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Home , Fairchild (mango), Florigon, Graham (mango), Irwin (mango), Julie (mango), Kensington Pride

DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL

Wayne Nishijima Department of College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources University of at Manoa

Published accounts of mango disease research are also susceptible, but the remains latent in Hawaii are very limited. The most recent until the leaves senesce. published work on a mango disease in Hawaii was Fruit. Infection on fruits (less than 4 - 5 in 1971, when Dr. A. Cook, while on sabbatical cm) appears as dark, irregular, sunken lesions and leave here, published an abstract on the scaly causes the fruit to abscise from the panicles. bark/woody gall problem on mango trunks (5). Infection of larger fruits usually remains latent Prior to that, Aragaki published two papers on the ( dormant) until the fruit ripens. Lesions are black, chemical control of mango anthracnose in 1958 (2) expand rapidly in size, and produce pinkish-orange and 1960 (3). spore masses under wet conditions. Table 1 lists the major mango fruit, flower and Disease cycle. The fungus survives between leaf, stem, and root diseases described in the seasons primarily on infected and defoliated literature. Those reported from Hawaii are branch terminals and mature leaves. Conidia are identified with an asterisk. produced in fruiting bodies, referred to as The two major diseases of mango in Hawaii acervuli, over a wide range of temperatures and are anthracnose and . especially under rainy or humid conditions. Conidia are spread by splashing rain or irrigation Anthracnose water. The ascospores do not appear to serve an Anthracnose, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides important role in the spread of the disease. (perfect stage Glomerella cingulata), is probably Conidia are readily produced on all infected the most important disease of mango wherever it tissues and serve as secondary inoculum to spread is grown. It is the limiting factor for mango the disease. production in areas that are wet. The fungus is Control. Site selection. The best way of ubiquitous and responsible for many fruit diseases controlling anthracnose is to avoid planting of other tropical fruits such as papaya, banana, where conditions are favorable for disease avocado, coffee, and many others. Although development. Mango production is best suited for isolates from one host have been inoculated hot and dry areas. In Hawaii, this generally refers successfully to other hosts, the pathogen is to the low elevations on the leeward sides of the basically host specific. On mango, the fungus islands where rainfall is less than 38 cm (15 affects the inflorescence, young leaves and inches) a year. branches, and fruit. Resistant varieties. Select varieties that are Symptoms. Inflorescence. All parts of the resistant to anthracnose. There are wide inflorescence are susceptible. The disease first differences in anthracnose resistance among appears as small dark spots that enlarge, coalesce, mango cultivars. Very few if any replicated studies and eventually affect the entire panicle under have been made to evaluate anthracnose rainy conditions. Infected flower parts and young resistance of mango cultivars in Hawaii. The fruits fall off the inflorescence. literature, however, does contain some Leaves and stems. Infections of young leaves information on anthracