poetesses sanctioning early marriage of girls, they as well as adepts in sciences (sastra). In further destroyed the chances of higher - sundari, the accomplished wife of Rajasekhara, we have a striking illustration of a lady deeply learned in Sanskrit lore. The dramas and prose romances of this Age also illustrate the contemporary state of learning among women. In the plays of Rajasekhara, we find that court-ladies and even the queen’s maids-in-waiting are capable of composing excellent Sanskrit and Prakrit verses. Again, we have a number of stories pointing to the skill of princesses in the fine arts, especially those of painting, music and versification.

The Position of Women

In so far as the status of the wife is concerned, the Smriti authorities of the period, like their predecessors, emphasise the duty of absolute obedience and devotion of wives to their husbands. Medhatithi illustrates the wife’s duty of education of women. How backward was personal service towards her husband by the state of higher studies among girls in saying that she shall shampoo his feet and general during the present age is proved render him such other service as befits a by the significant omission of all references servant. But this is subject to the all- to women teachers in the contemporary important condition that the husband lexicographical works and still more by the follows the righteous path and is free from testimony of Medhatithi to the general hatred as well as jealousy towards his wife. ignorance of the Sanskrit language among For the husband, so runs Medhatithi’s women. Nevertheless we have reasons to memorable dictum, has no dominion believe that women, including those not (prabhutva) over his wife. The husband belonging to the higher classes, had some and the wife differ only in their bodies but opportunities, as in the preceding Age, for are entirely united in their functions. Equal liberal education as well as training in fine right of the husband and wife to seek legal arts. Rajasekhara refers, in justification of remedy against each other as the last

108 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages resort is emphasised by Medhatithi. For he single act of transgression, but if she says that the wife, very much persecuted repeats the offence, she is to be by her husband, like the husband very much abandoned. Referring to Yajnavalkya’s text troubled by his wife, has the remedy of allowing mere subsistence to an unfaithful appealing to the king for decision of their wife, Medhatithi observes that it applies disputes. Other passages deal with the when the husband is able and willing to wife’s right to maintenance by her husband. maintain her but if he is not willing she According to a verse attributed to Manu may be abandoned. The wife, concludes and quoted by Medhatithi and Vijnanesvara Medhatithi, must be maintained even if she the virtuous wife must be maintained even hates her husband, but if she becomes an by committing a hundred bad acts. outcaste she may be abandoned. Similarly, Daksha includes the wife in the As to the husband’s right of correcting his list of those whom one is bound to maintain. wife, Matsya Purana repeats Manu’s Even the wife’s fault does not make her injunction authorising the husband to beat liable to abandonment or forfeiture of her his erring wife (though not on the head or possessions. As Medhatithi says, the wife, the back) with a rope or a split bamboo. even though guilty of grievous sins, must With more humanity Medhatithi takes Manu not be turned out of the house. The to enjoin not the actual beating of the punishment of confiscation prescribed by recalcitrant wife, but only a method of Manu for a wife hating her husband putting her on the right path. Medhatithi continues, is meant simply as a From this he draws the corollary that verbal warning to bring her to her senses and it chastisement is also to be inflicted on the does not sanction the confiscation of all wife, while beating may be occasionally her belongings. After this, it is not resorted to, according to the gravity of surprising that Medhatithi requires a the offence. Going a step further Visvarupa husband, when going abroad, to make says that the guarding of wives consists provision for his wife. Indeed, according in being really devoted to them and not in to him, the husband must not journey beating them, and he quotes in this abroad leaving his wife behind except for connection a saying of those acquainted the specific purposes mentioned by Manu. with worldly ways about the delicacy of women. That the imposition of Medhatithi’s summing up money- fine was also one of the methods of correction open to the husband is The law on the subject of the wife’s apparent from Medhatithi. Here we read maintenance is summed up by Medhatithi that the husband, being lord of the wife, in an-other context. Here he says that the may inflict the prescribed fine (of six faithful wife must not be abandoned, even krishnalas) upon the Kshatriya or other though she may be disagreeable in look, or wife, and a heavier fine upon a Brahmana harsh in speech and the like. On the other wife, for drinking wine or for visiting shows, hand, the unfaithful wife may be confined when forbidden to do so. Medhatithi in a room when she has been guilty of a justifies Manu’s rule of repudiation of a wife

109 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages who is barren or who bears only daughters, wife has entered into six months’ or one or whose children die, on the ground that year’s contract, the husband on his return the husband would otherwise violate the from his travel may take her back injunction about laying of the sacred fire immediately. The fifth and the last authority and the be-getting of sons. But he refuses would allow the wife to marry another to follow Manu in sanctioning the husband according to the practice of repudiation of a wife who is harsh of punarbhus (remarried women) in which case speech. In the same context Medhatithi the husband cannot interfere with her after extends Manu’s two conditions of such his return, and she continues to be the supersession (viz. that the wife’s consent wife of the second husband. has been obtained and that she is not disgraced) from the case of a devoted and The Widow’s lot modest but sick wife to those of a barren wife and a wife bearing only daughters. As regards the status of the widow, the life of strict celibacy and self-restraint Wife in separation : alternatives open enjoined upon her by the old Smritis was sought to be enforced during this period. On the question of the alternatives open As long as a widow remains faithful to her to a wife after she has waited for the husband’s memory, says Medhatithi, she prescribed period for her husband’s return deserves to have her property looked after from abroad, the views of the authorities by the king ; but in the contrary case, she of this epoch, as we learn from Medhatithi, is not only to be disqualified for possessing reflected their different standpoints from property, but is to be banished (in the one of extreme puritanism to one of sense of being driven out of the main considerable latitude. After the prescribed building and provided with a separate period, the wife, according to one authority, dwelling-house as well as separate food must live by pursuing unobjectionable and clothing.) occupations. Modifying this strict view, Medhatithi urges that while she must live The dread rite of Sati by unobjectionable occupations before the expiry of her waiting term, she may live by As in the former period, the dread rite of objectionable pursuits thereafter. Basing his sati at this time was enjoined by some opinion on Parasara’s text quoted above in authorities, but condemned by others. favour of the remarriage of women, a third According to the Arab writer Suleiman, authority goes so far as to allow the wives of kings sometimes burnt themselves standard wife to deviate from chastity. A on the funeral pyres of their husbands, but fourth author, taking the vital word pati in it was for them to exercise their option in Parasara’s text in the sense of protector’, the matter. The actual occurrence of this recommends her to accept another man’s grim rite is testified to by a few historical protection in the capacity of toilet-maid examples of queens and other ladies of high and the like. In such a case even if the families thus sacrificing their lives. But the

110 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages view, that the custom was Kuttanimatam that we mainly confined to royal have the fullest notices families and had not yet of the life of a ganika spread among the masses, is during this period. It hardly supported by a relates a story which kuttanimatam which shows that connection recognises it as one of the of a Brahmana with a general virtues of a wife. ganika (such as was not The custom of dedicating disapproved in the times maidens for service in of Bhasa and Sudraka) temples, which may be was now regarded as a traced back to older times, disgraceful act. We may was continued in this period. also refer to a passage Reference to this class is in Kuttanimatam found in Medhatithi as well illustrating at any rate as in inscriptions of this the author’s view of the period. Abu Zaid also speaks very high qualifications, of courtesans attached to both of body and mind, Indian temples. that a ganika was expected to possess at “Fallen women” this period.

The class of ‘fallen women’, known from Conclusion early times, existed as a distinct social unit in the present age. Matsya Purana lays In general, the position of woman was down a list of their duties and rights patterned on the same lines as in the (vesyadharma) as well as the special preceding period. Amplifying the old Smriti clauses of law applicable to them. The doctrine of the perpetual tutelage of deliberate settlement of such women in women, Medhatithi observes that women public places is hinted at by an early Arab should have no freedom of action regarding geographer, while others notice it as a the great object of human existence (viz, peculiarity of Indians that they held this virtue, wealth and pleasure), but should profession to be lawful. Several passages obtain permission of their husbands or other in the literature of this period deal with male relations before spending money on the class of accomplished courtesans such acts. Women who are addicted to (ganika) whose virtues and vices are singing and similar acts, shall be restrained celebrated from the earliest Buddhist times. by their male guardians. Arguing that a In two stories of Uparniti-bhavaprapancha- woman’s mind is not under her control and katha we find concrete instances of the that she lacks the requisite strength, better type of ganikas as well as of those Medhatithi concludes that she shall be of common variety. It is above all in guarded by all her male relations at all times.

111 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Turning to the specific disabilities of women, Glimpses Corridors we find Medhatithi justifying their general incapacity for giving evidence as witnesses. through the of History As he observes, unlike other qualifications By S. C. DUBE which are acquired and hence liable to lapse through carelessness and so forth, The Historical Setting fickleness is inherent in women. But elsewhere he admits that there are women THE analysis of the traditional and who are as truthful and as steady as the contemporary roles of men and women in best expounders of the Vedas and they Indian society may be appropriately may appear as witnesses. prefaced by a brief historical survey of the On the other hand, a more humane view is changing position of women. Scanty taken of the husband’s authority over his references scattered in the classical texts wife. The wife, according to Medhatithi, form the basis of this account. According must not be forsaken unless she becomes to the age of these texts, it will be an outcaste, and ‘forsaking’ in this case convenient to consider the changing means not that she is to be deprived of position of women in four different periods food and clothing, but that she is to be of the evolution of Indian society: the age cut off from all intercourse and forbidden of the Vedas (2500 to 1500 B.C.), the age to do household work. According to Matsya of the Brahmanas (1500 to 500 B.C.), the Purana the mother must never be age of Sutras and Epics (500 B.C. to A.D. abandoned, while Medhatithi observes that 599) and the age of later Smritis (A.D. 500 the mother must not be turned out of the to 1800). It is necessary to point out that house even for failure of her maternal the accounts relating to the first two ages duties, for, to the son the mother never refer primarily to the position of women in becomes an outcaste. Medhatithi’s view Indo-Aryan society, rather than to Indian of the law relating to female outcastes in society in general. The later ages refer to general follows the humane lines indicated the emergent pattern of society in which above. Referring to Manu’s penalty of fusion between Aryans and non-Aryans was banishment for outcaste women, he taking place at a rapid pace. As many of explains it to mean that they shall be the contemporary attitudes towards men provided with a separate dwelling-place as and women are rooted in the past, this well as food and clothes and they may synoptic historical survey is neither retain what they have saved. Again he says irrelevant nor unnecessary. that female outcastes, not performing the prescribed expiation, are to be allowed The Vedic Age food, drink and clothing of an inferior quality and permitted to live in a separate hut At the dawn of the Vedic age in India women close to the main building. had considerable freedom. Girls were educated like boys and had to pass through a period of brahmacharya (celibate life).

112 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The marriage of girls used to take place at distinction in the realm of theology and the age of 16 or 17 years. Educated brides philosophy, and a considerable number of of this age had naturally an effective voice women used to follow the teaching career. in the selection of their partners in life. However, in this period the system of Occasional love marriages, which eventually sending out girls to famous teachers or enjoyed the blessings of the parents, are centres of education came to be also noted. Women moved freely in society, discouraged. It was laid down that only often even in the company of their lovers. near relations like the father, the brother In social and religious gatherings they or uncle should teach them at home. occupied a prominent position. Women had Therefore, religious and secular training absolute equality with men in the eyes of became possible only in the case of the religion they could perform ritual sacrifices girls of rich and cultured families and a independently and were not regarded as tendency arose to curtail the religious an impediment to religious pursuits. rights and privileges of the average woman; Marriage was a religious necessity to both many functions in the religious sacrifices, the man and the woman, since neither could which formerly could be performed by the reach heaven without being accompanied wife alone, now came to be assigned to by the duly married consort. The position male substitutes. Some sacrifices of the wife was an honoured one in the continued to be performed by women family. There were instances of polygamy, alone, and when the husband was out the but ordinarily monogamy was the rule. service of the sacrificial fire continued to Widow remarriage was permitted, but this be entrusted to the wife. In cultured was usually within the family. The families women used to recite their Vedic preference was first for a younger brother prayers morning and evening and perform of the deceased husband, then for any sacrifices on their husband’s behalf, when other eligible member of the family. Actually, they were otherwise preoccupied.” this was not a re-marriage, for an actual In further describing the customs of this marriage was allowed only if the woman period, Altekar states that the age of was a maiden or if marriage was started marriage for the girls continued to be about but not ceremoniously completed. Women 16; in practice, if not in theory, girls had could neither hold nor inherit property. some voice in the selection of their life partners. Ideals of marriage and the mutual 1500 to 500 B. C. relations of the husband and wife continued to be more or less the same as they were The changes which took place during this in the earlier age. Divorce was permitted period in the position of women were to the wife, though the permission was gradual. According to Altekar : “In the not extensively utilized. Widow re-marriage higher sections of society the sacred was still permitted, but women had ceased initiation (upanayana) of girls was common, to attend public meetings. and they subsequently used to go through The relative freedom allowed to women in a course of education. Some attained these two periods can be attributed to

113 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages political and religious causes. Altekar goes as a result early marriages were not on to say: “The general freedom and better practicable. Therefore, the age of marriage status, which women enjoyed in the Vedic remained at 16 or 17, and such young age was largely due to men being engrossed women were permitted to express their likes in the work of conquest and consolidation. and dislikes at the time of marriage. Since Women used to take they moved freely in an active part in society and remained agriculture and the unmarried to such an manufacture of cloth, age, some love bows and arrows and marriages were other war materials. inevitable. Women They were thus useful occupied an honoured members of society, position in the and could not be household, and so treated with an air of they could move patronage and freely in family and contempt . .” society and took an “ Asceticism was at a intelligent part in discount in the Vedic public affairs. age. Maidens and bachelors had no The Age of sutras admission to heaven ; and epics gods accepted no oblations offered by The position of the unmarried. It was women changed essential to offer the considerably in this ordained sacrifices to period. The gods for procuring introduction of the happiness and non- Aryan wife into prosperity both here the Aryan household and hereafter and was largely they could be properly performed by the responsible for this change. Aryan rule had husband and wife officiating together. now become established over the greater The wife was not an impediment but an part of India. The indigenous population absolute necessity in the religious service. was incorporated into the social structure This circumstance helped to raise her of the conquerors as the fourth (or Sudra) status”. level and provided a huge semi-servile In order to enable her to perform these population. In some parts of India, however, religious rites, proper training and education where the Aryans could not completely were considered essential. Such training wipe out the indigenous civilization, they required at least six years to complete and merely imposed sovereignty over it. When

114 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the two ethnic groups, proceeded to live A.D. 200, it was declared that marriage together peacefully, inter-marriages was the substitute for sacred initiation. became inevitable. In the beginning, there (upanayana) in the case girls. Since seemed to be no objection to an Aryan upanayana was usually performed at about marrying a Sudra woman, provided he had the age of 9 or 10, the same age now another Aryan wife. Later this procedure came to be regarded as the ideal age for was interdicted. However, the non-Aryan marriage for girls. Such young brides wife with her ignorance of the Sanskrit without any education ceased to have any language and Hindu religion could not enjoy effective voice in the settlement of their the same religious privileges as the Aryan marriage. Marriage now became irrevocable consort. Instances where the husband as far as the wife was concerned, although attempted to associate the non-Aryan wife the husband could discard his wife for the with his religious sacrifices led to the priests offence of not being sufficiently submissive. declaring that the non-Aryan wife was unfit Widow remarriage was opposed and was for such religious rituals. When this rule finally interdicted by about A.D. 500. was defied, the final solution to the problem Eventually the dictum ‘the wife ought to was to declare all women unfit for Vedic revere her husband as a god, even if he studies and religious duties. were vicious and void of any merit’ was accepted as applying to all women. Marriage a substitute The Sati The growing complexity of the rituals connected with the Vedic sacrifices also Political reverses, war atrocities and the contributed to the deterioration of women’s decline of population and prosperity in this status. The time involved in learning now period produced a wave of despondency meant that their marriages must be delayed in society and facilitated the spread of the until the age of 22 or 24. Certain forces in ideal of renunciation. This affected the society began to clamour for early position of widows - although the Vedas marriages. In the easy and luxurious life stipulated that a son was necessary for after their conquests, the Aryans settled securing heaven, the childless widow was down in a rich and prosperous country and now forced by custom to seek the higher their political supremacy was end, salvation (mukti) and not the lower unquestioned. Now the procreation of a one, heaven (svarga). This she could attain son became a religious rather than a secular by burning herself alive on the funeral pyre necessity ; he alone could discharge certain of her husband. This practice, known as ritual obligations to the ancestors. sati, gradually spread and by A.D. 700 had These causes contributed to the lowering become a religious duty. The practice was of the age of marriage for girls and as a voluntary, but instances are cited which consequence, their education was indicate that social pressures forced many discontinued and their religious status in women to follow it. Many of those who the family was lowered. Finally, by about decided upon this course probably did so

115 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages out of genuine love and devotion to their women their sense of inferiority. Gradually, husband whom they revered as a god, it was assumed that a woman deserved no convinced that this was in the best spiritual independence; she ought not to do interests of both. There are no statistics anything on her own responsibility in available, but one writer estimates that childhood or youth or even in old age. possibly only one widow in a thousand went to the pyre with her husband when this The changing position of women custom was commonest. When the custom was made illegal in British India in 1829 The position of women continued to change through the efforts of Lord William Bentinck, in this period. From the theological point the law was welcomed by enlightened Hindu of view, women came to be regarded as of public opinion, although it was not without the same status as the Sudras. The proper opposition from the orthodox. age of marriage for girls was lowered still The one improvement in this period was in further. They were now to be married before the area of property rights. With widow puberty ; the age of 8 was regarded as re-marriage discouraged, there began to ideal. Brides of 8 or 9 could naturally have arise a class of childless widows. Society no choice or voice in the settlement of had to devise an honourable means of their marriages. Early marriage was followed enabling them to maintain themselves. by early maternity which increased the Upto and until 300 B.C., the right of the mortality among women. Widowers of 25 widow to inherit her husband’s property to 30 were then married to girls of only 9 was not recognised by any jurist. Now or 10. some felt that the widow should be assigned Although widow re-marriage had generally a definite share in the family property; become taboo, child widows were allowed others were inclined to assign to her only to re-marry up to AD. 500. This permission the right to maintenance. In ‘time, different was then gradually withdrawn. Permissive regional customs were evolved allowing legislation was passed in 1856, but by this varying degrees of proprietary rights to time prejudice against widow re-marriage women. was so deep-rooted that the legislation The theory of the perpetual tutelage of had no appreciable effect on the situation woman was clearly formulated and for more than half a century. expressed during this age. Manu, the As by AD. 500 women were totally denied supreme law-giver of Hindu society, the opportunities of education, a new type ordained that the father should protect her of religious literature was prepared to meet while she was a maiden, the husband when their needs. This was the re-modelled she was married and the son when her Puranic literature. It enunciated the husband was no more; at no stage was principles of Hinduism in story form, in a she to be left unprotected. Intended homely, easy and attractive manner. Pious perhaps to afford women additional people made provision for the exposition protection rather than deny them freedom, of these stories to public audiences and the practice served to increase further in women became well grounded in the

116 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages traditional culture by habitually listening characters were fully developed, to this Iiterature. Faith, almost blind faith, transferred from the loving and sympathetic was thus developed in women. atmosphere of the parents’ house to the Down to the 12th century AD. there existed house of the parents-in-law, where an staunch opposition to the custom of purdah atmosphere of awe prevailed, apprehensive (keeping the whole body, including the face, of suppression, sometimes forced to drag covered). During this period, however, the on a miserable existence in an interminable influence of the Muslim conquerors began widowhood, their character suffered from to be felt and their customs and manners forced repression in some directions and were gradually imitated. The custom of unnatural stimulation in others. They had purdah began to spread among the higher no status in society none in their own classes in northern India, but was not estimation. They were more like puppets, followed in southern India. Another reason which move when someone else pulls the for the adoption of this custom was the strings than individual human beings with additional protection it offered to the minds of their own. women and there is some evidence that During the British rule in India, legislation women themselves welcomed the custom was used to bring about significant at the time. modifications in the structure of society. Many rich and cultured Hindu families were Most of these measures had the support ruined by the Moslem conquest. They could of progressive opinion in India, although no longer make special arrangements for they were viewed by the orthodox as the education of their daughters, and the undesirable and unnecessary interference number of women who could read and write on the part of an alien government. The further dwindled. At the beginning of British British were naturally very slow and rule, female education had practically cautious in respect of these reforms; rather disappeared from Hindu communities. than attempt to force any profound Mention was made earlier of the right of a changes upon the whole society, they made widow to inherit her husband’s property it possible for those who wanted change when there were no sons. In Bengal, the to adopt an alternative way of life within widow’s position was further improved now the framework of the new social legislation. by conceding her the right even when her Reference has been made to the abolition husband had not separated from the joint of sati. Subsequently legislation recognized family prior to his death and the scope of inter-caste marriages, as also widow re- “stridhana” was further extended by marriage. The age of marriage was raised, including in it property acquired even by and divorce was permitted under certain inheritance and partition. condition, special facilities were provided With these changes in the status of for women to acquire modern education. women, it was inevitable that their They were also provided with increasing character and personalities should also be employment opportunities in certain affected. Uneducated, considered on a selected spheres. Advantage of these level with the Sudras, married before their measures was taken only by a small fraction

117 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages of society in the first instance, but the contemporary society. On the one hand, process they initiated was, indeed, they are regarded as the highest significant. embodiment of purity and power - a symbol Free India has carried forward the process of religiousness and spirituality; on the to a point where legally at least man and other, they are viewed essentially as weak woman are equal. Marriage and divorce and dependent creatures requiring laws have been modified, ensuring a greater constant guidance and protection. While measure of equality to women. Women now the former view occasionally gets overt have a legal share in ancestral property. expression, covert forms defining her actual Educational and employment opportunities position are essentially determined by the for them have been extended and today latter. they can enter the higher civil services Viewed empirically, two themes appear to and the professions without any legal be basic in the general area of attitudes discrimination. They have an equal right covering the relative statuses of men and to vote. Many of them have entered the women. They are: (a) the male is more legislative bodies and some of them even desirable than the female; and (b) the male occupy important positions in the is qualitatively superior to the female. government. While girls are also considered necessary, Inadequate as the above survey is, it the birth of a boy has been considered nevertheless gives some idea of the more desirable. Ritual considerations changing position of women in the different materially add to the desirability of the epochs of the evolution of Indian society. male. In the additional scheme of Hindu Many of the present-day attitudes have life, the attainment of salvation occupies been influenced by factors of historical the place of highest importance. For this development. it is necessary to complete all the rites and ceremonies of the life cycle prescribed Contemporary Attitudes by dharma. In the patrilineal Hindu society only a male can offer water to the spirits We may now proceed to consider some of of the deceased ancestors; a son alone the basic cultural orientations towards men can perform the essential rites ensuring and women in contemporary Indian society. passage to heaven or attainment of These have been shaped by the authority salvation. This makes a male offspring very of classical texts, teachings of religion, desirable. Besides, the possession of sons factors of historical development and the offers many other advantages. Parents can persistence of regional and local traditions. depend upon them for support in old age. Contemporary developments have brought They are expected to continue to live with about some modifications in them, but the the family, unlike the daughters and are covert forms have not changed to any also looked upon as potential builders of appreciable extent. family prestige and prosperity. Daughters, The contradictory attitudes expressed on the contrary, are regarded as birds of about women in classical texts persist in passage. Their upbringing is all worry and

118 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages an occasion for rejoicing; the birth of a daughter is a cause for anxiety. The superiority of the male theme has many latent and manifest dimensions. Woman is regarded as more susceptible to pollution; her defilement is easy, purification is difficult. Man on the contrary is not so easily defiled, and when defiled the removal of his pollution is not as difficult as it is in the case of a woman. In a pollution-purity conscious society, the significance of this view is crucial, indeed. It is, perhaps, at the root of the prevailing double standards of morality; one set of principles governing the male and another governing the female. Because man is relatively pollution- resistant, he is allowed certain freedom which are denied to the woman. Implicit in this conception of the superiority of the male are the assumptions that “Man is strong and woman is weak”, or “Man is capable of looking after himself, but the best security for a woman is in work for the parents; when they grow up dependence”. This assumption regarding and get married their loyalties are changed. the strength of the male has built up the As a popular saying goes : “Bringing up a ideas of male dominance and female son is like manuring and watering a plant dependence. Outdoor activities and most in your own courtyard, for when it grows of the major decision-making roles are thus up it will give you shade and fruit; but the domain of man. Under the protection bringing up a daughter is like manuring and of man and in the security of the home, watering a plant in someone else’s the sphere of woman has been strictly courtyard, for her services and affections limited. In the traditionally- oriented groups are destined for others”. While her qualities the stereotype suggesting the desirability of affection and tenderness are recognized, of life-long protection to a woman - in a daughter by herself can neither complete childhood by father, in youth by husband a household nor can she effectively take and in old age by son - is still seriously the place of a son. The difficulties and believed. expenses involved in her upbringing and marriage further detract from her desirability. Even today in a large number of Hindu households the birth of a son is

119 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages From the Genderless the last man for claiming Helen. Let alone Puranic times, even in Historic times a One to the Duality of Samyuktha provoked a war between her Man and Woman father Jaya Chandra and the last Hindu Emperor of India, Prithviraj, which ended ultimately in the subjugation of this hoary Padma-Bhushan V. RAGHAVAIAH country and its culture to a eight-hundred years’ continuous rule of the Afghans and TRUCTURALLY it may not be claimed their successors down to the Moghuls. that the frame and figure of a woman S Again it is ’s enchanting beauty that is superior to that of a man. She has been provoked a war between Rajput ruler Bhim graded down and is still considered as Singh and Allaudin, the Emperor at Delhi. weaker than the male. She is an ‘abala’ The poor but bewitching palace maid (not strong) to the Hindus. She was not Anarkali could not escape the brutal the first born to the Christians. Even Adam entombing at the hands of the benevolent did not consider her companionship Emperor Akbar, who could not reconcile necessary or indispensable and when Lord himself to a Royal wedding between his Jehova felt the need for him, Adam merely son, emperor-to-be and a palace acquiesced with the innovation. No doubt, maidservant. Humayun could not save her he parted with a bone from his ribs to serve and meekly sacrificed her. Even in the Hindu as a logical basis for further creation though Epic period, the woman was only an adjunct he later found to his cost that she was to the man in the observance of various more a liability than an asset. He had to rituals and essential customary rites for eat the forbidden fruit and suffer the sin the fulfillment of temporal as well as spiritual accruing from this act of grave purposes. She has been forbidden from disobedience to his creator. taking the lead on all such occasions. Even inheritance to ancestral properties has been “The Temptress” barred to her whose sustenance was till recently limited to mere maintenance. Her Woman has been the sole cause of wars, place in the joint Hindu Family is next to a not only between two monarchs but also cook’s, and if she happens to be a widow between two different races and countries her privileges even in respect of her and Suras and Asuras of the Ramayanic husband’s personal properties if any, are Epic. She was a bone of contention further curtailed, the residue being more between the Pandavas and Kauravas, the of an emotional nature than of real material derisive smile which Draupadi hurled against value. Duryodhana when the latter mistook water for land and vice-versa during his visit to Commencement 0f Women’s Slavery Maya Sabha and had to suffer discomfiture at the hands of a woman. Mainly due to If it is argued that the woman’s her, the Greeks and Spartans fought to enslavement commenced with the

120 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages acquisition of property, may be in any form, necessitated. It was at that remote time it cannot be dismissed as fantastic. The only a food gathering or food collecting first men (they could not have been stage, finding food on the tree tops, or “singular” should have been living each for underground and enough for the day and himself in his own right, as the family or having no idea at all of preserving, storing group idea must have been a later and certainly not for selling through conception, when men learnt to live by bartering could have been a random other means instead of confining to hunting transaction. alone. During this remote period each man or woman lived alone in a cave or outside Shoulder to shoulder it under a tree, side by side with wild beasts, certainly not afraid of them, even The woman performed all the jobs man did, as the normal victims of these beasts live though for biological reasons like periods side by side with ferocious animals in of conception, child birth and suckling, she sanctuaries and preserves undaunted by should have been incapacitated from taking the fact that every day they have to up hard work including chasing, fighting, supply the food requirements of bigger and climbing for honeycombs and such other more frightful beasts. The laws of Nature highly inconvenient and even perilous have been wonderfully adjusting the occupations and operations. Puranic Satya relationship between one animal and Bhama is believed to have taken part in another, even as such an adjustment is war to help her husband on the battle- daily taking place between weaker and field. We can also quote a comparatively stronger men in the world, avoiding recent historic event when the Rani of elimination except in a few rare cases as Jhansi fought the British forces in 1857 in the case of the Tasmamans of the valiantly and died on the battle-field. Australian continent. As the early man did, so the early woman The Valiant Princess also braved the wild beasts, hunted her favourite food, ate it raw or dried up, never Emperor Asoka whose ambition for fame bothering about her dependents, guests was not fully satiated with the conquest or guardians. When or where food became of kingdoms in North India, descended to scarce owing to competitive hunting or the South and slew the ruler of Orissa in destruction by disease, climatic conditions battle. Undaunted by the prowess of the or acts of God, they quietly shifted and conqueror and unmindful that she was only extended their forages to fields afresh and a young girl in teens, the ruler’s daughter pastures new each in his or her own way. led the army and faced the Emperor with In these early wanderings there could not her drawn sword. A dismayed Asoka have been necessarily a leader to lead and reasoned with her that his code of conduct a follower to follow. If a man and a woman in war would not allow him to fight with a decided to live together it must have been woman, but she refused to relent. Then at random alliance, neither arranged nor stunned at the display of her heroism, the

121 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Emperor threw away his sword and offered Matriarchal System himself to be slain if that would satisfy her revenge for the death of her father. The The matriarchal system of inheritance still young heroine equally moved by Asoka’s in vogue in Kerala known as chivalry yielded and the hostility came to Marumakkuthayam and elsewhere in the an end. Here again the heroine was let off world is perhaps as natural a pattern of because Asoka’s chivalry in war would not inheritance through the male line i.e. permit fighting a woman. Perhaps this can patriarchal system. When in the pre-historic be classified as a case of pity called or primitive period of history, the woman chivalry. We cannot fail to note that pity was an equally able earner of food, she is only a fairer case of hostility. Similarly was the repository like the man of family Bhishma, the great aged warrior of the prestige, family care and family property Mahabharata war, had to allow himself to which centred around her, particularly be killed because Pandavas fought him by wherever polyandry prevailed. The placing Sikhandi in their fore-front. matriarchal system of inheritance appears Such instances are however few and far to be quite natural and beneficial too. Later between. On the whole, the woman has when feuds came to be fought not so much been no fighter over the ages. She has for prestige as it was for property, chiefly been adopting passive pursuits owing immoveable, the emphasis shifted to the mainly to her motherly duties and womanly male mostly due to the inferiority of the disabilities. In the village border feuds and female sex when compared to the male in head-hunting operations that marred their wielding heavy and cumbersome weaponry beautiful land, Assam’s tribal women were and the skill needed to handle the same. involved in forming a hind line to exhort their warriors and to pick up and replenish Polyandry their arrow quivers. The Papuan tribal women of New Guinea and New Nagaland While touring the Chakrata group of engage themselves in similar occupations, villages, a few miles away from Dehradun, during brief truce intervals at which the in Uttar Pradesh, where , Brahmins highest cannons of chivalry are invariably and Kshatriyas live, I stumbled on village observed and no shooting will be permitted Baruva, nesting on and around a hill top, until the picking was completed. The usual adjacent to the Polyandrous Tibetan border. common modern address of “Hello” in When I questioned Bosayi, a forty-year old telephone calls is no other than the war common wife of five husbands, the eldest cry of these war-like people during inter- being seventy years old, all living on the village fights as signals of the impending Pandava family pattern, how she was struggle to enable women and children to managing with so many husbands at a time, flee and save their lives. No attack among she effectively silenced me by counter- these people should start before sun rise questioning to the glee of all her husbands, or after sun set so that the weaker sections how in our polygamous families we managed of the people can escape butchery. with plural wives. One interesting feature

122 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Polyandry is a hoary custom forced by dire necessity, when groups of people had to flee for life during invasions, during which women could not undertake arduous and long journeys and were left behind as they could not keep pace with their men-folk. Wholesale annihilation of warriors caused by wars, floods and earthquakes also reduced the man-power necessitating polyandrous patterns of family life, disturbing the balance between the number of males and females. Even during such acts of God like natural calamities the woman has been the sufferer and had to be a life-long dependent on the male. Polyandry is justified by some as it prevents fragmentation of immovable property. While polyandry is bad enough, polygamy is worse in that it reduces, (particularly in Asiatic countries, where faithlessness on the part of men is not as seriously treated as it is on the part of women) women to serfdom.

Emergence of Clans and Clan-heads of polyandrous families is that where great With the emergence of clans and clan- disparity exists among all the maliks heads, the formation of villages and towns, (husbands) sometimes even the eldest small kingdoms came into existence, the brother’s unfortunate wife will have to rulers thereof being generally males due to share bed with a youngster of half of her their superior skill and maneuverability in age. The younger brothers can however riding war horses or war elephants which marry separate wives and the eldest women could not easily master owing to brother has no claims on them, as was the their structural disabilities and emotional case with Yudhishtra the eldest Pandava exuberances. Even in intellectual brother of Kurukshetra fame. Every year achievements the woman was relegated for a month at least these wives can stay to the background perhaps due to a desire in their parental villages and any conjugal on the part of the male to avoid her rivalry alliances entered into with others during and a claim for equality. Here again we such periods are not to be questioned by come across cases where a philosopher the lawful husbands. like sage Yajnavalkya’s wife Maitreyi and a scholarly wife of sage Mihira namely

123 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Bharathi alias Usha or Ghaya, who shed leaps and bounds, man’s adoration for the their light on the Indian horizon just a flicker charms of the fair sex and his insatiable and nothing more, leaving no trail behind hunger for romance, knew no limitations, even as a pinch of sugar in a sea of salt. the woman’s craze for easier life, longer periods of rest and greater taste for costlier Relegation to the kitchen inexplicable living and ever changing fashions in food and raiment also kept pace side by side For reasons that cannot be convincingly with the result that these very same desires explained the woman has been relegated for happier living on the part of women to the kitchen throughout the world as a proved to be her shackles of good and proof of her weaker status and she has symbol of subjugation. As these shackles accepted it ungrudgingly everywhere, became brightest and tighter standards of chiefly in Asiatic countries. Even in sports refinement and norms of behaviour proved we have not as yet come across women more and more deceptive and less and less exhibiting physical strength though they real. The woman developed aversion for have proved their mettle abundantly in toil, craze for comfort and gradually let go skilled games, circuses and even in taming her hold on the basic sources of wealth, wild beasts of prey and in training them to becoming thereby a dependent on the present feats of astounding merriment. actual producer, who always is the male member in the family, whether it is in the How man became the master philosophical East or the materialistic West: The man became the earner and the woman The woman as the dominant partner in his sharer. He became the master, the provoking and stimulating erotic passions chooser and the judge, she in turn became for reasons unknown has been asserting the servant, the chosen and the defendant. herself powerfully in winning the Man’s The crafty man did not halt there. He filled submissiveness, may even his enslavement, the legislatures and parliaments, was to a degree that liberation from which is elected to the onerous offices of political usually rare and impossible even as the power, made laws to strengthen his Biblical Eve had exercised over poor helpless hegemony, so patent in the Hindu laws of Adam, even to the extent of his defiance succession. Even after a few significant to his Supreme Maker, though great in itself, changes were made in this code of laws, has ironically boomeranged against the the woman is destined to trail behind the victor herself, as if in eternal vengeance man and claim to be a mere dependent. by man against woman by relegating the latter to a secondary status in the Man’s overbearing nature subsequent proliferation of the human species. While with the growth of Parasitic acquisition of material wealth, population, industrial development and physical, cultural and artificial refinement, agricultural improvement, love for comfort extravagantly bloated cheap sex and quest for easy wealth increased by knowledge and indulgence, its resulting

124 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages emotional upheaval bordering upon True to the kindred points of heaven vulgarity and bestiality, traditional sex and home science, bequeathed by Kama Sutras, sex- stimulating fare of cheap vulgar novels, Puranic stories and references are replete have enshrined the woman as a paragon with offerings to brides, female and male of delicacy, beauty and elegance to the slaves (Dasa-Dasi), the number depending disadvantage of man in the family Republic upon the status and power of the bride’s of which he is effective, real, strong and father and would-be father-in-law, to purse controlling master. With all the accompany the bride and slave for her in above-mentioned assets to bolster her up her new abode as a Chattel. The high the women continued to play second fiddle, priests of Hinduism did not like its sister at best sharing everything with her husband religions, Christianity or Islam, conceive the except the purse in Asiatic countries and Almighty as either a male or a female. Their obliged to be satisfied with her own high sense of meticulous logic did not permit separate earnings and savings and right them to allot a gender to the supreme deity to maintenance and divorce from her lawful though they were too liberal in their husband in the more civilised and wealthy imagination not to be content with less countries of Europe and America. Bereft of than a dozen or two Gods. With a large political power, considered unfit for holding number of Gods they associated them with key administrative posts, the woman if she a very large number of Goddesses as well happens to be a President’s wife can be at to produce Godlings too to catch the best designated as the first lady of the imagination of the lower type of worshippers country to which he belongs and no more. who were too unenlightened to conceive Even a forward country like the Soviet an abstract Almighty not limited to a Russia which can boast of several particular form, particular name and equalities, material and moral, stopped particular abode. They were so perfect in short of entrusting political power to the their logic that their conception of the so-called fairer-sex. Madame Krupskaya, Supreme Being was more negative than wife of Lenin, the founder of the Soviet positive. For instance, instead of limiting Republic, who was appointed as a Minister the Divine abode as being a particular spot, for Education, was ere long dismissed with owning a particular name and claiming impunity by Stalin to the chagrin of his particular powers, the ancient seers sick bed confined master, preceptor and described Him as one who is not known by Father of the Nation was rightly condemned any particular name or form. There is no by the latter as a bad cook who was spoiling place where he is not found and no power the broth. Even today the U.S.S.R. does which he does not possess and nothing not entertain women for leading Ministerial which he is not aware of. This naturally posts and party leadership roles as Mac’s did not satisfy the lower type of imperfect China also does. devotees who could not concentrate on any abstract conception.

125 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Even big sized apes like the gorilla and fading out as the husband finds it intelligent apes like the chimpanzees keep convenient to lay his hands on such good sized harems the female controlling property to serve his urgent needs, thus the entire group, like the Queen bee, often rendering the dependance of the woman times indulging in petty quarrels goaded over the man complete. Even here, the by jealousy. rights of ‘Stree Dhanam’ even protected by the Hindu law, are thwarted and the Feeble protests female becomes a willing victim in the hands of her husband and the agnates of the In recent years feeble voices were heard family in case it is a joint family. from some leading women leaders pleading for the effective enforcement in India of The distress of dependants the spirit behind the existing legislation for the enfranchisement of women. They Even pensions to which the husband or plaintively plead that as Mrs. Gujral did (15- son gets entitled cannot be availed of on 1-1975, Indian Express Report) that “even the demise of the pensioners concerned. the casting of the vote was decided by Suitable provision will have to be made to the father, husband or son.” Surely Mrs. extend at least half of such pensions to Gujral is not asking for encouraging the widows and female parents of frequent domestic differences in the family pensioners to alleviate the dependants’ circle. The privacy of the ballot is secured distress. It is well known that owing to in India and every adult citizen, man or dearth of women doctors, many women go woman, is ensured voting freedom. Mrs. unattended for obvious reasons and this Mukul Bannerjee complains that “while in addition to the constant burden of child women in India had obtained basic human bearing have sapped the energy of the freedom under the Constitution and the weaker sex, destroying her self-confidence Statute books, in actual practice their and with it her dormant ambition to claim status was unchanged from the traditional equality with the males. backwardness.” It would have been better The United Nations is solemnly committed if the complaint had suggested definite to the goal of equal rights for all men and measures for implementing the spirit behind women as proclaimed in the charter on the the legislation. Yet another instance where Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the values between an educated in numerous international instruments. All bridegroom and an equally qualified bride, States, Members of the United Nations have tilted in favour of the male is due to have pledged to promote universal respect the pernicious dowry system prevalent for and observance of human rights and throughout India. The Stree Dhana practice fundamental freedoms for all without by which the jewellery presented to the distinction as to race, sex, language or bride at the marriage function was evidently religion. intended to safeguard the moveable property rights of a woman is now-a-days

126 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Equality in the eyes of the Law Poverty, the struggle for earning the daily bread, lack of enlightened heritage, effect Recognition in Law of the principle of equal of adverse environment, denial by rights to men and women has gained unsocialistic governments which fail to considerable ground throughout the world attach special importance to educational in this century since 1945 when it was facilities like free education, free hostel written in the Charter. Article I of the facilities and other provisions which can Charter declares that “discriminations attract impoverished children of manual against women, denying or limiting as it labourers, are also potential obstacle, does their equality of rights with men, is retarding self-confidence, assertiveness fundamentally unjust and constitutes as and ambition for living better lives. offence against human dignity.” The article also asserts “that all appropriate measures Purdah and its consequence shall be taken to abolish existing law customs, regulations and practices which The purdah veil has also contributed arc discriminatory against women and to substantially in convincing the woman that establish adequate legal protection for she is after all a creature to be petted and equal rights of men and women in fondled and treated with care and caution. particular.” Though the Purdah had been originally designed to protect the weaker section Illiteracy and Poverty from the unwelcome gaze of strangers, it gradually became a symbol of delicacy, Female illiteracy though not solely by itself prestige and privilege, open only to the has contributed to the secondary role of opulent and not feasible to the have nots. the woman. Consequent to this, the greater The practice of complete purdah in South earning capacity of males over females has Western Asiatic countries, its partial also accelerated the pace of leadership of observance in Upper and North Western men not only at the village level but also India, the insistence on the part of blue in the employment, political and cultural blood on meekness, few words and hush levels bestowing a higher degree of hush silence as being fashionable and best importance, leadership and authority to characteristics of noble birth are powerful males over the females. These two factors factors in sealing lips of majority of well are common to developing as well as fully and semi-educated women in fast developed countries though with difference developing countries like rural India. in the degree of illiteracy. Thus the degrading of Eve could not be traceable An Odious Custom to ignorance only as this drawback equally applies to both men and women in Yet another feature indicating the woman’s developing countries as well as advanced inferiority to man is the hoary and inviolable countries. custom of wife - hospitality offered to guests, practised even by great Rishis in

127 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages ancient times as referred to by the version credit a place of honour in statesmanship of Jabali and Satyakama and the sage as was eloquently proved by Madam Svetakethu of immortal fame. This practice Pompadour and an equally talented lady is observed by Eskimos and several tribes Madam Maintenon of France and Queen in the world. Elizabeth I of Great Britain and coming to modern times, Rani Durga Devi of Divorce of Precept from Practice Maharashtra, the far famed Prime Minister of India, the heroic erstwhile Prime Minister Authors of the Hindu Puranas, no doubt, of Israel Golda Meir, Sirimavo, Prime Minister tried to salvage the feminine sex by of Sri Lanka and last but not the least the consciously or unconsciously giving the Africa’s first woman Premier Mrs. Elizabeth Goddess the first place while referring to Domintein of Bangui, a Central African the Divine couples as for instance in Seetha Republic. India can feel proud of having Rama”, “Parvathi Parameswara”, “ been the first country in the world to have Krishna”, but the reference did not had a woman Chief Justice (Kerala), half a materialise so far as humans are concerned. dozen State Women Ministers, two women Chief Ministers of Bihar and Orissa, a The fiction of the fickle female poetess in English of world standing and repute, Srimathi Sarojini Devi and one One of the unsavoury poetic descriptions Governor (Bengal) Padmaja Naidu, but as that degrade the woman in India is the already observed, one swallow does not appellation “Chanchala” which means make a summer. The notable example of fickle-minded. If this hesitancy on her part Madame Curie, the famous chemist and is canvassed to justify this insulting discoverer of Natural Radium and Polonium, attribute to her, it may be worthwhile to and that of her illustrious daughter Juliet investigate whether in the brain or the Curie, discoverer of artificial Radio activity, nerve content of a woman there is any both being Nobel Prize award winners, are speciality or peculiarity leading to that enough to prove that woman is in no defect. There are several historical respect inferior to the man. instances in which the women exhibited unequalled bravery, determination and Global Conspiracy perseverance outwitting the man like the ‘Rani of Jhansi,’ princess Samyukta, Seetha, One important factor that defies a logical and of Puranic fame. conclusion is that throughout the world including the much advanced countries the Cultural Eminence and Scholarship not inferiority of the woman is widely spread, the monopoly of men universally respected and sternly practised as if by a global conspiracy hatched and Though in scholarship and cultural unquestionably accepted simultaneously. eminence the woman did not register for Such a conclusion must be too big an herself a notable place, she has to her absurdity to be easily swallowed.

128 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Need for a deeper study inherited or inviolable, irremedial biological factors and set up, well man cannot cease Can these qualities be traceable to the to be man and woman ‘a woman.’ structural peculiarities in the framework of a female? Is it due to man’s greed and The traditions crack here and there woman’s inborn contentment? Is it the result of environment? Is this inferiority Even as I am writing this article news complex common to the animal world also? comes from the Vatican City dated 24-1- If so, is the tigress less ferocious than its 1975 that a 900-year-old tradition was male counterpart? Is a cow more subdued broken when a 27-year-old Ugandan than a bull? Is the inferiority complex woman, Miss Bernadette Olowo’s intuitive? accreditation was accepted on the The above are pertinent questions which presentation of her credentials to Pope deserve to be taken up by scientists for a Paul, as the first woman Ambassador to deeper study and purposeful research. the Holy See. Vatican’s position all these Meanwhile, women all over the world may 900 years has been against the cry hoarse over women’s rights and their accreditation of women ambassadors - a denial by their male partners. Normally, welcome news to the world women there need not be any fear that women agitators for equality with men. may eclipse the men and take to mass Another windfall to the British Women’s revenge against them for past wrongs and freedom movement and a huge crack in present indifference. Though fight that the citadel of the British Conservative Party women may be able to launch may not be is the victory of 49-year-old mother of of great magnitude. According to the twins, Mrs. Thatcher, who was elected as Christian faith, the woman is after all one the leader of the party an unprecedented rib of the man’s body. The Muslim faith step indeed in the annals of that party. does not at all recognise family raising Gods Mrs. Thatcher was formerly an Education and Goddesses. The Religion of the Hindus Minister and has University Degrees in conceives of their Almighty as a genderless Chemistry and Law. On February 4, this power which they pray to as Parasakthi year, when the election was held she polled i.e. Supreme Power, unrestricted by name, 130 votes to Mr. Heath’s 119. Now she is form, locality and origin and all pervading, in line to become the first woman head of omniscient and omnipotent. For many more the Government in the Western world, if years to come, man may perhaps continue the Conservatives win the next election, to be a man and woman a woman. If, in joining the ranks of the world figures, such this struggle a wonder has to result, the as India’s Indira Gandhi and Sri Lanka’s initiative must inevitably be taken by the Sirimavo Bandaranaike and the former women unsoiled by anger, hatred or revenge Israeli Premier Golda Meir. either on an individual or on a mass scale. If a woman has been ordained to be a woman by virtue of basic congenital,

129 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages some of those Oriental philosophers whose The Oriental View work had so much influence in Europe at of Women that time, pronouncements in favour of the social emancipation of women which are By ANANDA COOMARASWAMY almost verbally identical with those of modern Suffragists. “Our social condition,” T has been often assumed, by speakers wrote Ibn-Rushd, “does not permit women and writers on the present and past I to unfold all the resources that are in them; position of a woman in the West, that the it seems as if they were only meant to Oriental view of a woman is lower than the bear children and to suckle them. And it is Western; and statements involving this this state of servitude that has destroyed assumption are often made, as if the in them the capacity for great things. That assumption were an admitted fact. It must is the reason why we seldom find among in the first place be observed that there is us, women endowed with any great moral no “absolute Western” and no “absolute qualities; their lives pass away like those Eastern” points of view. It is a mistake to of plants and they are a burden to their assume that “East is East and West is West husbands. From this cause arises the and never the twain shall meet”; attitudes misery that devours our cities, since there of reverence, comradeship or contempt are twice as many women as men and they towards women find expression at various are unable to procure their means of times in the history of civilisation alike the livelihood by their own industry”. It is true West and in the East. that the early Germans honoured women; but the later Germans thought that they Inferiority of women not an Oriental knew better. It was the essentially Western view materialism of Luther that had the main share in the degradation of a woman It is sometimes suggested that Christianity, accompanying the Reformation. “If a an Oriental religion, has imposed upon woman becomes weary and at last died European women a position of inferiority. from bearing,” says Luther, “that matters But it was certainly not Christ, who was not. Let her only die from bearing; she is an Oriental, who treated women as inferior there to do it.” And, again, she “must beings. It was Paul, a Greek, who was neither begin nor complete anything primarily responsible for the low spiritual without the man; where he is, there must status of a woman in the Christian Church. she be, and bend before him as before her From this position she only temporarily master, whom she shall fear, and to whom emerged in that Oriental period of post- she shall be subject and obedient”. classic European culture when the Church first accepted marriage as a sacrament and Comparison: a proof men worshipped God in the form of a Woman - as they still do in the East, It is It is not indeed, by contrasting the religious noteworthy that we find in the writings of standpoints of the East and the West that

130 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the supposed inferior position of a woman and of Tara. We must remember that the in the East can be demonstrated. At the gods are shaped by human beings in their present day there are millions of Orientals own image ; the status of women on earth who worship the Divine Life in the image of is reflected in the status of goddesses. a woman. A woman is honoured in religious On the other hand one might point out literature and art. Mahadev, addressing how the whole history of mythology and Uma, in the Mahabharatha’ says: “Thou, O art in Greece reflects the gradual Lady, knowest both the Self and the Not degradation from an ancient ideal of high Self. Thou art skilled in every work. Thou companionship (exactly corresponding to art endowed with self-restraint and with the Indian conception of the feminine perfect same-sightedness in respect of principle in the cosmos as Sakti) to that of every creature . . . Thy energy and power the Hausfrau in a patriarchal community. are equal to my own, and Thou hast not If we turn from this question of the inner shrunk from the most severe austerities.” attitude to that of social status, we shall Again, in the ‘Ramayana’, when Rama leaves find that the Oriental woman has always his kingdom to live as a hermit in the forest, enjoyed certain advantages which the Vasishta, pleading that Sita should not Western woman has, at the best, very follow him, suggests that she lately won: e.g. the universal right of should reign in his stead: “Sita will occupy Muhammedan women to hold and inherit Rama’s seat. Of all those who marry, the property in their own names. The Oriental wife is the soul. Sita will govern the earth, woman has also more real power of control as she is Rama’s self”. Sita, however, in her own home than most Western chooses to follow Rama. women; her word is law even to her grown- up sons. It is very well known that in Burma The Law Book of Manu women are more independent and more happy than in perhaps any other country In the great law book of Manu we find in the world; and, indeed, one has only to “Where women are honoured, there the return to London from any Oriental country gods are pleased ; but where they are not and contrast the facial expression of most honoured, no sacred rite yields rewards.” women there with the facial expression of There is, too, the Indian saying; “Thou most women in the East to realise that shalt not strike a woman even with a the latter are the happier. flower.” In Sufi mysticism, the Beloved (feminine) is “all that lives” - God: the Need for Reform Lover (masculine), is “a dead thing” - the individual soul lacking the Divine Life. Both in the East and in the West, the social One must consider also the representation position of woman needs reformation of a of Divinity symbolised a feminine Hindu and drastic character. When one reflects, Buddhist art; there are forms ranging from however, upon the opposition to woman’s the dread image of Kali, Destroyer of Time, advance characteristic of Western to the compassionate, tender forms of Uma universities, legal and medical associations,

131 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages and of Parliament and still more the manner need each other. What is needed at present than the fact of it, it is difficult to feel is that women should be allowed to discover that the Western woman is so much to be for themselves what is their “sphere,” rather envied. than that they should continue to occupy It is surely a tragedy that out of all the perforce the sphere which men (rightly or women in England between the ages of wrongly) have at various times allowed to fifteen and fifty scarcely more than half them in the patriarchal ages. This necessity are married. In all that this implies lies the is as much a necessity for the West as for comparative wickedness of modern Western the East. industrial civilisation, which sets a premium on vice by saying, “Seek indulgence, but The East and the West beware of children”. Neither this, nor sweated labour nor its result - street Social status, as I have said, needs solicitation, are of the East. reformation both in the East and in the I would admit women to absolute equality West. But the West far more than the East of opportunity with men in all respects. needs a change of heart. The Western view But I think that the State most fortunate of sex is degraded in material contrasted wherein most women between the ages of with the Eastern. Women are not lightly twenty and forty are primarily concerned spoken of; or written of, in the East as with the making of children, beautiful in they are so often in the West. Sex for the every sense. To this end, women must Oriental is a sacrament. For the European obtain economic security, either from it is a pleasure. With the consciousness of individuals or from the State. this and much more that might be added to it, I feel that the West has at least as The right to be themselves much to learn from the East of reverence to women, as the East has to learn from There can be no freedom for women which the West. And it is better for reformers, does not include the freedom to have, as whether in the East or in the West, to well as not to have children. It is ultimately work together for a common end than to I conceive - at least, I hope - for the right pride themselves upon their own to be themselves, rather than for the right supposedly superior achievement. to become more like men, that Suffragettes are, however unconsciously, fighting. There can be no freedom for women till good motherhood is regarded as an intrinsic glory. The East has always recognised the fundamental differences in the psychology of men and women. I do not think that any attempt to minimise or to ignore these differences can be successful. It is because men and women are different that they

132 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages

The Burden of My Tale By SATYA

MAN waited. He sampled the betel Arolls from an ornate silver tray by his side, a blue veil of aromatic smoke obscured the room in half revealing lines. From some remote corner of the apartment the musician’s muted notes rose and floated through the air. Then there was a hush! From within came the rustling of garments and tinkling of ankle bells. Tiny feet, etched with filigreed patterns of red, ankles adorned with delicate silver bells pattered across the inner hall and paused - just for a moment before the entrance. The folds of a curtain parted, revealing the chiselled perfection of a beautiful girl. Her raven hair braided with flowers; rows of pearls playing upon her heaving bosom; a smile lighted up her ruby lips as her eyes silently sized up the waiting man. She entered and made a low bow. He was captivated. The beauty started her dance and he looked at her enraptured at the charm and rhythm of her movement. Who was she? A woman or some celestial being? Herein lies the burden of our tale. protection of princes and kings. They were asked to serve only those who offered In the dim past them sulka (fee). These women were also told to please the priests by giving gifts It is said that once, long ago, there was a and seek their blessing. They were war between the Gods and the demons in expected to observe vows, fasts and which innumerable demons lost their lives. prayers on Sundays falling on Hasta, Their women were left powerless and at Pushya, and Punarvasu asterisms. They the mercy of marauders. The king of Gods were asked to anoint their bodies with then asked these harassed maidens to perfumed-water and then worship Kama, become dancers in King’s courts, employ the god of love. After the worship, perfumes themselves in the service of temples, so and gifts were to be offered to the priests that they could have the patronage and to invoke their blessings. This was to be

133 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages observed for a period of thirteen months, The origin of the institution is said to have after which they were to bring this period come from the sixteen thousand Gopis, of fasting and prayer to a close by again who, after Krishna’s Nirvana, were offering gifts to priests. Gifts were to dishonoured by the Abhiras. Upon their include clothes, ornaments, bed linen and request, the sage Dalbhya enlightened other articles. This was to be followed by them about the origin of “dancing girls“, the incantation “Oh Vishnu! I do not see harking back to the story of the Asura any difference between Kama and Kesava: maidens and advised them to go through as you never allow Kamala to leave you the rituals and conduct to be observed by likewise, O chief of the Gods I accept this such maidens. offering of my sanctified body.” In the Epic pattern of society, while the sages and seers performed their penances The Call of the flesh in the forests for the attainment of the ultimate goal, the people on the towns led This perhaps, is the earliest account of a material life in which these maidens played the life of these maidens purport to have no insignificant part. They were esteemed been engaged since the time of Devasura by all for their training in arts. They were war. Though Vedic culture stresses the also favoured by kings and so often importance of moral values and accompanied Royal marches to the battle- metaphysical speculations, it has not fields or hunting grounds. This practice ignored the necessity of the material seems to have continued into the medieval pleasures of life and there is evidence to period. show that even men of eminence often Apart from accompanying Royal Marches, frequented the haunts of vice. The web of these comely maidens played significant charm that women are apparently said to parts in the lives of ordinary people. Their weave is a universally accepted fact. In services were essential on festival Rig Veda, we find references to these girls, occasions for entertainments and as also when Usha is likened to a young maiden to welcome many a warrior on his victorious dancing her way through the heavens with march home. In the Mahabharata, the a host of admirers at her heels. According incident quoted is that of Virata, who upon to the Atharva Veda, these fair ones are his victorious return from the battle-field, believed to have been possessed by the was welcomed by such young maidens. Gandharvas during village dances and On Krishna’s peace mission to Duryodhana, festivals. The term ‘Gandharva grahita,’ is he was welcomed by these maidens who a practice where a maiden is ceremoniously were engaged specially to attend on Him. married to a deity or a woodland spirit. The life pattern of these ladies were, however, not dwelt upon in the Vedas and The Girls Epics. In the Hari Vamsa Charitra there are many descriptions of the Samajas, Yatras In Epics and Puranas, the institution of and Ghoshtis in which these ladies played dancing girls is found to have a legal status. a major role.

134 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Their diverse roles became a source of revenue to the State. Different categories of them contributed “ Samaja” indicates a social gathering with their mite to the State by way of taxes. much fun and frolic and abundant music, Kautilya uses different terms to dance and dramatics in which these differentiate them - ganika, pratiganika, maidens played a vital part both as rupajiva, vesya, dasi, devadasi, pumschali, participants and spectators. References to silpa karika, kaurikastri and rupa dasi - to such Samajas arranged by Dhritarashtra indicate the different categories of whom and Krishna are found in the Mahabharata are unkindly called as courtesans and and Hari Vamsa Charitra. prostitutes. Their rights and privileges were In the Yatras, too, these girls played an well protected. In times of war they were important part. Hari Vamsa Charitra refers called upon to act as spies, for they alone to the yatra and Yadavas undertook to could by their winsome ways, persuade the visit the Pindaraka Thirtha, in which large enemy to yield secrets which would numbers of dancing girls accompanied them. otherwise have been difficult to obtain. Buddhist literature has abundant examples According to Kautilya, again, any woman of these maidens and many are the stories possessing beauty, charm and proficiency that speak highly of the beauty and in arts could take to the profession of a character of these women. Ambapali who ganika. The unfortunate ones, in those later became a Buddhist Nun, (the first to days, were a class more by their career be accepted and initiated by Tathagatha) than by caste or birth. This period also is herself an example of all that is glorious had government-run bars and saloons, in the dancing girls. where provisions were legally made Jain literature also refers to them as highly available to people to gamble, drink and cultured subjects of the society. The early indulge in love-play. It appears that the girls referred to in Jain literature were State during that period had recognised supposed to have acquired proficiency in man’s thirst for material pleasures and all the seventy-two celebrated arts in the hence eliminated the possibility of tradition of India. exploitation by making them lawfully An analysis of the seventy-two arts, available. however reveals that many of the skills fell to men whereas these young ladies Kalidasa and his times were merely acquainted with a smattering of it. It is clear that these maidens were The life during the Gupta period can best to hit the high water mark of culture and be glanced from the works of Kalidasa. as such they were highly esteemed for their Artists and poets picked from every-day social graces. life the characters they needed for their works, though the theme itself might not Their Institution be of their own times. The characters of During the Mauryan period, these Kalidasa’s works are vibrant with life and entertainers formed an institution which with the joy of living. To him Indian culture

135 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages was an indivisible whole where, philosophy cared for, and who were perhaps the guiding and religion flourished in their divine stars of his beautiful descriptions. From partnership with arts and material the literature of this period again it is achievements and pleasures. All these evident that courtesans were beautiful elements were essential to life. In women of culture and training. Meghaduta women from various walks Sometimes, they married one of their many suitors, with whom an emotional bond had been formed. Medieval Sanskrit literature has several accounts of these girls, their characters, the means by which they extracted money from the men who thronged them. The general description of their physical charms and proficiency in dance, music, poetry and other forms of art indicates a continuation of their culture. A story of this institution through the ages reveals another aspect, that of the behavioural pattern of the men who gathered round these women. Material pleasures were then considered to be an essential part of their lives and these they courted with unembarrassed zeal. The State’s recognition and protection of ‘the of life are described in a language that institution’ raised it to a level of other vividly paints a word picture before the professions. The very fact that men, high mind’s eye. These pen portraits paint the up in the social ladder once sponsored temple dancers. these women, lent the profession a dignity He says: “The cloud will catch a glimpse that drew to its fold women of culture, of the temple of Mahakala of the temple grace and poise. dancers and their elaborate foot work. The The modern institution of prostitution shows cloud will be able to gaze at the chauri deep degradation of an already insulting bearers carrying chauris with jewelled profession. The open recognition has turned handles. These dancing girls wait into clandestine trysts. Men who visit these expectantly for rain drops to come and women do so slyly, insulting themselves soothe their aching feet. The glances they and injuring the women they court. cast on the cloud are as bright as the black bees.” The Finale In Ritu Samhara again, it is these coy maidens described in an ecstatic flow of Once again night seeps in through dimly lit words. The life of Kalidasa too gives a lattice works of through the balcony. glimpse of these maidens whom he himself Muffled laughter and loud music blare out

136 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages of the rat-hole tenements of the buildings The Position of the that line the lanes on either side. In the door-ways stand the time-ravaged forms Women before the of women who dumbly speak their sad story Advent of the Moghuls through the mute defiance in their eyes. A man huddles through the lane and stumbles into one of these apartments. He is not Women and Contemporary Politics there caught by the charm and grace of (1526 A.D.-1627 A.D.) art. He is merely attracted by a marketable piece available for a price! His entrance N account of the scarcity of any and exit are as fast as it is furtive . . . Opositive information, it is difficult to Afraid of discovery is he? determine the rights the Turk-Mongol The woman he courts is not even the women enjoyed in Politics. The only thing gracious companion of yore, but a piece that can be said with some certainty is of flesh for purchase. He has neither that among both the Mughals and the admiration nor respect for her, nor has she Turks, the women did enjoy some political or the society for him. Together, they are privileges. degraded in a hovel. That then is the end The family of Babur allowed their families of the tale I started, ere I wandered sufficient political rights and this enabled through the dimly lit corridors of time. Look them to take an active part in politics. In back oh man on something which is after 1914 AD. when Babur was hardly 11 years all a sequel of actions of your own making. of age, and was confronted with two powerful armies, he was assisted by his grand-mother Ehsan Daulat Begum. Rani Karmavati, Maham Anaga, Durgagati and Bakhtunnisa Begum were all capable women who exerted the power of their intellect and shrewd political sense in the administration of the days. Another striking personality of this period was Nurjahan Begum, the daughter of Itimad-ud-Daula, who married Jehangir in 1611 AD. She served as a sound adviser to her husband. During the early reign of Shah Jahan his beloved wife, Mumtaj Mahal, wielded political power. She died in 1631 AD. Then came Jahanara Begum, the eldest daughter of Shah Jahan, who took an active part in political life. She played a very important part in peace negotiations. Raushanara Begum, the second daughter of Shah Jahan,

137 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages was a partisan of Aurangazeb. The property. As regards the women of the daughter of Aurangazeb also took an active lower classes they helped their husbands part in the administration of the country. in various spheres. They took an active Zebunnisa was an ardent partisan of her part in agriculture. They made weapons rebellion in 1681 AD. Another daughter of such as bows and arrows. They also Aurangazeb was Zinatunnisa Begum who engaged themselves in weaving, embroidery was entrusted with the care of the and basket-making. Some of them were Maratha-Captives - the widow of Sambhaji employed in palaces as maids. and her son Shahu. It was she who protected them from her father’s wrath. Apparel During the reign of Jehangir Shah, Lal Kunwar, a favourite lady of the Emperor, In the early medieval period women had asserted her authority in the management started wearing the Sari and they covered of the Empire. During 1712-1713 AD. Farrukh the upper part of their body with angiya Siyar’s mother played a fairly significant (bodice). They used a long dupatta or role in politics. odhani (scarf) of different types when they went out. In northern and western India The Old Order Changeth Lahanga (long skirt) was often worn by ladies. Here we can also make reference In the post-Aurangazeb period we come to Kanchuk and Choli (blouse) used by across a set of women different from those women. They changed their dresses of the preceding period. Instead of the according to the changing seasons. In Queens, Princesses or the wives of some summer they wore light clothes of fine nobles and State officers belonging either texture. They were particularly fond of to the Mughal or Rajput families, there came coloured and printed dresses. into lime-light women of low origin, who were highly ambitious, scheming and self- Ornaments centered. They pursued their selfish interests, by taking advantage of the Ornaments were fairly popular among political crisis, social and intellectual Indian women. They adorned themselves deterioration. They spread their ugly with flowers and jewels. The ornaments tentacles and grasped whatever little that were commonly used were shishphul Imperial power that was still left over. It or sikhapasa (worn on forehead), ear rings, also appears that some of the ladies were bangles, bracelets, rings, waist-belts, anxious to bolster up the tottering power Payal, etc. nose ring was practically almost of the Emperor. Since they could not do it unknown during the Hindu period. The openly, they did it secretly. ornaments were usually made of gold, silver, and various precious stones. Even poor The Economic Sphere women used ornaments made generally of In the economic sphere the husband and ivory, brass and glass. wife were the joint owners of household

138 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages

The Middle Period By K. M. PANIKKAR

Borrowed prejudices

N the Orient, whatever the religious Ibackground of the people, there is very little feeling against women as such. Not a few of the existing prejudices and disabilities owe their origin to the West. For instance, Besides ornaments the women also the concept that woman is of no use attached great importance to their toilet. outside her home is not easily acceptable They used cosmetics and unguents of to countries which have had women rulers various kinds such as sandal paste mixed and women warriors. A remarkable woman with saffron. They plaited their hair in plays her part. No public opposition different styles and used flowers and hindered the work of Sarojini Naidu or Rama ornaments to decorate them. Hair was Bai Ranade. A good cause never failed in combed in broad plaits or loose tresses. India for want of support. While some of The most popular coiffure amongst women our law-givers were harsh on women, was a large bun at the nape of the neck in religions never laid any restriction on those which they often used strings of jewels. who sought salvation. The names of They applied collyrium to their eyes, Avvaiyar, the Tamil Saint, in the South, vermillion on the forehead and also and Meera Bai in the North, are great ones decorated their face, on lips, on the tips honoured by all. Maharani Lakshmi Bai of of their fingers, toes and palm, etc. Travancore and Ahalya Bai Holkar of Indore Different types of dyes and ointments were were noted for their humane and efficient used. administration. On the whole we see that in the Indian Society of the pre-Turkish period: the The Deterioration position of women was not altogether disappointing. Though the right of freedom The period from the invasion of India by and honour enjoyed by women in the Muhammed of Ghori to the establishment ancient period gradually dwindled in the of British authority in the second half of social sphere, yet what remained with them the 18th century witnessed in general a was not altogether insignificant. deterioration of the position of women, in India. Over the whole of the Gangetic Valley social conditions remained unsettled for nearly 300 years - in fact till the time of

139 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the great Moghuls. The breakdown of social Sarasvathi, the Goddess of Learning, as institutions, which is unavoidable during being of air colour, did not evidently know periods of continuous invasion, the that she Vajji) was dark! While it may be upsetting of traditional political structures, argued that popular devotional poetry in the vast migrations of people and the regional languages may not necessarily economic depression, which follows indicate a high standard of education, it is prolonged unsettlement - all these must obvious that works in classical Sanskrit have contributed to a general depression could only be the result) of a systematic of social life, especially among women, and sustained study of the classics. during the centuries of conquest. Rigorous In a 15th century Malayalam work entitled seclusion of women became the rule, as a Chandrotsavam there is a passage which result both of the imitation of the system gives the general reading of educated of purdah which the Muslims enforced and women and this includes Sakuntalam, a sense of fear arising from the lack of Malavikagnimitram and other Sanskrit general security. No longer do we hear of dramas. Till the end of our period this parivrajikas or wandering nuns who had tradition continued, for we have at the access equally to palaces and huts, a end of the 18th century the case of feature of Indian society. With the 15th Manorama Tharnpurathi of Calicut, who century the situation underwent a change. was known by the name of Manorama The general revival of Hindu life which the because of her proficiency in Proudha period witnessed also led to considerable Manorama, the classical work on Sanskrit improvement in the status or women. grammar. Two generations of Sanskrit scholars in Kerala were her disciples. Conditions in South India A Galaxy of women Conditions in South India were of course different. As society was much more In the field of administration Indian women settled and was not subjected to the produced some notable figures during this pressure of continuous invasion, the period. There was Kudramba, the Kakateya position of women underwent no serious queen of whom Marco Polo speaks; Rezia deterioration. Education was fairly Begum (13th century) of whom it was said widespread, as the number of women poets that her one weakness was that she was both in the regional languages and in a woman; Chandbibi, who appeared on the Sanskrit clearly proves. Ganga Devi, author ramparts of the fort of Ahmednagar dressed of the epic Madhura Vijayam (14th century) in male attire and put heart in the defenders who was wife of Vira Kampa Raya and of that town against the powers of Akbar “Tirumalamba Devi, author of Varadambika himself; Tara Bai, the Maharata heroine who Parinayam, are but two of the many poets was the life and soul of Maharata whose names have come down to us. Vajji, resistance during the last determined the Karnataka poetess, even exclaimed in onslaught of Aurangazeb; Mangammal, a verse that the author who described whose benign rule is still a green memory

140 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages in the South, and Ahalya Bai that such seclusion, at Holkar, to whose least among Kings and administrative genius Sir Nobles, was practised John Malcolm has paid a even in earlier days. The magnificent tribute. avarodha women of the The Moghul princesses of court in ancient times course played a notable had generally been in part in the court life of Agra purdah, at least in the and Delhi. Jehanara, the North; but the practice partisan of Dara Shikoh, was not widely prevalent. Roshanara, the partisan of In the Kathasarit Sagara Aurangazeb, Zebunnissa, (11th century) there is a the daughter of remarkable statement Aurangazeb, whose poems about this custom by a (under the pen name of princess, Ratna Prabha, Makhfi) have come down to which I quote here: “I us and others represented consider that the strict the culture of the court. seclusion of women is a mere social custom; or rather a folly, Jija Bai - True to type produced by jealousy. It is of no use whatever. Women of good family are But the general state of Indian womanhood guarded by their own virtue as by their cannot well be judged from the lives of only chamberlain. Even God himself can queens and princesses. Jija Bai, the mother scarcely guard the unchaste.” of Shivaji, is more typical of Indian Even after seclusion of women had become womanhood than the bejewelled princesses more strict among the higher classes, there who wrote poetry, played within the walls is no reason to think that the generality of of their palaces or administered States. women in the villages observed purdah. She was a true type of Indian womanhood, Among the cultivating classes especially a devoted mother, strong-willed and the system was certainly not in vogue even autocratic at home but wholly subordinating among the Hindus of North India. hereself to the interests of her son. Polygamy was of course legal and permissible, but outside the princely and The Purdah noble classes and certain very orthodox castes like the Kulin Brahmins of Bengali, it We may now consider the social conditions was not a widely prevalent custom. of India during the period as they affected Indian women. We have already noted that The Sati question at least in North India the seclusion of woman had become the rule among the A more interesting question is that of sati. higher classes. There is evidence to show It is commonly held by European writers

141 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages that, before the custom was abolished by The Hindu women’s legal position law by Lord William Bentick, Indian Women immolated themselves on the funeral pyres The legal position of Hindu women of their dead husbands. especially from the point of view of In South India the practice of Sati was inheritance - was again, generally speaking, practically unknown and in North India unsatisfactory. Though the doctrine of among the common people there was never stridhana (or women’s property) was any question of sati. How prevalent was it liberally interpreted under some schools of among the princely and noble families during Hindu Law, women were generally excluded our period? A distinguished English observer, from succession to property and this led writing in 1808, remarked that though he to their dependence on men. But in had lived in India for many years and estimating the effect of this economic travelled extensively, he had not come factor the significance of the Hindu joint across a single case of sati. Undoubtedly family has to be kept in mind. In the it was practised in royal families and in circumstances of the time, the joint family rare cases among others who considered was a source of great strength to women. themselves superior, but the idea that sati It was a woman’s realm in many ways, and was generally practised among Hindu considerable mitigation of the effects of women during this period is altogether: the system of social seclusion, economic unhistorical. dependence and lack of facilities for school education was provided by this institution. Child marriage - Popular among a In sum, it can be said that while in the minority earlier period of Muslim invasions the position of Indian women in Northern India Among what may be called the Brahmanical tended to deteriorate, in the period classes child marriage was the norm; but immediately following, there was sufficient even here there were notable exceptions. social integration which enabled Indian Among the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala womanhood to retrieve some of the and among the Kashmiris, the practice of position which it had lost. In the area south prepuberty marriage was not prevalent at of the Vindhyas the evolution of social life any time. Among the Kshatriya families also was more normal and consequently in it was not considered necessary to have almost every field there was no central marriages performed before puberty. With direction to social thinking and there was the common people, of course, it was never no machinery like organised public opinion the case. It was therefore only a small for giving effect to essential reforms. Social section of people who followed this custom customs therefore undoubtedly tended to which came for some reason to be stagnate, a factor accelerated by the considered a special characteristic of Hindu break-down of settled government with the life. decline of Moghul power.

142 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Borrowed Customs M. Mujeeb

T is quite evident that, in spite of Ithe Islamic doctrine of equality of man and woman before God, certain changes crept in when Islam spread outside Arabia. Among Arabs, divorce and remarriage were not considered of much consequence and did not cause much concern. Arab civilisation was, no doubt, masculine in character, but the women were assertive enough not to let the men dominate absolutely. In India, with the large admixture of races that must have taken place and because of the influence of the sentiments with which the environment was permeated, a civilization that was masculine in character became a civilization that was dominated by the male. There was no formal changes in the law regarding the rights and duties of women, but there was considerable instances for divorce or the remarriage of change in the attitude towards these laws. widows in the chronicles of the sufis, and incompatibility does not seem to have been Women and the laws that governed considered a social problem requiring them attention. The duty of a woman to guard herself and her reputation was emphasized. Marriage so far as the woman was Girls could only meet members of their own concerned, gradually assumed a finality that family, even grown-up women were does not seem to have been intended by expected to avoid talking to or even being Islamic doctrine. Shaikh Nizamuddin’s seen by strangers. mother consulted him about the advisability of asking for Khula or dissolution of the Secluded Life marriage contract of his sister, whose husband was not treating her properly, but Bashari Muquddassi writing in 985 noted finally both decided to wait and see how that in Multan women did not go out decked the relationship developed. There are no 143 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages in fine clothes, they were not to be seen the bride and bridegroom agreed in the in the bazaar, and women did not talk to presence of witness or among the Shiahs, men in public. Mixed gathering even of through wakils or authorised members of the same family, apart from representatives, remained the chief feature occasions of marriage or other family of the marriage ceremony. festivities were rare. As the circumstances did not exist in which attachment could The Marriage develop and find expression in various forms of affection and loyalty before marriage or It had become the custom by the middle without marriage, conjugal relationship was of the fourteenth century for the bride and governed by a concept of justice. Man and bridegroom’s people to form two opposite wife were expected to respect and fulfill parties. When the bridegroom went with each other’s desire. Other things were by his party to the bride’s house, he wore no means incidental or secondary and the garlands of flowers that covered his head husband who did not show proper regard and fell to his waist, so that his face for his wife could not hope to earn social became invisible. His party carried short esteem. But women were not generally sticks. On their arrival at the entrance to considered full person whose advice was the bride’s quarters, they found her party to be sought and experience relied upon, in array, determined to resist their entrance and conclusions were drawn from this belief to the bride’s quarters. When the by men according to their temperament bridegroom’s party had broken through, he and culture. rode up to a pulpit with three steps, on the highest of which the bride was seated, Women’s role in Celebration surrounded by women. As the bridegroom approached, they stood up and began to The main interest of the women was the sing and recite the takbir while drums were celebration of marriages, births, the beaten outside. The bridegroom alighted ‘aqiquah’, the circumcision of boys, their from his horse and bowed to the ground. first lesson (bismillah) and the observance Then the bride stood up and offered the of customs in regard to mourning for the groom a pan with her hands. The dead. The description we have of a bridegroom sat down on the pulpit, a step marriage by Ibn Battutah already shows lower than the bride and coins were considerable Hindu influence. The bride and showered on both. Finally the bridegroom bridegroom were segregated in their own stood up, took his bride’s hand and helped houses, their hands and feet were dyed her down the pulpit. He led the way out with henna. Muslim law only requires four and she followed, getting into her doli as witnesses to a marriage, two signing on he got on his horse. behalf of the bride and two on behalf of the bridegroom. This law continued to be observed and the drawing up and witnessing of a marriage contract to which

144 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Identity with Hindu marriages of engaged to sing at all kinds of ceremonies women in the Muslim Period and give advice as to what was generally considered auspicious or proper that un- The Indian Muslim marriage ceremony must Islamic customs were adopted. At marriage have had many more features borrowed parties, of course, the women singers from the Hindus. Tradition ascribes to Amir provided most of the music and the noise. Khusrau the composition of the songs known as Babul, which were sung later at The relation between men and women the time when the bride left her parent’s house. They represent the most un-Islamic The social relations between men and feature of the Indian Muslim marriage, women were, in all their aspects the result because they embody the concept that of compartmentalized thinking, which had when the daughter left her parent’s house become established as a tradition and gave she left it for good, breaking old a stereo-typed character to the behaviour relationships in order to establish new ones of both. The ‘free’ woman was entitled as in her husband’s house. This concept was a child to a proper upbringing, to affection not realized in practice. The parents of and such instruction and education as the girl never considered themselves would enable her to maintain the cultural absolved from their obligations of love and standards of her family; as a girl she would solicitude and cases where the wife left be protected from such influences as were her husband’s house because of likely to mislead her. incompatibility and her refusal to return It was her right to have a suitable husband was supported by her family must have found for her, as to die unmarried was been as frequent earlier as they were later. considered a misfortune not only for the As the proper marriage was that which took young woman but also for her family. It place within the Khufu, that is, within was believed that the law of inheritance families that possessed the same social and the mihr provided her economic status and cultural forms and cousin security. But even if the law of inheritance marriages were preferred, because they was strictly followed, which most probably kept the girl within the same family, the was not the general rule, women did not question of a married daughter breaking have the opportunity of gaining that off old relationships generally did not arise. experience of the world and its affairs which was essential for enabling them to Singers the cause administer their property. Mihr was money given to the woman by her husband as a Marriage was a ceremony in which the part of the marriage contract. women of the family had the decisive voice, and it was through them that practices The Marital Status which might be crudely described as un- Islamic crept in. It was probably because It could not serve as a means of women who were singers by caste were subsistance to a woman who was divorced

145 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages and in fact merely indicated her status. or among such women as were technically After marriage, a woman’s position was classed as courtesans, but were often given governed by the idea of Justice. A woman an education which was much wider both could, no doubt, remonstrate with her as regards knowledge as well as experience husband if he wants to marry other women. than that of the ‘free’ women. They could, She could object to his marrying for the if they are in disposition, be friends and second time, and induce her parents and companions, because the restrictions which her family to exercise such pressure on kept the free woman within her house did her husband as would dissuade or prevent not apply to the courtesan. him from taking this step. But there was no legal means of prohibiting a second The Other Woman marriage or a third or a fourth, unless the husband bound himself in the marriage Courtesans were brought up in a certain contract not to marry again during the life way. They were taught to distrust men, time of his wife. Suspicion does not form to take advantage of all their weakness the proper beginning for a relationship in and use all possible means to accumulate which everything depends on adaptation resources in the form of cash or jewellery and adjustment and though there may have that would enable them to pass their old been marriage contracts in which age with as much freedom from care as obligations other than those in regard to possible. There were courtesans of all Mihr were included. The general practice types, but whatever the type, they were must have been to avoid everything that expected to fulfil the needs of what we savoured of a formal approach or a legal understand today by social life. They could determination of rights. converse, they could amuse, in their houses, they could provide men with The woman - the loser opportunities of coming together and talking freely. Though because of their The women were therefore, the losers profession they were not considered a part whenever marital relations became of respectable society, the compartment- unpleasant. Opinion, both legal and social, alized thinking we have mentioned above obliged the husband to be ‘Just’ towards did not consider it wrong or reprehensible his wife. But the idea of social life was even for respectable men to enjoy the different for both. It was considered proper company of courtesans. for women to associate with women, and for men to associate with men. There was Free woman - was not to be talked no ideal of companionship in married life. about The wife, if she wanted friendship, would have had to look for it among women of There is hardly any story or anecdote in her own class and status. the literature of this period with love of The man, if he wanted companionship, man and woman as the theme in which the would have had to look for it among men heroine is a ‘ free’ woman. The beauty and

146 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the sentiments of a ‘free’ woman may have behaviour. This tended to heighten been considered too pure to be the subject susceptibility to an unnatural degree and of description or discussion in poetry or to prevent the creation of those emotional prose; in any case, a taboo is noticeable. defences in women which are the On the other hand, a poet or a writer had guarantees of adult freedom and true complete freedom if his subject was a slave morality. The men were not subject to any girl, a non-Muslim woman or a mythical kind of control. It became important, person or a fairy. There is a touching story therefore, to protect ‘free’ women, to see in the Jawami al Kalim about the love of a that they did not find themselves in man and a slave girl and obviously the situations where strangers could take object in relating the story is to show how advantage of them or where the exercise intense and edifying love can be. But there of self-control became necessary. They was a growing tendency to regard woman were secluded not only from the company as a temptation and a snare. This was a but from the sight of those who were reaction against the evil consequences of strangers, as well as those among their having a society infested with courtesans relations with whom marriage was and slave girls, which is well illustrated in theoretically possible. an anecdote in the Siyar al-Awliya, a This did not mean, however, that they were related by Shaikh Nizamuddin. confined to their homes. They visited each other, they attended fairs and the The Norms for “Free Woman and free celebration of the death anniversaries of Man” saints, they went to recite prayers (fatihah) at the tombs of their dead In the first place, the kind of women classed relatives. They used dolis of various shapes as singers seems to have moved about and sizes for conveyance, but women of freely and it was the look-out of the men Turkish families also rode on horseback. concerned to see that they did not get They were covered from head to foot, with involved in any way. Secondly, it was only a slit in front of the eyes to enable assumed that a woman could want only them to see the way. But their going about one thing from a man. Thirdly, a man was by themselves created law and order deemed to be incapable of controlling problems, specially because they had often himself and the sight or touch of a woman to pass through quarters of the city set in train emotional and physiological inhabited by women who were forced into processes which could have only one bad ways and their being ‘free’ and result. It is for this reason that in books of respectable women did not make any fiqh we find endless speculations on the difference to the type of men that hung consequences of a man seeing or touching around such places. In Delhi, Firuz Tughlaq the hands, arms, face, etc., of women who took the extreme step of prohibiting women are related to his wife. It followed logically from going out unaccompanied. that ‘freemen and women’ should, even in their own houses, strictly regulate their

147 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The Divine Messengers and lived many years to grace and bless the land. As a child she was abandoned by her parents and was later picked up by a wandering minstrel and fostered with love NDIA is the mother of Sages and Seers, and care. Though revered and courted by thinkers and philosophers. Her culture I the royalty, she always identified herself has gathered an appeal that arises out of with the meek and the lowly. Her golden the most glorious of all experiences - words are even today remembered and devotion. The Lord and His play is the theme adhered to as rules of right living. Once of all her art. when asked to define the four Purusharthas, she replied “Giving alms is Andal Dharma, the righteous path is Artha, perfect love between man and woman Andal is one of the twelve Alwars or Kama, relinquishing all these with the heart Vaishnawa Saints and the only woman saint set on God is Moksha”. among them. Her songs express her boundless love for the Lord whom she Mangayarkkarasi acknowledged as her master. God-love is the theme of her songs. What is known as At a time when bigotry and intolerance bridal mysticism finds its fullest expression reigned supreme, the name of queen in her spontaneous outbursts. Her melodies Mangayarkkarasi stands out. She was not portraying her dream experience of her union only a queen by birth, her regal stand is with the Lord is even today sung at the further established when her faith was weddings of her earthly counterparts. threatened by Jains. The king, her husband Andal’s words have been a source of joy was a convert to this faith. With extreme and comfort to the people of Tamil Nadu tact and caution she invited the great saint for over Twelve Hundred Years. Sambandar and entreated him to win back the king and all his subjects to Shaivism. Avvaiyar The result was obvious. The queen won, and we see in Mangaiyarkkarasi a unique Avvaiyar or merely “That Dame” has no model of Tamil womanhood, political name. Even her own name is not known. diplomacy, religious freedom and highest All that is known of her was that she dedication to godliness. roamed about the country singing and befriending people all over the land. Legend Tilakavati has it that a local chieftain was once divinely endowed with a fruit that would Women have been devoted mothers, confer longevity on the eater. Knowing that devoted wives and daughters. As a this longevity would be of immense use to devoted sister, the life of saint Tilakavati the world if Avvai ate it, he passed it on is a class of itself. Tilakavati was the oldest to her. She ate it without knowing the intent child of devout parents. As was the custom

148 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages of those days Tilakavati was betrothed to humdrum activities into supreme acts of a valiant youth when she matured to service and dedication. maidenhood. Fortune’s favours took an Maharashtra has also been the home of a unprecedented turn. Her parents and the number of saints, the life of Sakku Bai, young man she was betrothed to were Jana Bai, Rajai and Gonai and some others mowed down at one stroke by the sickle have become the theme of many a legend. of time leaving her as the sole guardian of Janai born of lowly parents came under her young brother, then a mere child. The the care and protection of Namadev from care she took in the bringing up of this her early years. She worked as a maid in boy and the ordeals that she had to his house all his life. She called herself Dasi undergo forms a saga itself. His conversion Jani. Damasheti was the father of the Saint to jainism and his return to the faith of his Namadev, who was a great devotee of fathers was all the result of Tilakavati’s Vittal, on his annual pilgrimage to fervent prayers; it is for this that she had he took the little girl with him. been accorded a permanent place in the Many miracles are attributed to this humble sacred lore. maiden. Though unlettered, she is supposed to be the author of about three hundred Punitavathi exquisite verses in chaste Marathi, Gonai and Rajai were the mother and wife of She was born to prosperous parents and Namadev. These two were saints because later married to a rich merchant - called of their association with the saintly Paramadatta. After a span of quietude, her Namadev. was the sister of wedded life took a peculiar turn which led Jnaneshwar, the saint. Her short life was to her estrangement from her life-partner filled with memorable events. She was due to no fault of hers. His recognition of rendered a helpless orphan when she was and reverence for her divinity and refusal barely four. Muktabai composed a large to acknowledge her as his wedded partner number of verses at the age of twenty- leading to her extreme renunciation is a one. narration - the parallel of which is not found Other stars that stud the firmament of anywhere. Transformed by the Lord from a Maharashtra are Soyarabai, the life raving beauty to a monument of ugliness companion of the great Maharashtrian saint at her own request, she now turned her Chokamela. She accompanied Chokamela entire mind towards the worship of the Lord to Pandharpur along with his saintly sister of Kailas who, it is said, greeted her with Nirmaladevi. Many divine utterances are the fond words, “MOTHER”. From this there to his credit. Kanhopatra’s love for moment Punitavati came to be known as Vittal and her refusal to sell herself as a “Karaikkal Ammaiyar”. slave to the Moghul emperor is a theme fit These are some of the lives of such women for a poet. The very stone of which this who lived in the Tamilnadu. God entered image was made melts in love at her touch. their lives and sublimated their most Prema Bai, Bahina Bai, Vena Bai also known as Veeraswami Ramdasi, have left a legacy

149 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages of rich devotional literature relating their talents are evident in her ashtapadi, a experience in the spiritual path. Telugu rendering of Jaya Dev’s lyrical work. Gauribai In recent times we have the brilliant work of Pandita Kshama Rao, who died in 1954. She was born at Giripur somewhere round She wrote more than a dozen long poems, 1759 A.D. She belonged to the Vadnagar retelling, in modern Sanskrit, the lives of Grihasta Community of Gujarat. Giripur was , Ramadas and Jnaneswara. She ruled over by Raja Sivasimhji, a righteous also composed stirring national songs. Her and dutiful prince. The Raja heard of the stories all have a moral and she was an devoted life led by Gauribai and went to adept in dealing with pathetic situations. her house to have a glimpse of as noble a soul. Gratified by her purity and devotion, Tarlagonda Venkamamba the Raja built a beautiful temple in her honour. Gauribai left her home and family Venkamamba’s life was one of utter life forever and came to reside in the simplicity and constant devotion to Sri temple. Thereafter Gauribai’s sole aim was Krishna. She is one of the fairest flowers the care of this shrine. Soon her devotion of Indian spiritual culture. As is usual with deepened into or super most Indian saints, she has not left behind consciousness. Many are the supernatural any autobiography and, since not even a powers attributed to Gauribai. The proper biography is available, we have to devotional songs which claim her authorship depend upon stray references in her reveal her deep detachment and devotion. writings and upon tradition for a connected account of the incidents of her life. Madhabi Dasi She was the daughter of one Krishnayya, an orthodox Brahmin of the Nandavarika In Orissa one of the three most intimate sect, who belonged to the family of Kanali companions of Chaitanya Dev was an Oriya and to the line of Vasishtha. poetess, Madhabi Dasi. These three are According to the custom of her community always referred to as the two-and-half, she was betrothed at an age when she the half being Madhabi because she was a hardly knew what marriage was. But she woman. Many of her verses have been remained a devoted wife. At the end of incorporated in the Vaishnava Devotional her Bhagavatapurana, an exquisitely Literature. She wrote in Brajbuli. beautiful poetical composition, she says that she wrote it keeping in her heart of Muddu Palani (1739-1763) hearts the hallowed feet of Venkatachalapati, son of Timmayya, of the A courtesan’s daughter at the court of family of Nunjeti and the line of Srivatsa. Tanjore, was highly educated in Sanskrit Evidently this Venkatachalapati was her and Telugu. She was an expert in dance husband. Shortly after her betrothal or and music and was a poetess and a veena marriage he died. player par excellence. Her great musical

150 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Venkamma was a woman of high courage search of a proper place for her spiritual and independent spirit; she refused to bow practices. The people and the temple down to all meaningless customs and authorities were much impressed with her traditions. For instance, as a widow she religious fervour, and she was given a small was required to remove her hair, but she dwelling place and a daily portion of some stoutly refused to do so. rice. Further, she obtained permission to Venkamma’s protest was a protest of render some special services to the Deity womankind, nay, of humanity, against which to this day are continued in her priestcraft. Enraged at her reply, the chief name. Desire for solitude once more arose priest called for a barber then and there in her heart and in a valley known as and by force, got her head shaven. Tumulurukona, amidst picturesque scenery, Overcome by devotion rather than shame she found a suitable solitary place where or sorrow, Venkamma went to a river she began to practise divine communion. nearby, offering prayers to her chosen Here she carried on her spiritual practices Deity, Sri Krishna, she took a dip in it and for about six years and was blessed with lo, when she came out her head was many visions and realizations of a very high adorned as usual with long beautiful hair. order. Thence she proceeded to a small The chief priest and the rest were stupefied pavilion to the north of the lake called at this miraculous turn of events and began Swami Pushkarini and began to give to the to stammer out their apologies to her. world through her writings the benefits of Venkamma’s tender heart received a rude her realizations. shock from the behaviour of the villagers Venkamma’s works, which are mainly and the abbot. Her passion for God- poetical, cover different forms of poetry, realisation was fast developing and she such as the epic, lyric, ballad, song and managed to obtain spiritual initiation from drama of various kinds. At the end of her a renowned guru. In search of a lonely Bhagavatapurana she gives a list of her place for her spiritual practices, she went works; but it seems she wrote a few other to the temple of Nrisimha in her native books subsequently. Among her books village, and at length in a quiet spot behind Venkatachalamahatmya, Raja-yoga-sara the image of Hanuman, she took her seat and Vasishtha- Ramayana - all three based and was absorbed in meditation. One day on the Sanskrit originals - have been the priest of the temple saw her and with published. a shower of abuse, drove her away from In the life and writings of Venkamma we the place. As she had already left her find a satisfactory solution to many of the home, she now left her native village once problems of the modern age. Her name is for all, and proceeded to Tirupati to take associated with one of Tirupati refuge at the feet of the presiding Deity ’s annual festive celebrations, there, Venkateswara, whom she believed the Brahmotsava. Even today there exists to be her chosen Deity. a caravanserai on the Tirumalai Hill which Reaching there, Venkamma paid homage perpetunates her saintly memory. to the presiding Deity and was soon in

151 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Women devotees of Kerala have been preserved faithfully from generation to generation. She was born in Among the women devotees of Kerala who a Kashmir pandit family at Pandrethan, four attained God realisation three names stand miles to the south-east of Srinagar. out. They are: Chankrottu Amma, It is not quite known when her search for Vadakkedattu Nangapennu and Karur God began. But we imagine that it must Amma. Chankrottu Amma had the vision of have been an inborn tendency and leanings the Lord in her old age, Nangapennu that she may have towards marriage and attained God vision even when she was a home life must have been nipped in the maiden. Her anguished heart cried out bud at an early age by the indifference of when she was to be given in marriage. The her husband and the unkind behaviour of Lord answered the devotee’s call by the step- mother-in-law. emerging from His supreme position in the Due to her own leanings towards religion sanctum holding her hands and re-entering and to the harsh treatment of her in-laws, it. Even to this day, the memory of this she left home and became a disciple of a event is kept alive by a festival known as well-known Saiva saint called Sed Bayu. Nangapennu festival. Karur Amma the name Lalla is said to have excelled her guru and that has been mentioned last in this series often to have beaten him in retort and enjoyed the supreme privilege of the argument; but the result of his teaching uninterrupted vision of her chosen Deity, was that she became a Saiva Yogini the Baby Krishna. She enjoyed the (mendicant devotee). She roamed about supreme privilege of being able to see the the country singing and dancing in divine Lord of her heart whenever she desired. ecstasy and innumerable tales that are told of her greatness testify to the love that Lalleswari or Lal Didds of Kashmir the Kashmiri bears in his heart for her. She is said to have died at an advanced age at Lalleswari, also known as Lalla Yogiswari, Brijbera, twenty-five miles south-east of Lal Didi or Lal Ded, was a mystic poet of Srinagar. She gave up her body and her Kashmir who lived in the fourteenth century soul “buoyed up like a flame of light in the A.D. Loved by the people of her land, her air and then disappeared”. name continues to be a household word even to this day. Adapted from “Women Saints of East Pandit Anand Kaul of Kashmir has written and West”. a booklet entitled “Lalla Yogeswari - Her Life and Sayings”, based mostly on folk- lore and tradition. Besides this scanty information there seems to be little or no literature on so outstanding a personality as Lalla. In spite of this drawback the lamp she has lighted has burnt steadily throughout the centuries and her sayings

152 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Kannada Women who credit of successfully withstanding the onslaughts of Cholas and establishing a made History period of peace and prosperity in her By P. V. DIXIT kingdom, goes to her. We have in Malal Devi, wife of Kirti Varma (a contemporary of Akka Devi), a personality noted for THE historical sources regarding the position philanthropy. Her liberality and open of women in Karnataka in the past, though handedness extended even to Jain and scanty, are sufficient to show that they Vedic educational institutions. She herself were in the forefront and actively started many centres of learning. Chandala participated in public life, especially in the Devi, known for her charm and beauty, was middle ages. The first significant reference married to Chalukya Emperor Vikramaditya. points out to a prominent queen well versed She was widely known for her artistic in statecraft. She is Ajit Bhartarika of the excellence and graceful dances. She was 5th century. A great critic of Sanskrit popularly known as “Gouripadambuja- Literature, Rajasekhar (9th century) said radhike” and was honoured as ‘Nritya about Vijayanka, who ruled over Vidyadhar’. She assisted her husband in Sawantawadi area in the 7th century (and managing the affairs of the State. Ingalagi who contributed considerably to Sanskrit edict refers to another queen of poetry) thus: Vikramaditya, namely, Jakala Devi, Saraswati karnaati vijayaanka jayatya Vikrarnaditya was a follower of Vedic sau, Ya vaidarbha giraam vaasah tradition, whereas she was a Jain. Difference kalidaasaanantaram. in faith did not lead to disharmony in married life. She used her good offices to propagate Bhojaraj of Dharangani in his Shringar the ideals of Jainism and constructed many Prakash, refers to her contributions with Jinalayas. great admiration. Attimabbe who lived in the 10th century, was a lady of high Difference in Religious belief excellence and learning and honoured contemporary poet, Ranna. Twelfth century ushered in a great revolution in Karnataka. After Basava Skill in State-Craft graced the world a number of women came in to limelight especially in the spiritual field. It is in the 11th century that we read about Akka Mahadevi, Nagalambike, Gangambike, a host of such august rulers. Akka Devi Mutkayakka and Akka Nagamma are some born in the celebrated clan of Kalyan of them. The famous Hoysala Queen, Chalukyas, was married to Jai Singh of Shantala also of the twelfth century, was Hangal Kadarnbas She took up the reign of famous for her generosity. Some of the Government after the sudden death of her most beautiful temples that are found in husband first, and then of her son, Mayur Halebid and Belur owe their patronage to Varma. She was an able administrator. The her. Her husband, Vishnu Vardhana 153 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages changed his faith and became a Vaishnava, Lord Sri Ranga, who has composed many devotee of Ramanujacharya. But Shantala devotional songs. stood staunchly established in her faith. She remained a Jain to the end of her life. Valour Kant, a talented woman, a contemporary of Nagarjuna Pampa, a Kannada poet in Keladi Chennamma, Belavadi Mallamma, the court of Hoysalas, merits mention. Her Obavva and Kittur Chennamma find a fame as a poet and orator had spread far prominent place in the history of Karnataka. and wide. She is known as Abhinava Keladi Chennamma ruled over the kingdom Vagdevi. Sarala Devi, wife of Soma Deva, of Keladi for twenty five long years. After a renowned singer and Achiyakka, wife of the treacherous murder of her husband she Chandra Mauli, Minister to Vir Ballal (II), took over the reigns of government and belong to the latter half of the 12th crushed the internal revolt and arrested century. Though Achiyakka was a Jain, her external aggression. She fought and husband was an Advaitin and a devotee of successfully routed the armies of Adil Shah Lord Shiva. To her is attributed the and Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore, It was construction of Baadi at Shravanbelogala. this brave Queen who gave refuge to Even today it is known as Akka Basadi. Rajaram, the son of Shivaji and safely Suggala Devi whose name appears in the escorted him to Jinji. This infuriated Alamagir Torgal edict, constructed Suggaleswar Aurangazeb and the Queen of Keladi had temple in the last decade of the twelfth to face the Mughal hordes which she did century. Her name has gone down into the successfully. She constructed many annals of Karnataka history as a chaste temples and started educational wife. institutions. An Italian traveller, Pietro Della Valle has rightly remarked that the Queen Reputed Writers of Keladi is a lady of much virtue and prudence. He has also given a complete Ganga Devi, wife of Kampanna, a general account of Ullal Queen, Abbakka, who in Vijaya Nagar Army, a reputed writer was defeated the marine might of the the author of Madura Vijayam and Vir Portuguese. Belavadi Mallamma is famous Kamparaya Charitram. She stands next to for her bravery and courage. She was the Kalidasa in her style. Her writings in Sanskrit wife of Ishwar Prabhu a chieftain of 360 cover a wide range of subjects. She villages in north Karnataka. Due to some belongs to the fourteenth century. Two misunderstanding between Maratha armies more important writers who need mention and soldiers of Ishwar Prabhu, Belvadi fort here, are Sanchiya Honnamma and was attacked by Chhatrapathi Shivaji. Helvankatte Girijamma. Ishwar Prabhu died fighting but the fort Sanchiya Honnamma was a woman of lowly could not be captured by Marathas, the birth. Her work, Hadi Badiya Dharma in fort did not remain unmanned for long as Kannada, is rated as a standard one. the Queen took the lead and defended the Helvankatte Girijamma was a devotee of fort. For 27 days, the powerful Maratha

154 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages army struggled to conquer Belvadi. the enemies single handed as Mallamma turned all their efforts they crawled one by one futile. But when ammunition and through the narrow passage. other supplies ran dry she was Meanwhile her husband sounded compelled to enter into open the trumpet. The guards were combat. She opened the gates of informed and the fort was the fort and fought like a lioness. saved. She died fighting the Even Maratha generals like Dadaji soldiers of Hyder Ali. She is found it extremely difficult to popularly known as Pestle withstand her. In the course of the Obbavva. battle she not only lost her horse but her right hand was also Much earlier to Laxmibai paralysed. This incapacitated her. She was taken captive and Kittur is a place in the north of brought before Shivaji. Shivaji Karnataka. Chennamma’s treated her with utmost reverence husband ruled over that area in and said, ‘Mother, I had not seen the second decade of the 19th such bravery. Excuse me for all century. He died without a son that has happened. Not that it can and the British wanted to be redressed’. He gave back 320 annexe his territory. Chennamma villages that had been captured refused to oblige. She fought the and proclaimed her Queen. Both British army and was successful Keladi Chennamma and Belvadi initially. But treachery within her Mallamma belong to latter half of camps gave her away and she the 17th century. lost the battle . She was captured and Obavva was the wife of a sentry in the was imprisoned at Bailhongal. service of Madakarinayak of Chitra Durga. “ It is evident from the above account that Madakarinayak always defied Hyder. It was in the medieval ages women shouldered Hyder’s long cherished dream to annex social responsibilities with as much sincerity Chitra Durga to his kingdom. He attempted as men and it is also clear that they had many times but failed. In one of the sieges ample freedom in the pursuit of spiritual on the strong and inaccessible fort of Chitra matters. Differences in religious belief Durga, his spies, after a long search located between husband and wife did not hinder the secret passage to the interior. Obavva’s a happy married life. Women ably managed husband Kalnayak the sentry, was in charge the affairs of the State, supported cultural of guarding the passage. That afternoon and educational institutions, wrote while he was dining and she had come out outstanding books and even lead the to fetch water, it was then that she sighted armies.” the enemies trying to enter the fort through the passage. Without wasting a single minute. She brought her pestle and fought

155 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages From the Annals of History

Jija Bai

IJA BAI, Shivaji’s mother, was in great Jdistress during the early years of his life. The Emperor Shah Jahan invaded the Deccan and after a strenuous effort of eight years, subjugated the whole of the old Nizarn Shahi Kingdom of Ahmed Nagar, which Shivaji’s father Shahaji had tried his best to save. Hence for the first few years of his life Shivaji was a wanderer with no settled home. From Shivner where he was born, he moved with his mother and occasionally with his father from place to place as safety and convenience required. The marital life of Jija Bai can by no means be called happy. It appears that her wedding itself was a subject of compulsion. The independent charge of his father’s jagir The Bhosales and Jadhavs are not known at Poona proved of great advantage to to have then been on very friendly terms. Shivaji. In this small jagir all kinds of Jija Bai, a truly Kshatriya lady full of varied experiments could be quickly tried in the memories of her royal ancestors of Deogiri art of government, and valuable experience and possessing a dauntless spirit of gained which could be later utilised on a adventure and defiance chastened by wider scale when the time came. In years of suffering ever since her marriage, Shivaji’s helpless situation his mother was to young Shivaji a veritable guardian naturally was his sale guide and mentor. angel. On her part all her future solace She was a versatile woman, well-trained, centred in his well-being and good fortune. according to the notions of those days, in Practically deserted by her husband, what tradition, religion and mythology. The hope could she have in life unless this son traditions of Ramdeo Yadav, or Hemadri, of grew up to be her sole prop? Her high spi.rit Jnaneshwar, possessed for her a peculiar could never let her accept any compromise charm on account of the high moral tone on right principles. The father had defied and the free atmosphere of independence with his small power the might of the they breathed: and her capacious mind Moghuls for seven years. Why may not the invested them with a glow of the splendour son do at least as much, if not more? Man of the indigenous Aryan culture as can do what man has done. contrasted with Muslim vandalism and

156 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages iconoclastic methods. The wanton cruelties and confidential agent through whom her of Ala-uddin Khilji and Muhammed Tuglak, commands were communicated outside. the barbarities of Tamerlane, the johars This Girjoji belonged to the large Yadav perpetrated by the Rajput women of Chitod, family of Karhad. Although Satara was re- ever rankled in Jija Bai’s heart. Such a lady, captured by the Marathas, in 1704, Tara we may be sure, taught her dear young Bai made Panhala her central station from son the need of a supreme effort for which she issued her commands in the avenging wrong and achieving national name of her young son. regeneration. Rani Lakshmi Bai (1835-1858) Tara Bai Rani Lakshmi Bai, the second wife of the After the death of Rajaram, Tara Bai’s voice ruler of Jhansi, Gangadhar Rao, was born became supreme in Maharashtra, as she probably at Banaras. When her husband managed affairs in the name of her son. died without issue in 1853 she was not Unfortunately she had serious differences permitted by the British authorities to adopt of policy with the veteran Ramchandra a successor. Her territory was later annexed Pant, who, with Dhanaji Jadhav, kept up under the “right of lapse” and a mere his contact with Shahu and tried to bring pension was offered to her. She was him back as their next Chhatrapati. As this reported to have declared then: “Meri move was violently opposed by Tara Bai, Jhansi nahi dungi” (I shall not surrender Ramchandra Pant remained a mere pathetic my Jhansi). When the revolt started the onlooker and ceased to take the same spirited Rani was drawn in to the thick of active part in her government that he had the struggle and she became the authority done during Rajaram’s life. The published of her region. She heroically defended Jhansi papers make hardly any mention of against Sir Hugh Rose’s protracted siege, Ramchandra Pant hereafter. Tara Bai, mainly although ultimately she had to escape. with the support of Parashurarn Triambak, Later Rani Lakshmi Bai joined Tatya Tope Dhanaji and Shankaraji Narayan, prosecuted and surprised the British by their capture the war with singular zeal and success, of Gwalior. When Sir Hugh Rose renewed inflicting terrible hardships upon the the British attack on Gwalior Fort, the Rani Mughals. She deserves all the credit for - fighting valiantly - was killed in action. the Maratha nation’s emerging successfully An estimate of the Rani’s heroic personality out of the dreadful war with power to has thus been made by Sir Hugh Rose control the destinies of India during the himself:“. . the high descent of the Rani, eighteenth century. The great ability of her unbounded liberality to her troops and Tara Bai is attested to even by Muslim retainers and her fortitude which no writers. She constantly moved from fort reserves could shake, rendered her an to fort directing operations and inspiring influential and dangerous adversary.” her followers. Girjoji Yadav, the guardian of the fort of Panhala, was her personal

157 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Ahalyabai Holkar and a some guiding and restraining force, and he thought he had found it in this maid, Regiment of Women Ahalyabai. How right his intuitions were, By Prof. P. MAHADEVAN later events proved in more than one memorable and some spectacular ways. FTER Sivaji, the empire which he Afounded endured for a century through Young Widow which it slowly disintegrated and declined. In that twilight period, there arose a great There were frequent battles and skirmishes WOMAN who played a notable part in the among the neighbouring chieftains and fortunes of the Holkar dynasty. In standard Khande Rao plunged into them with text-books of which there are but few, unflagging vigour. It became the habit of her exploits are either ignored or dismissed Ahalyabai to accompany him on such with tantalising brevity. In a wider expeditions in one of which, to her perspective, no doubt, her role seems very speechless shock and grief, he lost his life. minor; but in terms of character, calibre Bemoaning her lot over the dead body of and personality, she made a mark in her her husband, she announced her resolve time which has conferred on her sex a lustre to commit Sati to fulfil her life’s mission. which time cannot dim. When Malhar Rao heard of her decision, he rushed to her and pleaded with her saying: A Village maid - becomes a Queen ‘With the fall of my son in battle, I may not live much longer. If you too resolve to It was during the reign of Malhar Rao Holkar follow your husband, the State would surely that a kindly fate translated her from fall into the hands of our enemies. Your obscurity to the pomp and splendour of infant son is likely to be abducted or killed the court as the consort of Khande Rao, and nothing of our kingdom would remain. the heir of Holkar. It was a romance of real Was it for this sad end that I chose you as life, for she was the daughter of an my daughter-in-law? Will you not live for obscure Patel of a village, whom, as a maid the sake of your son and the kingdom, of eight, Malhar Rao happened to see at guard and guide it till he grows old enough worship in a temple. Though not particularly to assume the reins? Think not of your beautiful, there was something in her face own merit, but work for our people and which struck him as out of the ordinary. It kingdom.’ was so candid, thoughtful and self- possessed as to suggest potentialities of Call of duty great strength of mind and will. On the spur of the moment, he set about The appeal did not go unheeded. She gave contacting her parents and made his offer up her plans for Sati and settled down to to marry her to his son Khande Rao. The administer the affairs of the Durbar under prince was somewhat impetuous and Malhar Rao’s counsel and soon seemed likely to get out of hand without independently after his death which

158 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages occurred not long after. Her infant son outskirts of the city, she sent him a letter was proclaimed the ruler, and the regency in which she said : ‘I am ready to meet was vested in her. Discarding all ornament, you in battle. Don’t think that because I finery, costly robes and marks of am a weak woman, success would be yours ostentation, she assumed the dress of a easily. I have a regiment of women who typical Hindu widow, and soon became a will fight you to the last. If I lose, the familiar and beloved figure to her subjects. world would rather sympathise with me Her administration was marked by justice, than reproach me. But if you should lose, purity, efficiency and mercy. More than think of the consequences of it. Could you offering the people clean government, she show your face anywhere as a warrior or a undertook the renovation of many temples, ruler or even as an ordinary man? I advise maths and holy places which had been you to avoid such a shameful fate’. ravaged by Muslim vandalism, and also built The Peshwa was discomfited by such a new temples, established pathasalas and forthright letter. He tried to wriggle out of seminaries of Sanskrit learning. In his plans, and sent a lame reply to the undertaking these acts of piety and effect that she had misunderstood his enlightened philanthropy, it is worthy of intention which was merely to pay a record that she showed equal zeal in condolence visit to her on the death of sanctioning the construction of mosques her beloved son. Ahalyabai shot back the also for the benefit of her Muslim subjects. reply: ‘Does a condolence visit need an army to accompany it?’ The Peshwa said A Regiment of Women and Raghoba no more, but beat a hasty retreat. The discomfiture episode which soon became public property, raised the stock of Ahalyabai so But there seemed no end to her personal high that, for the rest of her life, she had sorrows, for her only son Malerao died in no trouble from her neighbours and youth and left the throne a prize for any conducted the affairs of State with future adventurer. Only a daughter unwearied zeal for public welfare. survived, and Ahalyabai carried on the tasks of government with an indomitable A great wife, a great rider and a great will. To the outside world, she presented mother the pathetic spectacle of a lone, helpless One more example of her public spirit will widow who could be easily displaced by complete the picture of a great wife, a force or fraud. Peshwa Raghoba thought great ruler and a great mother. Some parts the kingdom could be grabbed by him of her kingdom had long been infested with without any trouble, and so he advanced the depredations of dacoits of whom we with his army against it. Ahalyabai made hear even nowadays. She realised the need swift and strong preparations to meet him for an organized para-military operation to in battle, and raised a regiment composed clean out the dacoits’ hide-outs, and she wholly of women to fight him to the death. felt that none but a courageous soldier When she heard of his arrival on the and natural leader of men could shoulder

159 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages that task successfully. To discover him, Changing Pattern of she hit upon the idea of holding a durbar at which she announced that if any warrior Tribal Womanhood In would come forward and undertake the North-East India destruction of the dacoits, she would give By Prof. J. GANCHAUDHURI him as reward the hand of her daughter Muktabai. There rose up a youth in the Land and People Durbar who gave out his name as Yeswant Rao, and he undertook the dangerous HE north-eastern corner of the Indian assignment. It is also stated that he fulfilled Union mainly consists of Assam, his task and was thereafter privileged to T Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, marry the princess, Muktabai. , Mizoram and Tripura. According Ahalyabai’s dates are about 1730-1785, to geological researches the region is not and her exploits are worthy of being very old. It rose from a sea called Tethys inscribed in gold in any roster of Hindu and became habitable for man in the late Womanhood covering the entire history of tertiary age of early quarternary age. The our people. vast land consists of hills and plains, rivers and valleys. The territory is rich in natural flora and fauna. The hills are mainly inhabited by several tribal communities such as Nagas, Kukis, Lusais, Garos, Mizos, Adis, Kacharis, Khasis, Bodos, Tipras, Halams, Riangs, Jamatias, Chakmas and Magas. The tribal people live on gathering, hunting, fishing and a primitive agriculture by the slash-and-burn method. For centuries, the tribal people lived a life of isolation and of mutual feuds. Their ancient agriculture was extensive and migratory. They lived in small groups. Villages are on hill tops and apart from one another. Hills around each village provide the necessary food articles. It is significant to note here that they are now increasingly coming in contact with the people of the plains, taking to plough cultivation, horticulture, domestication of animals, trade, education, service under the government and administration. A remarkable degree of change and acculturation is occurring in the life-ways and thought-ways of all the 160 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages hills’ people of the area. I propose simply Kings are sometimes found to keep in to describe below the changing pattern of addition to the legally married wife, a few womanhood among some of the tribal concubines. Hardly a girl is given to communities of North-Eastern India. In this marriage against her wish. She enjoys respect, I like to confine myself to scientific considerable freedom in love-making. description and analysis, and to refrain from Unmarried girls are not kept under strict making any value-judgment. That is to say, vigilance. Marriage is the outcome of love. I shall not attempt to state whether the Except the Khasis and the Garos who are position of the woman is low or high, good matrilineal and matrilocal, all the tribes are or bad. patrilineal and patrilocal. To obtain the wife, a bridegroom has to serve a period of, say, Woman, bade-bone of the Tribal three years in his father-in-law’s house, Community or if he is rich. he can dispense with this drudgery by paying one, two or three A woman constitutes the economic hundred rupees down. Marriage is just a backbone in each of the tribal communities. civil contract, and divorce is easy to obtain. The woman is of considerable socio- Both sexes are fond of ornaments. and grow economic importance. She procures the their hair long. larger part of food supply. She leads a life of tremendous hardship and exposure. She Political and Religious life is very industrious, working equally hard in the field and in the house. All through the Another major angle from which the position day, she is busy with all sorts of laborious of a woman in a particular society can be work such as cooking, grinding rice, assessed is her participation in public washing utensils, fetching water, cleaning administration. It is to be admitted that house, nursing children, gathering firewood, the woman has no voice in the collecting wild vegetables, fishing in the administration of village affairs. The public streams, sowing, weeding and reaping in affairs of each village are looked after and the field. All clothes for family use are managed by a Council of elders. Each village woven by her. Only basketry and ploughing constitutes its own Council. The members are taboo for the women. She is neither are selected men. Women are allowed veiled nor secluded. She goes both to the neither to select the Council Members nor distant field and to the far-off markets, to seek selection as a Council Member. and has a part to play in trade and business Women cannot inherit property. The Khasi, with others. the Garo and the Jaintia women, however, stand in exception. Love, Marriage and Divorce They inherit and manage property. As the woman has no voice in administration, so It would be well to observe the social life she does not have any role in rituals and of the tribal woman. Marriage among all religious affairs. Almost all the priestly these tribes is monogamous. Chiefs and activities are performed by man. A woman

161 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages is a mere on-looker. The above Social change generalisation can be authenticated by referring to the remarks and observations No society remains completely static. Social already made by scholars and researchers. change results from the interaction of a number of factors, and social change shows Lushai woman and her daily duties chain-reaction sequences. The life pattern of the tribal community in North-East India The Lushai woman has to rise early, fill her is in a state 0’1: rapid transition. basket with empty bamboo tubes, and Nevertheless, in a state of dissolving social trudge off before day-light down to the perspectives and shifting values, the spring, which is generally some way down symptoms of this changing process are the hill, and supply of water is frequently quite apparent in the increasing tendency so scanty that it takes her sometime to fill of the tribal communities to adopt and her bamboos. The necessary amount of absorb the urban ways of life within the unhusked rice has been dried the previous periphery of the old set up. The differences day on the shelf over the hearth, and this between the hill people and the plain people she now proceeds to pound in a mortar in are being gradually narrowed down. The the front verandah, and by the time it is - horizon of the tribal mind is sharply ready for her husband to awake. After the expanding. Rate of literacy and education meal the real work of the day begins. is increasing. They are taking to white collar jobs. The number of school or college going Women of Tripura boys and girls is increasing. Bright and energetic young people are anxious to leave In Tripura a number of tribes live, such as fields and farms, and to settle down in the Tipres, Riangs, Jamatias, Noatias, Kukis, urban areas. Amenities of urban life - better Halams, Mogs and Chakmas. Lot and life of working conditions, surety of remuneration, the women in each of these tribes are better housing conditions, scope for almost analogous to that of Lushai, Kuki, recreation and upward mobility which are Naga, Mizo, Lakher women. The tribal almost lacking in rural areas are the women in Tripura like the counterparts in motivating factors for their preference for Naga, Mizo, Lakher, Lushai society, lead a urban settlement. All these amenities are life of excessive hardship and exposure. attracting and alluring the boys first. Village She is to cook food, nurse children, fetch girls are less benefited than boys so more wood and water, collect wild vegetables of the girls and less of the boys are and roots, sow, weed, reap crops, weave relegated to the jobs of field hand. Under clothes and fish in the streams. She has the emergent conditions and unequal no voice in village administration and takes progress between the tribal boys and the little part in the performance of religious tribal girls, it is interesting to study the rites and rituals. relations between man and woman.

162 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages And its many-sided impact on the tribal sphere the change and progress of tribal life women are not uniform. A considerable number of women, who are now literate, Marriage by elopement or by service or by employed in government offices and living paying bride-price is fast becoming a thing in urban areas are, in general, happy and of the past. The young man is becoming well-to-do. In prestige and position, taste reluctant to serve the family of the bride and temperament, they are quite modern for years together before or after marriage. and resemble the modern women of India Instead, he pays money. In cases where and of the West. But the vast majority the boy is literate and at the same time a who are still living in the old set up are government employee, the parents of the facing a deteriorating socio-economic bride not only give up the claim of bride position. price, they feel proud of getting such a In the fields of politics and religion, the groom and offer him substantial position of tribal women has much presentations consisting of, say, bicycle, improved. The principles of universal and scooter, transistor, wrist-watch, pen, adult franchise incorporated in the new furniture, utensils, ornaments, dress and constitution of free India, have reached sometimes landed property too. What were the interior villages also. In the eyes of formerly just presentations of the rich law she is equal to man. She can cast “parents to their daughters and son-in- votes and contest in elections to the law are becoming the general demands of Indian Parliament or Provincial Legislative the groom. The problem of the parents of Assemblies or Gaon Panchayats. She is now a boy in the past was to find out a mate becoming politically conscious. Her political for their son. Today it is the problem of consciousness now includes the loyalty to the parents of a girl to give their daughter the Indian Union. In the religious affairs in marriage. Ideals were quite different in also, the tribal women are now taking an the days of yore. A father having a number active part. washing and cleaning the of daughters had a feeling of pride and Devasthanam, fasting, preparation of complacence. Previously when the society oblations, gathering of flowers are gradually was mostly agricultural, the parents of the coming into the hands of women. bride had the upper hand in determining In fine, it is to be admitted that the the terms and conditions of bride-price. In condition of the tribal Women of North- the present context of the socio-economic East India is not uniform throughout the conditions, the daughters are becoming the region. Their position now varies from burdens of their parents. The bride’s skill locality to locality. Even within a single in weaving or the groom’s skill in basketry community all the women do not enjoy the is losing its importance as one of the same social position. qualifications in marriage. Instead, education and white collar jobs are emerging as new qualifications both of bride and of groom. Thus, in the socio-economic

163 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages wife rules. In an Indian home, the mother Swami Vivekananda rules. If a mother comes into a Western Speaks home, she has to be subordinate to the wife; to the wife belongs the home. A mother always lives in our homes. The wife BELONG to an order of people who never must be subordinate to her. See all the marry; so my knowledge of women in all I difference of ideas. their relations, as mother, as wife, as daughter and sister, must necessarily not be so complete as it may be with other men. Although I have more opportunity than many other men to know women in general, from my position and my occupation as a preacher, continuously travelling from one place to another, and coming into contact with all grades of society - (and women, even in northern India, where they do not appear before men, in many places would break this law for religion and would come to hear us preach and talk to us) - still, it would be hazardous on my part to assert that I know everything about the women of India. So I will try to place before you the ideal.

The Ideal of Motherhood

Now, the ideal women in India is the mother first and the mother last. The word woman calls up to the mind of Hindu, motherhood; Comparison and God is called Mother. As children, everyday, when we are boys, we have to Now, I only suggest comparisons: I would go early in the morning with a little cup of state facts so that we may compare the water and place it before the mother, and two sides. Make this comparison. If you mother dips her toe into it and we drink it. ask, “What is an Indian woman as wife?” In the West, the woman is wife. The idea the Indian asks, “Where is the American of womanhood is concentrated there - as woman as mother? Who is she, the all- the wife. To the ordinary man in India, the glorious, who gave me this body? Who is whole force of womanhood is concentrated she who kept me in her body for nine in motherhood. In the Western home, the months? Where is she who would give me

164 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages twenty times her life, if I had need? Where of ours. “Mother, 0 Mother, be merciful; I is she whose love never dies, however am wicked! Many children have been wicked, however vile I am? Where is she, wicked, but there never was a wicked in comparison with her, who goes to the mother;” so says the great Saint divorce court the moment I treat her a Ramprasad. little badly? Oh! American woman, where is she?” I will not find her in your country. The fulfilment of womanhood I have not found the son who thinks mother is first. When we die, even then, we do There she is - the Hindu mother. The son’s not want our wives and our children to wife comes in as her daughter; just as the take her place. Our mother! - we want to mother’s own daughter married and went die with our head, on her lap, if we die out, so her son married and brought in before her. Where is she? Is woman a name another daughter, and she has to fall in to be coupled with the physical body only? line under the government of the queen of Ay l the Hindu mind fears all those ideals queens, of his mother. Even I, who never which say that the flesh must cling unto married, belonging to an Order that never the flesh. No, no ! Women! thou shalt not marries, would be disgusted if my wife, be coupled with anything connected with supposing I had married, dared to displease the flesh. The name has been called holy my mother. I would be disgusted. Why? once and forever, for what name is there Don’t I worship my mother? Why should which no lust can ever approach, no her daughter- in-law not worship her whom carnality ever come near, than the one word I worship? Who is she, then, that try to mother. That is the ideal in India. ride over my head and govern my mother? The ideal of womanhood in India is She has to wait till her womanhood is motherhood that marvellous unselfish, all- fulfilled ; and the one thing that fulfils suffering, ever-forgiving mother. The wife womanhood, that is womanliness in woman, walks behind - the shadow. She must is motherhood. Wait till she becomes a imitate the life of the mother; that is her mother ; then she will have the same right, duty. But the mother is the ideal of love ; That, according to the Hindu mind, is the she rules the family, she possesses the great mission of a woman - to become a family. It is the father in India who thrashes mother. But oh, how different; Oh, how the child and spanks when there is different! My father and mother fasted and something done by the child. You see it is prayed, for years and years, so that I would just the opposite here. You never hear of be born. Do you all pray for children to be a mother cursing the child ; she is forgiving, born? Are you thankful to be mothers, or always forgiving. Instead of “Our Father in not? Do you think that you are sanctified Heaven “, we say” Mother” all the time; by motherhood, or not. Ask that to your that idea and that word are ever minds. If you don’t, your marriage, is a lie, associated in the Hindu mind with infinite your womanhood is false, your education love, the mother’s love being the nearest is superstition, and your children, if they approach to God’s love in this mortal world

165 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages came without a prayer, will prove a curse that she deserves worship. And what to humanity. follows? Linked with motherhood is wife- hood. The fruition of vows and prayers In defence of early marriage Thus say our books direct the pre-natal influence. Why should mother be We are married sometimes when we are worshipped? Because she made herself children. Why? Because the caste says: if pure. She underwent harsh penances they have to be married anyway without sometimes to keep herself as pure as purity can be. For, mind you, no woman in India thinks of giving up her body to any man ; it is her own. The English, as a reform have introduced at present what they call “restitution of conjugal rights”, but no Indian would take advantage of it. When a man comes into physical contact with his wife, the circumstances she controls, through what prayers and through what vows! For that which brings forth the child is the holiest symbol of God himself. It is the greatest prayer between man and wife, the prayer that is going to bring into the world another soul fraught with a tremendous power for good or for evil. Is it a joke? Is it a simple nervous satisfaction? Is it a brute enjoyment of the body? Says the Hindu : no, a thousand times, no! their consent, it is better that they are married very early, before they have She was a saint to bring me into the developed this love; if they are allowed to world grow up apart, the boy may like some other girl, and the girl some other boy, and then The idea we started with was that the something evil will happen; and so, says ideal is the love for the mother - herself all the caste, stop it there. I don’t care suffering, all forbearing. The worship that whether my sister is deformed, or good- is accorded to the mother has its fountain- looking, or bad-looking ; she is my sister head there. She was a saint to bring me and that is enough ; he is my brother, and into the world; she kept her body pure, that is all I need to know. So, they will her mind pure, her food pure, her clothes love each other. You may say, “Oh, they pure, and imagination pure, for years, lose a great deal of enjoyment - those because I would be born. Because she did exquisite emotions of falling in love with a

166 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages woman and a woman falling in love with a had one. Sit down, be quiet, and consider man. This is a sort of tame thing, loving these poor girls - they have not had one each other like brothers and sisters, as chance of marriage.” Lord bless you! I though they have to.” So be it; but the remember once in Oxford Street, it was Hindu says, “We are socialistic. For the after ten o’clock, and all those ladies coming sake of one man’s or woman’s exquisite there, hundreds and thousands of them pleasure we don’t want to load misery on shopping; and some man, an American, hundreds of others.” looks around and he says, “My Lord! how many of them will ever get husbands, I She waits for her turn wonder!” So the Indian mind said to the widows, “Well you have had your chance, There they are married. The wife comes and now we are very, very sorry that such home with her husband; that is called the mishaps have come to you, but we cannot second marriage. Marriage at an early age help it; others are waiting.” is considered the first marriage and they grow up separately with their parents. The Daughter When they are grown there is a second ceremony performed, caused a second Next, we come to woman as daughter. The marriage. And they live together, but under great difficulty in the Indian household is the same roof with his mother and father. the daughter. The daughter and caste When she becomes a mother, she takes combined to ruin the poor Hindu, because, her place in turn as queen of the family you see she must marry in the same caste, group. and even inside the caste exactly in the same order; and so the poor man sometimes Widows has to make himself a beggar to get his daughter married. The father of the boy Relative to such questions as to widows demands a very high price for his son, and not marrying: among the first two castes, this poor man sometimes has to sell the number of women is disproportionately everything just to have a husband for his large, and here is a dilemma. Either you daughter. The great difficulty of a Hindu’s have a non-marriageable widow problem life is the daughter. And, curiously enough and misery, or the non-husband-getting a the word daughter in Sanskrit is “duhita”. young lady problem. To face the widow The real derivation is that, in ancient times, problem or the old maid problem? There the daughter of the family was accustomed you are; either of the two. Now, go back to milk the cows, and so the word “duhita” again to the idea that the Indian mind is comes from “duh”, to milk, and the word “ socialistic. It says, “Now look here! We daughter” really means a milk-maid. Later take the widow problem as the lesser one.” on, they found a new meaning to that word, Why? “Because they have had their chance “ duhita “, the milk-maid - she who milks ; they have been married; if they have away all the milk of the family. That is the lost their chance, at any rate they have second meaning.

167 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages As I have told you, the mother is the love would never be talked of. I cannot greatest in position, the wife is next, and read a novel before my sister, or my brother, the daughter comes after them. It is a or my mother or even before others. I close most intricate and complicated series of the book. gradation. No foreigner can understand it, Then again, eating and drinking is all in the even if he lives there for years. same category. We do not eat before superiors. Our women never eat before men, except they be the children or inferiors. The wife would die rather than, as she says, “ munch” before her husband. Sometimes, for instance, brothers and sisters may eat together; and if I and my sister are eating, and the husband comes to the door, my sister stops, and the poor husband flies out. Education and Culture

As to education and culture, it all depends upon the man. That is to say, where the men are highly cultured, there the women are; where the men are not, women are not. The old Sanskrit Universities were mainly composed of boys. The girls very rarely go up to these universities; but there The norms of propriety were a few exceptions. In these modern days the trend is strong towards women Thus we see the most complicated in getting this higher education. It is a meshwork in the social life of our men and strange fact that Oxford and Cambridge our women and in our degrees of are closed to women today, so are Harvard relationship. We don’t speak to our wives and Yale; but Calcutta University opened before our elders ; it is only when we are its doors to women more than twenty years alone or when inferiors are present. If I ago. And our religion does not prevent a were married, I would speak to my wife woman from being educated at all. In this before my younger sister, my nephews or way the girl should be educated; even thus nieces ; but not before my elder sister or should she be trained; and in the old books parents. I cannot talk to my sisters about we find that the universities were equally their husbands at all. The idea is, we are a resorted to, by both girls and boys, but monastic race. The whole social later the education of the whole nation organisation has that one idea before it. was neglected. What can you expect under Marriage is thought of as something impure, a foreign rule? something lower. Therefore, the subject of

168 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The Paths of Change Mazdayasman Sabha insisted on the pristine purity of Zoroastrian religion.

The secular trend Synthesis of Western ideas with Indian notion The secular trend manifested itself in demands for the cultivation of European ndian interest in the English language ideas, the re-marriage of widows, inter- began primarily with the expectation of I caste marriage, and education for women. employment under the British authorities. The reformers pleaded for the abolition of But the consequence of learning the purdah, child marriage, polygamy and caste language was more far-reaching than distinctions. They urged for the removal originally anticipated. The Indian of discrimination against the Harijans, the intelligentsia, through English education, determination of the age of consent and came face to face with Western universal women’s right of inheritance. There were ideas in a secular setting. They were within moves for social legislation, inter-dining, the Western point of view and felt and temple entry. The reformers functioned embarrassed at the obscurantism and through institutions like the Depressed injustice in Indian society. This soon started Classes Mission, the Deccan Educational a process of self-criticism and led to Society, the Servants of India Society, the attempts at the synthesis of Western ideas Institution at Aligarh the Chief Khalsa with the traditional Indian notions about , Dewan of Amritsar, the Bombay Social religion and society. Service League, the Indian National Social Conference and the Harijan Sevak Sangh, The religious trend etc. The drive for reform was further inspired when the Indian National Congress The religious trend found expression in the under the leadership of Gandhiji committed growth and activities of institutions like itself to the social work. the Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission, the Arya Samaj Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) and the Theosophical Society. While the Brahmo Samaj substituted theism for Ram Mohan Roy, the father of Indian classical monism, the Arya Samaj Renaissance and nationalism, was born in advocated a return to the Vedas in Radha Nagar village of Hooghly. Receiving opposition to idolatry. The Theosophical education in Islamic learning at Patna and Society aimed at the revival of India’s Upanishadic Literature at Benares, he grew ancient ideals and institutions. The into a non-conformist - contrary to the Prarthana Samaj advocated a national form expectations of his parents. Later he learnt of worship and the Ramakrishna Mission English and joined the Company’s service ernphasised the essential oneness of all at Rangpur. The ten years of his official religions. In a similar way the Rahnumai career (1804-14) was spent in preparation

169 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages for the future. He wrote tracts, translated discarded the traditional concepts of Vedanta, studied the Tantras and Jain absolute truth. A great friend of the poor Scriptures and held vigorous religious and the needy, Iswar Chandra was anxious discussions. In 1814 he left his job, to promote education in the country on established Atmiya Sabha and settled down the ideals of European rationalism. He in Calcutta in the congenial company of passionately campaigned for the education British intellectuals like Wilson and Jones, of women and battled against an orthodox Colebrook and Adams. He acquired the society and an indifferent Government to knowledge of Hebrew and Greek to satisfy establish numerous girls’ schools. He also his inquiries into original Christian scriptures vigorously advocated widow re-marriage and produced a series of incisive and a law was passed in this direction in publications. Then began Ram Mohan’s 1856, mainly through his persistence. Iswar conflict with the dogmas, Hindu and Chandra launched another agitation for the Christtian, and his struggle against idolatry abolition of polygamy among the Hindus, and superstition, priesthood and Sati. His particularly among the Kulin Brahmins of denunciation of Sati and the growth of an Bengal. The Government, however, was agitation against the abuse, finally led to reluctant to support his move. Iswar its abolition in 1827. Not satisfied with the Chandra will be remembered for the revolt Indian Women’s right to live, he fought for against a heartless social system so their right of inheritance, education and courageously waged by one single emancipation. One of the first to plead for individual. the introduction of western education in India, Ram Mohan supported the Christian Swami Dayananda (1825-1883) Missionaries in their educational activities. He was honoured in England where he Born in Morvi State, Kathiawar, Dayanand remained till his death at Bristol. Appearing studied Sanskrit and developed a religious at a crucial phase of India’s connections disposition. He left home, became a with the west, the Raja embodied in himself Sannyasi and wandered in search of a Guru the challenge and response of his times. till he came in touch with Virjanand of Mathura. An erudite scholar in Sanskrit lswar Chandra Vidya Sagar (1820- Literature, Dayanand began a missionary 1891) life travelling far and wide, especially in U.P., Rajasthan and Punjab. During his Born in a poor family, Iswar Chandra Vidya travels he explained what he considered Sagar struggled hard to complete a brilliant primordial Hinduism based on the Vedas and academic career in Sanskrit College, held disputations with Brahmins, Christians Calcutta. Apart from his encyclopedic and Muslims. He met Keshab Chandra Sen knowledge in Sanskrit Literature, Iswar in Calcutta, who advised him that his Chandra developed a profound teachings, to be more effective, should be understanding of western liberal philosophy. in the language of the people, rather than He accepted the Upanishadic humanism and in Sanskrit. Thereafter! he adopted Hindi

170 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages and used it as an inter-provincial language. persuading his own wife to take up the He began his Arya Samaj movement in the work of teaching III the institutions he early 1870’s and by 1883, when he died founded. about one hundred Arya Samajs were An upholder of the principle of social equality established in Punjab, V.P., and a liberator of Indian Rajasthan and Bombay. women, Phooley Dayanand was a prolific, pleaded for widow scholarly remarriage and wrote writer, who discarded idol several books in worship, polytheism, the support of his ideas. In doctrine of incarnation and 1873, he established other rituals. He the Satya Shodak condemned child marriage, Samaj and founded the advocated equal status for Dinbandhu Sarvajanik women and favoured a Sabha in 1884. He system of national opened water tanks education. His emphasis on near his own house for self-reliance made some of the use of the Harijans the Arya Samajist and published a institutions almost a memorandum as a part challenge to British of his efforts to remove authority. But the chief untouchability. achievement of Dayanand was imparting in his followers a passion for Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884) reforms. Born in the well-known Sen family of Jyoti Rao Phooley (1827-1890) Calcutta, Keshab Chandra had a religious bent of mind from his childhood. As a Born at Purandar in Maharashtra, Phooley student he was influenced by the writings had his education at Poona. Touched by of Rajanarayan Bose and later joined the the fallen condition of his people, he worked Brahmo Samaj in 1857. Thereafter he hard for the emancipation of women, popularised the Brahmo movement and removal of untouchability and the welfare visited various places in India to propagate of the Harijans. A champion of women’s the new faith. The founder of many education, Phooley established the Low organisations like the Goodwill Fraternity Caste Female School at Poona in 1848. Society, Brahmo Bandhu Samaj and Brahmo Thereafter he started another school for Vidyalaya, Keshab Chandra constantly the Harijans in 1851 and a maternity home educated the public on the need for social for the poor women. For the standard of reform. He pleaded for the removal of his time he took an unusual step by purdah, the introduction of widow re- marriage and inter-caste marriage. He was

171 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages an advocate of the education of women Ranade, was a follower of the reformed and he strongly urged for the abolition of religion, the Prarthana Samaj, since 1867. early marriage of girls and practice of Influenced by Gopal Hari Deshmukh and polygamy. In 1860 he organised the Sangat Vishnu Parashuram Pandit he strongly Sabha and campaigned against the supported the concept of re-marriage and segregation of the Harijans. Keshab the welfare of the widows. He organised Chandra, on his return, set up the Indian the Indian National Social Conference in Reform Association, night schools and the Madras in 1887 to discuss the burning prohibition sabhas. In 1878 he broke away social questions. He favoured the raising from the Brahmo Samaj of India on of the age of marriage, the re-marriage of theological grounds and on the controversial widows and protection of child widows. He question of his fourteen-year-old denounced polygamy and dowry system and daughter’s marriage with the Hindu supported the education of women. In Maharaja of Cooch-Behar. In January 1880 1882, Ranade with the aid of friends he established the Nava Vidhan Brahmo started the Female High School at Poona. Samaj and was engaged in preaching the He also gave his valued support to Sharada ideal of the harmony of religions. Sadan - an institution to provide a home and school for the widows. He was Mahadeo Govind Ranade (1842-1901) convinced that western education would play a vital role in the transformation of An eminent social reformer, a distinguished the country. To promote western education scholar and an educationist, Ranade was Ranade, with others, sponsored the Deccan born in a Brahmin family at Nasik. He Education Society for starting a college studied in Elphinstone College, Bombay, and and Fergusson College was eventually had developed an insatiable desire for established. knowledge. Serving as a Marathi translator, a professor of English and an administrator Kandukuri Viresalingam (1848-1919) and judge in the Indian States, he joined the judicial service and was called upon to Born at Rajamundhry in Andhra Pradesh, supervise the working of the Deccan Viresalingam studied Telugu and English and Agriculturists’ Relief Act in 1881. took up teaching as his profession. Earning He was appointed the Law Member of the a name for himself as an ideal teacher, he Bombay Legislative Council in 1885 and served different schools as Headmaster and became a member of the Finance Committee then joined the Government Arts College at the Centre in 1886, In 1893 Ranade was at Rajahmundry. appointed Judge of the Bombay High Court. Viresalingam, a product of the synthesis He was one of the eminent participants in of western and Indian thought and culture, the founding of the Indian National stood between the old and the new ages Congress. of Telugu literature and contributed A prolific writer on economic and social enormously to its branch. A versatile and subjects III the Sarvajanik Sabha journal, prolific writer, he also forcefully spoke

172 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages against the castes and superstitions. A dynamic personality in the field of social Women and the reforms, he condemned child marriage, Freedom Movement supported widow re-marriage, carried out By S. AMBUJAMMAL an intensive campaign for the rehabilitation of widows, worked for the abolition of EVERY living being in this world is bound nautch practices and battled against by certain laws of nature, which the corruption and dishonesty. To help the philosophers call the Laws of Karma. To needy women and children, he established free itself from this bondage is the eternal widows’ homes, orphanages and schools, aspiration of humanity. It is said that and founded the Hitakarini Trust at freedom is the birth-right of man. But how Rajahmundry - which managed the various can an individual be free when his whole institutions he started. nation is in bondage? This was the poser that set afoot the Freedom Movement in Mahatma Hansraj (1864-1930) India at the beginning of the present century. One of the makers of modern Punjab, Mahatma Hansraj was born in Haryana and The Non-Co-operation Movement educated at Lahore. He came under the influence of Swami Dayanand in 1877 and The usually dormant patriotism of the became the editor of the Arya Samajist Indian masses was deeply roused by the organ, the “Regeneration of Aryavarta.” A non- co-operation movement of Mahatma decade later he became the Headmaster Gandhi. His philosophies of non-violence of the D.A.V. School and developed it into and Satyagraha, together with his fasts a famous college. He also established an for self-purification, imparted a new Ayurvedic College on modern lines and a sublimity even to such common-place technical institute for training the features as picketing and non- payment unemployed. of taxes. His advocacy of Khadi, Prohibition After retirement in 1911, he served as the and Removal of Untouchability, together President of the D.A.V. School Managing with his concepts of National Language and Committee and was involved in religious Basic Education, provided vast scope for and humanitarian activities. He worked national, social and cultural renaissance, remorselessly at the time of the plague in which not only the men-folk, but also epidemic in Multan and Rawalpindi, the the women-folk came forward in large earth-quake in Kangra, and the famine in numbers to take part with enthusiasm. Garhwal. A social reformer, Hansraj supported widow remarriage and launched Their name was legion an anti-untouchability movement in Punjab. He also started orphanages and established In the North, Kasturba Gandhi, Sarojini homes for widows. Naidu, Swarup Rani Nehru, Kamala Nehru, Kamala Devi Chattopadhyaya, Aruna Asaf 173 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Ali and Sucheta Kripalani were the great soul-stirring national songs admirably ladies who adorned the vanguard of the rendered by K. B. SundarambaI, D. K. women’s wing of India’s freedom fighters. Pattammal and other women singers Likewise in the South, Dr. Rukmini served as an impetus to all and prepared Lakshmipathi, Durga Bai Deshmukh, Ammu entire South India for any sacrifice for the Swaminathan, Janammal, Smt. Subbarayan, cause of Independence. Mrs. Cousins, Manjubhashini, S. Spoke with one voice Ambujammal, Angachi Amma, Kamala Devi Arya, Vai. Mu.Kodai Nayaki Ammal, Rukmini The great and the small, the rich and the Amma, Lakshmi Sanakara Iyer, poor, the learned and the illiterate, the old Asher, Kamala Bai Sharma, Subri Kamala, and the young, all forgot their differences, Auditor Shivabhogam, Dr. Sakuntala, M. S. and felt themselves as members of one Kamala, M.S.Padma, Saraswathi and the same family during the fight for Pandurangan, Smt. Subburaman, Smt. freedom. The Hindus and the Muslims, the Vaidyanathan, Smt. Sundara Raman, Christians and the Zoroastrians, all felt Lakshmi Kanthammal, Kalyani Shastri, Dr. themselves as belonging to one and the Srimathi Pichumani, Kulandai Ammal, Anjani same fraternity, namely, patriotism, and Ammal, Rajarn Bharathi, Seethalakshmi spoke with one voice. Such was the unifying Kumaraswami, Dr. Sakuntala propagating power of nationalism in the early decades aims of the Prohibition of the Twentieth century. Bai, Tripurasundari, Neelavathi, Matilda, Women’s Swadeshi Kuttimmalu Ammal, League Madhavi Menon, Kathyayini, Ammu The then Madras State Nerhiyar, Lakshmi Bai, comprised not only the Kooda Kanakamma, present districts of Tamil Bharathi Ranga, Karnakshi Nadu, but also large parts Amma, M. S. Balammal of the present Andhra and a host of others Pradesh, Kerala, and jumped into the fray at Karnataka States. Women the call of Gandhiji and belonging to all these courted imprisonment. linguistic back-grounds joined together and Gathering Momentum organized institutions at the Metropolis. “Women’s Swadeshi These were all women from leading families, League” was one such organisation. and their example inspired thousands of Boycotting foreign clothes and Khadi was women-folk all over the South to dedicate one of the chief “Women’s Swadeshi themselves to the cause of freedom and League.” and the removal of Caste feeling join the army of Congress volunteers. The and untouchability were adopted as equally

174 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages important goals. To achieve these, They also served exhibitions, processions and picketings were being regularly conducted. There were many other women who, without courting arrest and being Imprisonment imprisoned, engaged themselves whole- heartedly in such constructive activities The young men of the Congress as propagating Khadi and prohibition, and Organisation formed a “ Youth League” with working for the removal of untouchability. Dr. Rukmini Lakshmipathy as their President, Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy and Sister she participated in the famous Vedaranyam Subbulakshmi were the most important Salt Satyagraha of Rajaji, and was therefore among them. sentenced to one year’s imprisonment.” Mention may be made here of Krishna Bai Udayavanam” was an . organisation of Nimbkar and her mother Smt. Lakshman volunteers. Among them was Smt. Durga Rao. They and the members of the famous Bai Deshmukh. She participated in the Madhava Rao family have done signal Madras Salt Satyagraha under the service to the Gandhian programmes of leadership of Bulusu Samba Murthy. She national reconstruction. Kameswari, a also was awarded one year’s imprisonment student of the Queen Mary’s College, was for this. Her speeches were so fiery that one among the remarkable youngsters who the British Government put her in solitary took part in such constructive activities confinement in the Madura Central Jail. with immense zeal and vigour. Angachi Amma and Kamala Devi Arya were sentenced to imprisonment along with their A place of pride husbands for taking part in the famous Neel Satyagraha. The women of the Bhaktavatsalam family, It will not be an exaggeration to say that especially Smt. Sarojini Varadappan and her the Vellore Jail overflowed with women mother Gnana Soundari Ammal, deserve a Satyagrahis during 1930-32. In the 1936 place of pride in the annals of the Gandhian elections Smt. Lakshmi Shankar Iyer of Movements. They even conducted bhajans Kallidaikurichi defeated Sri Easwaran Pillai, and processions for propagating khadi. The a big-wig of the Justice Party in Tirunelveli. examples of such dedicated women inspired In 1942, during the days of one-man confidence in the hearts of one and all, Satyagraha, Ammu Swaminathan, Radha and commanded the admiration of even the Bai Subbarayan, Manju Bhashini and M. S. British Officials. Balammal courted arrest and were It is well to remember that this marked sentenced to three months imprisonment. elevation in the status of the modern Indian Mrs. Cousins, a chief disciple of Dr. Annie woman has been achieved only through Besant, was one of the note-worthy figures the untold sacrifices of the women of India who partook in the Satyagraha movement. of the last two generations. She was awarded one year’s imprisonment.

175 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Women Patriots of India earned the epithet “Mother of the Revolution”. She designed the national flag. In 1907, she attended the International Socialist Conference at Stuttgart, Germany HEY lived underground, made and threw and delivered her most memorable speech bombs, shot British Governors and T on India’s inalienable right to independence. spent the best years of their youth in prison. They constituted the violent wing Suhaslni (Putaudi) of the freedom struggle. Who were these brave and reckless women who thought She was given revolutionary training by nothing of giving their lives for the cause? Rasiklal Das. She was detained in 1930 in What was their contribution to the Calcutta for aiding the revolutionaries. On independence movement? Has an her release in 1938 she became a ungrateful nation forgotten their sacrifices? Communist sympathiser. As early as 1857 Mata Tapaswini along with her aunt, Maharani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Shanti Ghosh fought in the 1857 revolt. She escaped to Nepal along with Nana Saheb. She was one She, along with Suniti Choudhary, shot and of the fore-runners of the revolutionary killed the District Magistrate of Cornilla in movement in Bengal. 1931. She got life imprisonment but was released in 1939. Shanti and Suniti Sarla Devi Choudhuri established their own organisation ‘Chhatri Sangh’, in 1931. They learnt dagger-play She was initiated into the revolutionary and revolver shooting practice was done movement of Bengal under Aurobindo Ghosh on Mainamati Hill. and became one of its prominent leaders. Later, she organised the movement in Bina Das Punjab and the Frontier Province. She edited the journal “ Hindustan “ in Urdu Born in 1911, made her debut into the and English. She vigorously opposed the political arena in the boycott of the all Rowlatt Act. She sang in chorus an inspiring white Simon’s Commission in 1928. In the nationalist song at the 17th Session of the same year she came into contact with two Indian National Congress at Calcutta. Along revolutionary class mates Suhasini Dutta with Ajit Singh she was busy delivering fiery and Shanti Das Gupta. Her own small speeches which were later printed and revolutionary group was almost smashed distributed. after the Dalhousie Square Bomb outrage. At the convocation on February 6, 1932 Madame Cama when the Governor stood up to read out his address, she made her attempt to shoot Madame Cama came under the influence him but the bullets missed the target. She of Dadabhai Naoroji. She went to England was sentenced to nine years of rigorous in 1902 and for her revolutionary activities 176 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages imprisonment and was released in 1939. Aruna Ganguli Between 1946 and 1951 she was a Member of the Legislative Assembly. Later she was She was the heroine of the Quit India heard of in Noakhali after the riots, helping Movement. She carried out a personal and consoling the victims and the revolution against the laws of Indian society distressed. Refugee rehabilitation was her by marrying Asaf Ali, an eminent nationalist other field of work. leader, in 1924. She was in the fore-front of the campaign against the British; she Kalpana Datta fasted, went to Jail, braved bullets and even carried a price of Rs. 5,000 on her She worked with the Chittagong group. She head. Along with Lohia, she edited a used to collect materials for the monthly paper called Inquilab. She now manufacture of bombs from Calcutta and runs Link and Patriot. take it to Chittagong where she made From: The Illustrated Weekly. explosives in her own home. In 1943, she married P. C. Joshi, the well-known Communist.

Ujjwala

She was born in 1914 at Dacca. Her father was a zamindar connected with the revolutionary movement. When the girl was merely fourteen her father used to make her carry arms from place to place. She with her companions Bhawani and Rabi planned to shoot the Governor at Darjeeling. Their duty was over when the first two (Bhavani and Rabi) took their seats, their target within range. As a result of that Bhawani and Rabi were sentenced to death while she got life imprisonment. She was released in 1939, and in the latter part of her life she became a social worker and established a welfare institution, Palli Niketan. She also helped the victims of Noakhali after the terrible riot that had taken place.

177 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Women’s Liberation: An but the trying judge acquitted her with the remark that she had acted in self Episode In Bengal defence of her honour and was therefore By BASUDHA CHAKRAVARTY not guilty. Public opinion was aroused but such was the conservatism of those days that because the girl had come into lime-light WO incidents rocked public mind in and contact with the social leaders of the TBengal in the beginning of this century. period, she was no longer adaptable to the One was the suicide of a young girl, rigorous seclusions of her husband’s home. Snehalata by name, because of the inability Her father had in the meantime died and of her parents to find money for a dowry only the help of one of his friends enabled for her marriage and their consequent her to study for Matriculation which she humiliation and distress. The other was passed in a few years with a scholarship. more significant. Chapala Devi, a thirteen- Being technically married, she was debarred year old girl of Dacca district of what is from staying at women’s students’ hostels. now Bangla Desh, had been married to a The Brahmo community in Calcutta came man who had involved himself in litigation to her rescue and she was admitted as and had to absent himself frequently from the only female student at City College. home to attend court at the sub-divisional She was allotted a separate waiting room town. Left alone the girl-wife was the target and used to be escorted to her classes of anti-socials in the village. But she had and back by the professors. That was the been trained not to be daunted by evil beginning of co-education in Calcutta, she and kept herself prepared for self-defence. stayed in a small room near her college One night as one of the rowdies entered with her younger brother, carrying on with her room and tried to take advantage of great difficulty and giving tuitions to meet her, she struck him with a ‘ dao’ (an iron her expenses. Thus she went up to M. A. blade attached to a rod) and the man and being a student of philosophy, came succumbed to his injuries. Chapala was in close contact with Doctor S. arrested but the incident created a Radhakrishnan who held the chair of sensation throughout the province. Public philosophy at Calcutta University, and also opinion was aroused. The story of the girl’s became close to his family. She was for a courage and her photograph appeared in time an Inspectress of the Juvenile Court all the papers and a public meeting at and then found employment as a teacher Calcutta demanded her release. Acharya at a school for Muslim women students run P. C. Roy, the great scientist and social under strict purdah. As the result of life- reformer, who presided, called her “ Heroine long struggle her health broke down and of East Bengal” and declared that hers was she died at the early age of forty-two of an example for all women to emulate. The epidemic dropsy. She had been admitted case went up before the Sessions Court to hospital but died at a lone hour when no friend or relative was near her. On being

178 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages informed of her death Dr. Radhakrishnan a golden cage” one such lady who, after wrote to her younger brother, the present abolition of landlordism, fought the writer: “Life was cruel to her death has elections and became a Minister, used to been equally cruel.” In spite of all her say, “all the same it is a cage.” Pockets of experiences Chapala Devi remained a strict oppression on and injustice to women, Hindu in attitude and behaviour, and made persist. Senior women members of the it a point of retaining the surname “ family have of course a say in the conduct Bhattacharya” which she had acquired of household affairs j but junior members through her marriage. have a low status and often suffer more at the hands of senior women than of men. A Struggle Under-nutrition, under-development, neglect and disdain are mostly their lot. These two incidents illustrate the feudal social environment in which the women of The winds of change blow strong Bengal and for the matter of that, the whole country had and still have to struggle. Yet the winds of change have been blowing During the decades, no doubt, the work of strong enough. The Swadeshi movement social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy in Bengal and the subsequent non- and Iswar Chandra Vidya Sagar, spread of cooperation movement gave a fillip to English education and other political and women’s liberation as well. Women took part social factors have generated winds of in these movements and established their change in the social structure and condition right to equality in a vital field of national of women. Girls are receiving education in endeavour. Participation of women in the schools and colleges by the thousands; a11- India movement launched by Mahatma they are working in educational institutions, Gandhi had far-reaching social results for offices and many occupations. That has them. Women courted jail and other forms had a liberating effect but that is also of suffering for the national cause. It was limited. Even the earning girl cannot live or probably a Marwari lady, Smt. Indumati act on her own j even she is made an Goenka, who was the first among women object of bargain in the marriage market. in Calcutta to go to jail as a Satyagrahi. Also the percentage of educated women The arrest of Smt. Basanti Devi, wife of is small j the vast mass of women in the Deshbandhu C. R. Das, Urmila Devi, his lower middle class and peasant families, sister, and Suniti Devi, a close relative, particularly in the villages, are still denied electrified the political atmosphere. human rights. Only in affluent families they Thousands of women joined the ranks of have some equality of status j but there freedom-fighters in the non-cooperation also girl-widows, for example, are more movement, and the Civil Disobedience tolerated than respected. It is well known movements at the close of the twenties. that women in princely families and families A considerable number of women joined the of big land-lords have had, generally revolutionary movement m Bengal, took speaking, a subdued existence. “We live in part in action and some of them sacrificed

179 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages their lives. Women protested when parts of the country for education, service Mahatma Gandhi did not include any of them and in the case of the rich land-lords, just in the Quit India Movement of 1942 and for living in the city. But they had retained the Azad Hind Fouz formed by Netaji their home-steads and maintained their Subhas Chandra Bose were a further connection with it. The partition, however, assertion of their rights. Women had threw the bulk of the Hindu families out of steadily established their right to equality their home-steads, and girls of the families with men. There were phases where who would not have perhaps dreamt of political activities having flagged due to getting anything like higher education had the foreign Government’s repressive they lived on in their native homes, took measures, women took upon themselves their own places in the struggle and to carryon those activities and face the equipped themselves as best as they could, consequences. Women’s Satyagraha to fight the family’s battle for existence. Committees were fulfilling a positive role in Thousands were admitted, with the aid of this regard. The wide participation of refugee scholarships, into educational women in the national movement paved institutions and prepared themselves, the way for automatic recognition of equally with their brothers, to share the equality of status of women in the family burden. There have been many Constitution of Free India though such instances of a daughter, being the eldest equality had not been achieved even in child of the family, working as a sales-girl advanced western countries without a long at a Government milk depot or some such struggle. job to help bring up her younger brothers and sisters, foregoing marriage and The Partition - a cause for women’s continuing as an earning member of the assertion family. Women students and working women, by thousands, braved daily the Partition of the country in the wake of hazards of travelling by over-crowded independence paradoxically created buses, trams and trains in order to attend conditions conducive to women’s self their classes or jobs. Such first-hand living assertion. The struggle for existence into develops in them a personality and a sense which the lakhs of migrants from Pakistan of self-respect which would have been were thrown, proved to be both a test beyond their imagination had they and an opportunity for women. The sudden continued to live in the back-woods of transition from the comparative security villages in East Bengal. Partition and the of a home of generations and land enough resultant migration have had the dialectical to meet family needs, to the uncertainties effect of working out a social revolution in of the wide world, had a revolutionary the direction of throwing women into the impact on the lives of women, particularly responsibility of the struggle for existence, the young among them. Many well-placed and thus placing them on the road to families from East Bengal had over the liberation. Modern conditions of co- decades come over to Calcutta and other education, of men and women working

180 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages together in office and institutions and of albeit a free woman. An emancipated their joint participation in social and cultural woman regards herself as a human being activities like dramatic groups have a without such inhibitions as appertain to a spontaneous liberating influence. They have woman as such. An emancipated woman also personal and social consequences like would not refuse to fulfil the roles of a love affairs and love marriages, in which wife, daughter, sister and mother to which also women now assert their individualities. she may be called, but she would not be subdued by those roles. She would have no sex complex. A merely liberated woman has such complex in an inverted form : she is rather over-conscious of being a woman and proud of the fact that she has liberated herself. The so-called society lady who goes about with painted lips, is not necessarily emancipated. Even so, the area of liberation is still limited - even in advanced countries. Otherwise there would have been no need for an International Women’s Year. Areas of darkness persist even in educated circles. They have been well portrayed in Bengali in the novels of Sarat Chandra Chatterjee. The dowry system, at whose altar Snehalata sacrificed herself over half a century ago, still flourishes. Even educated girls have to be presented before the bridegroom’s people as merchandise and provided with a dowry as a condition of marriage. Hence mere education is no social passport to liberation. Even the earning capacity of a working woman is but an additional qualification for These too are in a sense spheres of marriage, not an asset in itself. Education liberation. or capacity to earn does not in itself Yet it would not be possible to claim that constitute liberation. In poor families of liberation is wide in its scope or anything course the situation is even worse. The near total. For one thing, the so-called women and particularly those who are not liberation is not the same as emancipation. major members of the family have to slave Liberation means freedom from outer to earn their morsel of food. The case of restraints while the basic entity remains girl-widows is worse still. So the entire what it was. In liberation, the woman problem of women’s liberation has still to continues to regard herself as a woman - be tackled at the roots. Spread of

181 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Sr. Nivedita- The Dedicated

A Great Offering

UST below the Darjeeling railway station Jis the Hindu cremation ground. In it stands a memorial built of brick. There is a tablet there with the word : “ HERE REPOSE THE ASHES OF SISTER NIVEDITA OF THE RAMAKRISHNA- VIVEKANANDA WHO GAVE HER ALL TO INDIA”

The Name Nivedita means ‘the dedicated one’. The great poet, Rabindranath Tagore answers for us : “Whoever has seen what reality there was in her (Nivedita’s) love of education and increasing participation of the people, has surely understood that we women in working life will of course help. - while giving perhaps our time, our money, But the basic remedy lies in the social even our life - have not been able to give attitudes. World movements such as the them our heart.” Sister Nivedita had no International Women’s Year must help. But money to give - for she was poor herself. they are most useful in focussing attention But she gave her life. on the state of things as they are, the This great offering, giving her life for Mother retrospect and the prospect for the future. India, is like a song of love. Love is blind Hard is the way of women’s liberation. The for it sees not the faults of the beloved, processes of their subjugation and and Nivedita never found fault with India. suppression work mostly in secret; the Indeed, she was hard on those who even processes of redemption are somewhat talked of her slightingly. intangible. Woman’s ignorance is the greatest obstacle to her liberation. It is Ancestry and Parents from the ignorance and prejudices of other women that a woman suffers most. Women Sister Nivedita’s original name was Margaret also labour under a biological difficulty in Elizabeth Noble. She was born on October attaining equality with men. 28, 1867 at Dungannon, Co. Tyrone, in far- off Ireland. She carne from a family called Noble who were of Scottish descent but had been settled in Ireland for about five

182 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages centuries. She completed her education at interest in religion. One day she invited the age of seventeen. Then in 1884, she Swami Vivekananda to her house, and she went to England and became a teacher in also invited Margaret. a school at Keswick. It was a cold Sunday afternoon in November. Fifteen or sixteen people had A Teacher by Instinct assembled at Lady Margesson’s home to meet the Swami. They were all seated in Margaret liked teaching. She became the drawing room on the floor in a interested in the new method of teaching semicircular form facing the Swamiji. which was discovered by a Swiss teacher Margaret did not miss any of his lectures called Pestalozzi. Margaret spent ten years or classes. She learnt much from him. Yet as a teacher from 1884 to 1894. she could not accept all his views. She argued with him, and fought with him but Religious Beliefs she admired him for his lofty ideals and his noble soul. As a child, Christian religious doctrines had been instilled into her. She loved Jesus with The Call her whole heart. How willingly he had undergone so much sacrifice! But by the One day during the question-answer-class, time Margaret was eighteen she carne to the Swami suddenly rose and thundered: understand that religion did not mean belief H What the world wants today is twenty in this doc trine or that ; it meant search men and women who can dare to stand in for Divine Light and Eternal Truth. At this the street yonder, and say that they time she happened to read the life of the possess nothing but God ... Who will go?” Buddha. She liked him immensely. The He wrote in a letter to Margaret: “The Buddha too had undergone so many earth’s bravest and best will have to sacrifices for the good of the world! For sacrifice themselves for the welfare of all. three years Margaret studied his teachings Buddhas by the hundred are necessary with with reverence. But it was not enough to eternal love and pity. Who would join his dispel all her doubts and give her peace. army and work for his mission ? She still sought Light and Truth. Then Another day he was talking about the something happened that was to change women of his country. They never went to her whole life. A’ Hindu Yogi’ arrived in school. He wanted them to be educated. London. He was a Sannyasi, a Hindu monk, He turned to Margaret and said: ‘I have and his name was Swami Vivekananda. plans for the women of my own country in which you, I think, could be of great help The Meeting to me.’ These words had a strange effect on her. Lady Isabel Margesson was a talented and She felt that it was a call, the call for influential lady. She was a great friend of which she had” been waiting all these Margaret’s too. She knew of Margaret’s years. She had to accept that call. A ray

183 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages of light and hope penetrated the darkness in Calcutta on January 28, 1898. The Swami and gloom that had enveloped her for so was at the dock to receive her. She was long. Her mind was made up. She would very happy to see him because in this vast, join His army. She would go to India and unknown land He was the only person she serve the people of India. This was a very knew. important decision. It changed ‘her life. London lost a worker, but it gave to India Three Important Events one of the greatest friends the country has ever had. The month of March was very eventful for Margaret. She had not come merely to visit Invitation India and to be with the Master, as the other ladies had. She had come to work. The Swami left England in December 1896. But she was unknown to the people. So He did not take Margaret with him then. the first thing the Swami did was to He believed that she was sincere, pure, arrange a public meeting to introduce her and determined. He had faith that she to the people of Calcutta. The meeting would have a great future in the work for was held on March 11. The Swami presided India. But he was very kind and and introduced her thus: “Already England considerate. India is a tropical country has given us some of her great intellects where the weather is extremely hot most to help us in our mission ... And now of the year. Would she be able to stand England has sent us another gift in Miss the climate? Ways of life in India were so Margaret Noble, from whom we expect different from those in West. Could she do much”. She spoke at the meeting on ‘The without European comforts? The English in Influence of the Spiritual Thought of India India would hate her for befriending Indians. on England’. Her eloquence touched all Would she have the courage to face them? listeners. And the Indians would doubt her good The second important event took place on intentions. Would she be able to tolerate March 17. It was one of the most their suspicions? He made all this clear to memorable days of her life. In her diary her in a letter. And then he made her a she called it ‘a day of days ‘. On that day promise : ‘I will stand by you unto death she met Sri Saradamani Devi who was Sri whether you work for India or not, whether Ramakrishna’s spiritual consort. The you give up Vedanta or remain in it. The devotees called her the Holy Mother. On tusks of the elephant come out but never the way to see Her Margaret felt very go back so arc the words of a man never excited. She was going to meet one who retracted.” was worshipped by all in the Order as the Mother of the Universe. The American Arrival friends were also with her. Mother greeted them affectionately and called them ‘my On an extremely cold and foggy winter daughters’. Margaret wrote to a friend in morning Margaret left England. She arrived

184 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages London afterwards: ‘She is the very soul was to work and not try to impose her of sweetness, so gentle and loving.’ western ideas on them. The third and most important event took Nivedita reached this ideal so perfectly that place on March 25. It was a Friday. On our great nationalist leader Bepin Chandra that day her life was consecrated to the Pal wrote of her later: ‘Nivedita came to service of God. Her Master gave her the us, as no European has yet come, not as beautiful name, Nivedita “ meaning one who an adept, but as a novice : not as a is dedicated or offered to God. She thus teacher, but as a learner. She did not pose became the’ chosen’ of God when she was before us as a prophetess but always stood thirty years old. in sincere love and reverence as a worshipper.’ Travels in the Himalayas A new Home and School In the summer of that year the Swami, Nivedita, and others left for Almora in the In the house at 16, Bose Para Lane she Himalayas. On the journey and during their decided to start a school for girls. It opened stay there the Swami continued to instruct on November 13, 1898, which was the them. auspicious day of Kali Puja. She was Recollecting all these experiences, she delighted when Mother herself came and wrote later: ‘As I look back on this performed the opening ceremony. The wonderful summer, I wonder how I have Swami and other members of the come to heights so rare. We have been Ramakrishna Order were also present. At living and breathing in the sunshine of the the end, the Mother gave a whispered great religious ideals, all these months, and blessing which was spoken aloud for her God has been more real to us than the by a companion. She prayed that the common men.’ blessings of the Divine Mother might be upon the School, and that the girls it A True Disciple trained should be ideal girls. I cannot imagine a grander omen than Her On her way back to Calcutta Nivedita visited blessing, spoken over the educated Hindu Lahore, Delhi, Agra, and Banaras, She had womanhood of the future: Nivedita wrote travelled a great deal in the last few later. She started her work earnestly. She months and had seen a large part of India. taught the little girls reading and writing, But during her travels all her time was not and introduced painting, clay-work, and spent in seeing places. She was training sewing. The children loved their Sister’s herself for the life she was going to lead. school, and Nivedita herself was overjoyed. Swamiji told her to remember that she had come to serve, and not to uplift or teach. The Plague She should never let people think that she had more knowledge than they had. She The following March bubonic plague raged should first study the world in which she in Calcutta. All the people who could leave

185 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the city were doing so, and the rest were pilgrimage, if one makes it with the Guru: too frightened to know what to do. Swami she wrote. Vivekananda immediately ‘set his monks and They reached London on July 31. On August followers to work. They formed a plague 16, the Swami left for America, Nivedita service, and Nivedita was in charge of it. followed a month later. She organized a band of young men to care for the sick and to help clean the In London city. Disease breeds in filth and rubbish so the streets must be cleaned. Some monks From America Nivedita went to France and of the Mission also worked with her. met the Swami and some of his friends in The great reward that Sister Nivedita Paris. Then they spent some days in received for her selfless noble work was Brittany, where the Swami presented to the love and respect of the people with her the poem , A Benediction’ in which were whom and for whom she worked. The condensed all the hopes and good wishes District Medical Officer wrote in his report: of the Master for his disciple. ‘During this calamity the compassionate With these blessings Nivedita went to figure of Sister Nivedita was seen in every London to continue her work of raising slum of the Bag bazaar locality. She helped money for her school. She gave as many others with money without giving a thought as thirty-five lectures in London, to her own condition, At one time when Manchester, and Edinborough in Scotland. her own diet consisted only of milk and In America she had given up her usual fruits, she gave up milk to meet the medical European dress and had taken to a graceful expenses of a patient.’ but extremely simple gown of white flannel with a griddle fastened at the waist. A The Voyage rosary of beads always adorned her neck.

Nivedita had started her school on new The House of Sisters lines only as a small experiment. In about six months she realized that to continue it Nivedita arrived back in India in February further she would need more money. She 1902. Four years earlier she had landed in therefore had to return to England to raise India as a foreigner. She was then a little funds for it. Swami Vivekananda was also afraid. a little doubtful. This time she going to visit Europe and America again. experienced the joy of returning to her own So they travelled together. They left India motherland. Now she called India ‘our in the middle of June, 1899. country’; she talked of Indians as ‘our Mornings and evenings he would sit on the people’. The best of our countrymen were deck and talk to Nivedita. She was happy surprised to see how sincere she was in to be with him and learn so much more her love. ‘When she uttered the words’ our from him, Though this voyage was not a people. The tone of absolute kinship which pilgrimage she felt as if it was. ‘Even a struck the ear was not heard from any journey round the world becomes a other among us’, wrote Rabindranath

186 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Tagore. The house at 17, Bosepara Lane, of His disciples!’ Nivedita was just going to was her home, her school, and a meeting say, ‘But that was the last time!’ but she place of many great people of that time. could not utter these words. And yet they It was in this house that Nivedita lived till proved true. Her Master also thus took His the end of her life. Sometimes, when she last farewell of her. was ill, her friends and doctors advised her to leave this house and stay in a more All for India healthy part of the city. Nivedita would stoutly refuse. ‘How can I leave the land The death of the Swami strengthened that first gave me shelter?’ she would ask. Nivedita’s resolve to throw herself heart and soul into her work for India. The Girls School ‘He is not dead, He is with us always. I cannot even grieve, I only want to work,’ As soon as she had settled down she she wrote in a prayerful mood to a friend. thought of opening her school again. She Her love for India was the heritage she wrote to the Swami about it. He was in had received from her Master. She wrote Banaras then. He blessed her work with of Him once: . There was one thing however, these words : ‘ May all powers come unto deep in the Master’s nature, that He Himself you! May Mother Herself be your hands never knew how to adjust. This was His and mind! It is immense power - irresistible love of His country and His resentment of - that I pray for you, and, if possible, along her suffering. He was born a lover, and the with it infinite peace.’ queen of his adoration was His Motherland.’ Nivedita made India the object of her love The Last Farewell and worship. Until now she had spent all her energy on her school work. She decided Swami Vivekananda more than once visited to lend support henceforward to other Nivedita’s school at 17, Bosepara Lane. His causes as well--for the national movement last visit was on June 28, 1902. Nivedita for political independence was rapidly knew that he was not well. On July 2, she growing. For this purpose she resigned from went to the Belur Math to meet him. It the Ramakrishna Mission which was purely was a Wednesday and the holy Ekadasi a spiritual organization. With great feelings day. The Swami fasted but made her sit she wrote: “Let me plough my furrow across near Him and eat. ,At the end of the meal India just as deep, deep, deep, to the very when she went to wash her hands, he centre of things, as it will go. Let it be poured the water for her and then dried either as a hidden voice sending out her hands with a towel. Naturally, she noiseless things from a cell or as a protested. He was her Master; she, His personality, romping and raging through the disciple. big cities - I don’t care! But the God of my ‘It is I who should do these things for you, own strong right hand grant that I do not Swamiji. Not you for me!’ she said humbly. have to waste my effervescence in He solemnly replied, ‘Jesus washed the feet western futilities. I think that I would rather

187 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages commit suicide! India is the starting point National Education and the goal, as far as I am concerned. Let her look after the west if she wishes. ‘In India the educational problem is the problem of problems. But unfortunately in Political Freedom India people have no keen feeling about the complexity of the problem. She only In the beginning she had hoped that England ran a small school on national lines. She and India would be friends. But experience had not the distinction of founding a big later made her believe that India could not university or an institution for scientific become great unless she was free. Nivedita research. But hers was the power of right suffered the humiliation of political bondage thought. She inspired many an along with the Indians and often cried in educationist, artist, and scientist. That is despair, ‘I am permanently embittered and why the great historian Jadunath Sarkar disillusioned ‘. If an unjust law was passed wrote: ‘The Nivedita Girls’ School became by an Indian Councilor Assembly, she was a centre of light and an example to us.’ the first to speak against it. She was not At a time when the singing of Bande afraid of the British Government and spoke Mataram in public was not allowed by the what was in her mind. A great national Government, she introduced it in her leader, Rash Behari Ghosh, rightly said in school’s daily prayers. During the swadeshi 1912 : ‘On one thing I can speak with movement she started using crude confidence and that is this. If we are swadeshi things herself. She introduced conscious of a budding national life at the spinning in her school. As a spinning teacher present day, it is in no small measure due she appointed an old lady, whom the girls to the teaching of Sister Nivedita.’ While called Charkha-Ma, They heard all about her ideas and thoughts were welcome to Swami Vivekananda from her. And she all classes of society, they were most proudly wrote to a friend of hers: ‘All these welcome to the young men. She was one girls are gaining certain ideas and impulses. of those patriots for whom the youth of They hold themselves under Swami and the this country had great respect. They went Holy Mother. They are something of in large numbers to hear her lectures and disciples as well as pupils.’ were prepared to take her advice. She told them once: ‘The good of your country Indian Women should be your true aim. Don’t seek it by literary pursuits or clever writing of articles, Ever since she first went to stay in Bagh or oratory. Think that the whole country is Bazar Mivedita had been deeply impressed your country and your country needs work. by Indian women. She found them shy and Struggle for knowledge, for strength, for retiring, but gentle, proud, and dignified. happiness and prosperity. Let all these be She wanted them to have better education. your aim in life. By no means be found But she also asked the women not to give sleeping when the cry comes for battle.’ up their own ideals and practices. She called India the land of great women. She told

188 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages them of the ideals for which Sita and are one, nothing can prevail against us to Savitri, Uma and Gandhari stood. She make us think we are divided. We are one, praised the purity and faithfulness of the and all antagonisms amongst us are illusion” Indian wife and the utter selflessness and - the power that would be generated can loving thoughtfulness of the Mother. She hardly be measured.’ could not help admiring the respectful deference accorded by the young to the Mother’s Darling old. She reminded the women of the heroic deeds of Ahalyabai and Lakshmibai who The greatest attraction for her in Bagh served their motherland even to their last Bazar was the Holy Mother. Since that breath. blessed day in 1899 when she first saw Nivedita believed that when once the the Holy Mother, her heart was drawn women of India awoke the country would towards her. During her first stay in Bagh be great again. With great hope she wrote: Bazar she was under the protecting roof ‘It is essential, for the joyous revealing of of Mother. And both her rented houses were that great Mother, that She be first very close to Mother’s house. At intervals surrounded by the mighty circle of these, Mother went to stay at her country house Her daughters, the Indian women of the at Jayrambati. But whenever she returned days to come. It is they who must to Calcutta she paid a visit to Nivedita’s consecrate themselves before Her, school. Nivedita would consider it a festive touching Her feet with their proud heads, occasion and decorate the gates with and vowing to Her their own, their leaves and flowers. She would’ supervise husbands’ and their children’s lives. Then the cleaning of the rooms and ask the girls and then only will she stand crowned before to offer flowers at Her feet. Nivedita, too, the world. Her sanctuary today is full of made it a point to visit Mother whenever shadows. But when the womanhood of possible. Mother addressed her as ‘my India can perform the great arati of darling child’ and she was Nivedita’s nationality, that temple shall be all light, ‘Beloved Mother’. She became like a child nay, the dawn verily shall be near at hand. of five when she sat’ by Mother. Lovingly and longingly she would look at Her to Indian Unity gladden her heart. She liked to render small services to Mother. Joyfully she would She believed that India could not be great spread Mother’s carpet for her to sit upon. and powerful unless there was unity. She Mother’s concern for Nivedita’s health and was never tired of speaking about this. Her keen interest in her work were always Once she most prayerfully made a a source of strength and inspiration to her. suggestion for achieving this sense of unity amongst us. She said: ‘If the whole of India Gopaler-Ma could agree to give, say, ten minutes every evening, at the oncoming of darkness to Gopaler-Ma lived with Mother. She was thinking a single thought, “We are one, we already in her eighties when Nivedita met

189 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages her. When Nivedita first went to stay at admired by all these leaders. They were all Mother’s house she was shocked. To have impressed by her great intellect, her brilliant a foreigner in the house ! But she gradually oratory, and above all her love for India. came to love Nivedita. She called her’ Noren’s daughter ‘. For she called Swami With the Young Vivekananda ‘Noren’. Nivedita was looked upon by the young as The Bases friend, philosopher, and guide. Among the young men who later became famous we Dr. Jagadish Chandra Bose and his wife may mention the Tamil poet Subramania Abala Bose were amongst the closest Bharati, the economist Benoy Sarkar, the friends of Nivedita. Nivedita spent all her historians Jadunath Sarkar and Radha holidays with the Bases, either in the West, Kumud Mukherjee, and the artists Nandalal or in Dum Dum, near Calcutta; or Darjeeling Bose, Asit Halder, and Surendra Nath or Almora. In 1910 they went on a long Ganguly. She gave every possible help to pilgrimage together to Kedar Nath and Badri these young men. Through her writings Narayan in the Himalayas. The following Nivedita became known to an even wider year it was in their home in Darjeeling that circle. Besides her books she wrote many she breathed her last. articles for newspapers and magazines. This brought her in contact with many veteran The Tagores Indian and foreign journalists like Motilal Ghosh, G. A. Natesan, Sarala Ghoshal was Rabindranath’s niece Chatterjee, William T. Stead, K. Radcliffe, and a friend of Nivedita. She was an and F. J. Alexander. educated and accomplished woman. Swami Amongst her books the best known is The Vivekananda wanted her to help him and Master As I Saw Him, a book on Swami go with him to the West, but she could Vivekananda. Notes on Some Wanderings not. She wrote in her biography later: with the Swami Vivekananda tells us more ‘Swamiji went away with Nivedita and she about her travels with him. She wrote became the bearer of His message’. about Hindu mythology and the gods and goddesses. The result was the beautiful National Leaders books called Kali the Mother, Siva and Buddha, the Cradle Tales of Hinduism, and Nivedita believed that India would have to Myths of the Hindus and Buddhists. win political freedom before the country could advance in other ways. So she took Broken Health great interest in the plans and work of all the leaders holding different political views, Now and again Nivedita Fell ill. The climate and they all knew her. Though she was of the country, her austere habits, and not a member of any political party, and above all, hard work told upon her health. did not take part in political work, she was

190 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages In 1905 she was very seriously ill. In 1906, Holy Mother a flood and a famine occurred in East Bengal. As soon as she heard about the Sri Sarada Devi distress of the people, she left Calcutta Swami Pavitrananda and went to Barisal. There she went on foot from one village to another, wading for miles through knee-deep water. She met The Final Word in Perfection the poor and suffering people. She gave them material help and consoled them in HE mere human aspects of Her life were their bereavements. No difficulty could Tenough to make Her an exemplary prevent her from doing this good work. It character in the eyes of the world. She was during these days that she came to was indeed the filial word in the perfection know the terrible poverty of the villagers. of Indian womanhood. Her action always She also discovered how calm and patient showed the highest dignity and greatest they were in their suffering. But the strain magnanimity. Even through mistake She of it was too much for her. She had an could not associate Herself with anything attack of malaria of a very severe kind. small or narrow. Even in Her ordinary She bore her illness patiently, and gradually dealings She was head and shoulders she recovered. But her health was never above all others in refinement and the same again. For the rest of her life she broadness of outlook. Her life was always suffered from some tropical malady or other. a model for others to follow, and it was On October 7, she made! her last will. She difficult to find the least trace of left all her possessions and writings in the imperfection in her actions and behaviour. hands of the Trustees of the Belur Math, But the most dominant trait in Her to be used for her school to give national character, overshadowing every other education to the women of the country. feature, was Her motherly love. She might During those days at Darjeeling it was be anything else, but everybody found in always cloudy ; the sun was hardly seen. Her a mother - only Her love was stronger But on the morning of October 13, at about than that of one’s own mother. Many young seven, the sun suddenly shone brightly. men who had lost their mothers at an early Nivedita said: ‘The frail boat is sinking, age and did not know what a mother’s love but I shall yet see the sun rise’ and then was, had their loss more than compensated she died. when they came in touch with Her. Many, The daughter of Mother India went to sleep after finding a mother in Her, did not hanker in her lap for eternity. after anything else in this life or in the life to come. Her love was enough to give them security here and salvation hereafter. They did not even care to know of Her spiritual powers. They did not care to see the highest of the Himalayan peaks when they felt themselves sufficiently blessed by

191 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages

Golap Ma

Sister Nivedita

Holy Mother Sarada devi

Gauri Ma Yogin Ma

192 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages touching the foot of that great mountain. speak their language. But the unspoken There was something in Her attitude which language of Her love was more than enough soon disarmed all fear and awe. for them - they would feel blessed.

A Mother True The Open Mind

There were instances when She gave Her When Sister Nivedita came to India, Swami own clothes or blankets to young disciples Vivekananda was a bit anxious how to for their use. Perhaps these disciples would make a place for her in Hindu society. But think it sacrilegious to use things which the Holy Mother accommodated her in Her the Mother had used. But Her spontaneous own room. It meant tremendous courage motherly attitude would at once remove and extreme broad-mindedness on the part any such feelings. Does a son hesitate to of the Mother, for if the news reached Her use anything which his mother possesses? relations She might have to face social At Jayarambati She would cook for the persecution. Even for Herself, was it not devotees, wash their plates and cleanse remarkable that, although She belonged to the spot where food was taken. Devotees an orthodox Brahmin family and lacked would sometimes come from a distance, modern education, She could allow a and after staying only two or three days European lady to stay with Her? And that, with Her would feel so much drawn to Her in the last century at a time when Hindu that they would shed tears while leaving society was uncompromising in its rigidity the place, Sometimes as they departed the as regards social rules! Sister Nivedita in Mother would watch them, as far as they turn adored this Mother and this is well could be seen, with eyes moistened with expressed in the following letter she wrote the tears of a mother’s love. Once a young to the Mother while she was abroad. monk who stayed with Her went out on some business. It was almost evening when Cambridge, Mass., he returned, but the Mother would not take Sunday December 11, 1910. Her meal before he came. How could a Beloved Mother, mother take her food when the son had This morning, early, I went to church - to not had his? When the disciple saw this, pray for Sara. All the people there were he was overwhelmed with emotion. Even thinking of Mary, the Mother of Jesus, and one’s own mother -is not always so suddenly I thought of you. Your dear face, considerate. She was the mother of all. and your loving look and your white sari Every soul born of the womb of a woman and your bracelets. It was all there, And it would find in Her a mother. Her love knew seemed to me that yours was the Presence no distinction of caste, creed or that was to soothe and bless poor S. Sara’s geographical boundaries. People from the sick-room. And - do you know? - I thought east and west, from the south and the I had been very foolish to sit in your room, north would come to Her to receive Her at the evening service to Sri Ramakrishna, blessings. She might not even be able to trying to meditate. Why did I not

193 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages understand that it was quite enough to be Many a non-Bengali or non-Indian devotee a little child at your dear feet? Dear Mother! would go to the Holy Mother, but so great You are full of love! And it is not a flushed was the breadth of Her innate culture that and violent love, like ours, and like the everyone would feel quite at home with world’s, but a gentle peace that brings good Her. Once while listening to Easter music to everyone and wishes ill to none. It is a at the place of Sister Nivedita, She became golden radiance, full of play. What a blessed so absorbed that one wondered how, Sunday that was, a few months ago, when without knowing the English language, She I ran in to you, the last thing before I could enter so much into the spirit of the went on the Ganges - ran back to you for resurrection hymns. Similarly, when once a moment as soon as I came back! I felt the English marriage ritual was being such a wonderful freedom in the blessing described to Her, Her face lit up with joy you gave me, and in your welcome home! as She heard the marriage vow - “ For Dearest Mother -I wish we could send you better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in a wonderful hymn, or a prayer, but somehow sickness and in health - till death us do even that would seem too loud, too full of part”, and She exclaimed, “Oh the Dharmi noise! Surely you are the most wonderful words! - the righteous words! thing of God - Sri Ramakrishna’s own chalice of His Love for the world, - a token left Deep Perception with His Children, in these lonely days, and we should be very still and quiet before Her mental penetration was so very keen you - except indeed for a little fun! Surely and Her commonsense so strong that even the “wonderful things of God” are all quiet in things supposedly outside Her sphere - stealing unnoticed into our lives - the air She could give a very sound opinion. During and the sunlight and the sweetness of the first Great War, a disciple told the gardens and of the Ganges. These are the Mother how President Wilson was trying silent things that are like you I Do send to to ensure the peace of the whole world poor S. Sara the mantle of your peace. and prevent war in future. The Mother’s Isn’t your thought now and then of the quiet remark was, “They all speak through high calm that neither loves nor hates? the lips and not from the heart.” Once a Isn’t that a sweet benediction that trembles disciple was telling Her of the many facilities in God, like the dew-drop on the lotus- of life which the British rule has given to leaf, and touches not the world? India. Her reply, however, was, “But is it Ever, my darling mother, your foolish not a fact that the poverty of the people Khooki (baby), Nivedita is increasing more and more?”

Though She belonged to an old world, as No Barriers it were, Hers was an extremely modern mind. Seeing this trait in Her, Sister Nivedita Sometimes people of inferior caste would very aptly remarked, ‘Is she the last of an come to Her at Jayarambati, but Her Old Order or the beginning of a New? ,j attitude towards them would be exactly

194 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the same. Only, She would see that they klnd but Firm observed the usual caste restrictions in the presence of others, as otherwise there Though kindness itself, She was not slow might be a sensation in the village where to show indignation when occasion orthodoxy prevailed. demanded it. When two young women, one A coolie woman came to Her one evening of whom was an .expectant mother, were with some vegetables sent by a devotee, made on political suspicion to walk a long and had to stop for the night at the house. distance by the local police and the news The woman had fever at night and vomited. reached the Holy Mother, She got extremely Next morning before others woke up, the upset. “Is this due to Government orders Holy Mother had cleansed the vomited or the over-zeal of the police officials? Were matter so that the poor woman might not there no men nearby to rescue the poor be scolded by anyone. girls? “ - She said, greatly agitated in mind. A Mohammedan, engaged as a labourer, Afterwards She was glad to hear that the was one day taking a meal in Her house. women were released. He sat on the verandah of the house. Nalini, Even persons who had gone astray did not a niece of the Mother, was serving him. tail to receive Her love and blessings, Owing to caste prejudices Nalini remained sometimes even in spite of the silent at a distance and began to throw the food protestations other devotees. Once She on the plate of the man. At this Holy Mother bluntly said, “If my son rolls in the dust, reprimanded Her niece and Herself served even then he is my child “. On another the food. After he had finished, the Mother occasion She said, “I am much the mother cleansed the spot where he had taken food. of the good as of the .d.” Once a woman Nalini was shocked and exclaimed: “What who felt guilty of moral turpitude came to are you doing? Will you not lose caste by see Her in Calcutta It dared not enter her this? “ room. The Mother understood the whole She felt very intensely the poverty and thing. She herself took her to the room, suffering of people in general. She would caressed her and gave her initiation. “What take great interest in the social service if you have done anything wrong ? When activities of the Ramakrishna Mission. If a you are repentant, your guilts been washed monk came to Her with a complaint that away,” said the Mother to give Her courage such work interfered with his meditative and consolation. The life of woman was life, She would pay no attention to him. afterwards transformed. “These are also the Master’s work”, She would say. While at Jayarambati She would Forgiving Love but not Permissiveness take a sympathetic interest in the affairs of all the neighbours and was a soured of Although many erring persons received a great strength to them. mother’s love from Her, Her love would not give them the freedom to err. The slightest error in conduct would receive Her notice. She might not always say it, but if it was

195 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages needed, the delinquent was sure to get a present and the future life. But how much reprimand from Her. The Sannyasin who the Mother had to think for those whose developed pride cause of his ochre robe, responsibility She had taken 1 Even in Her or the householder who showed scant old age and even in Her illness, She would courtesy to a monk because was much be und to devote much time to prayer and younger in age, would equally t a warning meditation. from Her about the danger that ahead. If She herself once said to a woman disciple necessary She could be very stern too. If in reply to Her question as to how She a person thought that taking shelter under should look upon Her, ‘It is enough if you think of me even as your mother”. Sometimes Her motherly heart could not bear that a disciple should undergo much physical suffering in practising hard Tapasya. She would always warn the young aspirant against excess in such things. But at the same time She knew how to rouse to activity an indolent person who had imagined that spiritual progress was compatible with a life of ease.

Fulfilment of Motherhood

Earlier, Saradamani’s mother had felt sad that Her daughter had been given in marriage to one who was half mad, as it were, and who did not lead a worldly life, so that Her Sarada would not know what it was to be called ‘mother’ by Her children. At this Sri Ramakrishna said to her: “Dear Her love, he could afford to do anything mother-in-law, you need not feel sorry. Your he liked, he was mistaken. Occasion would daughter will have so many children that come when She would even order such She will afterwards be tired of being called person to quit the place forthwith. Of mother”. His ‘prophetic words came to be course, such occasions were very rare. so true! We do not know whether the Holy A disciple might feel that Her love was a Mother was tired of Her children. But it is sufficient guarantee against the ills of the a fact that no mother under the sun had

196 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages so many children as She had, to address Sri Aurobindo’s Vision Her as mother. And how great was their affection for Her! A devotee actually said of the Mother to Her one day, “You have got many sons Sri Aurobindo like me, but I have got no mother like you.”

Her last utterances Adya Shakti

Five days before Her passing away, She Adya Shakti is the original Shakti, therefore, said to a woman devotee who felt the highest form of the Mother. Only She disconsolate at the prospect of Her manifests in a different way according to approaching end : Why do you fear? You the plane on which one sees Her. have seen the Master. Just learn to make the whole world your own. No one is alien. The Mother and the Ishwara This whole world is your own.” This was Her last spiritual utterance. She passed The Mother is the consciousness and force into Mahasamadhi at 1-30 a.m. on July 21, of the Divine ... or, it may be said She is 1920. the Divine in its consciousness - forces. The immortal spirit that had for the time The Ishwara as Lord of the cosmos comes been clothed in mortal flesh was gone. But out of the Mother who takes Her place the example of the life the Holy Mother beside him as the cosmic Shakti - the lived and the message She left behind are cosmic Ishwara is one aspect of the Divine. potent means of transforming many lives Faith ‘in the Divine shakti and the lsvara and a source of strength and inspiration The faith in the divine Shakti must be to a large number of men and women. When always at the back of our strength and one sees how Her influence is spreading when She becomes manifest, it must be like the waters of a flood-tide, one asks implicit or grow to completion. There is oneself whether She lived to continue the nothing that is impossible to Her who is work of the Master or to give added the conscious Power and universal Goddess strength to His message, whether She was all-creative from eternity and armed with a disciple of Sri Ramakrishna or the Spirit’s omnipotence. All knowledge, all complementary to Him. One wonders strengths, all triumph and victory, all skill whether She was not an essential part of and works are in Her hands and they are the same power that descended on earth full of the treasures of the spirit and of all to show light to the world and to guide perfections and Siddhis. humanity to the haven of Peace and Bliss. The Soul and the Divine Mother

It is true of every soul on earth that It is a portion of the divine Mother passing through the experiences of the ignorance in order 197 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages to arrive at the truth of its being and be invasions of other forces. Especially, the the instrument of a Divine Manifestation nervous excitement of the vital has to be and work here. rejected; a calm and quiet strength in the “Keep yourself open to the Mother and in nervous being and the body is the only perfect union with Her. Make yourself basis. It is there for you to receive, if you entirely plastic to Her touch and let Her open yourself to it always. mould you swiftly towards perfection “. Do not allow yourself to be troubled or If there is a refusal of the psychic new discouraged by any difficulties but quietly birth, a refusal becomes the child new- and simply open yourself to the Mother’s born from the Mother, owing to attachment force and allow it to change you. to intellectual Mother’s love and help will knowledge or mental remain with you unchanged as ideas or to lame vital before. The whole difficulty desire then there will comes from a vital movement be a failure in the which wants to possess Sadhana. matters in the wrong way, by The stream which you comparison with others, feel coming down on instead of living fully in close the head and pouring relation of your heart and soul into you is indeed a with the Mother’s. current of the Mother’s Force; it is so that it A Prayer often felt; it flows into the body in current. Mother Divine, grant that and works there to today may bring to us a liberate and change the complete consecration to Thy consciousness. As the consciousness will, a more integral gift of ourselves to changes and develops, you will begin to Thy work, a more total forgetfulness of understand the meaning and working of self, a greater illumination, a purer love. these things. Grant that in a communion growing ever deeper, more constant and entire, we may Help of the Mother’s Force for Change be, united always more and more closely to Thee and become Thy Servitors worthy It is to be assumed that you are capable of Thee. Remove from us all egoism, root of change since you are in the presence out all petty vanity, greed and obscurity. and under the protection of the Mother. May we be all ablaze with Thy Divine love; The pressure and help of the Mother’s make us Thy torches in the world. Force is always there. The rapidity of your progress depends upon your keeping yourself open to it and rejecting calmly, quietly and steadily all suggestions and

198 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Pen Portraits of Some tending more towards renunciation than towards the gaiety and glamour of life. It Forgotten Flowers was her artistic nature that sought expression in the outer life she led but her inner life craved after things “more enduring OMEN all over the world and and permanent.” “I want to grow like a W throughout the ages have at all lotus” she often would say, “and I do not times been the preservers of a nation’s care what people think of me.” culture and the custodians of a country’s Refined, sensitive and imaginative, Nalini artistic heritage. The mother instinct in had all the moods of an artist. Her artistic them is the preserving element in their instincts found outlets not only in her dress nature, and while they have inspired men and in her general demeanour, but later with new ideals, aspirations, fashions, fresh she was fired with an ambition to train her adventures, they have always remained, latent faculties and to give full expression with rare exceptions, conservative and to her hidden genius. It was not long before tradition-bound. This, has helped to she made a name for herself as a true artist. preserve some of the beautiful aspects of “ I wish to be a dancer, a painter, a musician the national genius of the country. It has and an actress,” - she was never tired of been the women of India who have repeating these wishes. preserved through the ages all that is A strong desire is half the effort, and where beautiful in the art of the people and it is an individual of strong determination and the women again who are on the vanguard self-will made up her mind to achieve a of the artistic revival of today. thing, success is not far off. Miss Turkhud started her life with the ambition to make Nalini Turkhud a hit on the screen, and her attempt had more than justified her. The sweetest and the most enthusiastic She joined the films for the sheer joy of of this small band of pioneers is Nalini giving expression to her talent and as an Turkhud. The only daughter of Mr. out- let for her artistic instincts. Her great Surendranath Turkhud, of the well-known adoration for Meera Bai, the Divine minstrel Turkhud family of Bombay, (her grand- her pride in being a Maharatta girl and her father was a great social reformer and the admiration for the Great Shivaji, the builder first Hindu Sheriff of Bombay, Dr. Atmaram of the Maharatta Empire, her intense love Pandurang Turkhud, she came from a rich and reverence for the saints and sages of and cultured Maharatta family. India, marked her mental and moral Nalini was born in Poona in 1911, the only attributes. She was a good student of Gita, child her parents had. Her deep religious a book she always carried about with her, nature, fostered in her childhood, began along with that peerless commentary of to grow and develop in later years, and jnaneshwar. though young and’ fashionable she was, She had herself composed little lyrics in at heart intensely ascetic and austere, Marathi. Her sketches and drawings, simple

199 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages and childish, were quite interesting in their Mrs. Venkatram is not unknown to music own way, and above all, it was her courage- lovers in this country. Her melodious voice for was she not one of the few educated has won her sincere admirers all over India and cultured Hindu girls to brave public and Ceylon. Her broadcasts from Bombay, opinion and ridicule by venturing forth to Madras and Trichy stations were events act on the screen in spite of strong to which music enthusiasts looked forward opposition? That was the strong point in eagerly every month. the character of this tender, fragile dreamy She represented the Carnatic music at its child of Maharashtra. sweetest and as a singer her melodious voice has few rivals in India. She was not Venkatram a professional, nor did she study music in any academy or under any master. Her In essence, all oriental music is melodious, father, a music-composer himself, taught subjective, psychic and impersonal. Music, her the first rudiments of the art, and her to the Orient, is a mood and not a method, own genius did the rest. an experience and not an experiment. Both Lalitha Venkatram was a singer first and folk-tunes and classical melodies reveal this foremost. Her crowning glory was her voice quality. and not mere knowledge and technique. In India, as elsewhere in the world, music She was an artist, and there was music in is the language of the soul of the people. her soul as well as at her finger tips. Her The many clashing cultures and conflicting theoretical knowledge may not be profound civilisations in this ancient land have and her singing flawless, but there was considerably enriched her art, heritage, and music in her melodies and soul in her songs. nowhere so perceptibly as in music. Lalitha Venkatram’s repertoire was rich and The Moghul culture, which in itself was an varied. Her favourites were of course, the enrichment of Persian and Mongol cultures, Telugu Kritis of Thyagaraja, the inspired gave to Indian music as it gave to Indian 18th century saint-singer of South India. architecture and painting, certain His kritis have a sweetness all their own, undefinable aesthetic qualities which it incomparable to any other tongue, and lacked. And what passes for North Indian very difficult of being rendered in an easy music today is only the old Indian music and free manner. with additional trimmings, filigrees and Shy, gentle and dark-eyed, Lalitha embellishments. Venkatram was born at Tiruvannamalai as But the roots of both the Hindustani and one of the five gifted daughters of Mr. M.V. the Old Carnatic music are deep in the soil Ramaswamy Iyer, an engineer in the Madras of this country and in the soul of its people. P.W.D. She spent her childhood days on One has only to hear the Kafee singers of the lap of Ramana Maharshi receiving, in Sind and the heart-melting devotional an abundant measure, his blessings and hymns of South India to understand the love. oneness of Indian music and the soul- A devoted wife and a mother of several throbbing nature of their simple melodies. children, Lalitha Venkatram was an ideal

200 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Hindu wife whose simple unaffected playing’ observed a fellow musician who affection and hospitality have endeared had heard her play some of the most herself to all who have contacted her. A difficult pieces with an ease and sweet singer but a sweeter woman! confidence that astonished him. Sensitiveness of feeling and refinement of Philomena Thumboo Chetty playing, these characterised her violin recitals, and they were no mean Some musicians are born. And some take achievements for a girl of her age. infinite pains to become one. Philomena Philomena was born in Bangalore but her Thumboo Chetty was a born musician. childhood days were mostly spent in Mysore When hardly six years old she asked her where she was educated in a Convent. , father for a violin, and at the age of eight Rukmalaya’ her home, was a modest little she delighted her parents and teachers bungalow in Mysore, as modest as its with her music. To have passed with owner, Sir Thumboo Chetty, her father. Honours, at the tender age of thirteen, Artists are often snobs. Not so this girl. the Diploma Examinations of F.T.C.L. and Wealth, position, influence and even the L.A.B., is creditable enough for any girl, much coveted honour of being presented but to have stormed the portals of the at the court as a debutante, while yet a great Paris Conservatory at sixteen is an school-going girl, had not touched her head. incredible achievement for an Indian girl. Several Indian girls have studied European Few Indians have taken kindly to European music and shown commendable mastery music and fewer still have achieved any over the art, both as composers and fame worth the name in the field. Philomena artists. Mrs. Comalata Dutt, Mrs. Daulat shone like a solitary star in that naked sky. Sethna, Miss Leela Lakshmanan are well- Violin, like Veena, is a delicate and difficult known as gifted composers, but Philomena instrument to master, and even where such was the first Indian girl to win a European mastery is achieved by the Indian, it has reputation. And it must be remembered that been at the cost of style and beauty. Western audiences are more critical and Technique is all right but it is not all art. harder to please. Knowledge and skill are necessary but they And Philomena was lucky to have been a do not make one a great artist. A great Mysorean. Her father, a trusted friend and play suffers when badly produced ; a fine adviser of the Maharaja, did not bring up piece of music gets lost when it is his daughters in luxury or surround their indifferently performed. young lives with false pomp and show. They There was a dignity about Philomena when were educated to be simple and to make she played her violin, an artistry about her the best use of their talents. Philomena’s music as delightful as her personality. She love was for music which the fond parents created an ‘atmosphere’ and infused a encouraged. ‘feeling’ which were, after all, true tests of Her six years’ stay in Europe was to draw a great artist. ‘ Her modesty was as big an out all her talent and to make a fine attraction as her mastery and exquisite musician of her. She had exceptional

201 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages opportunities of studying under great would as easily have achieved fame and masters, of attending some of the famous skill as an artist as she had in the world of musical conservatories and of listening to sports. some of the world-renowned artists in She was India’s number one tennis player Europe. After receiving the approbation and for years. Miss Row had played in almost good wishes of her master Georges Enesco, all the leading courts in Europe, including she appeared before appreciative the Wembley, and had won the audiences in London and Oxford and championships of several international charmed them with her personality and tournaments. performances. A forceful player with a marked style of A rebel at heart, she hid the fiery nature her own, her drives were hard and well- of her soul under the mask of a gentle calculated and her placings were remarkably serene face lit by two large, dark, soulful precise and puzzling. Her services were eyes. direct and medium but she was weak with her left hand strokes. She tended to be a Leela Row little impatient and when a game was prolonged with stout and safe returns she Timid and nervous, she was shy of lost all control over herself and thus gave strangers, and little did one realise then into the opponents. She was not a that this tiny slip of a girl would, at a very defensive player and like all great early age, become an All India figure and champions she delighted in leading the one of the world’s champion tennis players; attack and winning the point by sheer force She had, of course, every advantage that of drives and placings. birth, social position and wealth could give. A married woman later, the wife of a civilian, Her father was a prosperous and leading she had other interests to occupy her mind doctor in Bombay who piled up a huge and time, and though an obscure social fortune and lived in great style. figure now, India cannot easily forget her Leela Row was very versatile indeed. Tennis sporting daughter who brought credit to was not the only hobby in her life, though, her in international arenas. it dominated her young years long. She had often wished that she had taken to Ranganayaki the stage, but where was the chance for her in that direction in India? She was a Ranganayaki was a native of Madura, the fine violin player, and trained by a master same Madura that gave to Carnatic Music in Paris. She played with feeling, emotion Pushpavanam Mani. M. S. Pushpavanam and understanding. was a giant who over-shadowed every Sensitive, temperamental and eccentric, great singer of his time in the short span Leela had an artist’s soul, and if she could he lived. M. S.’s star had never shone with make up her mind to become an actress or brighter lustre and added glory than it is a dancer and perfect herself in that today. Ranganayaki’s paternal home in technique, as she had done in tennis, she Ramnad used to be the meeting place of

202 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the Vidwans of those days. Her own could even keep a raga alapana for an hour grandfather was a lover of music and a or more, delighting the hearers with, and discerning critic. Even her father, a prosaic, herself enjoying, the subtle shades of the postmaster in ordinary life, inherited this ragas with intelligence and understanding. love for music. Whoever may miss a music She was conscious of what she was doing recital in Matunga, this strangely silent man though she might have seemed physically never missed one. nervous or have given one the impression And so music ran in the family and was in of being so. her blood. Bombay was not an ideal place for getting trained in Carnatic music. The Travancore Sisters Bhagavathars there were, but most of them were of the “Sangeetha Bhushan “ level, A dancer’s career is like a tropical twilight, mere musical robots, Ranganayaki, brief, brilliant and beautiful. Dancing is an however, was lucky in her teachers and in art for the young and not for the middle- her training. aged. Nijinsky and Ruth St. Dennis in the Her first Guru was the veena-voiced singer, West, Uday Shankar and Bala Saraswathi Lalitha Venkatram, who created the love in India blazed a trail of glory all their own for music in her and lovingly led her infant for a short while. steps in the art. Her own father’s watchful Not that they have ceased to dance, or guidance was of great help to her growing the fire in them is extinguished, but their genius till her teacher, Sesha Iyengar took best days are long over. ’s folly, charge of and moulded her into shape. like that of Isadora Duncan, was that she Ranganayaki proved an apt pupil, and what caricatured her art towards the end of her was more, she had the natural gifts for life by persisting to dance, a poor pathetic becoming a great musician. She had an figure. Lalitha and Padmini started dancing instinctive love for the art, a keen desire when they were seven and six, to learn, capacity for hard work and respectively, the proper age according to devoted labour. With the sweat of the brow tradition. They found an ideal teacher in a great art is usually mastered. Inspired Gopinath, who knew his art and was genius is rare, and often it is a fraud. painstaking in his methods. Ranganayaki had this creative imagination They belong to a well-known family in in an abundant measure. Her raga alapana Trivandrum, and on their mother’s side they was indeed of a very high order and her were remotely related to the royal family swara manipulations were astonishing for of Travancore. Their ancestral home was one of her years and experience. She a huge place where they lived and played rendered most complicated pieces with as children under the fostering care of their perfect ,ease and supreme confidence. Her aunt, an aristocrat of a woman who lavished timing was perfect, and she had a good affection and care on them. Dancing was control over the modulation of her voice. the last thing she would have desired for She gave full three-hour programmes of them. classical music with ease, mostly kritis, she

203 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages But an understanding mother, seeing their natural aptitude, encouraged them to learn dancing, of course against protests and opposition from the relatives. Even their aunt gave in, on the children’s pleading and their mother’s persuasion. “Only as an accomplishment and not as a career, mind you” she warned them. And they joined the Narthakalalayam of Gopinath, who was then at the height of his popularity both as a dancer and teacher. His dance school at Trivandrum was attracting pupils from all over India and Ceylon, and as the palace dancer he was ever in demand to entertain the distinguished visitors to the state. Their popularity was by no means due to film or press publicity, though they have them in an abundant measure. Their stage shows were infinitely more attractive and lively. There was nothing crude or vulgar about their art of production. They were proud, happy and hopeful. Hers was the not anxious for fame or popular applause. strong silent hand that guided them safely they danced because they could not help past the many pit-falls that beset the show dancing. They felt it in their blood and world; and as a designer of their costumes wished to share the joy of it with the public. and planner of their programmes she was They were liked and admired for what they as much a part of the troop as the girls. were. They had a varied repertoire in their programme and in different techniques. Daulat Sethna Their classical items were as interesting and appealing as their folk dances. They The only daughter of the Bombay do not over-burden their art with heavy Corporation Electrical Engineer, Miss Daulat techniques, though well founded in orthodox Mistry, was educated and brought up in modes. the conventional manner of a society girl, The Travancore Sisters are actually three, to be polite, elegant and charming; to say though Lalitha and Padmini are the more “How’d you do”? in perfect English to widely known. No less gifted is the third strangers and visitors; to smile and be and youngest, Ragini, whose genius for sociable even in trying circumstances ; to dancing, acting and mimicking is amazing. play the hostess in her father’s house and, A big hearted and generous natured mother in short, to be an adornment in drawing brooded over these three gifted children, rooms and one of the so-called ‘smart set’.

204 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages One of the persistent dreams she had every complexion, in gipsy kit, was reading the night for years was that of herself as a palm and telling the fortune - so she Rajput maid on the steps of a lovely tank pretended at least! in a pink- white city of marble palaces and The “gipsy” was the attraction. Many went temples, obviously a memory of a previous in to get a glimpse of her, and the more life. Jahanara was the pen-name she chose adventurous went in several times to get for her writings. a good look at the young charmer. She She was a talented compo set’, and her was the fifteen-year-old Miss Chaudhury psychic nature helped her to bring down later famous as Devika Rani. She was a some of the unseen patterns and unheard tremendous success as a “gipsy” in that of melodies she was familiar with in her show; and the gipsy in her has led her dream-world and which she played skilfully along strange and fascinating paths. on the piano. A favourite composition of The only daughter of a highly placed hers was what she called” The Death of governrnent official, Lieutenant Colonel the Muhammed”, and whenever she played Chaudhury, then Acting Surgeon-General that piece she felt a strong tremor in her to the Government of Madras, her early body which often brought her down childhood days were spent in South India. unconscious on the floor. Born rich, educated abroad, brought up in A girl of wild impulses, she had some luxury, she was destined to lead a life of strange adventures and while, outwardly, ease and comfort, or being buzy with doing temperamental and sensuous, in her inner nothing. With her beauty and talent she nature, she was an ascetic, chaste and could have been a pillar of society and an self-controlled. The glamour of the senses ornament of her class. had no fascination for her, though she gave Destiny made a tapestry of Devika Rani’s one the impression of being earthy, but life and led her to choose the more her longings and aspirations were more adventurous life of an artist instead of the after the things of the spirit. She was an humdrum life of an official’s wife or the artist-ascetic and thus had the necessary domestic slave of a millionaire. soil for the seeds of yoga. Devika Rani was, perhaps, the first society She had since flowered into a yogini and girl to join the films in India, and also the made wonderful progress, along the difficult only one to contribute anything worthwhile path she has chosen, as the disciple of Sri to the film industry in this country. She Aurobindo. gave it a dignity, a tone, a cultured atmosphere which it never had, and has Devika Rani not even now. She did to Indian Films what Rukmini Devi did to Indian dancing, gave it It was a society show, organised by a new vision, a new hope and a fresh fashionable ladies ostensibly, for some good inspiration. cause. A booth resembling a gipsy tent, Here and there a solitary figure was putting was attracting crowds. A girl of unusual up a brave fight to put Indian films on the charm with flashing eyes and nut-meg map of the world. One of them who blazed

205 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages a glorious trait of his own was Himansu true to their type. She more than lived the Rai, an artist of indomitable spirit, daring part she was asked to play; she idealised vision and great capacity for work. He saw them and presented them as she would the possibilities of revealing India’s glorious like them to be. That is what a real creative past and her cultural heritage to the world artist does, and that is what distinguishes through this new medium. genius from mere talent. It was at this time, when he needed fresh After Himansu Rai’s untimely death she had inspiration and sympathy and help, Devika to carry on, single-handed, the burdens of Rani met him and threw in her lot with him, the Bombay Talkies, which, in the both as wife and business partner, and meantime, became a hot-bed of treachery, together they gave a right lead to this deceit and selfish interests. The noble industry and achieved something really fine dreams they dreamt together, and for which and decent. They founded the Bombay they gave whole-heartedly all the best in Talkies, slaved night and day to produce them, were shaping themselves into hideous artistic pictures, with the result that the night-mares. And Devika Rani was alone. best Indian films came out of their studio. Undismayed, she carried on and she showed Devika Rani’s pioneering spirit gave to the to the world that a woman is not such a industry something it sorely needed ; she helpless creature as people imagined her gave to it a healthy tone, a clean to be and that, given the chance, she is atmosphere, a moral strength and a quite capable of managing worldly affairs cultured touch. Undaunted by the as capably as a man. With infinite patience, difficulties and dangers that beset her all courage, and confidence in her strength around, she worked hard and and in the cause she espoused, she bravely enthusiastically to raise the standard of carried on. But the odds were against her, Indian films and to win for them a universal and she gave up the unequal, and often recognition. Like Himansu Rai, she also unhealthy struggle. She did her best. dreamt golden dreams. But if the evil days fell on Indian films in Her own contributions as an artist, had general and on the Bombay Talkies in been no less significant. She set up a high particular, she had nothing to regret for, or standard of acting, and for an amateur girl consider her life a failure. actress she revealed unsuspected histrionic She had other hopes, other ideals and talent. Whatever part she played, whether other aspirations now. She does not regret as a gipsy girl or as a dutiful wife or as a the past. It was useful as a necessary wayward child of wild impulses, she did it experience in life. She was glad that she convincingly and with insight and was given that opportunity to serve Indian imagination. art in her own way. Life is a bigger thing Who that has seen her in “ACHUTHA KANY than art or even India. A” or in ., IZZAT” can ever forget the charm Now happily married to Svestoslav Roerich, of her girlhood personality and the liveliness a great Russian painter, who is also a man of her acting? She recreated those of rare traits and a real lover of India, she characters in her own self but kept them would serve art and her country in a larger

206 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages and more useful way. The Roerichs are an moved on to Rajahmundry to help in his ideal pair with common interests, common great work. aspirations and high purpose. They have Her father Mr. Ramachandra Row, was an beautiful dreams, which they hope to educationist, a visionary, and a realise one day. Devika Rani is still the philanthropist. He gave all, property and “gipsy” with flashing eyes red like Mars in money, for the cause he championed - the the mid-night sky, and with winning smiles emancipation of the depressed classes. as guileless as those of a bride. Padmavathi had her high school education there and came to Madras to join the Padmavathi Queen Mary’s College in 1918, where she studied till 1920 when she passed her There was a radiant simplicity about her Intermediate with distinction. She married manners that was natural and which made in April 1920, and after ten day’s serious her most welcome in any society she moved illness, passed away on the lap of her in, and the childish innocence of her nature mother. made her trusted and loved by all, young She had courted death from her infancy and old, man or woman. She was very and the Lord of Death was compassionate popular among her college-mates, and her to her. Her premature death cast a deep professors universally regarded her as the gloom over her friends. brightest pupil and the best girl in the whole Hers was a short life, but rich with sweet institution and a few of them took great fragrant friendship. The young, tender, delight in inviting her to their rooms and lotus-bud (Padma) that blossomed and entertaining her to talk and to tea. enlivened us with such grace and beauty Though reserved by nature and reticent in is no more with us, but the subtle aroma conversation, yet she could rise at times of her life still lingers with us to chasten to brilliant heights in thought-provoking and purify our little lives. Great friend, sweet discussions either on religion or on soul, when may we see you again! literature. The sad smiles playing about her lips and the melancholy expression in her In The Turmoil of Politics wistful eyes were but the inarticulate indications of the deep sufferings of her The political upheaval of 1930-1931 soul. brought to light many hidden qualities of Her life story is shortly told. Born of the Indian people, one of the most striking cultured, middle-class Brahmin parents, she of them being the phenomenal courage spent her childhood in South Canara, where displayed by the younger generation of she was educated as a girl. Being Brahmos, Indian women, both in the villages and her parents were attracted to the noble towns, in shattering the social fetters that and selfless service rendered for the cause had hitherto chained them into a form of of the poor widows in India by that noble slavery, in joyously participating in the soul, Veeresalingam Pantulu, and they national struggle for freedom, in braving the lathi blows of the police, in voluntarily

207 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages courting imprisonment, in unflinchingly which is admirable, and though convention- inviting suffering in the performance of their bound and tradition-ridden, Eke the rest self-imposed tasks and in cheerfully bearing of Hindu India, they are more free to get all insults, humiliations and the wrath of over caste scruples and are less stupid in the public, the elders and the authorities. their customs and practices. Kamala Devi was one of the first to break Kamala Devi away from all those soul killing machinations of the priestly classes and to assert her Rebels, like artists, are born. In fact, most individuality not only in the choice of a great artists are rebels. People who have career for herself but also in the choice of achieved anything worth achieving in this her husband. world have ever been rebels. This She was a young widow, when she decided discontent is neither a biological to marry again a man of her choice, and phenomenon nor a psychological effect but not all the wrath of the community or the a spiritual factor. fury of the family could hold her back from Kamala Devi is a born rebel. Given the her resolve. Later when she decided to go choice, she would have preferred a warrior to England to join her husband, much s life. Born a girl, she had to be satisfied against the wishes of her people, she with being merely a social rebel. No earthly showed a similar strength of will. or heavenly cataclysms signified her birth. Kamala Devi’s rise to fame and popularity She opened her baby-eyes to a world of is not due to any chance or favour or peace and plenty. Nature too was all fortune. She was born, like most national smiles. Bright blue sky above, rich red earth leaders in the country, to comfort, and it below, and shimmering green of sea and would have been easy enough for her, with land all around. her talent, beauty and social position, to Revolt was instinctive and inborn, and not have settled down to an easy, comfortable, a reaction. It may easily be imagined what albeit non-descript and a parasitic life. But must have been her girlhood days at home that would have been a betrayal of all her and school! She was naturally a problem youthful promise and her best instincts. to her parents and a puzzle to her play- “ My first love was art,” she once said, mates. and how many even among her fellow- She neither hid her feelings nor accepted workers in the political field now know of any compromises. She did what she liked her services to the cultural advancement and said what she wanted to say. She had of India? Her pioneering work on the stage, a will and had her own way, whatever might in films, and for the revival of the fine arts, be the consequences. And withal, she was is yet an unwritten chapter. gentle and affectionate. And was she not a front-rank leader in the Inter-marriage is not so much a taboo in women’s movement in the country? And the community in which she was born as did she not give the best years of her in some orthodox Brahmin communities of youthful life to the cause of Indian women? India. Their orthodoxy has an elasticity And to the rapid growth of the All-India

208 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Women’s Conference as its first General incomparable leader Gandhi in her and her Secretary for three successive terms? comrades. Her whirl-wind tours on its behalf, her spirited speeches on behalf of the suffering Kamala Nehru half of the Indian humanity, her indefatigable energy and tireless work in Kamala, like Jawaharlal, was born in the forming hundreds of branches all over the United Provinces, and like the other country, are all well-known facts to those Kashmiris born outside the Happy Valley who have watched the growth of feminism showed different characteristics. The in India. women in Kashmir itself are gentle as lambs, Though active political work took her away timid as a calves, shy as a birds, innocent from the feminist cause for a few years, it as children. Gentle yet strong, timid, yet was gratifying that she was warmly bold, confiding yet independent and shy welcomed to her old field of work and was yet assertive, Kamala Nehru differed elected one of the Vice-Presidents of the considerably in her mental and moral make- A.I.W.C. up from her sisters in that earthly paradise. It was inevitable that this young feminist Kamala was no mere echo or pale reflection worker should take her proper place in the of her great husband. She had a personality bigger struggle for national freedom. It was of her own. She was as much the idol of the next logical and natural step. She did her people as Jawaharlal was. She had not aim at leadership, either local or played no mean part in his life, and as his provincial. She was content to join the rank wife did not desist to share his trials and and file of the non-violent army of India’s tribulations, his joys and sorrows, his freedom and be just an ordinary volunteer sufferings and sacrifices. It was bad enough in the Indian National Congress. to be a poet’s wife but it is infinitely worse We see her next as one of the captains of to be a politician’s. A poet’s home has, at the volunteers and later as the head of least, some compensating features, songs, the, women’s section of it. Her courage, music, beauty, romance and love; a patience and powers of endurance soon politician’s house is often a bear-garden made her an exemplary leader of the youth. where there is neither peace of mind nor She was one of the very first among the feast for the soul. women to join the Civil Disobedience Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was a live wire, Movement and thus to bring to the tense and super-charged. He was like a movement the whole weight of her sex, fiery flame, consuming all that it could not under the Congress banner, to fight the enkindle. She had shown her mettle and strange non-violent battle. proved her worth in a hundred ways. Her That the woman of India played a glorious sacrifices were no less great than his, if part and wrote history in letters of gold is anything, more acute she was of a more due not a little to this act of Kamala Devi delicate constitution and less strong in making that demand on behalf of her nerves. sex, and also to the trust of India’s

209 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages With a continuously ailing body, with her Kasturba husband often in prison, her daughter separated from her for the purpose of India mourned, the passing of a woman education, her relatives frequently who by her simple and pure life had earned imprisoned, her home occupied by the recognition as the true lineal descendant authorities and her properties confiscated of the immortal heroines Sita and Savitri. on the slightest pretext, she displayed a Kasturba was verily the First Lady of our wonderful courage, had played her part land. Among other peoples and in other nobly and well. revealing an indomitable lands, the honour of this name usually went will and courage. to the wife of the head of the State. Though She was no serious student of literature Gandhiji was the uncrowned King of India, though familiar with modern progressive she was no more than the unsophisticated thoughts and ideas. She was religious, not wife of a “ half- naked fakir” ; but there in the sense of being pious, going to the was no incongruity in her eminence. For in temples, worshipping gods and observing India the woman of simple faith and heroic ceremonies but in the sense of being good, courage who are the natural leaders the simple, honest and truthful, so rare in Indian millions understand and follow. public men and women. Patience, Kasturba was much a saint in her way as gentleness, sympathy, kindness, devotion, her husband ; and if suffering, sacrifice, these characterised her. She had no humility and patience are the marks of vaulting ambition, no inordinate pride, no sainthood she was a more understandable unquenchable thirst for publicity, one than the Mahatma. To the modern no schemes for national regeneration, no intellectual woman, especially to the economic palliatives, no political Utopias, politically-minded Indian woman, she may though she was genuinely patriotic and have appeared an old fossil, a pale intensely practical in her outlook. reflection of her husband, who bore all his Her love and devotion to Jawaharlal were eccentricities and mental cruelties without something wonderful. The Pandit, amidst protest, but in reality she was a strong his many cares and responsibilities, did not, silent woman who by her strength of it is true, pay much attention to her little character moulded the splendid stature of wants, but she did not mind. It was not her rebel husband. Jawaharlal’s fault. He was caught by forces For Gandhiji was not just only a political which dragged him away from home, wife, rebel but a domestic one too and who but family and comforts, and he was indifferent she knew what it was to live with him! to the little things of life. Kamala Nehru Gandhian ahimsa is a puzzling thing when had the courage and understanding to let analysed too closely, and Kasturba was the him be thus drawn away from his family one most intimately affected by this novel ties. She played her part in that great experiment with truth. adventure and shared his honours.

210 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages recognition, as a young woman of twenty- Sarojini Naidu five, that her father’s alchemy and her By Tara Ali Baig poetry sprung from the same roots. What he did with chemical, making him exclaim to his children one day, as recalled by his Formative years youngest daughter, Suhashini, “Eureka, Eureka I’ve found it! (what he had found ORN on February 13, 1879, Sarojini, was gold from base metal). Bthe eldest daughter or this scientist Sarojini did the samething with words.” pioneer and educationist, had an extraordinary family life. Describing her Alchemy of one, the secret life-spring father to the English critic and writer, of the other Arthur Symons, she wrote: “.. My ancestors have been great dreamers, great scholars, Father and daughter, therefore, were fed and great ascetics. My father is a dreamer with the same fires, but if the father had himself, a great man whose life has been a been a magnificent failure the daughter was magnificent failure. I suppose in the whole one of the most triumphant personalities of India there are few men whose learning of India’s revolutionary periods. The is greater than his, and I don’t think there alchemy of the one was the secret life- are many men more beloved. He has a spring of the other. And even if Aghornath great white beard and ‘the profile of Homer Chattopadhyaya did not in fact succeed and a laugh that brings down the roof. He in turning base metals into gold, his has wasted all his money on two great influence upon her early life was to bring objects: to help others and on alchemy. the touch of gold that transformed her and, But this alchemy, as you know, was only in turn, through her vibrant humanism the material counterpart of a poet’s craving transformed hundreds of her countrymen for beauty, the eternal beauty”. who came under her special spell of wit, love and universalism. The scientific genius who had a desire In her father’s laugh “that brings down roof” for beauty we see another profound influence upon this otherwise deeply serious child. In the The makers of gold and the makers of verse. court of her parent’s borne thinkers, poets They are the twin creators that sway the and revolutionaries, ordinary mortals, world’s secret desire for mystery; and what relatives and friends gathered in constant in my father is the genius of curiosity the comings and goings. It was here that her very essence of all-Scientific genius - in gentle mother presided over a tiny kitchen me is the desire for beauty.” from which, with limited resources, she Nothing could have summed up her drive produced prodigious meals for the endless in life more than these words to this man hospitality of this home. Sarojini was to who trimmed and shaped her later poetic see from an early age how potent a force gift but what is significant was her is laughter. Writing to a friend she said, “It

211 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages is scarcely two months since I came back faces of men and women in the street, from the grave; is it worthwhile to be dramatic faces over which the disturbing anything but glad? Of all things that life experiences of life have passed and left had given me, I prize the gift of laughters their symbols, one’s heart thrills up into as beyond price”. one’s throat. How can one deliberately renounce this coloured, unquiet fiery Her passionate tranquility of mind human life of the earth?”

Arthur Symons writes: “I have never known Creator of a Girls’ College anyone to exist on such large draughts of intellectuals diet as this child of seventeen, Both Aghornath and the devoted Varada to whom one could tell all one’s personal Sundari Devi had the cause of women’s troubles and agitations as to an old wise education, a rather rare phenomenon in woman. In the cast, maturity comes early that period, very much at heart. It is not and this child had already lived through all surprising, therefore, that in 1878, when a woman’s life. But there was something he became a teacher in a Hyderabad School else, something hardly personal, something with English as the medium of instruction, which belonged to a consciousness older he should in time become Founder and than the Christian, which I realised, Principal of the New Hyderabad College, wondered at and admired, in her passionate the famous Nizam’s College of later years. tranquillity of mind, before which everything Subsequently, with his wife and some mean and trivial and temporary caught fire friends, he created the Girl’s College and burnt away. Her body was never affiliated to Osmania University. without suffering or heart without conflict.” Sarojini finishes three-year study in Renunciation was not for her one

Symons goes on to say that her desire In 1891, Women’s education in India was a always was to be a wild free thing of the far cry from what it is today and a girl in air, like the birds with a song in my heart” . school was something of a rarity. Aghornath A spirit of too much fire in too frail a body. Chattopadhyaya, however, was a man born Once she wrote to him, “ One black night I before his time and it seemed perfectly stood in the garden with fire-flies in my normal to him that his twelve-year-old hair. It gave me a strange sensation, as if daughter should become a scientist or a I were not human at all but an elfin spirit.” mathematician. There had been In Italy she watched the faces of the governesses in the Chattopadhyaya monks, and at one moment longed to attain household to teach the children English and their peace by renunciation then, to quote French as was customary in many homes her letter to him, “when one comes out in England, and later Persian studies were again into the hot sun-shine that warms added, but no high school existed in the blood, and sees the eager hurrying Hyderabad where Sarojini could take her

212 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages matriculation examination. She was gathering in her father’s house that Sarojini consequently sent to Madras where her met Dr. Govindarajulu Naidu. That she fell English teacher was to say later that she in love with this young man who had just was so brilliant that she mastered three returned from Edinburgh after his medical years work in one year. studies, is brought out in her earliest poems and the precocious love affair must have Atmosphere of learning been of some concern to her parents. It was not because he was a non-Brahmin as While it was a tremendous achievement some have said but because she was very for a girl to have passed her matriculation young and so sensitive that her health was with a First Class at the age of twelve, easily and constantly upset. This dogged her mental age must have been much her all her life leading to a complete greater than that of her contemporaries, breakdown when she was in England in not only became of her natural intelligence 1896. but because an atmosphere of learning had been part of her babyhood and upbringing. A poem came to her suddenly By the age of fourteen she had read all the English poets and loved Browning, It was the three years after her Shelley and Tennyson in particular. What matriculation in Madras that she claims is more, there could have been no element were among her happiest years. During this of excluding children period she was to from adult we in their write of herself : family. In fact, children probably wove in and “I don’t think I had any out of the discussions special hankering to and disputations that write poetry as a little were a normal feature child, though I was of of this household. a very fanciful and Philosophy, Science, dreamy nature. My Botany, Alchemy, training under my Mathematics and father’s eye was of a Politics would have sternly scientific been such concrete character. He was elements of daily life determined that I that learning was should be a great almost by osmosis and mathematician or a a process infinitely scientist, but the more fascinating and poetic instinct that I stimulating then routine have inherited from studies in school. It was him and also from my probably in the mother (who wrote

213 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages some lovely Bengal Lyrics) proved stronger. weakness nor the heart’s violence could One day when I was eleven I was sighing not disturb that fixed contemplation of a over a sum in Algebra it wouldn’t come Buddha on his lotus throne”. right; but instead a poem came to me suddenly. I wrote it down. From that day New Horizons my poetic career began. At thirteen I wrote a long poem ‘La Dame Dee lac -’ 1,300 In the early years poetry was the main lines in six days. At thirteen I wrote a drama focus of Sarojini Naidu’s intellectual life, of 2,000 lines, a full-fledged passionate the centre of her inner being. This was thing that had begun at the spur of the understandable, living as she did in the moment without fore-thought, just to spite heart of the finest Islamic culture for my doctor who had said that I was very ill Hyderabad had retained all the glamour and and must not touch a book. My health broke values of princely Persia and its ruling down permanently about this time and my Prince was a poet of great distinction. Her regular studies being stopped, I read return from England to everything, love, voraciously. I suppose that the greater part happiness, family, homeland was a key that of my reading was done between fourteen unlocked the door to her inner self. It was and sixteen. I wrote a novel, I wrote fat then her rich treasure-house of words led volumes of journals I took myself very her to write some of the loveliest lyrics. seriously in those days”. Sarojini adored beautiful jewels and clothes as much as any other woman. In fact, colour The fixed contemplation of a Buddha permeates all she wrote, but she was herself an equal devotee of colour, loving Symons was perceptive, uncommonly so, rich silks and the golden chains, shoulder perhaps due to his Welsh and Cornish brooch and bangles so favoured in Bengal. ancestry and had his own kind of hyper- sensitivity that was a tingling awareness A born orator of life around him. His introduction to Sarojini’s Golden Threshold was unusually There is no record of all the speeches of sensitive and gives us perhaps the only Sarojini Naidu. Even if there were, her word picture of her as she was in those eldest daughter contends, almost none days. In one passage he speaks of her as would really reflect the actuality of her possessing a passionate tranquillity of mind words. The combination of rich language, before which everything mean, trivial and fiery delivery, wit and pathos that, as a temporary caught fire and burnt away in born orator, she would weave into smoke. How well he summed up the very structured form filled with imagery was role she was to play in his country’s affairs always more than a mere reporter or listener where in the face of meanness, triviality could absorb. and controversies her wit and wisdom saw to it that differences were “burnt away in smoke”. And he added: “The body’s

214 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Something more fruitful than the passing of resolutions Women In India-Past, Present, Future On the subject of “female education”, she By Smt. LOUELLA LOBO PRABHU declaimed, “India, of all places, which at the beginning of the first century was HE United Nations proclaimed 1975, as already a great civilisation, had contributed the “International Women’s Year”, to the world’s progress radiant examples T thereby bringing into focus the problems of women of the highest genius and widest of what is paradoxically a (numerically) culture. But by some irony of evolution the dominant, but (socially) depressed section paradox stands to our shame. It is time for of the world’s population. Unfortunately, us to consider how best we can remove the Conference sponsored by the’ United such a reproach, how we can achieve Nations in Mexico, lost track of women’s something more fruitful than the passing problems, in a preoccupation with political of empty resolutions in favour of female issues, not necessarily relevant to the education from year to year.” emancipation of women. Since little of value emerged from the Conference, it may be The spirit of Padmini enshrined in the necessary to consider the position of womanhood of India women in India, not in the light of any new facts emerging from the Conference, but At the Calcutta Congress of 1917, presided taking into account, only the basic frame- over by Annie Besant, Sarojini made an work of Indian conditions. impassioned speech. “I am only a woman,’ she thundered, “I should like to say to you Women of Yore all, when the hour strikes, when you need torch bearers in the darkness to lead you, Oddly enough, despite the constitutional when you want standard bearers to uphold guarantees which now exist to protect the your banner and when you die for want of equality of women in India, their statuses faith, the womanhood of India will be with may not compare favourably with those of you as the holders of your banner and the women in ancient India, which were one sustainers of your strength. And if you die, of respect and dignity. Possibly this reflects remember, the spirit of Padmini of Chittor the recognition accorded by primitive man, is enshrined in the womanhood of India.” to the creative role of women in society. Both in Europe and in Asia, the earliest sculptures found, are those of Mother Goddess, with female attributes enhanced and enlarged - a sub-conscious tribute to her function as a progenitor of the human race. Though little is known of India’s pre- historic days, till the period of the Harappa

215 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Mohenjo-Daro City States, the arte-facts the Epics, it would appear that women were of that period include rich jewels, mirrors, no longer accepted as persons in their own and cosmetic cases, which all suggest that right, but only in as much as they fulfilled women were not beasts of burden in that the role of wife and mother. Even then, if culture. Elsewhere in Asia, the position of Draupadi’s fate is in any way typical, the women declined. Under Hammurabi, where fact that she too was bartered away in the code of “an eye for an eye and a tooth payment for a gambling debt is a sad for a tooth” policy was literally practised, reflection on the possible fate of women the law states that a man whose wife was less highly placed in society. murdered, was permitted by the King, to claim the lives of the felon’s wife and The Decline of Status Codified daughter, in revenge. Obviously, she was regarded not as a person, but as a chattel, The actual decline in the status of women or as an inanimate object. was given in the sanctity of law in the time of Manu, who evolved some of the An imported social system most misogynistic concepts ever known. He wrote, “The wife of an arrogant, The Aryans, when they came to India, criminal, leprous or unproductive husband imported a social system in which women cannot discard him nor can she claim any found an honoured place. From the Rig share in his property.” With similar lack of Veda and other sacred books of the time, gallantry, Skanda enjoins, that “a woman it would appear that girls, like boys, were before going on a pilgrimage should wash allowed to run free, without the cloying her husband’s feet and drink the ‘washed’ over-protection which was to be a feature water, because her husband is higher than of the Puranic age. They shared in whatever Vishnu or Sankara.” Capping these education was available to the community examples of the ‘double standard’, Skanda and were an integral part of the ceremonies Purana enjoins upon a woman “to eat only involved in household worship. Some if her husband has eaten, to sleep only attained positive intellectual eminence, after he sleeps, to rise in the morning, with their authorship of the most poetic before he does. If he treats her with hymns in the Rig Veda and of sublime contempt, she should not retaliate, if he philosophical discourses attributed to Gargi assaults her she should not lose her and Maitreyi. What happened between the temper.” None of these law-givers age of Rig Veda and that of the Epics? condescend to explain the rationale of one Why did the status of women so steadily law for men and another for women. decline? It is possible that when the free Fortified by the sanction of the law, nomadic life of the Aryans became more virtually every aspect of a woman’s life sophisticated, it was increasingly was adversely affected. Polygamy, dominated by priest-craft and ritual, in unknown in Vedic age, became socially which, predictably, the part played by acceptable, particularly if the first wife was woman was steadily reduced. Judging from

216 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages barren. Similarly, child marriage also alien a moving force behind the evolution of to Vedic society, began to gain State policy (Aspasia and Pericles), the ground, in the belief that a man who failed Kama Sutra also speaks of the 64 different to get his daughter married as soon as she arts, which the courtesans were required matured, was guilty virtually of procuring to know. Among them were Music, Dancing, abortion (a sin deemed to be worse than Acting, Poetry and even chemistry and murder), for every monthly cycle during Logic. Ambapali was the Indian equivalent which she remained unmarried. Widow of Aspasia. According to the Artha Shastra, remarriage, common in Vedic times, made the courtesans functioned with the way for Sati, which Manu advocated, with knowledge and consent of the State, the words, “Nowhere is a second husband which collected a tax on her earnings, while permitted to a virtuous woman.” Sati supervising her conditions of work, no doubt rendered the couple eligible for 35 million an moral, but thoroughly a pragmatic years of heavenly bliss, though how this approach to the world’s oldest profession. particular figure was reached, and why it was only necessary for a woman to From gradual decline, a precipitous fall immolate herself, were questions which no one asked, and which the law-givers did If there was a fall in the status of women, not attempt to answer. between the period spanning the Vedas and the Shastras, there was a calamitous The Exceptions descent in the status of women with the establishment of Muslim power, in Delhi. No doubt, there were some exceptions to Perhaps the only exception during the this rule, particularly among the Buddhist Middle Ages, was the three-year reign of and Jain sects which gave women a definite Empress Razia, which was the chapter of place in the religious hierarchy. Some light in the history of women. No one could exceptional women managed to break claim greater record of constructive through the barriers imposed by men. achievement in such a short time. Later, Prabhavati, daughter of Chandra Gupta II, luring the age of the Mughals, though no was an ideal regent during the minority of woman held power in her own right, one of her sons. Sangha Mitra, daughter of them, Nur Jehan was the effective ruler of Ashoka, was a pioneer who carried the Country, while another, Mumtaz Mahal, Buddhism to Ceylon, and founded an order inspired the most famous piece of of Nuns, there. Rajyasri, sister of Harsha, architecture, the Taj Mahal as a monument won a place for herself in the male citadel to her memory. of philosophy. Oddly enough, the kingly class of women who enjoyed freedom and A beginning of betterment a measure of economic self-sufficiency were he courtesans. As in ancient Greece, The real emancipation of women, from the where the heitara was well versed in legal servitude imposed on them by Manu philosophy and the fine arts, and was often and his tribe, began with Lord Bentick and

217 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Raja Ram Mohan Roy. The former passed The legacy of double standard legislation abolishing Sati and female infanticide, while the latter was the first This discrepancy is most marked in the of the enlightened Indians who refused to social sphere. The legacy of ‘double be bound by traditions which has no standard’ begins on the day a girl is born. justifiable rationale. What was started by The advent of a boy is welcomed as an him, was carried to a event but that of a climax by Gandhiji. As in the daughter, merely West, the First and Second tolerated, if not deplored. World Wars forced Society The boy enjoys freedom to accept women in non- and a higher priority in the traditional roles, so also in length and quality of his India, it was the struggle education. In adult years, for Independence, which though the drives which catapulted women from animate men and women their homes to the wide are the same, man is world outside their permitted to indulge in domestic doorsteps. With them, while the woman is the coming of conditioned to be as independence, women won chaste as ice, and as pure at a single stroke, the right as snow. If either partner to franchise for which their in a marriage dies, the man counterparts in the West is encouraged to marry had to struggle many long again, sometimes almost years. Indeed, it was only with an indecent haste, lately that Swiss women while the widow who obtained the right to vote. contemplates remarriage, How do Indian women is mentally branded as a stand, today? If harlot, though no longer Constitutional status was burnt at the stake. a reality, they could not Perhaps the latter fate wish for a more ideal state would be preferable to the of affairs, for the law long-drawn-out agony of guarantees them equality in all matters, the widow’s life in an orthodox household, with the obligation, also, of undertaking where she is treated as if she has lost her special provisions to ensure their welfare. right to live. Nor is the lot of an unmarried Unfortunately, the reality of their social, girl in a traditional home, much better. Even educational, economic and political status, if she is economically self-sufficient, she does not match up to the promises implicit is viewed with suspicion and contempt. in the law. Economic emancipation has not necessarily helped women, but sometimes increased

218 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the degree of their slavery, for they are In Politics expected to undertake without the slightest assistance from their husbands In Politics, the fact that India had a lady all the chores of the house-bound wife, as a Prime Minister, does not reflect on while carrying a full load of work in the the political awareness of Indian Women in office. general. Except perhaps in 1971 and 1972, In education, there is a marked difference when women may have been a major factor in the enrollment of boys and girls, at all in creating the Prime Minister’s landslide stages. Among girls only 27.7% reach the majority, they do not use the political middle school and 13.7% the High School, instruments available to them very as against 55% and 34% for boys. effectively. As voters, since their literacy Doubtless, rural parents do not think it is lower than that of their men-folk, they necessary to educate their daughters. usually tend to vote as their husbands, Even at the level of higher education, fathers or brothers decide they should. Few though barriers are being broken all the women in Politics have arrived there, time, the possibility of a girl’s taking up entirely on their own merits. Their ability higher studies, is balanced by the fact that to be given a ticket is directly related to tradition requires that she should marry the push given by an influential male early. connection, whether husband. father, father-in-law or friend, seems to be immaterial With such qualifications, it is Restricted to Unskilled Labour also surprising that the record of women legislators in general, is disappointingly At the level of the woman worker, it is meager. iniquitous that women are heavily This, then, is the picture of Indian women represented in those jobs which may call today. Can anything be done to better their for the hardest physical conditions, for lot? Much can be done, but the first step instance, in agriculture, plantations, must be, that women themselves should construction work, and mining. Had the be made aware of their wrongs and advantages of education been available to motivated to have them redressed. After girls, as well as boys, women need not centuries of mental conditioning, they have have been restricted largely to unskilled accepted the myth that they are and work. For the few who have managed to should be the patient, suffering sex and make the grades in white collar jobs, and oddly enough, are among the first to turn the learned professions, there is the threat and rend any woman who tries to escape - constantly held out by Government that the stereo-type. In the one position where the income of a husband and wife will be a woman does exercise some power (that clubbed, thereby setting back the pace of of a mother-in-law), she seems to women’s emancipation, for many years, by perpetuate the hardships she herself taking away the financial incentive for it. suffered as a daughter-in-law.

219 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages To achieve a Break-through aptitudes can be evaluated at Middle School level, those who have mathematical How to break-through the centuries of or scientific aptitudes may be encouraged conditioning? The first way is the use of to carry on with the next stage of media to project a new image of women, education, while those who lack them, may as they are primarily responsible for keeping be offered a choice of subjects more suited the orthodox; image alive. For example, to their interests. Girls who have the good every book, and every film projects the fortune to receive College or technical passive virtues of meekness and willingness education, should make use of their training to suffer. It is time they glorified the kind so that their failure to do so, does not of woman who has the courage to strike become an argument against the higher out on her own, to be accepted as a person education of women. It is also in this class, and not merely a possession or an that it should be possible to find women appendage of man. One play like “The Doll’s who may be the foci of social change. If House,” could revolutionise each of them can treat the social attitudes of their daughters, as they women in Europe, Why would treat a son, if should there not be more they could think in terms books, plays and film like that of a daughter’s here? Perhaps the education, rather than government could encourage her dowry, if they can literature on the ‘new’ educate their sons in woman, by offering prizes for some rudiments of house creative works which hold duties, so that they embody this concept. can carry a fare share of home management in Compulsory education a society which will lack servants for such Education is the other key chores, they will be to emancipation. Here again, laying foundations of government can help by enforcing penal social change, at least in the next provisions, if necessary, to ensure that girls generation. are enrolled at primary level and that they In the sphere of work, there will be a natural do not drop out, till they acquire at least dividend for women, from education, if the fundamentals of literacy. It may also education is pursued with vigour. The more be necessary to change the curriculum, constructive things which government can so that formal education is more appealing do are drop out all threats of clubbing to girls. With some rare exceptions, like incomes, and desist from taxation on Marie Curie, a woman’s aptitudes and household appliances, (which it has been predilections, are cultural and social, rather regularly levying for the past few years) than mathematical and scientific. If as these are the indispensable aid for the

220 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages working woman, not luxuries calling for penal taxation. Liberation of Women In Education and a new orientation of mass India and its Limits media will also improve the quality of By KAMALA SPOLIA women’s participation in politics, making them more intelligent voters, on the one A method in the demand for equal hand, and more efficient representatives, terms on the other. Those who already enjoy representative status should study and MOVEMENT for women’s liberation project the problems of their sex more started in the United States of America diligently than they have done so far. There A not many years back. It soon took on the is today, hardly a single woman M.P., who shape of a crusade on a world-wide scale is known to have spoken for women’s rights. against the society whose rules and moral More is expected from those who have the codes discriminate heavily against women power to help their sisters who are mute. and favour men in every sphere of life. The long oppressed women made themselves Nothing to lose but ‘its chains heard even though, in some cases, they resorted to shocking practices. Eyebrows What then, is the image of the “New were raised, fingers were wagged and some woman”? Certainly, not that of a hairy bra- sagacious heads were shaken in burning, man-hating female, for that is a wonderment as to what this world was concept not only alien to our culture, but coming to. But sooner or later people did alien to human nature itself. Neither men realise that there was some method and nor women can do without each other, for purpose in the apparent madness of the their roles are meant to be complementary. manner of women’s fight and their demand The new woman should have every for the right to exist on equal terms with feminine attribute in her appearance and men. manners. She will, however, differ from her That this movement should have started predecessors, in possessing a mind and a in the West, in a most advanced country will, of her own which quietly but firmly of the world with the most advanced of makes her take her stand on her basic societies, is indicative of the fact that no humanity, as a person and not as a matter how broad-minded or educated the possession of man. people might be in a particular area, women Focus on women’s problems should not end still are not on par with men in their own with “International Women’s Year.” It is only circle. the beginning towards the redress of The disparity in the status of men and ancient wrongs. May it quicken into action, women has existed for centuries and has the suffering sex which has remained in been handed down to us from generation captivity so long and has nothing to lose to generation. Why should women in the but its chains. first place have allowed themselves to be so reduced in their status as to virtually 221 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages become chattels in the hands of their to have held their own. The Hindu way of menfolk is not difficult to see. life gives woman a very high status. As a mother she is worshipped and revered. As The institution of marriage a wife she is ‘ardhangini’, without whom a man is not complete. Nor can he carry out Unlike animals and birds, a human child any religious or social rites and functions takes a very long time to grow up, to gain without his wife, who must participate in knowledge and experience as well as full measure in the activities of her maturity to be able to look after itself husband. As a sister, a Hindu girl rouses independently of its parents. This period the best traits of protector and a warrior may be as long as twenty years or more in in man. Not only her real brothers, but all some cases, during which time the father men of her clan and village would stand and mother must live together to bring up for her honour and protect it with their the child. Naturally, in the meantime, they lives. That in the midst of all these high beget more children which almost ideals there are examples where Sri Rama necessitated a lifelong association between had to send Sita into exile against his better a human pair and brought the institution judgment and in the days of Mahabharata, of marriage into existence. The requirement Kauravas were allowed to disrobe Draupadi for man to go out and procure food, while in a full court, because she had been lost the woman kept the home fires burning in a gamble like a piece of personal property, made man the bread winner of the house. show that ideals and practice do not And in the age when food meant life, the always coincide, whatever the age, country one who went out to procure and bring it or people. home was naturally in a position to dictate Nevertheless, the Indian woman of terms. premuslim era enjoyed considerable amount So the very role nature intended woman of personal and social freedom. She was to play successfully rendered her free to choose her husband in a subservient to man. It did not take men ‘Swayamvara’ take part in religious long to decide that women were not only discourses and go about without the need subservient to them but were also inferior to be isolated from men or observe purdah. mentally as well as physically. Under this misconceived notion women of the world The decadence have withstood centuries of oppression and injustice at the hands of those who are The advent of Islam and its incursion into supposed to love and cherish them. India brought in the purdah system and the need for child marriages to secure girls Without her, he is incomplete in life against the rampaging ways of the rulers. Women were tightly shut up behind Against these social compulsions which closed doors. This also barred them from favoured men and tended women towards whatever education was available. Thus, a lower status, women of India of old seem their minds were conditioned by the narrow

222 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages confines of their immediate environment in India granted them equality with men in which they lived. They were taught to almost every walk of life. Now it was for regard men as superior beings and husbands them to translate it into action and turn it as Gods. Men could do no wrong, whereas into reality. women were sullied by even an impure thought. Social intercourse between men Echoed and re-echoed and women dwindled and almost came to a nought. This state of affairs continued Men had been their oppressors for long. through the British Raj. Except for the Women decided to throw away this yoke significant step in abolishing sati, the British of slavery. ‘Liberation’, ‘Freedom from the well nigh left the women of India to their chauvinistic male’, came the war cry from fate. And not so strangely women like all the West that was taken up readily by our unprivileged and subject people, women and echoed and re-echoed with themselves have been the most ardent increasing vigour. The enthusiasm for the protagonists of their own inferior status. women’s lib movement has been For about the third decade of the overwhelming in so much so that no one nineteenth century there was talk of widow has cared to give a thought to its meaning remarriage by the various reformist and extent. movements in India. Efforts to abolish the Seemingly the aim of women is their custom of child marriage were given the liberation from the male dominance, equality impetus culminating in the passage of in every walk of life, removal of social and Sharda Act in this century. The more far- political handicaps and to bring about the seeing of our political and social leaders changes in the moral code, which has campaigned ceaselessly for facilities and existed as the result of age-old biases opportunities to be provided to the Indian planted by men against women. women in the field of education. Freedom is not licentiousness Women venture forth Freedom, however, imposes its own This trend gained moment with the freedom responsibilities. Liberation is not a licence movement under Mahatma Gandhi. Indian for permissiveness or promiscuity in sexual women again started to venture out of their behaviour. Equality does not mean the shell seclusion t take part in the movement negation of all established social laws and on equal terms with men. With this very customs. small beginning the ranks of women who Most young girls when talking of women’s have come out of their homes have swollen lib really think it is synonymous with the considerably in the recent past. freedom to indulge in free love. Recently, Independence of India in 1947 let fresh air the daughter of a well-known film of freedom blow for our women who, personality, herself a budding actress, naturally, started taking stock of their social wrote in a leading English Weekly, that as and other handicaps. The Constitution of a liberated young woman she considered

223 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages it her right to move freely with any man together and bring up a family. Sex without she liked. Many think that the first love very soon degenerates into animal lust. significant sign of a modern girl is that she Moreover, bodily mechanism soon builds up is free with her favours as well as herself. resistance against cheap thrill and She considers that religion and its tenets excitment as it reaches the level of are so much humbug only held up by the exhaustion. It stops giving the ‘kick’ that old cronies with orthodox views. They are young people go round in search of. Thus the fetters she’d like to throw away and a foundation is laid for perversions, look men in the eye on equal terms. But variations and use of narcotics to get out they do not stop to think of the of sexual experiences tile thrill that ever consequences. Just because eludes the people who freely indulge in it. contraceptives give them the freedom from Very soon such people though young in the involvement in free indulgence they age become sexually old, unable to get feel there is nothing to lose from this anything out of it. attitude and practice. Nothing for nothing She is at a loose end Such liberated people forget that nature For such girls there’d be any number of has a simple rule - you can get nothing men who would readily oblige because after from anywhere without paying for it. And all freedom in this field satisfies men’s lust the payment in this case can only be made and ego. They lose little and they are under from bodily reserves one is born with. Like no obligation to the liberated female if she the credit in a bank the more heavily you decides to be promiscuous. But men would draw on your balances and squander it, never bring home a girl of this type as a the quicker you reach the level of wife. Thus in a few years when a girl is at bankruptcy and exhaustion. Thus, one the end of her prime of youth and has shot allows oneself to be robbed of a beautiful her sexual bolt she finds herself at a loose thing like sex early in life by squandering it end with neither a home nor the ability to freely in the false notion that it is a sign of attract men easily for her escapades. Thus liberation. the liberation that she thought was the essence of her life leaves her frustrated Reaching out for the rainbow and disillusioned. Sex is a very powerful drive, very few at Expression of mutual love young age know how to handle it. Therefore, from centuries the learned and As a matter of fact sex was never intended the experienced have striven hard not to by nature to be indulged in for its own give wind to the fires of sex, that can easily sake. It is the prime form of expression of get out of hand and consume the very mutual love, regard and consideration people who let it rage uncontrolled. And between two people who wish to live despite all the talk of antibiotics to

224 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages eradicate venereal diseases these still May be the will is there in some cases but exist, rampaging societies that do not fear of the consequences keeps them from exercise discipline in their sexual life. Free taking the necessary step. No one wants sex, therefore, brings disease, to cast the first stone. disillusionment and frustration. One feels thoroughly cheated and disenchanted as Seek freedom from dowry a result. It is like a person who reaches out to catch the rainbow which forever The basis of this fear in our girls is the eludes him. What sort of liberation would uncertainty of their future and lack of this be for our women? security in life. If women could find enough The Western woman has gone through all opportunities to work and be economically this. Narcotics, free love, hippy way of free, then their dependence on husbands life, discarding the dictates of her society for their livelihood would diminish. Only then and religion have not brought her the inner they would be in a position to assert their peace, happiness and contentment. will at the time of their marriage, and refuse Bewildered by all this, men and women from a match if they so wished. Yet fear and those countries are turning to the East for freedom cannot go together. Those who spiritual solace. Would it, therefore, be are afraid cannot safeguard their rights. A sensible for our women to follow the beginning has to be made. Some will suffer example of the West? in the process. But in the basic matter of marriage our girls must assert themselves Liberation and tame submission to and seek freedom to choose their life- dowry partners who would demand no dowries. So, the Indian woman first has to be Liberation for our women can mean many liberated from the rotten system of dowry things other than this senseless type of and arranged marriages. This is where their licence. A girl in an Indian home is fight must start. They must also have equal considered a liability and a heavy opportunities for education and responsibility. She means a big back- employment to be economically free from breaking dowry for the parents, who may men. Once this comes about, the other have to give away their life’s savings to trends are bound to follow. settle her in marriage. The girl is educated An educated working woman is sure to merely with a view to make her value develop confidence in herself and establish attractive in the marriage market. The girls social contacts with men on a mature who talk of liberation allow themselves to footing. Equal pays for equal jobs is the be sent away like cows to the houses of next step. their in-laws. There is hardly any protest against this system even from our Liberation from the vice-like grip . . . educated and fairly well-informed girls who should refuse such marriages. This, however, is easier said than done. In a country where there is a vast number of

225 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages unemployed men the addition of women employment for men and women, both of seeking similar jobs would make matters which would give our women economic extremely difficult for everyone. In the independence. That will give them the right West, shortage of manpower makes it type of independence. comparatively easy for women to get jobs. Education up to high school level should But the whole of the East including India is be a must for every girl. Those who can heavily overpopulated. afford higher education should choose a The standard of living of an average family vocation rather than go for degrees to in our country is well below that of any secure likely boys for marriage. There are existing in developed countries. Our literacy many girls who acquire medical and teaching rate is shockingly poor. Living at sub- degrees and let them go waste once they standard levels in almost every sphere of are married. human activity, our first job is to liberate Once these basic steps are understood and ourselves from the vice-like grip of poverty, action to implement them is started, the backwardness, age-old superstitions that emancipation of our women will start on a dictate our every action and decision and sound foundation. It can be seen that our blind faith in pseudo-religious and freedom and liberation in any form are teachers. heavy responsibilities and have to be The part our women have to play in this worked for. Empty slogans and fads may national war on want, poverty and catch the imagination of people for a backwardness is fairly obvious. As it has fleeting period but there is no worthwhile been brought out above they must crusade outcome. The celebration of women’s against the senseless customs of marriages international year can only focus the and dowries that are eating into the vitals attention of people towards the of our society and reduce women to the subordinate status of women in general and level of chattels. One’s mind would boggle the need to do something about it. Yet if one sat down and worked out the nothing can come from such drum-beating astronomical figure of national wealth, that ‘tamashas’ till women themselves get down is wasted every year on marriages. This to achieving equality with men or even money if saved would certainly add to the surpass them by dint of their determined nation’s economic advancement in no small planning and hard work. They must dare measure. to break away from the wasteful customs like dowries and arranged marriages. They Women’s role in family planning and should also be free to remarry when education divorced or widowed. For this, they have to overcome the resistance born of the Women again have to play the leading role deep-rooted and centuries-old biases in family planning and in drastically against women in our society. controlling the spread of population. Then in years to come, perhaps, there would be a higher standard of living and more

226 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Determine to free from shackles Lib or no Lib-He cannot

This will not come about easily as nothing Live without them worthwhile does. However, a beginning can be made, if women all over the country By D. P. SUDHA first resolve to be free of the shackles of the past and work steadily towards the IM lights, hushed atmosphere, the real freedom, which is the ability to function DRadiogram softly playing “Girls watch in a most productive and creative manner the boys watch the girls go by” A for the good of the society to which one worthwhile occupation indeed. This is an belongs. Real freedom is the ability to think instance where God Almighty can rest freely and the right to differ from others assured that the whole humanity is in and fight against customs that have out- agreement in thought, word and deed. lived their usefulness. What do the boys watch - inferior, superior Surely the purpose of liberation for women or equal of their opposite sex? There is cannot be just exhibitionism and indulgence where the hue and the battle cry of the in free sex as it is manifesting itself in the sexes arise. Equal rights! “Female West. It may be a revolt by the women superiority”, so on and so forth, declares and out of sheer cussedness they might the women’s lib to fall flat on the sniggering think that they can shock men into giving looks of the male chauvinist, who wonders them the kind of freedom they want. But what all this squealing is about. in our society, we have always believed that means are as important as the end. Perfectionist Women must dare to defy the customs that are repugnant to their free status. They Actually, I do not see any reason for such must fight for equality of opportunity for “liberation movement”. Nothing can be jobs, education and advancement. They achieved out of them other than arousing must work for equipping themselves with the already existing masculine superiority the right qualifications of mind and body complex. Women are noted for getting their to stand on an equal footing with men in things done in a silent way; so, why all society. Fortunately, the Indian woman this publicity? They could very well attain already has the equality in the political field whatever they wish for in a willful, silent assured to her by our Constitution. We, way. therefore, need not look to the West for a We all know the way the women hold in lead. We must work out our own system of their homes “talk of hen-pecked husbands”. achieving the type of liberation we want. The past is there gloriously glaring at us with its numerous instances, where the female of the species have come to the limelight to capture and hold the roving eye of the world. These shining examples of the “fairer sex” did not become prominent

227 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages or noteworthy due to the liberation Women’s Liberation movement or any such thing. Each climbed to the summit of her success, because of Movement her personality, her charm, her Nandini Mehta perseverance and her vitality. She was a separate individual, an entity of her own HE Women’s Liberation Movement, and on her own, who did those heroic or Twhich originated about the year 1968- heroinic deeds, not so much to prove to 69 in the United States, has been the the world the superiority of the female, subject of continuous and lively but to do to perfection what she as an controversy ever since, hitting the head- individual had to accomplish. lines steadily through a series of highly Joan of Arc stands as a clear example. effective, if somewhat ludicrous methods She would not have cared less for the of protest. liberation movement or for the glory of the Last summer an army of women marched weaker sex. But her achievements proclaim through the streets of New York, placing her desire to save her country and not to Freedom Trash Cans at strategic points, elevate her sex. into which they threw symbols of “oppression” like brassiers, cosmetics, Live congenially and complementarily detergents and false eye-lashes. They picketed city centres all over the country, This was the case in all the wonderful past demanding the abolition of beauty contests with all the willful women. A donkey is a and magazines like “Play Boy”, which donkey and a zebra is a zebra ... I think it presented women as mere object rather is a pointless and useless argument to make than as thinking, feeling human beings. one look like another. They can complement or supplement each other, but cannot be Marriage is Legalised the same. This brings us back to the question, asked earlier - are the women “Marriage is Legalised. . . and Unpaid superior, inferior or equal to men? There is Labour! - Equal Pay for Equal Work!” they no need for this question to arise at all, shouted, as they demanded a chance at for each is a separate class with its virtues jobs traditionally reserved for men and Child and vices, strong in some aspects and Care Centres to cut the apron-strings that weak in others thus making it a necessity tied the mothers to domestic servitude. that each should live, side by side, They stormed ‘Men Only’ bars, demanding congenially and complementarily. that women be allowed into them, and some of them formed societies aimed not only at liberating women but at destroying men, such as SCUM (Society for Cutting Up Men) and WITCH (Women’s International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell).

228 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Some of the Liberation groups protested temperament; while ignorance, passivity, against the convention of giving women’s docility and ineffectuality are female. names to destructive hurricanes, and Rising out of the temperamental difference others lobbied for changes in the English between the sexes is a difference in role, language in order to make it more with a separate code of conduct assigned egalitarian. For instance, they demanded for each. For instance, the role assigned that “boycott” be changed to “girl cott”; to the female is domestic service and “history” to “herstory”; and that the two attendance upon children and the rest of different terms, “ Mrs.” and “Miss,” be human achievement, interest and ambition substituted by the single “Ms.” to the male.” Thus the limited role allotted to the female “tends to arrest her at the Biased Politics level of biological experience,” Kate Millett observes. The Women’s Liberation Movement was Protagonists of Women’s Liberation fiercely given coherence and an ideology of its own attack the generally accepted theory that with the appearance of a book by Kate these differences in role and temperament Millett, who is sometimes known as the arise out of inherent biological differences “Mao Tse-Tung of Suffragism.” That book between the male and the female. It is is logically reasoned and impressively man, and not nature or the process of argued and documented. It studies the evolution that has made women inferior to infinite variety of man’s exploitation of men in terms of stamina, stability and woman and challenges previous intellect. They point out that there has interpretations of the difference between been no successful attempt to prove that the sexes. In the patriarchal society of temperamental dominance is inherent in the the West - it says-as well as of other male nor does his dominance rest on historical civilisations like India, the physical strength, for this is no longer a relationship between man and woman is a factor in political relations - it has been power-structured one, with the male having substituted by weaponry, technology, power and domination over the female; machinery and other products of and every avenue of power - military, industrialisation. They also argue that industrial, technological, scientific, financial, scientific tests have invariably concluded political and administrative - is in male that there is no difference in the level of hands. intelligence between a man and a woman. This is because the patriarchal society has established through the ages certain Feudalism? concepts regarding the temperament, role and status of the sexes which are based Kate Millett’s book goes on to speak of the on the needs and values of the dominant economic exploitation of women; though group. Thus society and culture decree that women do work, they get no economic intelligence, aggression, force and efficacy rewards for the work they do. And until are characteristics of the male house-work and the care of children is

229 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages recognised as a job, women will continue to engage in unpaid labour. Under such conditions, marriage becomes a contract whereby sex and service (that is, house- work) are provided in return for support which makes it no different, really, from the feudal system in which the lord provided security in return for service.

Discrimination in U.S. and Europe

Discrimination against women in matters of hiring, wages and the law as a whole is another major complaint - and this is indeed true of the situation in many Western countries. In U.S.A., Germany and Britain, women often earn 20 to 30 percent less than men, for the same jobs. In Britain, the father has and a woman, because it makes a woman legally sole authority on the children’s inferior to man; and you cannot have love religious up-bringing and education and and respect between two unequals. Real often the divorced wife has no right to love is only possible between equals and property acquired after marriage. when it is freely given, without being tinged In France, as in Germany, abortion laws with dependence, economic or otherwise. are illiberal and a wife must have her Here are the aims of the sexual revolution husband’s permission before applying for a that the Women’s Liberation Movement passport. Until a couple of years ago, wants to bring about: primarily it wants to women could be jailed for -adultery, while end the system of patriarchy with its a man received no penalty. In some States ideology of male supremacy and the of USA, women can be jailed for “socialisation” by which it is upheld in drunkenness but not men. In most matters of temperament, role and status. countries, prostitutes are jailed for soliciting It wants an end to traditional inhibitions but men are not. and taboos. The revolution hopes to do The double standard in morality is almost away with the double standards that exist universal: the promiscuous man gets a and also with prostitution. badge of honour and is admiringly hailed Another goal is a re-examination of the as a Casanova, while the woman is called traits held as “masculine” and “feminine” a tramp. Similarly, virginity is only important with the violence encouraged as “virile” in the female. and the passivity defined as “feminine” Such a system, the Liberationists maintain, being rejected as undesirable human is destructive towards love between a man qualities; while the intelligence and

230 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages efficiency defined as male, the tenderness he denied her the right to independence and consideration associated with the or individuality: “By a girl, by a young female should be regarded as woman or even by an aged one, nothing characteristics desirable for both sexes. must be done independently, even in her Finally with the revolution would come own house. In childhood a female must be economic independence for a woman, subject to her father, in youth to her which would more or less break up the husband, when her lord is dead, to her family as it is today, since there would be sons; a woman must never be institutionalised professional care of children independent.” Manu is a proponent of the and marriage would generally be replaced double standard too: ‘Though destitute of by voluntary association. virtue or seeking pleasure elsewhere or What relevance do the complaints and devoid of good qualities, yet a husband demands of the Women’s Liberation must be worshipped as God by a faithful Movement have in India? Certainly, ours is wife.’ Heaven, he says, is only attained a patriarchal society in which male through the husband and as a reward for supremacy is a fact of life accepted by having duly worshipped him as God on both sexes from earliest childhood. Yet, earth. the lot of Indian women has not always Kalidasa, though he does it more gently, been subservient. In the pre-Aryan days, also tells a woman that it is her duty to women enjoyed far more freedom than worship her husband, regardless of his today’s “with it” young girls; the society behaviour towards her. was matriarchal and they owned property. Female infanticide, child marriage, polygamy, sati and jauhar were all Gradual Change accommodated within the fold of the Hindu religion. When the Muslims came to India The Aryans, who started coming to India around the 11th century, Hindu converts around 3000 B.C. continued this system to this religion, introduced the doctrine of for a while. In fact the Rig Veda writes of male prerogative divorce and property. In women as equals of men, participating in turn, Hindu society adopted the purdah - philosophical debates, religious rituals and the practice of keeping women secluded the gaiety of social life as well. But soon in harems or zenanas. Widows were cruelly after came a change in their status. A treated; their presence was forbidden at woman was not allowed to have more than all auspicious events - for the sight of them one husband and she became a mere child- meant bad luck - and they were made to bearer. Her status depended largely on shave their heads and wear white. whether she produced sons; if she With the coming of the British, things took produced daughters she was cast aside. a turn for the better and Lord Bentinck, But the greatest anti-feminist of all was with the support of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Manu, the Law-Giver, “Woman is as foul as brought about a number of reforms. Sati falsehood itself”, he says. Manu decreed was outlawed; widow re-marriage was that a woman could own no property; and legalised in 1856. In 1926 child marriage

231 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages was out-lawed, And in the 1920’s attitudes and beliefs which act as barriers thousands of women urged and encouraged against women’s emancipation. Divorce by Mahatma Gandhi, joined the Freedom remains at best a theoretical possibility, Movement. with the woman’s economic dependence on the man in India and the social ostracism The Champion of Women that a divorced woman suffers. A divorcee of my acquaintance says that The greatest champion of women’s the neighbours have forbidden their children emancipation was Jawaharlal Nehru, who to play with hers. Another says she is insisted on the provision in the Constitution, considered fair game for the advances of which guarantees that the State shall not men. Yet, another, who would like to get a discriminate in respect of caste, race, divorce says it is impossible because she religion as well as sex. The Hindu Code Bill cannot support herself, nor can she bring in 1955 out-lawed polygamy and restored such dishonour to her parents. after 2,000 years, the right of divorce to Though child marriage has been out-lawed, 0 women. The Special Marriage Act (for civil an estimated 40 /0 of the marriages that marriages) treats men and women as take place today are of girls who are equals in matters regarding property and minors. In fact the average marriage age inheritance. Indeed, divorce laws in India of girls in India is 14.5, according to one are among the most progressive in the source. Dowry has been out-lawed, yet it world, with provisions for divorce by mutual remains a fundamental part of most consent without imputation of misconduct marriage negotiations even today. Widow against either party. The Hindu Succession remarriage too is in practice extremely rare. Act of 1956 gave women equal rights to A widow, who put in an advertisement in property - a daughter and her children had the matrimonial columns, received merely equal right to succeed, with the son and three replies - as compared to the hundreds his children, to all property of the parents. that others receive - all from men socially, There is plenty of legal protection for economically and educationally her inferiors. working women embodied in the Factories And a recent study by a labour expert has Act, providing for maternity leave and shown that protective legislation for limitations of night work and underground working women is actually beginning to work. The Administrative and Foreign work against women. Because of legal Services of India have been opened to safeguards, such as maternity benefits and women. In all these matters, Indian women limitations on night work, employers are are better off than their sisters in most now reluctant to hire women. This has led Western countries. to a slow but sure decrease in the percentage of women workers in the last Private and Public estimation of women few years. Indeed, the entire question of women’s Yet one must acknowledge that there is a status in India is characterised by paradox large gap between the law and the social and contradiction. On the one hand we

232 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages had a woman Prime Minister, women in passive acceptance of their lot ; they don’t politics, law, medicine, administration and resent it. other professions ; on the other we have After marriage a woman goes from paternal widespread illiteracy (87%), purdah and an domination to the role of the subordinate unshakable belief in the supremacy of the wife whose prime duty in life is to please male. her husband (and not annoy his mother). Again, there is a contradiction between She is merely a biological mate to her the Mother India image, the Mother Cult husband; there is little companionship and Goddess Worship and the other image between them’ and they seldom go out of the Indian woman: down-trodden, together. Her security lies not so much in helpless, exploited and worn out to an early the love of her husband as in his regard death. The lofty ideal of the feminine in for her in her role as efficient mother and Indian culture and the subjugation of women housewife. In fact she has no real status in everyday life is a continuing paradox. as a married woman until she produces a As Abbe Dubois, the French Man who child, especially a male child. As Krishnalal travelled all over India in the early 19th Shridharani writes in his book, My India, century, noted: “Low estimation of women My America: “It is motherhood more than in private life, respect for them in public,” womanhood that the Hindus glorify ..... An Indian artist will prefer to paint a picture Still Exploited and Suppressed of a woman with a child at her breast ..... The Indian marriage still centres around There is much then to be said for the view the progeny.” that Indian women are progressive and emancipated and have all the legal rights The Mother-Complex that men enjoy; but there is more truth in the opposite view: that the Indian woman According to Frieda Das (who has analysed is thoroughly exploited and suppressed. For the mother-son relationship in her book on while the former only holds true for a tiny Indian women), the Indian mother, her minority of Indian women, the latter applies position being what it is, puts an abnormal to the overwhelming majority. amount of love on her son and expects With most Indian women, the belief in male from him “emotional fulfilment; an amplitude supremacy and female subservience is so of life which should by rights come to her deeply ingrained and so much a habit of from mate hood only.” This often makes it mind that it never occurs to them to impossible for the son to have a satisfying question it or to think about their own relationship with his wife. “Never,” writes rights. From early childhood they see the Frieda Das, “has man dug a deeper rut for joy with which the birth of a ‘son is greeted himself than did the Hindu when he and the almost apologetic behaviour of the worshipped goddesses and degraded mother when she produces a daughter. And women; when he adored the mother and so they grew up well conditioned to a slighted the wife.”

233 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages This image of Indian womanhood is clearly The Single Girl reflected in Hindi films and in popular Hindi novels (on which most film plots are based). The single woman in India has the worst In film after film the situation is similar: of it, because socially too she has to put the wife is turned out of the house on the up with a great deal that is annoying to slightest suspicion and she goes away say the least. She has neither the freedom humbly, proves her innocence through all of the young unmarried girl nor the status kinds of ordeals and timidly returns to her of the married woman. Everything she does husband, who magnanimously takes her is misunderstood. She is treated as an back. Sita-Like, she braves all - from object of pity, curiosity, a freak - these tyrannical mother-in-law to sirenish girl- are the comments of several single women friend, with never a word of reproach. Great I spoke to. Said one: “If a woman is single emphasis is put on the hero’s tenderness and over thirty, men consider her fair game and devotion to his mother, whose will he for any kind of “ fun” they might have in will never defy, even if it means hurting his mind. They look at you in a way that you wife. Significantly, the heroine is hardly ever cannot mistake, and they think that you a career girl; if she does work, it is only as are either promiscuous or so frustrated that a supreme sacrifice to help the family tide you will be glad if a man makes a pass at over bad days. you. . . . If you repel his advances, he will The Bombay films also reflect a clear bias be quick to spread the word around that against the modern westernised woman. you are either frigid or a lesbian.” The vamp is almost always an “ independent Another remarked: “If you dress up to go type” with short hair, who dances, drinks out to a party, men there think you have and is ready with the quick repartee, in dressed for the kill, that you are on the contrast to the heroine, who would never hunt for a man - and women think you are dream of contradicting the hero or injuring trying to steal their husbands away.” The the Male ego in any way. single woman finds it difficult too to take Now to that miniscule minority of Indian advantage of the city’s cultural life: “If I women, independent, emancipated and go alone to a concert or a cinema or a highly educated, who have exerted an restaurant, I am often approached as influence far out of proportion to their though I were a ‘ pick-up ‘. And if I have a numbers : there are plenty of opportunities male escort, the gossip goes around that I here for qualified women to enter practically am having an ‘affair’ with him.” any profession of their choice and In Delhi at least, the single girl, finds it thousands of women take advantage of hard to rent a flat, for landlords are these opportunities. Yet prejudices against prejudiced against her. One girl was ready working women are still deeply rooted. even to sign the lease for a flat when the in men who are outwardly westernised and landlord suddenly realised that she was liberal, and often it is after they have single and backed out. “I don’t like secured jobs that women begin to feel the unmarried girls as tenants,” he said. “You discrimination. will have all kinds of boy friends here at all

234 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages hours of the night and we won’t have any interior decoration of their houses, having of that - we are respectable people.” asked a male architect to do the designing Others have complained of harassment from of the house itself, which is what she really neighbours and from goondas on the street wants to do. And a lawyer says that, at who are quick to seek out flats where girls her association’s meetings, she is invariably are staying alone. asked to type out the minutes, even While many working women say that they though some of her male colleagues can are not discriminated against in any way type as well as she does. by their male colleagues, an equal number Because of pre-conceived (and thoroughly complain that they are not treated as erroneous) ideas about the “feminine equals. Two women, both brilliant and temperament,” when a woman loses her eminent in their profusions, say that they temper at work, men are quick to attribute are constantly hearing derogatory remarks it to “typical female instability and about them. Others say they receive vile moodiness”; when she changes her mind anonymous letters from men in their office. on a particular matter, they say it is Yet others complain that they have “feminine capriciousness.” But when a man frequently been by-passed for promotions loses his temper he is a “disciplinarian,” by men who are junior to them and who do when he changes his mind, he is “ flexible” not have a better record. - both considered admirable qualities in an I.A.S. women have complained that when executive. Or as Amita Malik once put it: the question of a posting comes up, the when I write a satirical piece, people say: officer concerned says : “You can send “What a catty woman.” But when the me a woman officer only if there are no Editor of the WEEKLY writes a satirical men available.” The hostility and distrust article, they say it is witty and one woman under which some of them have to function summed up the dilemma of the working is reflected in the request made to the woman thus : “A working woman is damned Central Government by Mr. Charan Singh if she does and damned if she doesn’t. If (when he was Chief Minister of (U.P.) to she is assertive, energetic and competent, see that no women I.A.S. officers were she is termed aggressive. And if she is sent to his state. quiet, unassuming and mediocre, they say she won’t amount to much - what else did Working Girls you expect from a woman ?” The married working woman, on the whole, A common complaint of working women is has an easier time than her counterpart in that, despite their qualifications, interests the West, because she can still get and aptitude, they are always given domestic help. But if she cannot, then she “Women’s work” - because men feel women shoulders a double burden, for rare indeed are temperamentally more suited to certain is the Indian husband who will help his wife kinds of jobs, such as welfare or public with the housework or with looking after relations. For instance, a woman architect the children. says that clients often ask her to do the

235 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Today, most of our women politicians are 50-plus. Thus they all either took part in the Freedom Movement or were student leaders then. There is no new generation of women politicians emerging - a sign of which is the fact that the number of women elected to Parliament has dropped sharply this year: from 32 to 21.

Pseudo Modernisation

Dr. Thapar notes that the present generation of women students is less interested in careers and intellectual pursuits than the previous one. This observation is borne out by a survey made in Delhi University (where girls out-number Women Politicians boys), in which the large majority of girls said that marriage rather than a career The phenomenon of women in politics in was their first priority. India might be regarded as a sign of growing One can visualise these girls whose emancipation. Yet Dr. Romila Thapar, the “modernisation” extends only to sartorial historian, has a different - and a plausible- matters - firmly grounded in the belief that explanation. She believes it is a hangover no man wants to marry a girl with too much from the Freedom Movement, which education, as they sit in their chiffon saris defeminised women who participated: the at Gaylord, displaying their physical graces plain rough khadi sari and the hair severely and modest conversation, while eligible pulled back was a sort of uniform for women young men and their parents look them in the Movement, and many of them were over. influenced by the Gandhian belief that a After marriage the girl becomes a relationship between a man and a woman decorative object with limited uses - with should be like that between a brother and only “chiffon parties,” “Kitty parties” and, sister. Dr. Thapar’s view also applies to of course, coffee parties to bring some other Asian countries such as Indonesia, excitement into her life. She is frustrated where women took part in the freedom because she wants to take up a job, but struggle and today continue to be in she tells herself that she must find fulfilment politics. On the other hand, in countries in being a wife, otherwise she is not like Japan, where there has been no mass “feminine”; and in any case, her husband movement to change the system of would not approve. These ideas are government, women play practically no part reinforced by the women’s magazines (to in public life. which her reading is confined), whose

236 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages cover girls with “beauty and brains” always end off by saying that, though they are talented at writing or physics, their ultimate aim is to devote themselves to being good wives and mothers - for this is the true vocation of every woman.

Indian Women not concerned with rights but with duties

While the Women’s Liberation Movement’s view, that the care of children should be left to specialised agencies and the family broken up, seems far too heavy and unnecessary a price to pay for women’s emancipation (it should be noted that the Soviet Union’s experiment in this direction failed and they are once again stressing the importance of the family), there is much to be said for some of their other assertions. Less rigid definitions of what is ‘masculine’ and what is “ feminine” would be all for the better, as would a reexamination of traditional concepts about the temperament traditional belief in male supremacy, the and role of the sexes, though there is still Women’s Liberation Movement presents the not enough scientific evidence for one to only serious effort to set the balance right. believe fully that these have no biological It remains to be seen if they will band basis. together to demand their rights and the It seems doubtful, though, if there will ever recognition of their true destiny. Perhaps be a Women’s Liberation Movement in India we will have to wait for that until Kate which will have strong support. Most women Millett arrives in this country - and that here seem to be quite unaware of what day is not far off, for she has vowed to Women’s Lib is about nor can they see any keep aside some money from the sales of justification for its demands. This is not her book to make a trip to India! surprising - for most Indian women accept their subservience and the supremacy of the male without any rancour : Indian women are, by and large, concerned not with rights but with duties. For the tiny minority of women in India who do rebel against their position and the

237 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the family, from the master of the house Indian Woman-Her to the servants, including even the Position In Society domesticated animals and birds. Family, Dr. (Mrs.) RADHAKRISHNAMURTHY which was the unit of society, played a significant role in the evolution of Indian EDIC Literature which is the main culture. Miitrtva, Motherhood was Vsource of all cultural manifestations in considered to be the highest dharma of India present a clear picture of ancient woman. Realising the full significance of Indian womanhood. Women were then this unique attribute of woman, the holding an esteemed and honoured position ancestors fixed her position and duties on in Society and a deep study of our ancient that basis. Happiness of the family as well literature reveal to us that Indian woman as the character and quality of future was playing a very important role in the generations depend on woman and home as well as in Society. Even in the therefore she has to bear greater and days of yore, woman did not lag behind to heavier responsibilities than man. It is but extend her helping hand to man in carving proper that the Rishis of the vedic times out an ideal pattern of Society. The ancient raised woman to divinity and gave her an Sages envisaged woman as an expression honoured position in the family and in of the indwelling maternity of God. She was society. regarded as an inseparable companion of man - his auspicious half. Man and woman The Home have been often described as the two wheels of the chariot of life. The age-old In ancient days the home was the centre concepts of Prakriti-Purusha, Siva-Sakti of harmony and a cradle of love and and Ardhanareesvra clearly prove that the affection. Though the family was eternal companionship of man and woman patriarchal, both father and mother jointly was the most cherished in ancient Indian exercised authority in running the household Society. smoothly. A wife was called sahadharma- charini because on all occasions of religious Culture dependent on the women and social rituals, she cooperated with her husband by directly participating in them. The level of culture of a particular society In fact, a man without wife was denied can very well be judged by the position of the right of performing any religious rite. A women in that society. Woman, especially home was not called a home unless it was the married one enjoyed a position of graced by the presence of Grihini. respect and authority in the family as well Wood and stones do not make a home. It as in society. The married woman was is the wife who makes a home. The Hindu respectfully called Grihalakshmi, Goddess view has exalted the state of a householder of home and woman did play the role of a because of the companionship of his wife. Goddess with grace and affection looking So the wise sages of the past insisted that after the comforts of all the members of women should be honoured and also proper 238 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages protection should be provided for them from an ideal family life and achieved their all possible situations. spiritual goal. Domestic harmony coupled Thus the happiness and prosperity of a with spiritual development was given family, which is the foundation of the importance during that time. Even though corporate life of a community depended the ancient thinkers stressed more on on the way in which women were treated family life and did not much approve of a in the family by men. (Manu 3-55) woman taking the path of religion and renunciation, woman had the choice like Equal rights man to devote herself to family or to lead the life of an ascetic. Though marriage was In the past women enjoyed equal rights compulsory for women, there are references with men. Women like Gargi, Maitreyi, of many women who remained spinsters Vachaknavi took part in the intellectual and and led a purposeful life. A few of the lady spiritual life of Society. Women’s composers of Rig Vedic hymns were contribution to the different branches of unmarried. In the Epic period also we come learning was in no way less significant than across devoted women like Dhrtavrata, that of men. Viswavara, Apala, Lopamudra, Srutavati and Sulabha who remained Ghosa, Indrani and Sachi are some who unmarried, practised austerities and are counted among the revered Rishis who achieved the highest goal of spiritual life. are the composers of Vedic hymns. Many Young girls led free lives and had the women were proficient in fine arts like freedom to select their husbands. Woman music, dance and painting. The vedic was judged with sympathy and she was literature tell us about many women who not subject to any of the merciless laws enjoyed high position in society as seers even when she overstepped the moral and sacrificers and at the same time code and was found guilty of adultery. maintained the peace and harmony of their Thus in ancient India women, enjoying the homes with great attention and care. privileges bestowed upon them by society Education was regarded as important to shouldered the responsibilities of a Grihini girls as it was to boys. Boys and girls with remarkable skill and also achieved the studied together in the hermitages. Our status of Brahmavadini with unflinching epics mention about girls practising their courage. family profession. We come across skillful horse women, women archers and spear The Decline bearers in the army. Thus women proved themselves capable of performing efficiently In the later period the position of women almost all the work that were assigned to in India gradually deteriorated. Despite the men. Matrimony did not hinder woman from fact that Hindu religion or Hindu tradition achieving the highest spiritual goal. did not discourage education among Leading the life of a wife and mother a women, women’s education was not wide woman could become Brahmavadini and spread. Most of the women thinkers, practise religion. Wives of many sages led poetesses and scholars belonged to the

239 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Brahmin class or to royal and noble families. prayers, to observe penance, to go on Woman lost her freedom in many fields. pilgrimages, to recite vedic Mantras and Remaining unmarried for a woman was even to worship God, on account of periodic considered to be a great sin. Marriage foreign invasions and the havoc created became an obligation to woman and she by them, Indian women started observing, had no voice in choosing her life partner Purdah’ and remained within their houses. (Mahabharata I. 114-36). Women belonging to princely families Manu who has exalted woman in one place resorted to the practice of ‘Sati’ to save has condemned her as sinful, wicked and their honour and this was’ followed by other impure in another context. (Manu 9-17). classes of women. Eventhough there is no Manu and other Smritikaras ruled out the direct reference to the practice of ‘Sati’ in independence of women and have spoken the Vedas and only a few instances are about their perpetual dependence on men. mentioned in Mahabharata, the practice (Manu 9-3). of Sahagamana became widely prevalent In vedic age eventhough the birth of a in our country. Thus woman lost her son was always sought for by the parents, individuality and status in Society. Her daughters also were given due respect and existence and happiness depended on that affection in the family. Educated daughters of her husband. She was looked upon as were considered to be the pride of family. Bhogya - a thing of enjoyment rather than But gradually the birth of a daughter was as a companion of man. Men forgetting being looked upon with discontent probably their own weakness started condemning due to the difficulty of securing suitable the very nature of women. Woman lost her husbands for them. This led to the early right of inheritance. The plight of and compulsory marriage of girls on account unfortunate widows became untenable, of which they were deprived of higher even the sight of them was considered to education. Daughters were treated as if be inauspicious. Unmarried and childless they never belonged to the family. A women were subject to all sorts of criticism daughter was considered to be an and ridicule. Society was deprived of the ornament held in pawn to be handed over finest contribution of women in the various to the rightful owners. (Abhignana Sakuntala fields. When this darker side of Indian 4-22).Since child marriage became womanhood was presented before the prevalent, number of child widows also world, she was looked down as backward, increased. Lives of hundreds of young, uneducated, narrow minded and unfit for innocent female children were doomed anything. forever. Man-made law The Veil Hindu religion is in no way responsible for Added to this calamity, women had no right the deteriorated condition of women in to find consolation through prayers and India. It is the law - man-made law which pilgrimages. They were not entitled to offer denied women their rights. The law makers

240 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages gratifying that some of the religious leaders like Basaveswara tried to secure social, economic and political rights for women. Even in the dark hour of adversity, the dormant spark in Indian woman’s heart kindled up, beamed and blazed spreading radiance all around.

The Mahatma’s efforts

During the British regime great leaders like Rajarammohan Roy, Dayananda Saraswathi and Mahatma Gandhi put great efforts for the upliftment of woman and improving her social status. Indian women who were ridiculed as backward, ignorant and unaware of political affairs of the country, took part in large numbers in the political struggle. Thanks to the efforts of the true sons of India like Mahatmaji, the spread of women’s education and the awakening of were men who entertained fantastic ideas thought in them led to their increased about the nature of women and tried to participation in almost all fields of work. establish their own superiority. But the Active participation of our women in the Hindu scriptures have accepted woman as freedom fight has proved to the world that the educator and protector of man. A wife Indian woman is capable of sacrificing is called Jaya because through her a man everything for the sake of her nation and is again born as his son; (Manu 9-8). is ready to accept any amount of suffering A woman’s care and love protects man from for the cause of mankind. The so called all evils, her charm and beauty thrills him ‘weaker sex – woman’ - is able to shoulder with immense joy, her sacrifice and the responsibilities of a nation with more surrender shapes his life correctly and her devotion, dedication and courage than service and tenderness brings prosperity men. The position that women have been to his life. In India, when it was considered occupying in India’s political and social life that the door of salvation was closed to especially after the independence has been women, a galaxy of women saints and seers a matter of surprise and envy to the outer appeared on the spiritual scene of India. world. Indian women have made their mark Women saints like Jana Bai, Mukta, Meera, as Ministers, Ambassadors, Social workers, Akkamahadevi and others shedding the Engineers, Scientists etc. glow of spiritual experience, led the path of hundreds of women-seekers. It is indeed

241 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Woman - Today not very happy because of the Today legislation has changed many rules discrimination regarding their wages and concerning women. Women are enjoying other benefits. Even today the attitude of equal privileges with men in many fields. society is governed by the idea that woman Inspite of this, modern Indian woman is is inferior to man. The legislation that is not contented. In the present situation a enacted for the welfare of women benefits woman has to face many new problems only a handful of them. which a woman of the Vedic Age could never even have dreamt of. Many educated Shattering of Convention women lead a mechanical life without realising their true goal. Many qualified To overcome all these difficulties women women who yearn to contribute their share should develop progressive attitudes and to society stay behind the curtain of courage and shatter down old unhealthy tradition and deny themselves the basic conventions like dowry system etc. rights which are necessary for a more useful Nationwide movement should be launched and meaningful life. Even now illiteracy is by women to make women aware of their greater among women. Women are not yet rights and become conscious of their role completely free from the social bondage in society. Women should come forward to imposed on them by old customs. An share the responsibility of men for the educated woman is not contented with her development of Society. It is left to her to role of just a house wife. She wants an assert her rightful place in society and for outlet for her talents, a media to express this is possible only if opportunities are her thoughts in and a field for her creative given to her to play her role well. Whether instincts. Unless she seeks some profession she chooses to be a home-maker or to be outside her home there is no scope for her a breadwinner, a woman should be made personality to unfold itself. In the olden to feel competent and needed. The days family was the centre of human life position of a mother or housewife in society and the work of a woman at home was is in no way inferior to that of a minister, considered to be as important as any other doctor or engineer. Looking after a family type of work. But now increasing and keeping a home should also be industrialisation and democratisation of recognised as vital national service. Efforts culture are gradually diminishing the should be made to draw forth from women significance of family life. The economic their finest contribution for the foundation condition in India has also forced woman of a more beautiful social structure. to seek jobs and supplement the family income. Present day tendency is towards Relevance of Lib Movement to India greater individual freedom and it is but natural that woman also is seeking economic Influenced by the women’s lib movement independence. When a woman is forced to of the West, Indian women also demand work outside she comes into conflict with emancipation. Indian women’s demands are her own inner nature. Working women are right and just. But some women are misled

242 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages by this movement. Women’s lib. in India should rise upto the occasion to does not mean that woman should be emancipate their sisters, without relieved of her household duties, should neglecting the uneducated rustic women have complete freedom to dress as she toiling in the fields, tribals and backward likes, go about and spend money and time classes ignorant of their own pathetic life, without being restricted in any way. Women and the fallen women who are ill-treated should demand meaningful equality with for no fault of theirs. men. As Gandhiji has said, for every right Women should understand that in that is to be exercised a corresponding everything simplicity is the supreme duty has to be accepted. Indian woman excellence. Women should never hesitate should accept her duty as an important to protest against Indian cinemas, posters citizen of her country. She must first of all and advertisements through which Indian equip herself with all the qualities that womanhood is humiliated. would make her self-reliant and self- Man and woman are complementary to confident. She must try to generate inner each other. There are certain functions strength instead of crying at the doors of which only a woman can fulfil. Woman who men. Becoming conscious of their duties, is the giver of joy, inspirer of activity, maker if women stand firm on their right to freedom of home and mother of children cannot do they can achieve their ideal aim. her part successfully if she imitates man in every respect. While enjoying all the True Liberation privileges in society, she should be careful not to misuse her position and transgress Much is being talked about, discussed and her limits. The vast and mighty ocean written about the different measures that commands our awe and wonder because it have to be adopted to remove social and keeps itself within its limits. The greatest economic injustices to women. Nothing role for a woman would be to play a mother concrete has been done so far. Women like Sharada Devi and shower her affection must try to liberate themselves from their on suffering humanity. Indian woman should weakness - like love of ornaments, flashy rise to the heights of service and sacrifice and costly dresses, gossiping etc. They like Kasturba Gandhi to wipe the tears of must re-examine the principles of Hindu life the distressed. Woman must realise the and adopt only those which are applicable value of motherhood, sanctity of marriage, in the changed social conditions. They must sacredness of family life and importance develop deep faith in religion. Religion has of devoted service and contribute their best never taught the inferiority of women. for the flowering of happier and larger Women should never hope that their Family - The Nation. emancipation would come through a man. True liberation has to be achieved through a woman only. Women who are detached, educated, able to teach, able to create their own scripture and Dharmasastras

243 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Social Service From time immemorial, the temples have been filled with the lame and the halt, the blind and the poverty-stricken who could be sure of getting their regular toll of alms from the many women who came to Earliest attempts worship. Again, the temples have been a refuge for the homeless and provided the HEN we realize that the number of first rudimentary forms of “shelter”. In voluntary social welfare agencies W Moghul times, the queens and ladies of the and institutions in present day India has court, from religious motives, took an been estimated at 10,000 and that the interest in the orphaned and the destitute. majority of these deal with services directly Undoubtedly, the earliest social impulses or indirectly concerned with women and of this kind were connected with religion children and the socially, mentally or and the religious way of life. As ancient as physically handicapped, we shall see that India itself are the concepts of dharma, the harvest of pioneer efforts made on not only as the natural order of things but modern lines is a rich one. It is necessary in terms of man’s sacred duty to fellow here to stress the phrase “modern lines”. man; and of karma, the law of moral as Necessary, because in our zeal for social well as physical cause and effect, which welfare of the new pattern we should not brought man inevitably the good and bad forget that social welfare is as old as the results of his good and bad actions. human community itself and that if women Compassion, karuna for all life was a today are the most indefatigable social religious as well as a social virtue. It was workers, they were, too, if not the inevitable, therefore, that in the Indian initiators, at least the administrators of context social service should have an what amounted to social services in India intense religious background. Inevitable in ancient, medieval and more recent times. too, that even to the present day, those who may be regarded as the most dedicated Dated back in history social workers have almost invariably been men and women who practised the religious From earliest recorded history we have ideals of self-abnegation, voluntary poverty stories of the philanthropy not only of Kings and often brahmacharya or celibacy. but of Queens, particularly in times of famine or disaster. In particular, a passage in Family as a Social Service Unit Rajatarangini, Kalhana’s ancient history of the King of Kashmir, where a now-forgotten It is, however, woman, as mother and head queen is shown working side by side with of the family, who may be termed a social her husband among the famine-stricken welfare institution in herself. According to and with him giving the last of her Indian tradition, the joint family, in which possessions to hold back the flood of members of the family grew up, married hunger. Charity and almsgiving have indeed and lived under one roof with all their always been a sign of devotion in India. 244 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages children, was itself a self-contained unit unbearable asceticisms imposed on her, but giving social security to all its members. less is known of the sometimes remarkable The physically handicapped were accepted and beautiful characters who have come as part of it, whether they could earn or through this school of suffering to be the not, and they would never lack food or guardian angels not only of the sick, the the emotional satisfaction of being loved suffering and all the children in the families or wanted. Where cousin and brother and which brought them up but have shed the sister were almost inter-changeable terms light of their devotion on the world outside. (in modern India a cousin is often referred The Hindu widow who becomes the servant to as cousin-sister or cousin-brother to of society is a very precious off-shoot of save her or him the feeling that any Hindu tradition and is still in a very living discrimination is being made) the loss of a way making her contribution to Indian parent, or even both the parents, was a society. Pandita Rama Bai is an outstanding much less serious matter. Unemployment, 19th century example; her counterparts sickness and the like were not so are Lady Venkata Subba Rao, frightening when the joint kitchen was there Smt.Thankamma in Kerala, Smt. Kamala Bai to see that all had food. If, in the poorer Hospet in Madhya Pradesh and Smt. Sujata groups, hardship was involved, particularly Das in Bengal among countless others. for the women, in that a number of non- contributing mouths had to be fed, all would SIDELIGHTS INTO ORGANISED have been ashamed to mention it knowing ACTIVITIES - In Bengal well that they themselves might have been in the same position or might later have to Even in the latter half of 19th century and face the same blows of fate. the first half of 20th century, the seclusion of upper class Bengali women was great The widow - a nature-made Social and girls over ten years were traditionally Worker prohibited from coming out of their homes or to attend a public gathering, barring It was within the joint family that the widow perhaps religious or festive occasions. of Hindu tradition found her shelter. After Keshab Chandra Sen was the first to the death of her husband, sometimes when overcome such over-seclusion in the cause she was a mere child, she would be of general uplift and broad education. He subjected to the ugly rituals of shaving formed an association of grown-up women her head and putting on the white or red as ,early as 1865 under his direct religious rough cotton sari that would be her uniform supervision -the Brahma Samaj in Calcutta. for the rest of her life. Separated by her An European lady was deputed to teach sorrow from the auspicious ceremonies and them hand-work. The reaction against this festivals of the household, she had to make novel idea of assembling grown-up women her own place in the family unit. outside their homes was widespread, and Much has been said of the tragedy of the the persons connected with it were virtually life of the Hindu widow and the almost excommunicated by their Hindu relatives.

245 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Yet the number of members increased day inter-provincial marriages, the activity by day. tended to pass on to the all-India plane. Appearance of ‘Respectable’ women at [From: Condition 0f Bengali Women by Usha such public functions started also in Chakrabort] Bhagalpur, Barisal and Dacca. All these were strongholds of the Brahmo rebels against In Colourjui Rajastban orthodoxy. On 14th April 1871 an association by the Rajasthan is a state that can boast of a name of Bama Hitaishini Sabha was formed host of legendary women in the centuries with Keshab Chandra as its President and gone by. Who has not heard the name of Radharani Lahiri, the niece of the saintly Rani Padmini of Chittor, Panna Bai, Rani Ratanu Lahiri, as Secretary. Kamawati and Meera Bai and admired their Both the Arya Nari Samaj and the Banga courage and devotion to the cause they Mahila Samaj had their periodical sittings; espoused! questions like superiority of men over With independence, regeneration again women, purity of character, freedom of took place - Rajasthani woman picked up women in ancient Hindu society were the threads and started coming into her discussed by the former; while usefulness own. She discarded ‘purdah’ and strove to of women in the context of modern society carve a place for herself in the political, and virtues of modern ideals for women social and educational life of the reorganised were mooted by the latter. state. The Maharani of Jaipur - Shrimati In 1907 Mahila Silpoa Samiti (Ladies Gayatri Devi - started the first public school Industrial League) was started by a for girls - the M. G. D. School. Rajasthan committee of Indian ladies in Calcutta for has been adopted as a home by many social and educational work among women women of outstanding ability whose with the Maharani of Mayurbhanj in the contribution in various fields of activity is chair. An Industrial school was opened in stupendous. Usha Barkatulla Khan, born in the same year at 9 Sibnaran Dass Lane, Kanpur and educated in England, made Calcutta (Off Cornwallis Street). It gave Rajasthan her home and became a well- scholastic education as well as handiwork known social figure as the Director of the training in weaving, tailoring, painting, Rajasthan Small Industries Corporation, embroidery, music, lace work, household Chairman of the Purchase Committee for duties and needle work to Hindu and even Handicrafts in Rajasthan and the Director Muslim women to make them self- of the Indian Tourism Corporation-now the supporting while working in their own India Tourism Development Corporation. houses. Rani Laxmi Kumari Chundawat, born in a The organisation and societies started by Rajput family in 1916, was referred to as Bengali women so far were naturally Rani Sahiba. An artist and a writer of no located in Bengal and almost exclusively in mean repute, Shrimati Laxmi Kumari the great giant metropolis; but with the contributed to the revival of arts and crafts spread of higher education and even some

246 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages as a Member of the Advisory Board of the National Memorial Trust in 1945. Gandhiji Rajasthan Small Industries Corporation. gave his blessings and emphasised that the Mrs. Sharda Bhargava is well known in the work should be done by women and for state for the active part she has played in women. its educational and cultural institutions. Rani A start was made by training women health Urmila Devi is a prominent social worker, workers in the Kasturba Maternity Home, Chairman of the State Social Welfare Board Adyar, in collaboration with Government and District Congress Committee. She is Hospital for Women and Children, Egmore, an eloquent speaker, having full command Madras in 1945. Six girls with suitable over English, Hindi and Gujarati. She has educational qualifications (minimum 7th contributed articles to several prominent Standard) were chosen from the rural newspapers and magazines. She has also areas, the main criteria being capacity for represented India at the Paris Conference leadership, organization, understanding of of Social and Moral Hygiene. the work and willingness to take up this Miss Lilian Godfreda Lutter was born in challenging work wherever they were Rangoon, Burma in 1899. All her life, Miss posted. Lutter has been keenly interested in Girl A branch of the Kasturba Sevikashram has Guide Movement and an efficient Guide also been started in Sivasailam, Tirunelveli herself, she served as Guide Commissioner district in 1954 under the name of ‘Avvai in Burma and in Rajasthan. Krishna Tarve Ashram’. The Grama Sevika Training given of Gaya (Bihar) has made Rajasthan her here has been approved as equivalent to home and has given the best years of her that of pre-basic teachers who can be life to the education of women and the employed to teach in nursery schools as moulding of their character. well as 1st to 3rd grades in primary schools. The native simplicity, boisterousness and colourful dress - the billowing skirts with The Guild of Service (Madras) their shining butis and ornaments lend Rajasthan its splendid colour. Emerging from The Women’s National Air Raid Precaution this traditional state, the women rise to a Corps, founded by the Guild of Service was new standard, of which the state could be the fore-runner of the Women’s Welfare proud indeed. Department in Tamilnadu. In 1940, at the request of Lady Hope, the Guild of Service Tamilnadu rises to the challenges organised the Gold and Silver Trinket Fund. Gold and Silver were collected in trinkets Seven miles south of Dindigul on the trunk and from the money converted from it, the road from Madras to Madurai stands Guild of Service donated 8 ambulances and Gandhigram, a complex for training field a blood plasma plant for different theatres workers for rural areas. An organised effort of war in the Middle East and South East to train women to work for the welfare of Asian Countries and the border areas of women and children in backward and tribal Calcutta and Assam. areas was started by Kasturba Gandhi

247 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages I leaded by Lady Leach in 1941 the Guild counterparts in different states was a started a Salvage Depot for selling scrap recognition of the importance of voluntary such as old papers, bottles and tins. A effort in social welfare. sum of Rs. 30,000 collected through scrap For whomsoever they worked, be it the was sent to the families ravaged by war in widow, the unmarried mother, the neglected Greece and London. The end of the war child, the victim of a social disease like brought several changes and gave new leprosy, the illiterate rural mother, the waif dimensions to the work of the Guild. The or the vagrant who slept on the pavements, service rendered by Mrs. Clubwallah Jadhav they worked with dedication, undying zeal under this banner has spread the Indian and doggedness. Social Service over the international plane The Andhra Pradesh State Welfare Advisory and much work has been done for the Board and the erstwhile Hyderabad State adoption of orphans by families, in India Social Welfare Advisory Board came into and abroad by her. existence in July 1954 with Smt. A. C. The Guild of Service lays great emphasis Krishna Rao and Smt. Vimala Bai Melkote on the vital theme of rehabilitation. No child as Chairmen of the respective State Boards. is sent away without properly finding him It was the formation of Andhra Pradesh a home in the society. Today, the that brought about a change in the existing Samajam’s boys and girls are placed in a pattern and finally Andhra Pradesh State variety of fields - different services, Social Welfare Advisory Board was set up business, industries, banks and offices and in 1957 under the Chairmanship of Smt. A. vocational institutions. Sri Avinashilingam C. Krishna Rao. It functioned effectively Education Trust was constituted on the under her able leadership and Smt. 10th of October 1950, starting first, the Shyamala Devi who took over from her in Sri Avinashilingam High School for Girls. The 1959 worked assiduously for the promotion Mukhya Sevika’s Training Unit was started of the welfare activities with single-minded in 1959; ;the Nursery School in 1960; the devotion for a number of years. Post-Graduate Department in 1961; the The activities of this Department are Elementary School in 1962; the Applied focused on educative, preventive and Nutrition Programme in 1964; the Nutrition protective measures and rehabilitation Research Division in 1969; and the Sri services for women and children through Avinashilingam Teacher’s College was institutional and non- institutional channels. opened in 1968. It is implementing the following schemes : (1) State Homes, (2) Service Homes (3) In the State of Andhra Vocational Training Centres with attached hostels (4) District Tailoring Centres with Till the emergence of the Central Social attached hostels, (5) Women’s Welfare Welfare Board in 1953, voluntary effort Branches, (6) Children’s Homes, (7) grappled with the problems under service Crèches and (8) Balwadis. limitations of funds and guidance. The The Andhra Pradesh branch of the emergence of the Board with its Association for Moral and Social Hygiene

248 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages in India was started in 1951 as Nari Sudhar capacity have inspired and will continue Society under the dynamic personality of to inspire social workers in this country. Smt. Vellodi. The very first achievement As Chairman of the Central Social Welfare of the society was to get the Suppression Board she is the architect of many of its of Immoral Traffic Act passed by the schemes. Two Chair Persons of Central Legislative Assembly of Hyderabad State. Board, Smt. Deshmukh and Smt.Masuma In 1959 the Society assumed the status Begum, recipient of Padma Shri, hail from of the Andhra Pradesh Branch of the Andhra Pradesh. Association for Moral and Social Hygiene India. In Maharashtra Started with four inmates in 1952, Seva Sadan gives shelter to destitute women Historically, Maharashtra has a unique and children and imparts instructions in position. It is the meeting ground of various social education, basic education, religions. handicrafts, etc. The first and the only all women university, The Andhra Yuvati Mandali was started in S.N.D.T. University for women which has the year 1935 in the erstwhile Hyderabad no limits on territorial jurisdiction in the State by a band of enthusiastic women state is located in Maharashtra. The First interested in social welfare activities, limb-fitting centre at Kirkee is located at particularly in the advancement of women Poona. The Family Planning Programme for and children. It was registered in 1954 and the first time was introduced by a voluntary has grown into a big organisation with organisation in Bombay in 1923. The first about 250 members on the rolls. With the school for training professional social assistance of the Central Social Welfare workers, the Tata Institute of Social Board and the Government of Andhra Sciences was opened in 1936 in Bombay. Pradesh, the Mandali is running several In more recent years, occupational therapy activities. for the first time was introduced in Bombay Founded by Sri A. S. Chetti, on 1st July, for which the credit goes to Kamla Bai 1934, Hindu Stree Punar Vivaha sahaik Nimbkar. The Maharashtra State Women’s Sangham has the object to encourage the Council has rendered social welfare service remarriage of Hindu widows, to render such to the under-privileged since 1919 specially of them who wish to remarry all possible to women and children. help to work and towards the removal of The adult literacy and mother-craft classes obstacles and prejudices standing in the conducted by the Social Education way of Hindu widows re-marrying. Committee of the Council as well, as sewing Andhra Pradesh can pride itself on having classes help women a great deal. During produced Smt. Durga Bai Deshmukh, hailed the last 3 years it helped 170 women to as the “mother of social work” in India by become literate and 210 to manage their no less a personality than Smt. Indira homes better and learn to take good care Gandhi. Her dynamism, iron will, humanism, of their children. incessant zeal and supreme organising Its branch in Poona, the Poona Women’s

249 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Council works for the welfare of Jawans and rehabilitation. There are three Training and their dependents through its Troops Centres for the courses of Auxiliary Nurses Aid Committee. Its village welfare projects and Mid wifery at Nagpur and Wardha. are at Dhankandi and Katra. The team of selfless, devoted social The Sita-burdi Maternity Home had come workers in Matru Seva Sangh will carry on into existence on 8th May 1921. Started this great work under the leadership of with five beds, in a small house in the heart Padma Shri Kamala Bai Hospet. of Sita-burdi, Nagpur, the Maternity Home The Shraddhanand Mahilashram of today is a full fledged hospital for women Matunga, which started as a Rescue Home and children, with 150 beds, and all the with four women in 1928, is today a multi- ancillary hospital services, such as purpose institution for women and children operation theatre, X-Ray, pathological in distress. laboratory, blood bank, premature baby Its recent programme of rehabilitation of unit, a ward for the invalid aged women, in abandoned or unwanted babies by giving its own building situated on North Ambazari them in legal adoption to families in India Road, Nagpur. or abroad has made the institution known The story of the growth of this institution all over the world. People from various in Nagpur has no parallel in the history of countries now come to India to see the Social institutions of this city. The institution and its activities, which include dynamism, selfless devoted service with a work centre started in 1954 for women missionary zeal of the two ladies - Smt. K. from outside the institution who are given Hospet and Smt. Venutai Nene made a mark gainful employment. on the life of the citizens of Nagpur. The institution also serves as a field work Voluntary help from medical practitioners, training institution for post-graduate donations from the rich, sympathy and help students in Social Science and for practical from the Government came forward and Social Work for students of schools and the enthusiasm of the workers was colleges in the City under recently boundless. introduced National Social Service Scheme. The city of Jabalpur did not lag behind. Smt. Kamia Bai established a branch here in 1941. Yet another branch was opened at Hinganghat in 1944. The year 1945 was crowned with success and four more branches were established in that year at four places : (i) Bilaspur, (ii) Armori in Chandrapur district, (iii) Brahmapuri and (iv) Warora in the same district. In 1947, a branch was established in Saugar. Besides Maternity Services, Matru Seva Sangh, has been responsible for establishing service activities in the field of education

250 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages sacrifice, dedication and public service. Hingne Stree Shikshan The Widows’ Home of 1897 had only one Sanstha, Poona inmate. Now the Hingne Stree Shikshan Sanstha looks after the education of about 4,000 children and women of all castes and 4th JUNE, 1896 became an auspicious communities. The annual budget which was 1day for an idealist because his keen only Rs. 500 at the beginning has now gone desire to change the lot of widows gave up to Rs. 13 lakhs. His charm soothed away birth to the Widows’ Home on that day. In her melancholy. 1893 D. K. Karve married a widow against traditional prejudices and took up social A Place of Pilgrimage reform and advancement of women as the mission of his life. In 1900 the four-year- The institution has all along been managed old sapling was transferred by the dedicated by a band of life-workers pledged to work founder to a small hut on an open plot of in a spirit of sacrifice. land at Hingne Budruk, six kilometres away The institution is now considered a place from Pune City. The village is now called of pilgrimage, which attracts many visitors from all over the country and abroad. Everyone who visits Hingne contributes something in his own way. It has been instrumental in bringing about a great change in the life, attitude and aspirations of the Indian woman through all these years. In the last century she was married before the teens, suppressed by traditional customs, buried under the hard chores of domestic life. She presented a picture of stunted growth and unfulfilled ambition. Today in contrast to that life, she can take any responsible position including that of the Prime Minister and her contribution to the nation-building activities is significant.

Karve-Nagar and is a part of the Poona The only Women’s University Municipal Corporation. Karve strove to help the Indian woman to In 1907 Karve launched a school for take her rightful place in the home, the unmarried girls, which was later society and the nation. The story of the amalgamated with the Widows’ Home. Out growth of the institution through all these of this union sprouted the Mahilashram High years is an inspiring saga of courage, School. It gave birth to the Women’s 251 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages University. Karve’s concept of the role of women in modern society was realistic, though revolutionary. While he believed in equality of status and opportunity for women he realised that without adequate training and preparation they would not properly fulfil their role in the family or in the society. That is why he propounded the idea of a separate university for women in 1916 which was nursed and nourished at Hingne till 1923. The vast expansion of the university which later came to be known as the S. N. D. T. Women’s University, has now its headquarters at Bombay. This lone Women’s university in India with about ten conducted colleges and an equal number of affiliated colleges in Maharashtra and Gujarat fully vindicates Maharshi Karve’s goes a long way in bringing harmonious stand and shows his foresight. development in the new generation. In these hostels 150 students depend on the Multifarious activities institution for boarding and lodging. About 70 Harijan girls also reside in the hostels After the transfer of the Women’s along with others. University from Hingne, the institution A working women’s hostel called “Mahila developed its multifarious activities and Nivas”, was established in 1960 in its own since 1946 came to be known as the Hingne building in Poona to supply food and shelter Stree-Shikshan Sanstha because it dealt to girls and women who are in need of with the education of all girls, married and such facility. unmarried, along with widows or even separated wives. A home for the aged Thus at the campus at Karve Nagar, there are more than a thousand girls receiving A Home for the Aged, ‘Vanaprasthashram’ education. Out of these, nearly 750 reside was recently started on the Hingne Campus on the premises in five hostel units. It is a and about a dozen women over 55 years special feature of the Hostel that girls from stay there as paying inmates. The story the age of 5 to 25 years stay together. of the growth of the Hingne Sanstha is The pupils present almost a cross-section thus a story of the progress of the of the society, from very well-to-do families emancipation of Indian Womanhood. to the extremely poor. Similarly, girls from advanced and backward classes all stay together. Such a big residential institution

252 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages A Splash of Colour who prays and performs puja. There are countless festivals which deal with the veneration and worship of husbands. It is she who keeps the family together, who, f woman are we born, of woman come festival time, finds ways and means, Oconceived …. by woman is civilisation in these stringent days, to celebrate continued, it is by woman that order is without ostentation, yet keeping intact the maintained ….without woman none would force and spirit inculcated in us by our exist.” forefathers. Festivals reaffirm our faith in religion and revive the sagging spirit of gracious, old Role of Women traditions. And, above all, these festival days generate a togetherness which has India and festivals go together. A country all but disappeared from our lives. It is good impoverished materially, we would be to see families praying together, united spiritually arid without these regular forays once again in the bonds of love, respect into joyous areas. Ask our women, for they and affection; the old parents, the guard this heritage zealously. The life of executive son, the mod daughter perhaps, the Vedic Aryan revolved around sacrifice the foreign daughter-in-law. (Yajna). As Hinduism developed sacrifice Not all festivals, of course, are so universal came to be increasingly replaced by worship as to proclaim Peace on Earth, Goodwill to (Puja). A God is worshipped as an icon All men - but our own myths and legends (area), which has been sanctified by are utterly fascinating and all our festivals, special rites after which divinity rests in it. in one way or the other, celebrate the The worship of the god is not so much a defeat of evil, the victory of good and bring prayer as much as an act of homage and in joyous tidings. entertainment. He is fed on delicacies and What we feel rather strongly about are on major festivals, he is taken out in the the myriad superstitions attached to our village, town or city in a splendid vehicle festivals - superstitions which, somehow, pulled by his devotees. This is the central seem mainly directed against women. On theme in most festivals. Generally, reading through this account, you will find however, women have never been a preponderance of these man-made encouraged to live lives devoted to religion beliefs which have infiltrated, through the and asceticism. Their true place has been years, to dictate women’s role in society. the home, their divine mission marriage. These structures which say, women can’t But while women were not as strictly do this, or must do that, must be put to segregated as among the Muslims, they rest for all time. After all, it is the woman were certainly not allowed full freedom, who is the pivot of life. specially not a married woman. The south She is Sakti Devi - all things to all men, was relatively free in those ancient times whether she be given other names like of the stringent rules followed by the Aryan Parvati, Durga, Kali, Sati. It is the woman North. Amongst Buddhists, any nun was

253 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages inferior to the freshest male novice and as rangoli in the threshold of their homes - all for Jainism it accorded to women only a promise joy, light and plenty. The spirit of lowly position while the Muslim era ushered Divali pervades their being, as they worship in the age of ‘purdah ‘. Mother Goddesses their favourite goddess, Lakshmi. They pray were always worshipped in India. Between for the return of Rama’s glorious reign, the Harappan and Gupta periods, the cult when spiritual darkness will be banished did not attract much attention from the from the world and people step from learned and the scholarly. It was during darkness into light. the Middle ages that goddesses came into their own when feminine divinities were Pongalo Pongal increasingly worshipped. The goddess was Shakti, the active and immanent aspect A Tamil composition of the ancient Sangam of Shiva. The history of Indian festivals is period (period of the ancient Tamil like everything else about this country a academies) describes the joy of a love- conglomerate of varied practices. Amongst lorn woman on the return of her man from Christians, woman participated equally in the wars. Her happiness is likened to the festivals, Christmas and Easter are family month before Pongal when, with the end affairs, where women perform important of the rains, the ‘kaaya’ flowers blossom functions. like the sharply etched kajal in a woman’s eyes and the tender Konrai flowers shower Navaratri their golden pollen. For this day, a new pot, Pongapanai, is purchased after the Navaratri - nine nights of dancing and auspicious moment of the birth of the new music, till the first rays of sun come out to month, Thai, with which the pooja starts. lighten the sky. Practically the whole of The neck of the pot is tied with fresh Gujarat and Saurashtra and Gujaratis turmeric and fresh ginger saplings, tender anywhere else - go a little mad during these green leaves, the turmeric and ginger pods days, losing themselves in the intoxicating prominently decorating the pot. In the pot rhythm of Ras and Garba, the lyrics and is cooked rice, moongdal, milk and jaggery. movements perpetuating the worship of When this rice mixture comes to boil, Mother Goddess. everyone shouts out – “Pongalo-Pongal”. This bubbling up of the milk signifies Divali prosperity in the coming year. When the pongal dish is cooked and ready, it is offered At eventide, ev.ery Indian home, lowly or with sugarcane to the sun as a mighty, mud hut or mansion is alit with the thanksgiving. The birth of the month Thai orange glow of twinkling diyas to welcome on this day is also looked forward to as Divali. Indian women look forward to Divali. the start of the marriage season. For them it is a family festival. Colourful clothes, fragrant flowers, sparkling jewellery, the aroma of delicious food,

254 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Rajasthan’s Teej

Teej is celebrated throughout India, though in Rajasthan the festival is one of the most significant ones. On this day the women are up before dawn and the rush is on in the kitchen. Daughters and sisters are given new clothes. The women keeping fast are permitted to take only water throughout the day. Throughout the day children and young girls keep singing and playing on swings, which are colourful. The procession passes through the dense crowd on the main roads of Jaipur and ends in the picturesque surroundings of Cup Lake. Here offerings are made to the deity by the dancing and singing women. Women make small pond-like ditches in the open ground. This pond is made with cowdung. They pour milk, water and curd in this pond. A diya is burnt and kept on On Onam day everyone wears new clothes. the wall of the pond. Then there is Puja Kerala is a mosaic of religions. Between which is usually done by a Pundit or an old them there are political rivalries with woman who sings hymns to Parvati. The communal overtones. On Onam day, other women join in. Then the legend of however, all communities, Hindus, Parvati narrated and the fast is broken by Christians, Muslims and Jews join to the women. celebrate the festival. One goes to a play or to an Ottamthullal, that unique form of Onam art in which the same man sings, acts and dances or to a Chakyar-koothu, Kathakali It is the month of Chingam (15th August which lasts all night. The sun is rising and to 15th September) and Chingam is the the old lady of the house asks whether it month of the great Kerala festival. Onam, is not time to go to sleep. She wonders, Dassera and Shivaratri are all Indian; but as she has been wondering for the last Onam is exclusively and characteristically twenty-five years, whether she will live to Keralite. The Kerala woman like her see another Onam. counterparts in other provinces is a custodian of tradition. Onam is the festival Durga Puja in which the members of both sexes revel. It is not an exclusively women’s festival, Durga, the Goddess or Shakti, is widely like Thiruvathira, which falls in mid-winter. worshipped in Bengal. Durga is considered 255 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the daughter of Himavan. She was married Dera Baba Nanak, Kartarpur and Patna. The to Lord Shiva, the God of Destruction. famous Golden Temple of the Sikhs is in Sashti, the sixth day of the Puja, is the Amritsar. It is known as Hari Mandir and day of Durga’s arrival at her parental home. has a golden dome. At Baba Atal nearby, The ladies of the house spend the days are frescoes depicting scenes from the life prior to this in planning and shopping. From of Guru Nanak. In Anandpur, we have a the dawn of Saptami day starts the shrine dedicated to GURU GOBIND SINGH. chanting of prayers and ladies perform the Thus Sikhism, the youngest of Indian daily offering of raw vegetables, rice, fruit, religions founded by Gurunanak, has many flowers, sweets, incense and ganga-jal. sacred shrines in this country. Birashtami or Ashtami, as the eighth day is The legends behind all these temples, popularly known, was famous for its shrines, mosques, churches and performance of heroic feats in the past. gurudwaras are significant. Through these The women of the house offer traditional prayer houses, we glimpse the lives of men Bengali red bordered saris and sindoor to and learn about the dreams, faith and Durga. The Sandhi puja is in the form of a aspirations which have sustained the Indian sacrificial offering. The Navami is yet again people through the ages. spent in worship and prayer. Then dawns Baisakhi marks the end of the toiling season the day of departure. The Goddess is and the beginning of the reaping when the decked once again in bridal finery and the first crops are harvested and taken into married women apply sindoor and perform the barnyards of the nation. A proud ‘Baran’. Durga then sets out on her journey moment for the cultivators, a happy one back to her husband’s house amidst music, for the owners and celebration is in the songs and shouts. She then goes to the air. Baisakhi is as essential a part of Punjabi Ganges for immersion and from there to tradition as the fragrant delicious dishes. the home of Lord Shiva. Baisakhi starts with the morning bath in the river and ends with the banqueting. Punjabi Festivals For centuries, Punjab has brought forth tough men and women of the soil and The Sikh gurus were men who lived among nature has been partial to this part of India. their people, guiding and teaching them, sharing their fortunes and misfortunes. MINOR FESTIVALS Gurunanak, the founder of Sikhism was not a conventional individual. Therefore Sikhs The fundamental unity underlying the do not travel very far to worship. Their diversity of the cultural life of India is places of pilgrimage are in towns and cities reflected best in its festivals, which form rendered holy by the blood of martyrs and an integral part of its traditions. Diwali, gurus. Here the faithful gather and worship. Dassera, Ganesh Chaturthi and Sikh temples are known as Gurudwaras. Janmashtami are only some of the gala The most important places of Sikhism in festivals that are observed with great eclat, India are Amritsar, Taran Taran, Anandpur,

256 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages from Kanyakumari in the south to Kashmir South Indians. A famous lamp is lighted on in the north. the hills of Tiruvannamalai near Madras, a symbolic elephant is made in clay by the Tulsi Puja lady of the house and worshipped in Mysore. Tulsi plant, which adorns the courtyard or garden of almost every traditional home, Janmashtami and Nagpanchami is the centre of attraction on the feast day. Married women are invited for Haldi This is a time when women vie with one Kumkum (literally, offer of turmeric and another in turning out a host of edibles, sindoor). It is said that one gathers punya both sweet and savoury. Krishna idol is or merit by offering auspicious articles to decked colourfully. This is an occasion for married women and girls. women to be invited and offered pan, supari and fruits. Gandan Puja or Bhimana Amavasya With the onset of monsoon commences a chain of Hindu festivals each surrounded This is a unique festival of Mysore, where by their own aura of bizarre beliefs, unmarried girls perform a special vrata customs and legends. Nagpanchami marks connected with puja offered to Shiva and the inception of this festive season. Falling Parvathi. An unmarried girl is asked to do on the fifth day in the month of Shravan this devotedly to get a good husband. Even Nagpanchami is sacred and on this day after marriage the women keep up this puja snakes are worshipped every year. Nowhere for the first nine years. Mangala Gowri is in India is the festival so looked forward to one of the important puias performed every as it is in Shirala, a village on the Poona- Tuesday in a particular month by married Kolhapur Road. Guru Gorakh granted a boon women for years after their marriage to that no villager in Shirala would be bitten ensure happiness in married life. by a cobra. Nagpanchami day here is Nagapanchami denotes worship of the marked with gaiety and festivities. snake on the fifth lunar day. In Bengal- Delicacies made of milk are seen in each Manasadevi, in Punjab a figure in black home. A procession of gaily dressed women representing the snake-God is drawn to and children lead the snake charmers. Live prevent homes from being visited by cobras are displayed on platforms. These snakes. sway to the snake charmer’s pipe. The whole day is spent in festivities and at the Gauri and Ganesha end of these the snakes are set free with the fervently uttered prayer “forgive me On this day, brothers give auspicious gifts Nag Raja for catching you and excuse me to sisters. This worship emphasises the for my mishandling”. penance (or tapas) performed by Parvathi to secure Lord Shiva as her husband. Kartikai is the real festival of lights for the

257 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages

Reds and oranges, greens and purples, pink and blues and a myriad colours dye the villages of India and the people who live in them, for it is Holi, the festival of spring and the most colourful of all festivals. The building of the bonfire is an elaborate and important feature of this festival. Rang Panchami is the day when coloured powder is thrown on all. At the conclusion of the day’s gaiety and revelry everyone bathes in water boiled over the Holi fire. The freedom permitted during this festival is reminiscent of the Roman saturnalia, is the classic name of the festival otherwise known as Rakhi. Its name derived from the principal ceremony of the day, viz, tying of an ornamental cord round the wrist, called Raksha, because it is intended to guard the wearer from all kinds of evil. The varieties of Rakhis on sale in July and August are stunning. On that day, even Ganesh Chaturti little boys are given money which is to be presented to their sisters in token of having Occurs on the 4th day of first fortnight of understood and accepted their Bhadrapad. Coloured clay images of the responsibility. God are set on display in bazaars. A day before the worship the images are brought Mahavir Jayanti and conveyed home. There is puja on the main day. Gorgeous clothes and expensive This Jayanti is observed by the Jains jewellery adorn the forms of all ladies. without pomp or splendour, in a quiet Sweets are prepared in advance for the manner with players and visits to sacred God. The puja commences with the usual places, as befitting the memory of the great accompaniments of rice, kumkum, haldi, Tirthankaras. flowers, arati-kapur, agarbati and flowers. This routine is carried on for the entire tenure of the God’s stay in the house terminating on the Visarjan or immersion day.

258 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The Gracious rights, with abiding interest in social work. In the last 25 years, she has been closely Octogenarian associated with Smt. Manjubhashini, the spear-head of Bala Mandir at Thyagaraya By VISALAKSHI NARAYANASWAMY Nagar. She is the President of the Family Planning Association of India and takes RS. AMMU SWAMINADHAN - How does sustained interest in this just crusade Mone get reconciled to her being an against out-sized families. She has been octogenarian? We thought of her as one, associated with the All-India Women’s who, like some of the Goddesses in a Greek Conference as an active member. She has fable, imbibed nectar and was endowed served the Women of India in parliament. with the gift of perpetual youth. Till age and less robust health compelled I have known Mrs. Swaminadhan over a her to limit her peregrinations and stay at period of 43 years. Like the great British home, she was an inveterate traveller Prime Minister, Gladstone, she has lived to within and without the country. What is become a legend in her own life-time. perhaps crucially important about Mrs. Throughout this period I have seen her clad Swaminadhan is her unfailing generosity and only in immaculate Khadi and with a gregariousness. perennial smile. She came under the She loves people and has an uncanny and Gandhian spell when he called up the shrewd assessment of the calibre of people womanhood of India to participate in the who meet her. Years have not dimmed the freedom battle. Ammu can look charming sparkle in her eyes nor her zest for in the homeliest and the most unglamorous conversation and friendly exchanges. of wearing apparel, but she has too much esteem for her friends to disregard what A Great Mother she wore or the way she wore them. Her statuesque personality, the total absence She has been a great mother and her of snobbery in her make-up, her wide children have made conspicuous knowledge of people and her great genius contributions to political, cultural and for friendship have endeared thousands of administrative enrichment of India. Her first persons to her. daughter Smt. Lakshmi, created for herself Gilchrist Gardens, in its unfading maroon, a permanent niche in the hall of freedom’s set in the green of sprawling gardens, which heroes, by the part she played in the Indian is as inviting as an eighteenth century National Army as an important Lieutenant French Chateau, has drawn many hundreds of Subash Chandra Bose. of friends to Harrington Road. Her second daughter, Smt. Mrinalini Sarabhai is an original and energetic Champion of Women’s Rights exponent of Indian dances in their rich variety. It is difficult to overcome the Over the years Mrs. Swaminadhan has been overpowering effect of a marriage into a a robust patriot, a champion of women’s

259 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Pioneering Women of Tamil Nadu

HEY dreamt and also made them come Ttrue. When did the women of Tamil Nadu start dreaming and seeing visions? Was it yesterday or just five decades ago when our women emerged out into public life or after independence? No, it was from the beginning of times, as Tamil literature shows us. Tamil Nadu’s history is replete with stories of women who had distinguished themselves in academics. They were not wanting in charity or compassion. Their valour in a battlefield was a well-known fact. Excellence in arts like music and dance was an established fact. Avvaiyar, the poetess from whose lips cascaded family richly, endowed with wealth and verses preserved in the hearts of all poetry talent. lovers, also acted as an angel of goodwill Mr. G. Swaminadhan, a Barrister and between the ancient Kings of Tamil Nadu. Advocate-General of Tamil Nadu, has Rani Mangammal, an able administrator shown how to combine professional probity whose valour and prowess in the battle- with independence and unobstrusiveness. field were well-known and Manimekhalai, a Thus there is a peculiar relevance in the missionary of charity and compassion, are choice of Mrs. Ammu Swaminadhan as the some of the true fore-runners of women’s Mother of the Year and in her being movement. Stories of these and others honoured by an Award that India’s Prime were orally handed down from generation Minister handed over to her. The women to generation in songs, folk-lore and of India are proud and grateful for so fitting stories, and nuances were added to this recognition. as days passed by. May Mrs. Swaminadhan live long to hold the lamp and light the path of young and The Dark Period energetic women placed in humbler spheres! May she hit her century and hold In spite of these illustrious women of the the field of humanitarian endeavour! past the dark period of subjection and slavery brought about by unjust laws held its sway from the 15th century B.C. to the 18th century A.D. throughout the country. 260 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The only ray of light that lit up this stygian Women’s Indian Association darkness was the advent of the great and compassionate master Buddha who once The Women’s Indian Association which was again brought the blessings of freedom to formed in 1917 in Adyar, Madras, has been women. Years rolled on, and time once the pioneer organisation for women in India again ravaged society with internal that has done great service to enhance dissensions paving the way for further the progress of women’s movement. The subjection that came in the form of the individual torch-bearers of this association invading hordes. It was this that drove were Mrs. Annie Besant and Mrs. Margaret women behind the seclusion of purdah for Cousins, who dedicated themselves to the fear of molestation. This knell tolled the services of our country and emancipated down-fall of women. Illiteracy was the our women. natural outcome of this stagnation. The Mrs. Annie Besant came to India in 1893, widening influence of education was strictly as a Theosophist. The current of the restricted. By the middle of the 19th movement swept her into the mainstream century, women emerged out of this as a pioneer among the cultural strangle hold, partly due to the humane regenerators of the country. At a time when attempts of a few reformers. lethargy had paralysed our senses it was this Irish woman who woke us up from our Work of the Missionaries stupor through her brazen declarations and writings and sounded the clarion call to be The barbarous system of sati was abolished true to our heritage. She condemned child through the efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy marriage, encouraged widow remarriage and the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act of and promoted the education of girls. She 1856 played its part in the rousing of worked for the rightful recognition of progressive forces. Slowly a women’s women’s position in society, recalling the movement emerged out of its embryonic Vedic ideals of equality. She was the very stage. The zeal of missionaries like Raja spirit behind the Women’s Indian Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayananda, etc., Association and its first President. Due to acted as a propelling force to this her efforts, branches of the association movement. Swami Vivekananda’s spread out all over India. Mrs. Besant took penetrating observations and his great faith a leading part in demanding franchise for in women expressed in his famous sentence, women on the same terms as men. “Women have many grave problems but Mrs. Margaret Cousins devoted herself none that cannot be solved by the magic entirely for the social and political word “education”, acted as a spur to the emancipation of women in India. She came women’s movement throughout the to India after proving herself to be a militant country. suffragette, having undergone jail terms in England and Ireland for agitating for the political rights of women. With this experience to back her, she took up the

261 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages question of women’s franchise in India. She to have votes in Municipal Councils and in was instrumental in organising a women’s the local Governments. Numerous classes deputation and preparing the memorandum for adult education for women were to be given to the Honourable E. S. started. Promotion of clubs for women’s Montagu, the Secretary of State and it recreation and games was another form of was in Madras City, that the first request service. Collection for charitable causes for Indian Women suffrage was made. Smt. like flood, famine, cyclone and earthquakes, Sarojini Naidu was the leader and Mrs. were organised. With the advent of Gandhiji Cousins, the Secretary of the deputation. on the scene, the Harijan uplift work was For a number of years, Mrs. Cousins was taken up in a very large way. the editor of “Stri Dharma”, the official Public campaign in favour of Sarada Child- organ of the Women’s Indian Association. marriage Restraint Act and campaign to She toured the length and breadth of the prevent dedication of Devadasis to temples country meeting women leaders, calling were undertaken and these were them together at meetings, exhorting them responsible for the passing of the Madras to the need of organising national councils Brothels Act. They also undertook to present their progress to the Government maternity work and rural medical aid and and to act in co-operation for their solution. community propaganda. Agitation for Her great husband, Dr. J. H. Cousins, helped beggar homes and for leper homes was Margaret at every stage of her activities started. and inspired her. He played a significant The founder of the Seva Sadan was Lady part behind the screen for the cause of Venkata Subba Rao, who worked with Mrs. women. Cousins and started the Women’s Home of Service in the year 1923 on the lines of A Period of Leap Forward the Poona Seva Sadan Society for widows, deserted wives and destitute girls. Lady Thus the women of Tamil Nadu came out Venkata Subba Rao was the Secretary of of the seclusion of their homes and started this Home and later on she developed it expressing themselves in education, politics into Madras Seva Sadan which is now a and public service and this was a process High School for girls with an industrial of self-education and self-development. section, an orphanage, a pupils’ hostel and Between 1917 and 1926, the history of a hostel for working women. the Women’s Indian Association in Tamil The Avvai Home, an orphanage and a home Nadu was literally the history of the for destitutes was founded by the great women’s movement in the State, several visionary Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddi, a brilliant outstanding women blazing the trail in a Medical Graduate of the Madras University. multitude of fields. There were also small She gave up her lucrative practice in groups of women here and there organising response to the Women’s Indian themselves for social and public work. Association’s request and entered the These women undertook women’s suffrage Legislative Council in 1907 as a first woman intensively and did propaganda for women legislator in British India. She was also

262 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages unanimously elected as Deputy President of the Madras Council, the only recipient of that honour among women in the whole world during that period. She was essentially responsible for the agitation for the enforcement of Child Marriage Acts, for the Suppression of Traffic in Women and Children in Madras and for the abolition of the Devadasi system in the Hindu temples. She took a leading part in the Women’s Indian Association’s activities till the very end of her life.

Political Awakening

In the political field there were luminaries like Smt. Rukmini Lakshmipathi, etc., who was the first woman Salt Satyagraha prisoner in 1931. In the years and was an ardent supporter of the struggle for freedom, her motto was, women’s movement. “Instead of asking for mercy women should In 1947 she was again elected to the live with men in suffering for the cause. Council of State and was the first woman When it comes to suffering women will to be elected to serve on the two Houses always surpass men.” She was also the of the Central Legislature. She tried to Health Minister of the Government of secure support for social reform legislation Madras, (1946-1947). and moved Bills for prohibition, on The name of Smt. Radha Bai Subbaroyan polygamy, marriage reform and raising of will always be remembered in the political age of marriage and of consent and field. Contemporary of Mrs. Cousins, she codification of Hindu Law to suit modern was the only woman elected to the Senate conditions. and Syndicate of the Madras University and To this tradition belongs Smt. S. served on several such bodies for many Ambujammal, daughter of a great national leader of the South, the late Sri Srinivasa

263 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Iyengar. She came into contact with Training Centre for Teachers in Adyar. She Mahatma Gandhi and Kasturba as early as has done a lot of research in the old Indian 1920 and joined the Swadeshi Satyagraha dyes and has created a weaving Movement and courted imprisonment and department to produce sarees in traditional was inspired for public service. Indian patterns. There were a number of other women who Another great name is Sister R. S. courted imprisonment during the freedom Subbulakshmi Ammal, the child widow who struggle like Smt. Ammu Swaminathan, broke the orthodox convention and became Smt. Kothai Nayaki Ammal, Smt. Manju a graduate teacher in the Government Bhashini, Smt. Saraswathi Pandurangam, College and devoted her whole time and Smt. Rajam Bharathi and a host of others. energy to the promotion of education This list is by no means short. among widows and to their rehabilitation. In this line comes Dr. (Smt.) Durga Bai Her participation in the campaign for the Deshmukh, who belonged to the composite abolition of child marriage and passing of State of Madras. She joined the Salt the Sarada Act, the inheritance rights of Satyagraha Movement of Gandhiji in 1930 women and the abolition of the Devadasi and underwent rigorous imprisonment in system were very remarkable. She founded Madras jail. A woman of remarkable capacity the Sarada Ladies’ Union, the Widows’ and resourcefulness, she qualified herself Home and the Sarada Vidyalaya. for law. She founded the Andhra Mahila Sabha and several auxiliary welfare Breaking the Hard Core of Superstition institutions. She entered the Constituent Assembly and became a Member of the The Women’s Department was formed in Planning Commission and was instrumental 1944, by the untiring efforts of Smt. in the establishment of the Central Social Parijatham Naidu, the first Woman Welfare Board, through which as Chairman, Commandant of A.R.P. Through this she carried out successfully many schemes, department, welfare branches were started particularly for the welfare of rural women in villages with trained workers who were and children. the forerunners of the Balwadi movement in rural areas. In the field of arts Tamil Nadu is fortunate to have had the fore-sight and the sacrificing love of this In the field of arts and culture, Smt. Rukmini host of witnesses who laboured for the Devi’s contribution is original. She purified progress of women. They have inspired Bharatha Natyam and revived and raised it generations of young women to follow in to its original eminence, status and dignity. their footsteps. She established Kalakshetra in 1963 to Adapted from Tamil Nadu Special revive Indian art and to train artistes of Number 01 The Social Welfare highest quality. She also was interested in education and established the Besant Theosophical School and the Arundale

264 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages A Veteran Speaks deeply involved in the Swadeshi movement he did not like us womenfolk to go into it. By KUYILEE RAJESWARI Even when Gandhiji visited our house, we could only have a glimpse of him from behind doors. We would not even be allowed MT. AMBUJAMMAL, daughter of veteran to come into his presence to serve food. fighter Sri S. Srinivasa Iyengar, herself S But we felt the urge to do something. So a freedom fighter of renown from Tamil we, I mean I and some other ladies with Nadu, strikes one as a fighter still, at the similar interest, met under the pretext of age of 76. She exudes warmth, with Bhajans and religious discourses. Once the boisterous expression of affection, and Women’s Swadeshi League was formed by strikes the right note in opening a us, we drew strength from our unity, and conversation, relaxing the other member there could no longer be any opposition. completely. No wonder she was a success I: What drew you to this movement? in the political field during the turbulent Ambujammal: Gandhiji’s call. When the days of the British rule. situation required the rising of the entire When she speaks, there is no wavering in nation we felt that we too should contribute her tone, not a hint of doubt. She is firm in a little. her decisions, and convictions, so firm as I: Was it easy for you to participate this to convert others to her views, which are fight? always sound, based on a philosophy Ambujammal: Certainly not; ignorance, strained out of the experiences of a life- superstitions, and social restrictions time. It was but natural that she became weighed us down with their leaden weight. a leader, by her own right, of the women But people like Subbulakshrni, Annie Besant, who responded to Gandhiji’s call to the Margaret Cousins, Muthulakshmi Reddy Nation. were our torch-bearers. We of course had My interview with her turned out to be a to fight against our own surroundings. But pleasant experience, and I came away with we did it; infact, if there is a strong will it a feeling that I had learnt a lot, and a cannot be broken. yearning to learn much more from her. I: Coming to the present times, do you Wanting to trace back women’s fight to think that women in India are really inferior emerge from the four walls, I asked, “How to men? did you manage to start your own fight Ambujammal: Women in reality are not against the restraints that held you and inferior to men. But among our people, launch out into the turbulence of political particularly in the minds of men the idea life? What was the atmosphere like, then?” has taken root that woman is inferior to Ambujammal: We had our own rights and man, and not fit to undertake certain jobs. freedom, as women, in our own dominion, This attitude is still very strongly embedded the house. We were treated, of course, as in the minds of people, but times have the weaker sex, escorted everywhere by changed and women’s participation in many a male member. Though my father was walks of life is accepted as a matter of

265 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages fact. Further changes are also bound to Our present economic need has brought be accepted. Change in attitude can only about this change. Further changes will be gradual. manifest themselves as the years go by. I: Do you think fight for equality is Fight for change may speed up this unnecessary? process, but cannot bring about any radical Ambujammal: It is not unnecessary. The change. It will definitely come, though bias about women’s inferiority has to go, gradually, with the changing needs of and opportunities in all fields must be open society. to women. Thus far, a united fight is I: How far do you consider the demand for meaningful. But after that, achievement special recognition and privileges to women becomes individual. justified ? Women themselves Ambujammal: To must change, start with, when we individually, and were coming out of fight for the our restrictions recognition of their special privileges worth. Smt. Indira were necessary. But Gandhi did not as times change. become Prime this demand for Minister because of special privileges the fighting of an must be given up. If association. She you are fighting for set a goal in life, equality with men, and fought her own you must also fight, battle in order to be along with men, on what she is today. equal terms, for The fight for her is opportunities. the same, as it Otherwise, where is would have been for any man, nor was the equality? she handicapped because she was a I: Is the inferiority of women, their being woman. It is determination on the part of the weaker sex, a fact or a biased opinion? each woman to better her lot that will Ambujammal : Women are not inferior In improve the condition of women in general. many respects, they have proved to have Associations and formulating resolutions or greater ability than men. By nature, being laws alone will not help: equipped to bear the strain of motherhood I: Will this fight for equality bring about again and again, they deserve to be any change? termed as the “Stronger Sex”. All over Ambujammal: Fight or no fight, necessity India, you would find a woman left alone, brings about the change. Women are more by desertion, divorce, or widowhood, educated and employed in greater numbers efficiently bringing up her children and now than they were a few decades ago. making them successful in life, even by

266 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages manual labour, working as will be like that,” is both cooks and maids women sarcastic as an observation have proved their mettle; as well as the acceptance whereas if a man is left alone of a double standard. with children, in spite of Women are far above men financial advantage, he in this respect. And men, would fail in disciplining and though grudgingly, give bringing up a child. women her place of honour I: What, in your opinion, are because of this. By sheer the changes to be insisted determination, she can push upon ? aside, any barrier, and do Ambujammal: The custom anything she chooses. of parents choosing I may sound old fashioned, husbands for girls must but I do think that chastity cease. Then only will the evil - if you would like to term of dowry be eradicated. The it that way, is still the training of girls, too, must strongest weapon a woman change. Their training must can wield, against man. be career-oriented. After the interview she took Education and employment us round her institute, “The must become their main aim. Gandhi Nilayam”. Originally, Where marriage is not made spinning, adult education, the sole aim of a woman’s and pursuing Gandhiji’s life, the necessity to achieve it, or “buy ideals of house crafts, were the institute’s it,” at any cost will cease to exist. By main functions. Now, there is a “Balwadi” mutual understanding, from need for for children, and a press, where women companionship, will arise a new meaning can gainfully spend their time in doing book- for marriage that will not be humiliating to binding and such other work. Classes in women. sewing, painting, doll-making, etc. are I: If you say women are, indeed, superior conducted to help women to use their to men, how could it be proved? How do leisure hours in doing work that is financially you say they are superior? gainful. The atmosphere there is one of Ambujammal: Women are superior. by genuine service, lacking in the pomp and virtue of their position as mothers. As splendour of social work for mere publicity. mothers, they can instill in their children the attitude of respect to all, irrespective of caste, creed, or sex. By preserving their virtue, women can prove their superiority. Though lapse of virtue in men is not condemned, it makes man in general an object of slight. “Oh, he

267 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Thus it was in an atmosphere of blessing D.K. Pattammal and benediction that this favourite child The Divinely of the Goddess Saraswathi had started flowering. In the minds of those who heard Endowed Minstrel her even then, there could not have been any doubt that this was a voice turned for By KUYILEE RAJESW ARI the praises of God. And for her part, she looked upon the use of it as her sacred D. K. Pattammal- Musician with a Divine duty. Gift Her early years HE three month old baby girl looked at TRamana Bhagavan with bright starry Those were days, when the Indian Society eyes. He smiled benignly on the little one. was enveloped in the darkness of On an impulse he dipped his finger in honey, superstition and orthodoxy. The few stray rubbed it on the baby’s tongue. She gurgled sparks of art and music here and there, with delight and smacked her tiny lips.”Ah! were on the verge of extinction through You like it! Do you?” he said and placed his adverse criticism, if not social ostracism palm on the baby’s forehead in a gesture Battling with such social obstacles was this of blessing. That drop of honey and that girl whom destiny had designed to be a sublime moment reshaped the destiny of great musician. She was striving to develop that little maid. She was in later years to her divinely endowed talent which could thrill audiences with her honeyed voice. not lie hidden, too long. It seemed as if She surely is the famous Pattammal. And the Goddess who had designed this choice there is hardly anyone who would wear instrument also saw to its shaping, and that name (and fame) with the dignity, and opportunities soon sprang up to tide over the grace, that adorn her. the initial obstacles. Time and again, in Kancheepuram was her birth place. The the face of some severe set-back there year was 1919. Sri Dalam Krishnaswamy would be a ray of hope. Like Vasudeva who Iyer and Rajammal (Kanthimathi) were the crossed the flooded waters of Yamuna proud patents. Sri Dalam Krishnaswamy carrying Krishna to his haven, Pattammal’s Iyer, himself a great scholar in Sanskrit, father tided over the turbulent waters of took great pains to see that his little social prejudices and conveyed his child daughter repeated the hymns (stotras) in to her destined goal. Among the many her honeyed voice. Her perfect intonation forces that propelled her to the high place, and melodious voice won the hearts of all that she now occupies, are her father, Mrs. who heard her and soon the little girl was Ammu Kutty - her headmistress, and Dr. a favoured minstrel at the Sankara Math, Srinivasan, uncle of the young man, whom where His Holiness would make her repeat Pattammal was to marry. While the former Sanskrit Stotras and listen, wrapped in had played an important part in encouraging sublime silence. her to forge! forward in those early days,

268 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages it was her husband who stood by her side Rasika Ranjani Sabha, both around the year in later years as a pillar of strength to her 1933. She was advised to take the through thick and thin. Government examination in music, and when her father brought her over to Madras The Dilemma to appear for it, she faced two veterans, - Tiger Varadachariar and Ambi Dikshitar In 1931, when she was but a child of (grandson of the great Sri Muthuswami eleven, she acted in a school drama Dikshithar). On hearing her rendering of ‘Savitri-Satyavan’ as ‘Savitri ‘. Her lovely Dikshitar’s “Sri Subramanya Namaste”, Ambi voice held the audience enthralled and an Dikshitar insisted on the girl’s staying at astonished father found his daughter’s Madras for a further month or so, so that photograph published in the papers the next he could personally train her in the day. On the heels of the photograph, came Dikshithar trend. Her father could only spare the recording company ten days, and in that from Madras, placing short span she the father in an absorbed from him as embarrassing situation, much as she could, where there was the and carried away pull of love and pride with her the at his daughter’s unforgettable achievement on the impression of a great one hand and a fear of man, together with social criticism on the invaluable gain of other. Again it was Dr. knowledge and two Srinivasan who Dikshithar Kritis. “Bala staunchly stood up, Gopala” and for her. Her first record “Kanjadalayatakshi”. was “Mukti Alikkum To this day she Thirumoolasthanam” a reveres the memory song of Nandanar of that old gentleman which received wide appreciation after its who became yet another father to her and release. The recording was soon followed taught her with a warmth and affection by requests for appearance at concerts. that sprang out of genuine eagerness to Her destiny had been shaped. The beacon shape a gifted artist. Even today, as she light at the distance was not the lure of thinks of him, tears of gratitude glisten fame or fortune’, but the aspiration to and drop down her cheeks. Success for ascend the peak of Art for Art’s sake. And such a gifted musician did not take long to now, there was no turning. Her first concert come. In her one finds a rare mixture of was a part of variety entertainment at tributes, a golden voice, perfect traditional Egmore Mahila Samajam arranged by Smt. background of the most glorious culture all Rangamma, followed closely by another at

269 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages expressed through the vehicle of A rich harvest of tributes Devanagari. The Sangeet Natak Academy Award in Steering her boat across two Oceans 1962, “Sangitha Kala Nidhi” in 1970, “Madura Kala Praveena” by the Madurai Sri She has been appearing for individual Satguru Sangeetha Samajam in the same concerts from 1934. In 1940, came yet year, “Padma Bhushan” in 1971 and “Isai another event in her life. She was married Peravai “ by the Tamil Isai Sangam in 1973 to Sri Easwaran, and thus was she are all tributes paid by the music loving launched on the voyage of family life. Even public to her golden voice and rich tradition. today, she remembers the memorable words Combining a musical career with household of her father: duties was no easy task. But accustomed “Family life is an ocean, and so is music. as she was at her father’s house to wake To your lot has fallen the onerous up at 3 a.m. and practise her songs in responsibility of swimming through both that pre-dawn stillness when the Gods these seas. I do not know how you are alone would listen to her glorious voice, going to do it”. For, with her marriage, she continued the same at her in-laws’ ended the chapter, of his guidance and place, practising at a time when no advice. It was now solely up to her husband household duties would demand her time. to decide what she should be ; yet again Undaunted, she continued her dedication Gods were gracious to her, and in him she to art, while continuing to be the perfect found the help-mate who could steer her daughter-in-law, wife and mother. Her through the two seas and help her meet mother-in-law, husband, two sons and the challenges in both with equanimity. daughter-in-law all were loving her deeply. D. K. Pattammal was the first to render Her daughter-in-law Lalitha (daughter of into music with her golden voice, the fiery the famous Palghat Mani Aiyar of Mridangam words of Bharathi. To her goes the credit fame) accompanies her during concerts. of having first sung in films. The International Women’s Year and the On 15th August, 1947, at mid-night there demand for women’s rights, have different was a memorable broadcast programme meanings to different people. Though for from A.I.R, and to Pattammal goes the a section of the younger generation, career honour of having given the first recital in opportunities and equality with man in all free India. Her husband refused the cheque spheres would seem essential, the majority offered by A.I.R. So it was again on the of Indian women may yet aspire for just a day when the Father of our Nation expired, peaceful life filled with mutual that she sang. She speaks with deep feeling understanding, adjustment and increasing whenever she refers to these occasions, happiness. If such a life was assured, most filled with pride at her husband’s nobility Indian women would find happiness in of thought and the compliment and tribute submitting to male superiority, in return for he paid to her own art on those occasions. the loving protection of a strong male partner in life. To many Indian women,

270 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages the life of one’ like D. K. Pattammal may on Sikki work, she made many objects of serve as an example. Without giving up utility and sold them at throwaway prices traditional and cultural values, living as a to the Bihar Government’s Handicraft perfect daughter-in-law, wife and mother Centre. Sikki, she said, was a kind of reed as visualised by our ancients, she has also like grass which grows around the banks succeeded in setting aside out-molded of lakes and rivers. One day she saw an customs and conventions. While figuring elephant walking near her village at Raylarn as the modest unassuming Hindu lady of in Darbhanga dist. She decided to make the house, she has also succeeded in one of Sikki. She insisted on accompanying asserting her individuality by allowing art her brother to the Manigachi Goods to embellish her personality. All this has of Production Centre to see how it would be course been possible because of the received. She was paid Rs. 1.50 per day. association and encouragement, of an Soon she won awards from the State understanding husband. In our country Government and a job in the Institute of where the individual’s life is closely bound Industrial Design at Paena. Having an to the family life, this could be taken as aesthetic eye, deft fingers and the ideal. A wife who can sublimate herself, determination she produced many and her whole being without having to lose decorative pieces in traditional designs and her individuality, a husband who can retain colours which got her silver medals which his superiority, through a loving assertion had to be sorrowfully sold to make both can raise the status of Indian woman. That ends meet. In 1963, she won a first prize then is the message that is to be gleaned at an exhibition organized in connection from the life of Smt. D.K.Pattammal. with the Tenth Handicraft Week celebration. In 1969, she won the coveted National Award given to master craftsmen. She went to the capital and received the Award from Dr. Zakir Hussain. Her award-winning entry was Siva’s face amidst lotuses. She Bihar’s taught Sikki craft to a few other girls in Patna centre. Hers is a success story for Master Craftsman which she strived and struggled against heavy odds. She is a typical example of a INDESHWARI DEVI was the rustic unlettered woman endowed with BNational Award winner for Sikki grass courage. work of Bihar in 1969. She learnt the craft from her mother. She became a widow, when she was barely fourteen. Her in-laws never received her and so she stayed with her parents. Another marriage was unthinkable for in their village community they would be ostracised. Concentrating

271 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Sri Sarada Math-Its A retreat for women

Origin and Growth So when Swamiji thought of establishing a By PRAVRAJIKA AMALAPRANA Math to propagate the ideal of Renunciation and Service he wanted it both for men N India, Monastic life in an organised and women. Even before a math for men, Iway, especially for women, is indeed a he wanted a math for women. In 1894 itself, contribution of the Buddhistic age. Though he wrote to one of his brother disciples, we hear of many women Rishis, ‘We must first build a math for Mother . . . Brahmavadinis in the Vedic age, the pattern first Mother and her daughters and then of religious life led in those days was not Father and his sons. Hence it is that my monastic but mainly individualistic. After first endeavour to start a Math for women! Lord Buddha, it was Swami Vivekananda ‘In another letter to his disciples, he wrote, with his infinite love and compassion for ‘We want fiery young men, intelligent, who the suffering humanity who once again would dare to go to the jaws of death. . . tried to organise the spiritual forces of the Both men and women . . . we want two country for ‘Atmano Mokshartham Jagat thousand Sannyasins, ten or even twenty Hitayacha’. thousand, men and women both ...’ Like Lord Buddha, Swami Vivekananda too His writings and speeches bear out many believed that both men and women were practical hints and plans as to how to start equally fit to achieve spiritual greatness. this math for women. He wrote ‘With the He recognised no distinction of the sex in Holy Mother as the centre of inspiration, a the realisation of the Truth. “He would math is to be established on the eastern never tolerate”, says Sister Nivedita, in bank of the Ganga. As Brahmacharins and her masterpiece ‘Master as I saw him’, “any Sadhus will be trained in this Math (Belur scheme of life and polity that tended to Math) so in the other math also bind together on mind and soul the fetters Brahmacharinis and Sadhvis will be trained’. of the body. The greater the individual, This was his vision. the more would she transcend the limitations of feminity in mind and character A modest beginning and the more was such transcendence to be expected and admired.” This wish of Swamiji, however, did not The great vedantist that Swamiji was, his materialise during his Life-time, as the chief exhortation to men as well as women prevailing social conditions were not was to rise above, the body consciousness suitable for it specially the lack of and realize the Self, which is the reality education among the women prevented its behind both men and women as well as in immediate realisation. But a modest all the beings. ‘True Emancipation’, he beginning was made when one of his declared ‘could come only through an western disciples Miss Margaret Noble later intensification of one’s own spiritual known as Sister Nivedita, founded a school awareness’. in Bag Bazaar for Indian women.

272 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The School for the women on the lines laid down by Swami Vivekananda was taken. This school has, in a way, paved the way for the future monastery for women. For, The Sarada Math the school, besides being a boarding school for students, was also an abode for As a first tangible step towards the dedicated women workers of the school establishment of Sri Sarada Math, on the who would come there to lead a spiritual 100th birthday of Holy Mother which fell life. This boarding-cum-spiritual home was on 27th December, 1953, a group of later known as Sarada Mandir. The Holy dedicated women workers of the Order Mother blessed this Sarada Mandir by Her were initiated into the vow of presence by staying here for a short period. Brahmacharya. In 1954 synchronising with She appreciated the idea of women leading the completion of the Centenary a life of renunciation and dedication as far Celebration of Holy Mother, the dream of as possible under the then prevailing social Swami Vivekananda of starting a Math for conditions. That the Holy Mother women was at long last fulfilled. Thus a recognised herself as the head of monastic new era dawned on the religious and movement for women, is evident from a cultural history of India opening up a new letter which she wrote on 30th August, horizon of life divine for women, at large. 1902 to a monk at Mayavathi in which the The establishment of Sri Sarada Math had Mother described Her place of residence far- reaching effects on the rise of women as ‘Math for women’. Thus this school could all over the world. And at the same time it be looked upon as the nucleus from which is also a part of the tidal wave of spirituality the future monastery for women - Sri set in motion by Sri Ramakrishna and Swami Sarada Math - originated. Vivekananda for the welfare of the entire Gradually many educated women inspired humanity. with the ideals of renunciation and service came forward to dedicate their lives for The Novices who became nuns their own spiritual growth and for the upliftment of their sisters. Many of them Thus once established, Sri Sarada Math gave up their hearth and home and joined grew with sure and steady steps. Within this Sarada Mandir of Sister Nivedita five years another significant decision was School. As their number multiplied the need taken by the Trustees of Belur Math. On for a Math of their own was very keenly the 1st of January, 1959, on the birthday felt. Finally the authorities of Belur Math of Holy Mother, eight senior members of found that the time was ripe for the Sri Sarada Math were invested with cherished idea of Swamiji to take a Sannyasa by Srimat Swami Sankarananda, concrete shape. In the Monk conference the then President of the Ramakrishna Math of the Belur Math held on 29th May, 1952 and Mission. This was a preliminary step the momentous decision of starting a math to the formation of an independent women’s organisation. In August, 1959, Sri Sarada

273 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Math was given independent status, and New centres have also been opened by Sannyasinis became its Trustees by virtue Ramakrishna-Sarada Mission; one is of a Deed of Trust executed by the Vivekananda Vidya Bhavan at 33, Natya President of Ramakrishna Math. Patty Road, South Dum Dum, a partially In May 1960, the Trustees of Sri Sarada residential degree college for women and Math as advised by the authorities of Belur the other is Shiksha Mandir at 134, Math, founded the Ramakrishna Sarada Baruipara Lane, Calcutta-35 which Mission Association, which was registered conducts a mother training centre, a Pre- under the Act XXI of 1860, with the object Basic and a Junior Basic School. Now, of carrying on ,educational, cultural, demands came from outside Calcutta to charitable and similar activities among start mission centres. So in 1970 Nivedita women and children looking upon them as Vidya Mandir was started at Haus Khas in veritable manifestations of the Divine, New Delhi, It is primarily an English medium irrespective of caste, creed, colour or Pre-Primary and a Primary School. But nationality. essentially it is a centre noted for its Though Sri Sarada Math and the spiritual and cultural activities. Ramakrishna-Sarada Mission with its branches, are distinct institutions, they Other Centres are closely related as the Governing Body of the Mission is made up of the Trustees At Arunachal Pradesh another Centre was of the Math, the main workers of the started in February, 1973, to bring about Mission are Sannyasinis of Sri Sarada Math. the educational, cultural and spiritual Moreover both have their headquarters at upliftment of the tribal women and children Sri Sarada Math, Dakshineshwar. of Arunachal Pradesh. There is a free Primary residential school for the tribal girls. More and more responsibilities In the same year another branch centre was opened at Trivandrum which is known In course of time, on seeing the efficient as Vidyarthini Mandiram, a hostel and a management of the Math and Mission by library for the school and college-going the Sannyasinis, the authorities of students. Ramakrishna Mission gradually transferred In the meantime, Math centres have also to the Ramakrishna-Sarada Mission all the expanded outside Calcutta. In 1965 a institutions meant exclusively for women. branch centre of Sri Sarada Math came It has since then been run by the into existence in Madras. Ever since Swami Sannyasinis and Brahmacharinis of Sri Vivekananda lit the fire of enthusiasm in Sarada Math. The institutions are the Madras, it has been one of the most active Sister Nivedita’s school at Bag Bazaar, the centres of work based on the ideals of Matri Bhavan, a Maternity Hospital in Tolly renunciation and service - so naturally it Ganj and the women’s welfare centre now was at Madras that the need of the known as Ramakrishna-Sarada Mission Women’s Math was very keenly felt and Ashrama at Entally. ever since its starting it is flourishing well

274 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages as a spiritual and cultural centre serving The Temples of the women spiritual seekers of Madras and also of the neighbouring places in South Learning At Salem India. The next math centre was also in South India, at Trichur in Kerala. The Sarada Mandiram, which was a branch of the local RI Sarada College for Women, situated Ramakrishna Ashram was handed over to Sin Alagapuram, Salem, bears the Sri Sarada Math in June, 1968. Apart from hallowed name of Sri Saradamani Devi, the its spiritual and cultural activities it also holy consort of Sri Ramakrishna carries on educational activities and runs Paramahamsa. Sri Ramakrishna chose and a higher secondary school, a nursery school cut out a novel path by elucidating the and also a hostel for college students. confused dogmas of religions in a very Recently another Math has been started simple and lucid exposition, which any lay in Poona and also a Mission centre in man or woman could easily understand and Bangalore. practise. Saradamani led a simple, serene life, full of intense religious fervour, imbibing Rapid growth all the teachings and sayings of Sri Ramakrishna. Her holy name is cherished Thus the Sarada Math and the with great ardour and respect in christening Ramakrishna-Sarada Mission are making this college at Salem after her Holy Self. giant strides in the path of progressive expansion. Now it is left to the women of Temples of Learning the whole of India as also to the women staying abroad, to come forward and join In 1968, Sri Sarada Training College began hands with their sisters of Sri Sarada Math to function. This college affords instruction and the Ramakrishna-Sarada Mission in its for 105 women graduates every year. The dissemination of the ideas of Sri Training College tries to groom good Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda, teachers of a high calibre who in their turn throughout the whole country, nay will educate children to grow into good and throughout the world. In fact, great tidal useful citizens of India. Besides the above waves of spirituality have been released institution which is purely for women, a by these great Prophets - Will not its divine Boy’s High School has also come into being. touch rejuvenate the entire womanhood Sri Ramakrishna-Sarada High School of India? - Will the women of India not provides co-education for nearly 2,000 respond to the clarion call of Swamiji? pupils. In the academic line, a number of “Rejoice. The flood of spirituality has risen. Sarada institutions at Salem provide a I see it is rolling over the land restless, comprehensive pattern of education for girls boundless, all-absorbing. Every man to the right from nursery level to post-graduate fore, every good will be added to its forces, level. Sri Sarada College Hostel is a real every hand will smooth its way, and glory “Home” for about 1,000 students. The be unto the Lord.” college buildings built up with gopurams and 275 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages pagodas are really intended to be temples Women and Social Work of learning. The unity of all religions is preached to the students of these institutions. NDIA has a long tradition of ‘social work’ or ‘social service’ as an important means The latest link I of rendering help to the needy and weaker sections of the community. The approach The latest link in the chain of Sri Sarada to helping people has varied at different institutions is the recently created wing stages of the country’s development and for job-oriented courses for drop-out girl interestingly continues to do so even and boy students from schools. This today. scheme provides a monthly stipend and is available for girl students in tailoring, type- Training the distinguishing criteria writing, nursery teachers’ course, printing and envelope-making. For drop-out boy The concept of social work as a profession students training is given in plumbing, is, however, a new phenomenon. It is a carpentry and electric-wiring. A full-fledged phenomenon of industrialisation and an hospital is under construction in the college urban culture. These features of the campus. This is to provide a course of profession are significant in terms of the training as Auxiliary Nurse or Mid-wife for extent of its utilisation in a country like 30 persons. The services of a fully qualified India, where the majority of the population whole-time lady Medical Officer and a Staff still lives in rural areas. Nurse to meet the needs of the Sri Sarada Certain criteria have been evolved to Institutions are also provided. A munificent distinguish professionally trained social donor, Sri M. A. Palaniappa Chettiar, workers from others who are also involved Managing Director of Jawahar Mills, Salem, in welfare service. Two important criteria has generously come forward to advance are: (i) completion of a two-year full-time financial aid from his own Trust for these post-graduate degree or diploma job-oriented courses. programme in social work from a recognised All the Sri Sarada Institutions which have school of social work; (ii) knowledge of now taken root owe their origin to the seed methods of working with people and of social service which emanated in the techniques acquired through organised Service Home, “Kamala Nehru Nilayam” the training and supervised field work. main theme of which is “life should be based The profession has also developed its own on service and sacrifice.” philosophy of serving society; its value From: “ Social Welfare” Magazine. system and approach to those who need help. This is different from the traditional approach. In order to develop as a profession, it has recognised the need of formal association.

276 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The recognition of the need for some kind trained workers. The attitude of traditional of training for those engaged in social work untrained social workers towards trained has slowly grown in the last 30 years, but workers is not often conductive to the is still not universally accepted by non- maintenance of professional standards of professional social workers and those who work or growth. Service conditions in the promote social welfare programmes. agencies and the attitude of those who The contribution of the schools of social are responsible for making and implementing work towards developing a training these agencies’ policies, are sometimes programme has been outstanding. Varied listed as reasons for the dissatisfaction of views have been expressed as to whether professionally trained social workers today. India can provide a large number of jobs in With increase in knowledge of the social social work to absorb those trained at post- and behavioural sciences, there is a graduate level. This raises other questions: growing awareness of the need for a group at what level should social workers be of skilled and competent workers who can trained? What jobs would be available for help to rehabilitate mal-adjusted clients those who come out of schools of social and return them to society. work after training at post-graduate level? While this position may have been passively These questions can be answered only accepted by those who are not trained when the social education programme has academically, the acceptance needs to be been evaluated. The evaluation of the emotionally reinforced so as to ensure an programme in terms of its objectives, effective working relationship between the scope, content, methods of training and two groups in the interest of those whom the utility of specialisation in the Indian both serve. situation is an urgent need and must be undertaken immediately. Women lead

Need for a group of skilled workers Social work is a field where leadership was largely assumed by women in India both With the growth of institutions and social before and after independence. A small welfare services, first, under religious and section of well-to-do women considered secular auspices before Independence, and voluntary social work their special domain. the gradual increase in them under State Many have held and continue to hold high auspices after Independence, the natural positions in welfare organisations. However, consequence was a growth in demand for the number engaged is small relative to a large number of workers to man these the total number of women in India. The organisations. Agencies sometimes feel that majority of professionally-trained social our changed times require social welfare workers work today in institutions, service to be rendered by those who are departments and organisations that are not merely devoted, dedicated, emotionally administered by voluntary social workers involved and deeply interested workers. who have had no professional training. They Professionalism demands more. It demands have also made inroads in progressively

277 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages larger numbers in governmental handicapped and socially deprived children. departments and institutions since 1957. The other fields in which professional social The director of one of the first schools of workers have been active are medical social social work in India was a woman. A woman work and family and child welfare. In more was also responsible for establishing this recent years, social workers have also school. become involved in community The programme of social work education development, rural and urban; tribal for professional training offers equal welfare; social research; welfare opportunities to men and women and the administration and training. employment practice and opportunities (as There is a close relationship between far as we can see) are, but for the women’s chosen fields of special interest exception mentioned earlier, open equally and their chosen fields of employment. to professionals of both sexes. Both at the According to the study of social work time of admission, and during training in professionals in India, the largest number labour welfare, preference is given to men. of women-professionals was employed in This preference also prevails in the the medical and psychiatric settings, the employment of a professional social worker next largest number in family and child in labour welfare and in industrial welfare. The academic and research fields establishments. combined had the next highest number. The lowest number of women were in the Aptitude industrial area and working with labour forces. The reasons for choosing social work as a profession vary widely. The study of the The problem of unemployment Indian Council for Social Welfare gives interesting data about why women wish Social work graduates, like other graduates, to enter the profession or take professional face the serious problem of employment training in this field. A large number decided after qualifying. Most graduates have to to join courses of social work training wait after completing their professional because they felt they had an aptitude training to find suitable work. for the subject. The problem of unemployment is more acute During the pre-independence period, the for men than women. This is explained by fields of activity in which professional social the fact that men regard social work as a workers were engaged were largely labour long term career and are, therefore, more welfare and treatment and rehabilitation selective about employment and so wait of juvenile delinquents, adult offenders, longer for a position that will help to beggars and prostitutes. Professional social promote their career- prospects. It is also workers had also made a considerable probable that women who take up the contribution in the organisation and profession from personal inclination, on the management of children’s institutions basis of aptitude, are likely to be less serving both physically and mentally selective about the type of employment

278 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages they go in for. On the subject of employment part of the 20th Century and throughout the Indian Council of Social Welfare study the independence movement under the says: “Another possible explanation which leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. These needs further examination is that jobs are voluntary workers assumed leadership in more easily available in some settings the development of institutions for socially compared to other settings. Hence, men and physically handicapped persons .. who normally tend to specialise in labour Those responsible for the establishment, welfare and industrial relations find it more development and management of welfare difficult to get jobs in the related setting institutions have been more or less of industrial establishments. On the paternalistic. Their attitudes were not unlike contrary, women who normally tend to those of the privileged who give regularly specialise in the primary social work and in charity to the under-privileged. community organisation have less difficulty in getting absorbed in the related settings. The profession of social work It should be emphasised that the profession of social work represents a very small The profession of social work as distinct minority group in relation to the very large from the tradition of voluntary service is number of persons and groups who have based on the philosophy of humanitarianism been pioneers and have assumed major and democracy; on a belief in the inherent responsibility for providing leadership in the worth of an individual, capable of making a organisation and development of welfare decision for herself and capable of being services during the past 200 years. Many changed; but also on the belief that the existing welfare institutions have impulse to serve others is not enough. functioned for a number of years. They Knowledge of human behaviour and skills came into existence as a result of certain in human relations acquired through training religious and social reform movements and is essential for the professional. The worker represent the desire on the part of groups functions as a prop helping to bring about and individuals to help the victims of social social adjustment and rehabilitation of the and religious in quality and injustice the socially deprived or physically or mentally less-privileged and weaker sections of the handicapped. A client is helped by the social community. worker to decide his own plan of action and to carry it out. The worker must be Voluntary workers aware of his own attitude and motivation in helping others. In brief, the profession The role of voluntary effort in discharging of social work is concerned with the a social responsibility to those who needed scientific approach to the analysis of causes welfare services has been unique in the of individual and community problems. culture of India. The contribution of women, who have been involved in social welfare activities as voluntary workers was outstanding, particularly during the early

279 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages New Fields college students are all areas where social workers could, and should, be called upon Independent India has opened up new to make their contributions as part of teams horizons for social work in many spheres. consisting of workers from various The Central and State Governments have disciplines. introduced measures for the welfare of the Harijan welfare, tribal welfare and women’s normal population and provide protection and children’s welfare have received special to the physically and mentally challenged, attention. The emphasis on the introduction and the socially deprived. The new fields of new social legislation and implementing existing statutes, providing services to various socially handicapped persons and particularly, women and children, juvenile delinquents and adult offenders, has brought into existence many new institutional and non-institutional services for care, treatment and rehabilitation of a large number of persons. Women professionals can make a special contribution in the development and execution of schemes for the welfare of women and children, often in association with family planning programme in rural and urban areas, and the family and child welfare scheme and balwadis in the rural setting. All this requires a sense of commitment and dedication hitherto unattained, and also dynamic and inspiring leadership to draw young, new entrants who will generate new vitality in the profession. Women professionals have a special role to play, since they have given excellent leadership in this field in the past. The profession of social work will succeed to the extent that it can meet the challenges that confront it today. of community development, family planning programmes and the very new schemes of nutrition for pre-school children and National Social Service for university and

280 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The Healing Touch unique situation thus arose in India where the only hope of reducing the high mortality among women lay in recruiting women to the medical force. Dr. Browne started the first medical school AJORITY of the women in India go in for women in 1905 in Ludhiana and the for general studies, for the M Lady Hardinge Medical College at Delhi employment resulting out of this education followed in ·1916. The Countess of Duflerin can be fitted into their routine and they Fund was instituted to finance a string of can carry out the job of both wife and hospitals all over the country and these office-worker in a well balanced manner. hospitals, together with the Maternity and Professional courses and the employment Child Welfare Centres in the towns were afterwards demand a higher degree of manned by the women medical graduates concentration of effort, straining her both of the country. These women have physically and mentally much more than contributed in a large measure to the fall the non- professional type of employment. in maternal mortality from 20 per thousand Two categories of employment seem to births in 1920 to about 2 per thousand draw most working women - i.e. that of births today. In pediatrics too, women have teaching and office jobs as clerks, typists, made a significant contribution. Since then, stenos and secretaries. they have branched out into other medical Of the professional courses, medical course disciplines and today there are women in has a greater attraction for women than every field of medicine. any other. The respect this profession gets In the last two decades, a new dimension everywhere in society, better employment has been added, viz. that of preventive opportunities, fame and fortune attached and social medicine, one of the most to it, all contribute to this attraction. important aspects of which is family Besides all this, basically women are planning and population control. Here the equipped for this profession. Nursing the woman doctor can make a special sick with compassion and gentleness is contribution by the personal contact she inherent in women and as such her mental establishes with fertile couples at the time make-up equips her well for this profession. of wife’s pregnancy and confinement; and The healing touch of the mother and wife after the initial motivation she can ensure becomes better utilised when it is their continued adherence by giving professionally trained. constant advice and medical attention. At the turn of the century, the purdah So far, the Indian doctor has been more system and the psychology that goes with fortunate than her Western counterpart in it had spread to the whole of India from securing domestic help. She is often a the North, where the vestiges still remain member of an extended family in which today. There women’s reluctance to consult another female member takes over her men led to an unnecessary loss of life domestic burdens. Outside help can also among women, especially in childbirth. A be hired as it is usually within her means.

281 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages But the situation is changing rapidly with a hardship and even efficiency, to hold and trend towards smaller family units and the keep highly paid and demanding jobs. shrinking pool of household servants. Fact and Fantasy Rights, Responsibilities and Privileges The basic weakness of the system as it Equal rights should go with equal exists today lies in the motives underlying responsibilities without any special entry into profession. Women could make privileges. In any profession and especially a much greater contribution to medicine if in medicine, responsibility entails an they took it up in a spirit of dedication and undivided and uninterrupted loyalty to the not as an aggressive and misdirected use profession with constant study to keep of a rightful privilege. To this end, abreast of advances in theory and vocational guidance should be provided in techniques. schools by arranging talks by members of Can these responsibilities and the claims various profession for the senior girls of motherhood be reconciled? To enable (Classes X and XI) to enable them to sort her to fulfil the multiple roles of career out the facts from the fantasies. Later, in woman, wife and mother, certain privileges medical college, talks by members of are inevitable, e.g. the periods of absence various disciplines - especially women can from work necessitated by indisposition help the students to take a wise decision during pregnancy, confinement, a child’s in selecting a suitable career from among illness and even the break-down of the various alternatives before them. arrangements for domestic help. It is The immediate problems can be reduced claimed that a professional woman can, to some extent by a few realistic measures. and has, learned to apportion her time The few available full-time jobs suitable between her work and her family. This may for women should be rearranged to create be true for the office, the studio and even more part-time jobs with the necessary the laboratory, but not for clinic or hospital. readjustment in pay scales. For many What happens when the emergency in the women, it is important to be profitably home and in the clinic coincide? How is employed in part-time jobs, to which they time to be apportioned and, more important can give their best efforts without in any still, how are loyalties to be divided? way sacrificing their families and distracting To sum up, there is no disputing the fact from their own enjoyment of family life. that for the Indian situation women doctors The remuneration could be calculated are, and will continue to be, essential. But according to the working hours. A beginning the potential is apparently being dissipated has already been made in a small way on by adherence to false values, like emphasis these lines in Delhi. A woman in a part- on specialisation, a strong desire to time job should be able to get a transfer compete with men (even at one’s own to another place for work - be it dispensary, disadvantage), the constant struggle at laboratory or hospital - at a convenient the expense of mental peace, physical distance from her home when she changes

282 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages her residence within the same town or That is not the intention with which they outside it. are made. The plea is for progress inspired Another measure which requires careful by reason. Let each new aspirant make consideration is whether a discontinuation her choice at the outset. Which will take of service for a few years should be precedence - family or profession? To spell permitted to allow a woman to fulfil the role of mother. For a minimum family of two children, this would require at least 5-6 years without spacing and 6-8 years with a space of 2-3 years between two children, before the youngest child starts school and the mother is free to continue her profession. Can she afford to do this? Advances in theory and technique are so rapid that a 6- 8 year gap becomes almost unbridgeable. Or, age-limits could be reduced for those who are returning to their careers after a few years devoted to their families. The present waste of educated woman-power due to unimaginative age-limits for employment, especially among nurses, is unjustified. For the dedicated career woman, who foregoes marriage in the pursuit of her profession, more security should be provided. At the rate at which the cost of living is rising, by the time she earns what out priorities is necessary; only the very once appeared to be an adequate pension, fortunate can have the best of both worlds. its value will have decreased very For those who wish to walk the lonely road substantially. Part-time jobs should be to individual fulfilment and have the single- made available in which she can utilise her minded purpose and tenacity to follow it, experience and training and supplement her to the exclusion of other conflicting income. interests, there should be no obstacles To the ardent feminist, some of these created by prejudice, tradition and social suggestions may appear to be retrograde. pressures. For those who opt for the

283 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages security and closeness of marriage and An Appeal through family, numerous attitudinal and interpersonal adjustments and important the Ages value-choices will have to be made and adhered to. Either way, the situation is complex and requires to be thought out, Saris so that clear-sighted decisions may be made and the consequences accepted ARI is an ‘Open Sesame’ to the courageously and without recrimination or Senormous vista of women’s costume a sense of grievance. in India which, at one glance, brings into It may be observed that while nursing and relief the most prized of all costumes - the Medical profession belong to the same sari in its diverse textile forms. Indian cadre, one is belittled while the other is women may well take pride in the graceful heightened, The two are branches of the sari that has continued to be the national same profession for which woman is costume of Indian from time immemorial and basically well equipped and with the stigma enthralled the heart of every Indian woman. on, and social prejudices against nursing Wherever she be, the sari, which is the removed this profession would prove to be plaid piece wound round the anatomical the ideal one for women, along with form of the body with ingenuity, so that teaching. It has to be noted, however, that its curves and contours are displayed to Medical profession, unlike Nursing is more advantage, has been the major form of exacting. While Nursing can be carried on women’s dress in India. Its veld, borders with specific timings, doctors have to be and pallav have to harmonize with its style ready to respond to a call at any time. of wear, which changes from time to time. The training of a doctor involves great This has resulted in the development of expense not only on the part of parents of textiles from the point of view not only of the student but also from the State side. fabrics and designs but the suitability of It would be a waste, hence, if a girl, trained their patterns apart from comfort at such expense, should have to shelve adaptability and fashion. A definite attitude her degree for the sake of marital towards dress is important, and that is adjustment. It becomes the responsibility perhaps one of the reasons why we, Indian of the man to see that society is not women hold on steadfastly to the sari. It deprived of the service so badly needed has a natural attraction for us, and we and women entering medical course must are, in fact, initiated into a respect for it make up their minds to use the education as it were, from a very young age. Lastly for service to the society at any cost. whatever be the winds of change, our From: Medicine and Surgery by Perui; national costume is bound to prevail. Heera. Origin and Growth Let us look back and try to trace the origin and growth of our lovely textiles. How long

284 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages has the sari been in existence? Its beauty and essence as a popular national garment for our women can be summed up in a few words. What did our ancestors consider the requirements of a good and beautiful dress for their womenfolk? First and foremost, it would seem they thought necessary to have a few gathers, as a flare for the dress. It was to be worn gracefully and close to the anatomical form so that the shape of the body was not distorted. To give it a natural grace, parts of the garment has to be flowing, there has to be an over garment either separate or included in the dress itself that would serve the purpose of a wrap or veil to ensure modesty. The sari thus conceived by our ancestors, satisfied all the requirements contemplated by them in a single piece. A sari, therefore, with its graceful folds has a sheer fall, an upper end that lines the upper portion of the body and after being taken over one’s shoulder, trails behind as a pallav together with a small matching blouse, makes the Indian woman’s ensemble, with added accessories of jewellery, an ideal costume.

The Sanction

A little later, when the written word came into existence, we find mention of a large number of accessories: the girdle, bodices, blouses, skirts or lower garments, veils and mantles. Hala (A.D. 200), one of the earliest writers in his Gathasaptasatl, gives interesting clues to the sari and blouse pieces. He refers to the knot that held the Brahma, wearing a fine garment made from sari in position, while Bhasa, describing the bark of the tree that flowed down to Savitri, says that she stood by the side of her feet. She had as her upper garment a

285 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Kanchuka or choli made of lotus threads, Kalam printing became some of our swastika-shaped knot at the centre, her specialities, to this class of fabrics belong head covered by a white ascetic’s scarf the beautiful cotton and silk block prints, that hung diagonally from one shoulder like lovely dyed materials in the shape of the a sacred thread. One can imagine what a Chunaris of Rajasthan, dyed and woven fascinating picture she must have made! Patolas of Gujarat the Ikkats of Orissa, The early costume of women appears to Pochampalli in Hyderabad, Kalamkari prints have consisted of two plaid pieces. As in Masulipatnm. textiles developed, it was transformed to The dream fabric of every modern bride is a single piece dress with a separate blouse, a Varanasi brocade sari and a Kinkhab choti and one end of it was used as an over to match. All those who can afford it make garment or pallav, The KASOTA style of it a point to include at least one such sari the Maharashtrians is seen in the early in the bride’s trousseau. In the woven, sculptures of the North-western region and figured fabrics, the Baluchars, Moonga silks in the Mathura sculptures, but it does not and amdanis from East India rank very high. appear to have spread eastwards. The five Each type has its own pattern. or six-metre sari has now emerged as the Andhra can take pride in its variety of national costume. A trend towards this gorgeous saris and the Pochampallis. It has began during the Civil Disobedience also its washable cotton Gadhwals, and a Movement, when the call for ‘Swadeshi’ number of figured fabrics cheaper than and ‘Khadi ‘ was given and a large number other States. The Paithani of Maharashtra of women joined the movement. They felt coming from ancient historic centre, the needs of style that was less Paithan, on the bank of Godavari River, cumbersome and simple and the present which as far as the 2nd century A.D. had mode of wear was incepted by women all trade relations with Greece, is a sari that over India as the most convenient form of combines in itself the styles of Andhra and the sari. Maharashtra. Here the Pallav is elaborate and the border is a gold band with what is Our Textiles called a Parespetit design. Parrots, swans and floral motifs galore are found in the There was no time in the history of our Paithani especially on its pallav with such country, when we have not had our a wide and varied choice every Indian famous textiles, the fame of the dyed woman can have a wardrobe of unique fabrics of India had spread far and wide to character. However beautiful modern fabrics other countries. In St. Jerome’s Latin may seem, when it comes to ceremonial translation of the Bible, Job declared occasions, the grace exclusively goes to wisdom to be even more lasting than the saris. dyes of India. The handloom weaver and the dyer between them extended and enlarged their spheres in addition to the dyeing of fabrics. Block printing, dyeing and

286 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The Women’s Liberation education and more leisure to the pill. The fact remains that a feminine movement, Movement and its radical, articulate and more widely Relevance to India supported than generally believed, has come into being in the West.

By MRS. SHASHI DESHPANDE Voices in the wilderness

The inferior status accorded to women has HERE are, I am certain, very few not always gone unquestioned. There have movements so much talked about and T always been women, and men, who have so little understood as the Women’s protested against discrimination, against Liberation Movement. That very convenient the disregard of women as intelligent, abbreviation Women’s Lib has made it an rational beings, against the belief that easy term to use, to toss and bandy about women are inferior to men. But these were whether disparagingly or otherwise. The always small, isolated voices. It was only fact, however, is that, the wide publicity in England, at the beginning of this century, attending the colourful personalities of the that women got together in an organised protoganists of the movement, as well as revolt to fight discrimination and injustice, some of their more flamboyant sayings and though they concentrated their fervour on doings, have done as much to obscure, as one concrete demand, the vote. The to reveal, the true purpose and meaning Suffragette movement, as this upheaval of the movement. was called, was a long-drawn-out and Liberation, it seems, is the vague word of bitter struggle. When, finally, the vote was the moment. One is liberated, not only from won, women relaxed in their endeavours, the foreign yoke and imperialism, but also, especially as the two World Wars gave as the “ads” claim, from drudgery, them, naturally and easily, a place outside conventions and our own old selves, their homes. according to whether the product advertised is washing powders, fabrics or The National organisation for women cosmetics. In this context of the over-use of the word, what do women mean when It was a book, “The Feminine Mystique,” they demand liberation? What do they want published in the United States, in 1963 that to be liberated from? really ushered in the Women’s Liberation Simply and succinctly stated, this new Movement, as it is now afoot, in the West. feminism is basically a protest by females Based on interviews with educated women, against male domination, exploitation and the author, Betty Friedan, brought into oppression. One naturally wonders ... why limelight the discontent and frustration that this awakening to an age old fact now? existed among such women who had failed Explanations offered are varied and to find fulfilment and satisfaction in convincing, ranging from increased marriage, children and home-making, in

287 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages spite of the wide-spread belief that these In furtherance of this end, the radical were the most rewarding occupations for feminists have made demands that range women. Women, Mrs. Friedan declared, from the common place and acceptable to needed to fulfill themselves by doing the extreme and extravagant. These creative work outside the home. Soon include that women cease to regard the after, she formed the N.O.W. (National home as their main sphere of interest; that Organisation for Women) to obtain for women have a valuable contribution to women equality of opportunity and status, make outside the home; equal pay for equal an admission to “the world of the ulcer work; changes in ideas of specific male/ and coronary” as Germaine Greer calls it. female roles; abolition of changes in dress, adornment, behaviour, etc., between the Call for drastic change two sexes; that the institutions of marriage and the family cease to exist; that a woman Germaine Greer and Kate Millet, both is not bound to have children; that even Ph.D.’s, with their books, “The Female lesbianism and promiscuity can sometimes Eunuch” and “ Sexual Politics” gave an be justified. These, then, are the ideas of intellectual basis to the discontent that the Women’s Liberation movement as it had already become a movement after Mrs. exists in the West. How far these ideas Friedan’s book. Both these women argued have reached and been accepted by that women have been given a lesser status women, and society in general, is not yet as a result of a deliberate male conspiracy clear. But the issues have been brought and that female oppression can be traced out into the open, discussed, debated and back to the patriarchal family, that this kept alive. They also have, to a small continuous process of exploitation and extent, been made relevant to everyone’s oppression has debased woman in her own life. self esteem. Calling for a radical change in the status of women, they employed Subjugation, Total and Absolute arguments and drew conclusions that were at once varied, revolutionary, undeniable But, how far is this movement relevant to exaggerated and rational. They scorned the India? To what extent can it solve the idea of any innate female inferiority, problems of Indian women? Before physical or intellectual; argued that sexual discussing this, it is necessary to and behavioural differences, if any, have understand the status of women in India. been culturally imposed upon women, The first thing to realise is that in India, denied passivity as an essential female the subjugation of women is total, absolute characteristic and called for a drastic and often unquestioned. The role and change in male/female relationships. Their status of women in society has been defined ultimate aim is a radical transformation of with a formality and precision that has society which will give a woman her rightful successfully fenced her in for hundreds of place in humanity. In other words, years. recognition that a woman is first a person.

288 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages In India, the patriarchal family has persisted passive, most selfless, was the ideal one. in its purest form. Both the joint family The result was, women forced unknowingly with its ‘karta’ and the State with its King, to conform to this image, gloried in a presented the idea of a powerful father meaningless renunciation, in having no life figure to whom the others owed apart from husband and family, in unquestioned obedience. A female in this renouncing all ideas, desires and passions. male-dominated society was not only an Side by side with this glorious woman, there inferior, but one without existence. A non- existed the mother ideal. As Pandita Rama person, in fact. While males justified their Bai said, nearly a hundred years ago, in existence by the mere fact of being males, her, “The High Caste Hindu Woman,” ... “The women justified their’s only by procreating, honour bestowed upon the mother is by providing male heirs. A woman was, without parallel in any country.” A mother above all, an instrument for the propagation was idolised, made out to be a superior of the family and therefore, a woman kind of a being, which led to a kind of without children, without male children, had unhealthy domination by mothers even of no place in society. She could never exist grown up men. This perhaps, accounts for independently. the impression that we have, even now, as a nation, an Oedipus complex. Lost individuality A Lover of her own bonds The amorphousness of a woman’s identity can be seen from the fact that she was, All in all, the idea that a woman was an after marriage, rarely addressed by her inferior being was imposed upon her by birth. name. She was an ‘aunt’ or ‘sister-in-law’, She was told to be tractable, passive, etc., within the family. Outside she was obedient, given a place subordinate to her “so and so’s wife,” or “so and so’s mother,” brothers, made to conform, adjust, never and so on. The idea that a woman had no to think for herself. This kind of training, existence apart from her husband was followed by early marriage, constant child- carried to the logical extreme in sati. bearing, cruelty in her husband’s home, Widowhood was the supreme punishment widowhood, wore down a woman’s will and for a great crime. The other logical corollary personality, depriving her of the joy of living of a woman’s non-existence was that she and made her a wreck of a human being. had no place in religious rites or sacraments Kept purposefully in ignorance, she was by herself. degraded in her own esteem, afraid of In addition, a picture of an ideal woman freedom and a lover of her own bonds. was built up through literature, mythology, While there were, especially in the 19th etc. This ideal woman was self-abnegating, century, many social reformers who tried self-sacrificing, uncomplaining and selfless. to improve the lot of women, there was While men were encouraged to seek self- scarcely any appreciable change in their knowledge and self-realisation, women status till this century. It was Gandhi who were told that she who was the most brought women out of their homes to

289 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages participate in the Independence Movement. the sickening complacency that And suddenly women were catapulated characterises the attitude of the lucky from being slaves and submissive dolls into few. When we talk of Indian women, we being comrades and freedom fighters. should realise that there are two entirely different species among them, between The Sad Truth whom there is almost nothing in common. There is the microscopic minority of the With Independence, the need for social urban, educated woman, often earning, reform gathered momentum and since then aware of her rights, mistress of her many laws have been passed, trying to household, to whom liberation is improve the lot of the Indian woman. The synonymous with wearing trousers and Government has, through legislation dealing cutting her hair short. On the other hand, with marriage, dowry, divorce, property, there is a vast majority, rural or urban, etc., tried to bring about a change in the uneducated, ignorant, moving blindfold status of women. (A Bill to end within a cage of ritual, routine, tradition discrimination against women in employment and taboos. This is the real exploited class. will be introduced in Parliament very soon). To these women, liberation in the sense The pill and other birth control measures understood by the radical feminists has no have been given a degree of control over meaning. To talk of liberating them would her own body that would have been be like opening a cage after the animal unthinkable 50 years ago. With all this, has lost its ability to see, to walk. the sad truth is that the Indian woman is, It is a misconception to imagine that most most often, an animal, unknowing, working women are in the urban areas. In unthinking, unaware. She lives in darkness, fact, the figures indicate that of the 31 shackled and fettered to a degree Western million women workers, only 3 million are in women cannot comprehend, and worst of urban areas. Of these, the number of all, grown so timorous of freedom, that she women who are reasonably educated must cannot live without her bonds. In the West, be even more minute. Those, who belong it was a discontent among women that to this group, to be considered together gave rise to the Liberation movement. As with those Women with the higher socio- Germaine Greer says in her ‘The Female economic, category that will have Eunuch,’ ... “Women must prize this separately. discontent as the first stirring of the demand of life.” Does this discontent exist A very big but here? Educated, aware of their rights, these Moving within a cage women are not prevented from taking up any job or entering any profession. We In India, it seems, there is no medium have, therefore, women lawyers, doctors, between the vast unspoken misery that is architects, scientists, executives, besides the common lot of the large multitude and teachers, nurses, etc. But ... and this is a

290 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages very big but ....even to these women, most of choice. Frustration in a woman is linked of them anyway, marriage is still the to marriage and children, nothing else. And, ultimate goal. Education is a means of tragically, women have been so imbued with passing the time till they get married or a the idea that a husband and children are way of enhancing their value in the marriage their main desires in life, that an unmarried market. A job, too, is often a stop-gap woman or a childless one is often scarred arrangement and a woman’s whole life by complexes. hinges round the central theme of marriage. The woman who takes up a job does so These women submit, as girls, to being because of purely economic reasons or to hawked around to prospective grooms, pass her time, rarely for reasons of self- allow their fathers to get into debt to give fulfilment. She is ready to give it up the them a good dowry and are content to minute she finds a man to support her and regard marriage and children as the main provide her with a home to give her aim of their lives. occupation. In short, the female personality I can remember a girl, studying for her M.A. is in need of emotional crutches. It who when asked whether she was engaged, undergoes a kind of disintegration, deprived retorted, “Would I be slogging here if I was? of male support, which means that I’d give all this up like a shot!” A revealing widowhood and abandonment are still the statement indeed! The point is that no most harrowing tragedies. This kind of woman feels complete without a man. She emotional bankruptcy is humiliating and in still feels she needs a protector, a man to no way contributes to her self-respect. give her status. First, the father, then the husband, finally, perhaps, a son. While The masochist sacrifice? liberated women in the West are adopting the address Ms. to avoid being identified In addition, the image of the ideal woman on the basis of their marital status, our has lingered on, haunting even the women, apart from a change of surname, enlightened woman of today, bringing out are content to let their husbands change a masochist streak in her make-up. Self- even their first name during the marriage sacrifice by a woman is extolled, and a ceremonies, which only emphasises the woman feels she is bound to sacrifice formlessness of a woman’s own identity. everything for her husband and children. Enjoyment is always tinged by guilt and The non-entity the cry that I have given up everything for you;” addressed to husbands and The widow is still a non-entity, socially. No children by middle-aged women, shows the widow will ever issue invitations for a son’s bitterness that arises from such senseless or daughter’s wedding in her own name. sacrifice. Even the highly qualified woman Any male relative, however distant or will give her job secondary importance, not indifferent, will do. The unmarried woman scrupling to give it up, blinded by the idea is still a freak and either unnatural, immoral of the sanctity of home and children. Forced or unfortunate. No one stays unmarried out to regard the home as her main focus of

291 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages interest, the working woman is often largest number of working women, women neurotic, torn between her work and home, are, in buses, trains and on streets, made guilt-ridden towards her children. There is the victims of a visual and physical assault an emotional out-pouring towards these that is hard to bear. children as a kind of atonement, often allied to a barren relationship with the husband. Women’s work still does not rate high

The offending movies All this goes to show that the Indian woman is still deeply imbued with the idea of male Movies and books have helped to superiority. Her husband has to be someone perpetuate the legend of the ideal woman she can ‘look up to! Any girl will tell you to which women fell bound to conform. that her future husband has to be someone Movies are the worst offenders, glorifying superior.... someone more educated, the woman who puts up uncomplainingly earning more, more intelligent, belonging with all kinds of bestial cruelty from a man, preferably, to a higher social status and of even embracing his feet while he kicks her. course, older. The audience applauds, women enjoy a The same is true of a man who needs a feeling of moral superiority and men go out wife not superior in any respect. to resume their ogling of women, which Intelligence in a woman is derided as leads us to another aspect of female unnecessary. She can work and earn degradation. While women abroad have money, provided she does not take her job protested indignantly against their being too seriously. Her jobs too are those which treated as sex objects; our women, call for the feminine touch like typing, segregated and secluded, were to some nursing, teaching, etc. She should not extent protected. Even to their husbands, aspire for any more, though, curiously they were not even sex objects, but female enough, women doctors are accepted bodies to give the husbands sexual release easily. As the editor of a national women’s and children. For pleasure, there were magazine lamented in her editorial, “For other women. (The idea of a woman most men, no matter how liberated, getting pleasure out of sex is still unfamiliar women’s work still doesn’t rate very highly, here. Girls about to be married, are told by whether it be inside the home or outside” . their mothers to ‘endure’ anything that their husbands might do. Guardians of her moral Now our movies have also popularised the other female, the sexy, mindless doll who When we come to the other kind of woman, exhibits her body while shamming modesty. the picture is very dark. All talk of liberation These movies and ads, which are also is meaningless in the context of the kind shamelessly exploiting the female body, of life these women lead. Uneducated, have exposed women to a thousand helpless, vulnerable to all kinds of cruelty, indignities of lecherous males in public. In she seems to be a doomed creature from a city like Bombay, which boasts of the birth. Usually one of a large family, she is

292 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages not sent to school as her help is needed Indian women defines description and at home. Education, when provided, is makes nonsense of all the legislative rarely beyond the primary stage. Her measures that have been passed. Some of parents owe her only one duty, and that is these women, reveal in their struggles a to get her married. All her life in her parents’ kind of innate strength and courage that home is passed in a state of waiting for declare a potential for better purposes than marriage. Preparation too, for her work at for, as is now, sheer existence and survival. home is a kind of practice for her life after This uncomplaining, futile suffering is often marriage. “You have to please your husband due to a kind of masochist pride in and mother-in-law” is the standard set for endurance. her. She is strictly guarded, even younger And strength to endure comes from the brothers making themselves guardians of conviction that a woman’s lot in life is their sister’s morals. An unmarried woman, suffering. a widow, an abandoned wife is presumed Economic freedom, it is clear, is not the to be the prey of any man if she has no answer. While economic freedom will make male protection. The idea is that no woman emancipation easier, what is more can live by herself and the tragedy is that necessary is a radical change of ideas. It the woman succumbs to the idea and a is difficult to imagine that the more radical man as well. feminist ideas will ever take roots here ... Not that the married women have it much like abolition of marriage and family, sexual better. The authority of the husband is promiscuity, etc. Women are still too almost total. Even working women hand ingrained with traditional ideas and most over their earnings to the husband who of them will continue to look for happiness may spend it, more often than not, on in marriage and children ... And, frankly, drink. Cases of cruelty and torture are how many women are prepared to abdicate common. A man who has tortured his wife their position of being protected by a man to death may be offered another girl soon for that abstract thing called freedom? after. For parents, to get a girl married is Most women are content with their present important. What happens afterwards is her status where they are not responsible for own luck. themselves. To take up a subsidiary role in life seems an easier alternative to Ruins of humanity insecurity, which freedom connotes. But no society can be static. Changes are This kind of a life of ignorance, routine natural, inevitable and necessary. How will drudgery, endless child-births and joyless this change come. marriage has enslaved women’s minds Not, as we have seen in the last 28 years, degraded them, made them ruins of through legislation. Nor will freedom be humanity and deprived them of the thinking gifted by men to women. It is in man’s power that alone differentiates man from interests to keep women where they are. animals. The kind of dumb animal suffering And many men are content to imagine that that goes on among a large number of women are happy with their lot. If an

293 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages educated woman expresses discontent, Actuality and ideology they find fault with her education, not with the conditions. Among women themselves, All this shows that for most women the indignation finds outlet only in letters to movement is not relevant. They are more women’s magazines. Most working women concerned with the actualities than any too, seem unaware of the subtle ideology. But it is through the actualities discriminations and prejudices they have that liberation will come, if at all. Women, to contend with. The fact that they are couples, families, learning to adjust to rarely considered fit for jobs requiring changed situations will find themselves initiative, authority and intelligence, and working out the theories of the movement. confined to monotonous, under-paid, and But ... again a big but. . . before marriage, sub-ordinate jobs, is ignored. A common men and women will have to accept certain complaint against working women, and an ideas: argument against giving them responsible 1. That a woman is, above all, a human jobs, is that they neglect their work for being, a person, an individual, which means the home. This is simple to understand. So that a woman has to prepare for emotional long as the home is considered a woman’s independence and self-reliance, ready to sole responsibility and men feel that any work out her own destiny. And believing duty at home is degrading to their status like Ibsen’s Nora that, “I have another duty as men, this is bound to happen. If men just as sacred. My duty to myself.” and women regard the home as their joint 2. Both men and women need to shed all responsibility, and work out an arrangement ideas of innate female inferiority. For of a reasonably sharing of duties it will women, I can do no better than quote go a long way towards liberating women Simone de Beauvoir ... “To accept a for responsible work outside. All these will secondary status in life, that of a merely be personal adjustments, done not because ancillary being, would have been to degrade of any theory, but because the couple, my own humanity.” the family, finds life more convenient that While one may not accept the proposition way. If in the U.S.A., some couples are that all sex differences are due to fighting out the right of a man to ‘maternity environment and conditioning, there is no leave’ (i.e. when the wife decides to go doubt that many of them are. It is time back to work after having a baby, and the women refused to accept the condition of husband stays back to look after the! baby, inferiority. this being more convenient), these are all 3. The corollary of this, though one more ordinary couples not caught up in any difficult to accept is that we change our movement, but making the best of the job ideas about specific male/female roles, of living in today’s world. which will open for a woman a wider area of action, with more options open than ever before. Flexibility will mean that while a woman, who finds satisfaction within, a woman will stay at home, a woman who

294 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Vaidik Nari Risi (Vedic Women Saints & Seers) By DR. ROMA CHAUDHRI

ISHI - What an absolutely exquisite, Rexhilarating, exalting name - ‘Rishi’- one that touches the heart of every Indian to the core, one that fills his mind with deepest reverence and purest love, one that makes his soul expand forth fully in a divine bliss -’Risi’! But what does such a small, yet vigorous term mean? A ‘Risi’ is ordinarily translated into English as a saint or a seer -and though inadequate, the sweet and sublime term “Seer” has perhaps the nearest approach. “A Seer” of what? “A Seer” of the Truth - Truth that never fades away in course of time, is never silenced, never cowed down, never held back. And that great and Grand finds fulfilment in work outside the home, and Glorious Truth is the Eternal Divinity of will not feel guilty about seeking it there. Humanity in accordance with that most And man’s ego will not be hurt by work in wonderful, most breath-taking, most the home. unbelievable, most astounding, most 4. Marriage will cease to be the final and horripilating maxim of the Upanisads - only destination of a woman. She will feel “Sarvam Khal- vidam Brahma “ (Chandogya no loss of self-respect in staying unmarried, Upanisad, 3. 14. 1), “Brahmedam Sarvam” in pursuing a career. This may put an end (Brihadaranyaka Upanisad, 2. 5. 1). “All this, to the odious system of fathers going verily, is Brahman; “Brahman is, verily, all hunting for grooms, with the bait of a large this”. Here, we have to see Brahman in dowry. There is no doubt that the liberated the Brahmanda, Siva in Jiva, Paramatman women needs a liberated man as a in Where the heart can meet the heart, companion. A man who looks on a woman the soul can touch the soul, life can join as a human being, not just a female body life. Atman - the Absolute in the Universe, with curves. Who looks upon a wife as a God in the Soul, the Divine in the Human, partner and an equal in a joyous the Extra-mundane in the mundane. And relationship, with as much right to a life of this alone, is “seeing” - and one who is her own as he has. blessed with this kind of very rare vision,

295 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages is alone a “Seer”, a Seer of Truth - Satya- B.C., if not earlier) contain Suktas (inspired drasta and Seer of Truth, alone is a “Risi”. compositions) of as many as 27 Nari Risis An equally thrilling synonym of “Risi” is or Women Seers. What an unimaginably “Brahmavadin”, literally “One who speaks wonderful thing is this! Just imagine - when of Brahman”. For, a Risi, realising his very the rest of the world was still plunged in own Divine nature, can speak of nothing deepest darkness, and slumbering inside else. Not being a narrow, selfish being; closed doors with shutters down - right at not being a callous, crooked spectator ; the golden dawn of human civilisation, so not being a foolish, frigid person - he can many women, traditionally and even today, speak of nothing else - only of the one considered to be the “Weaker sex”, Eternal, Universal Truth - viz., Brahman - physically as well as mentally - preached the Divine Being; only of the eternal, to the world highest truth, greatest values, fundamental divinity of the Universe of sweetest maxims! How fortunate are we Souls and Matter. all! So, it goes without saying that such Risis And their holy names - Ghosa, Bodha, or Brahmavadins or Seers are the highest Visvabara, Apala, Juhu, Sister of Agastya, categories of human beings - human in Aditi, Indrani, Sachi, Indra - Mothers, form, yet divine in realisation - and so, Sarama, Romosa, Urvasi, Lopamudra, Nadi, naturally they are very few and far Yami, Sarparajni, Vac, Sraddha, Daksina, between. But in India the holy and blessed Ratri, Suryya, Siknandini, wife of Vasukra; land of numerous saints and sages and Sri, Medha, Sikata, Nivbari. incarnations of the Divine Being Himself - can justly be proud of being the most Sukras what they say enchanting arena, sanctified by the pollens of the lovely lotus-feet of so many Risis. Now, what do these lovely, lovable Suktas And this, we think, is one of her greatest or verses of Women seers really stand for? assets, sweetest blessings, loveliest boons, What do these names convey? a fact to be cherished. In the beginning, one thing has to be confessed quite frankly, viz., that the Women Seers Suktas or verses of Women Seers, were not, definitely not concerned only, or even But India has something more, something mainly, with high, deep, profound much more to be still prouder, still more philosophical or theological topics, as elated, still more thankful - and that is - expected from the names of their nurturing quite a few Nari Risis, or Women authoresses, viz., “Nari Risi” or “Woman Seers, right from the Vedic Age, the golden Saints and Seers” and “Brahmavadinis or dawn of human civilisation. For example, Speakers about Brahman the Absolute”. On the Rig-Veda, the earliest and most the contrary, most of these verses, celebrated of the four renowned Vedas, represent very forcefully, very frankly, the and by common consent, the oldest very common thoughts and sentiments, literature in the whole world (at least 6,000 hankerings and cravings, aims and objects

296 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages of a woman - just an ordinary one - not a Now let us take a few examples. scholar, not a philosopher, not a moralist, 1. EXPRESSION OF VERY COMMON nor even a poet, soaring high up to the WORLDLY SENTIMENTS Heavens, on the rainbows of wonderful imagination or fulsome flight of poesy. This Ghosa (Rig Veda, 10. 39-40) may indeed, sound very strange - and after all, what a fall from the holy, pure, perfect Here an elderly Princess Ghosa, daughter laps of the world of the Absolute to the of Kaksivan, stricken with leprosy, prays dusts and dins, muds and meddling strains to two Asvinikumaras, the Heavenly and stresses of the mundane world of ours. Doctors, for cure of her disease and for a But is it really a “fall” - we hasten to correct husband and sons, as well as wealth and ourselves - it is not after all, a “fall” - that honour. So, very common feminine are is, nothing disgraceful, nothing shameful, these desires and prayers! Yet, she has nothing sinful - but is, rather, normal, been termed a “Nari Risi”- a “Brahmavadin”, natural and very common. And, will it have a Seer, a Saint, a Savant, an inspired soul, been better if our Nari Risis, our glorious and a follower of Brahman the Absolute. Women Seers, had totally ignored the same That is the whole beauty of our Indian way and fixed their eyes and thoughts only on of life and thought. the Heavens, to the exclusion of the earth; Never ignore anything - any part of your only on the tree to the exclusion of the life, any part of the world. For, in this seed; only on the river to the exclusion of kingdom of God, nothing, nothing is the waves. Rather, we have to say that contemptible, nothing is open to the earth is definitely a stepping stone to unreserved condemnation; as pointed out the Divine Heavens, or rather the world of above, nothing, nothing is fit to be totally Brahman. In exactly the same manner, the discarded. And who also knows what may huge and beautiful tree depends wholly on lead to what; who knows, what shining a small, ugly seed; the river is nothing but diamonds the dark coal mine may contain; a lovely, lively conglomeration of waves. who knows, what lovely lotuses may bloom Hence, these very wise Nari Risis of India forth out of the stinking mud of a filthy - forever a place of Synthesis - with their pond? So, out of the worldly sentiments, womanly power of greater intuition, deeper may very well shine forth the divine ones - understanding, clearer Perception, sweeter who knows? Sympathy and purer Love - have not felt ashamed to own up their very own feminine Apala (Rig Veda, 8.91) feelings, right at that very rosy dawn of human civilisation, with fullest force, Here, Apala, daughter of Atri, prays to exhilarating exuberance, and comely Indra for cure of her skin-disease, another candour. very common prayer, yet from the mouth of a “Brahmavadini Risi,” strange, yet, understandable for, has it not been said by our immortal poet Kalidasa

297 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages “Sariramadyam Dharma-Sadhanam” marriage as a union of hearts, as a spiritual (Kumara Sambhava). The practice of vow, as a sacred duty - are fully manifest. religious rites requires a healthy mind in a healthy body.” May that be not true in the II. EXPRESSION HIGHEST PHILOSOPHICAL case of these lofty, yet very human, very KNOWLEDGE VAC - (RIGVEDA 10.125.18) feminine female Seers? This is really a superb Sukta or Poem, Indrani (Rig Veda 10. 145) composed by Vac, daughter of Sage Ambhrina and the only philosophical one, Here, Indrani, wife of Indra, having many composed by the Nari Risis or wives, resorts to certain magical rites, for Brahmavadinis. But here, we have a most getting rid of her rival co-wives. What a beautiful example as to how women also, very common - nay, not even that - not in those golden days of the most auspicious even a very common sentiment - for, this dawn of human civilisation, could rise to is not found prevalent amongst the women highest top of Brahma-Jnana, Atma- Jnana, of educated upper classes - rather, it is a Moksa-Jnana : Knowledge of Brahman, very lowly, very sinful very selfish, very Knowledge of Self, Knowledge leading to cruel hankering on the part of a very wicked Moksa or Salvation. What is that supreme, woman, arrogant, jealous, self-seeking, sublime knowledge? It is the profound narrow-minded - yet a “Brahmavadini Rishi”. knowledge, expressed so beautifully, yet How very difficult to explain; yet, we may so succinctly in those two great Mantras, give a try, just a try – “Love and loyalty to of our beloved Upanisads : “Sarvam husband.” Love cannot be shared, loyalty Khalvidam Brahma” (Chandogya 3.14.1) divided. Hence, naturally, any co-sharer “Brahmedam Sarvam” (Brihadarnyaka has to be get rid of by hook or crook - for, 2.5.1): “All this is, verily Brahman (The “the end justifies the means.” Absolute) ; “Brahman is, verily, all this”. Thus according to this view, from whatever Sachi (Rig Veda, 10. 159) standpoint we may consider the matter, we invariably arrive at the very same Sachi, another name for Indrani, daughter conclusion - viz., that Brahman and of Puloma, expresses the very same Brahmanda, the Absolute and the Universe sentiments again, with the very same force are one and the same. Thus, if we proceed and frankness. from the side of the Monistic Schools of Vedanta led by Samkara, then the only Surya (Rig Veda 10. 85) Reality being Brahman, the so-called Universe of souls and matter must also be This is a celebrated Sukta or poem, so. Again, if we proceed from the side of depicting a marriage scene. On the the Monotheistic Schools, led by Ramanuja, occasion of the marriage of Surya, daughter then also, Brahman being the Universal of Savita, with Soma. Here the high Vaidik Cause, is Himself transformed into the form (for the matter of that Indian) ideals of of the effect, the Universe and the cause

298 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages and effect being similar in nature the and privations, depressions and Universe itself too, must be Brahman is disappointments, impurities and nature. Thus, the above two exhilarating imperfections. Mantras are not mere bombastic scholarly And our beloved Women Vedic Seers were assertions, or mere poetic exuberances, protagonists of such a “ Life” - “ Life” that or mere soaring imaginative flights at mere springs from the humblest earth, but soars rosy, blissful dreams - but true in the most up the highest Heavens; “Life” with all its literal actual, real sense. Hence, according numerous ideas and ideals, emotions and to this most wonderful, unparalleled view sentiments, desires and cravings. Yet, one - every individual soul or Jiva is identical in its goal, one in its means - the supreme with every wordly object or Jagat, on the goal of self-realisation and the equally one hand and with Brahman or the supreme means of self-dedication. If you Absolute, on the other. And this Doctrine want to get Life, you will have to give of Absolute Oneness has been brought out Life; and through this constant process of most clearly, most simply, most sweetly in give and take alone can Life attain its real this most celebrated “Vak-Sukta”, fullness, real expansion, real perfection. commonly known as “Devi- sukta”. And our superb Women Vedic Seers dedicated themselves at the altar of this Conclusion great and grand glorious Life, with cool courage comely calmness, cheerful The inspired poems of the Women Vedic confidence. That is why, their verses seem Seers, present a most enchanting picture. to be so very living, so very lovely, so What we most feel here is the throbbing very lovable, touching the innermost chords of “Life” - “Life” with a big capital “L”, - of our hearts in a most benign, blissful, Life, that is a very big, very beautiful, very beautiful manner; and thereby affording a beatific “Adventure” - with a big capital wide, open, common platform - where the “A”- and “Adventure”, if anything, is a mixed heart can meet the heart, the soul can whole - a rainbow of many colours, a touch the soul, life can join life. What more melody of many tunes, a bouquet of many is needed? flowers, a fountain of many streams. But are all these colours equally bright, are all these tunes equally sweet, are all these streams equally vigorous? May be not - for, how can one expect Life to be an unmixed blessing, an unalloyed bliss, an unsullied boon? On the contrary, Life, inevitably, has its ups and downs, sunshines and shadows, summers and winters, smiles and tears, successes and failures - still, after all, it is “Life” - something worth living - inspite of infinite sins and sorrows, pains

299 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages The Avenging Angel Kannagi Three Tamil Epic Heroines For example, the character of Kannagi shows the transformation of a sweet, By PREMA NANDAKUMAR patient housewife into an avenging angel who destroys so that a new and better OW well these lines describe the world may be born. In the opening confusion that surrounds us today! H passages of Silappadhikaram, the author India’s younger generation is beset by Prince Ilango who become a Monk “cracks and reforms and bursts in the violet specifically refers to her passive virtue of air”. On one hand the temptations of identifying herself completely with the modern life; on the other, shackles on its words and actions of her husband. Kannagi ability to see, think and out new pathways hardly says a word in the early sections of for progress. Stumbling in the “cracked the epic. In the narrative, ‘Manayaram earth” of independent India, the younger Padutha Kathai’ which describes the generation is fast losing its foothold on domestic happiness of Kovalan and sanity. This must not lead to hopeless Kannagi, the latter is a silent listener to disaster. Somewhere, somehow, Indian the long romantic speech of Kovalan. youth should be shown the kindly light. Kannagi was certainly unhappy when Possessed of a matchless heritage, the light Kovalan went away to the courtesan is here. The need of the hour is the need Madhavi. But she does not give any to remember. utterance to her sorrow. Significantly, we We may begin this journey in remembrance hear Kannagi for the first time when she at any point. It will only reveal brighter recounts to Devandi her terrible dream ; and greater brilliance. For example, the and a chill stills our hearts. At the same heroism of Indian women. From the time time we also marvel at the structural of the Vedas to that of the War of Indian artistry of Prince Ilango. The descriptions Independence, they have proved of a bright young Kannagi had first given themselves flaming cones of self. The way to the lonely wife rejected by Kovalan. sovereign sweetness, the gentle grace The Now Kovalan has come back but as Kannagi woman’s soul and the angel’s face. has had this dream, things are never to be They were all, no doubt, born to mortals. the same again. A vague apprehension Yet, they appear to be daughters of the hovers around her mind as she follows Supreme Divine. Mortals, by birth, they Kovalan to Madurai. But she is passive still. achieved immortality. Their achievement is Amidst strangers she is shy, almost naive, the beacon light for modern Indian women. and has a charming brevity of speech. Then For each of us in a particular crisis, there comes the terrible tragedy. At once Kannagi is sure to be an Indian heroine facing an puts aside the cloak of passive reserve, identical context. and gets transformed into something like Kotravai Deivam - Mahashakti Herself. The transformation is sudden, yet credible, for

300 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages makes of her breast the symbol of life- giving nectar, a weapon of dire destruction. The Pandyan gate-keeper sees in this disheveled girl, a figure of absolute fury. However, having shown the world what the power of her anger can accomplish by destroying Madurai, she puts aside her anger when Goddess Mathurapathi meets her. Afterwards, Kannagi is simply grace incarnate. She takes to the path of pity and kindness when she realises the sway of fate.

The Patient fury of the Mother; Vijayai

Being a mortal heroine in a human situation, Kannagi could not restore her husband to life. But she could see to it that such adharma is not repeated. Hence her purposeful fury against Madurai and King Nedunchezhian. This is one aspect of woman’s capacity. While Kannagi had no children and could go forth in fury to the Pandiyan court, Vijayai the mother controlled her anger and bided time. In this very act she shines as a beacon of silent and purposeful self-sacrifice. The story of after all we have been listening all along her happy married life, her widowhood, her to the praises of others and they have all silent waiting to watch the growth of her referred to the innate power and glory of son Jeevakan and her final renunciation at Kannagi’s personality. No more human the altar of the spirit have been wonderfully passivity for her, no more bemoaning of etched in Jeevaka Chintamani. the past. Justice must be wrested, at any As this great Tamil epic opens, we see cost! Her blameless Kovalan, exonerated Vijayai happily married to King Satchandan. by the Voice of the Skies, must be Beautiful and good, she is the ideal queen vindicated by the King himself. Adharma for Emangada. Alas! Her beauty proves to has taken place and it is now her duty to be her undoing. So deep is Satchandan’s see that dharma is established again. love for her that he neglects the affairs of Kannagi the girl- heroine is metamorphosed the state. His Minister Kattiyangaran usurps into something terrible and divine, a the throne by killing Satchandan. concentration of incalculable power. She Fortunately the King gets his pregnant wife

301 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages Vijayai out of the capital before the disaster. Vijayai the beautiful queen, alone in a cremation ground at midnight gives birth to Jeevakan. Her words wring our hearts at this moment. However, Vijayai is full of common- sense. When told that Jeevakan by her side she would only invite Kattiyangaran’s murderous wrath, she willingly effaces herself from the scene. The merchant Kandukkadan and wife Sunandai bring up Jeevakan along with their own son Nandattan. Years later, we see her again as she meets her grown-up son. That very dawn she had dreamt of her boy and here he was! As they meet, it is like “the mingling of two oceans of love.” She hugs him as if he were still a little child. “How kind of you to come and see this evil that left her husband dying on the battlefield and abandoned her child in a dreadful cremation ground!” It is a moving scene. Jeevakan consoles his in indicating her gratitude to all those who mother. had helped her in times of need. As the Such is Vijayai, with a heart that is full of ascetics who had sheltered her in exile need pure love, a grateful heart which knows no monetary help, she gives the good no narrow limitations. Soon she goes to spiritual results of her prayers to Mahavira. her brother for soliciting help in the coming She builds a temple to the goddess who war. With his uncle Govindan’s help, had shown her the proper way in the Jeevakan regains his royal heritage. We are cremation ground. At the cremation ground given no breathing space after the itself, where she had given birth to splendour of Jeevaken’s coronation as the Jeevakan, she makes arrangements for the renunciation of Vijayai is projected before daily feeding of five hundred and five us. Born to be queen, Vijayai had been children. After having done her duty, she fated to spend the years of Jeevakan’s decides to divest herself of the riches that growing-up in a religious retreat. When are her portion. She expresses her desire Jeevakan becomes King, she loses no time for renunciation in choice words of moral

302 VIVEKANANDA KENDRA PATRIKA Indian Womanhood through the Ages wisdom, and calls upon Jeevakan to engage penance as a Buddhist nun and attains himself in deeds of charity. Forgetting Nirvana. charity to spare even a morsel For the needy-their lives are in vain! Tragedy had The Shining Symbols of Righteousness not warped Vijayai’s sense of values. As a mother and head of a royal family, she does The Tamil epic genius has placed before us her duty in the appropriate way. The last these three shining symbols of ‘right action’, we see of her is as a tapasvini, her tresses answering, the need of the hour. Fenced shorn and her body covered by a single by evils known and unknown, we are as white dress, engaged in the asceticism of blind persons, the ‘hooded hordes’ moving selfless service to the suffering and maimed in life without aim or capacity. It is not humanity. Henceforth her life is to be one surprising that we suffer because of our of severe austerities so that she can free own lethargy and stupidity. No wonder herself from the cycle of birth. there is always a distant “murmur of Wife, mother, grand-mother - there is maternal lamentation.” Our present steady progression in Vijayai’s emergence condition national and international - is as a venerable yogini. In the third great indeed confusing, dark, a cause for tamil epic Manimekhalai we have a young, lamentation. Perhaps it is darkest before beautiful, rich girl taking to the path of dawn, hottest before the welcome self-sacrifice and selfless service, thus showers. lighting up yet another aspect of Indian When our sufferings become overwhelming, womanhood. when a sense of purposeless wandering fills our hearts with frustration, then this Manimekhalai - The God child maternal sorrow decides upon action: to set right things as a Kannagi, to teach the Manimekhalai is compassion incarnate. value of patience and love as a Vijayai, to There is an extraordinary intensity about place before us the ideal of healing grace her faith even in her childhood and girlhood, as a Manimekhalai. If we remember what a will-power that is not shaken by the they did and give some thought to their ardour of the prince, the occult motivation and action, something of their experiences at Mani-pallavam or the rage spirit - power, love, grace - is sure to enter of the Queen. Manimekhalai is a born healer our being. And then these great ideals and child of God. A symbol of total would control our own lives. Mercifully, dedication in the ascetic garb, she attains youth is quick to learn. Once the lessons her ideal when she gains the amuda surabhi are absorbed, the sea of life becomes safe to feed the hungry millions. to cross. And we could exclaim in triumph. Thus striving to rid humanity from the pangs of hunger against tremendous odds and holding on to the Lamp of Knowledge shown by Saint Aravana, Manimekhalai performs

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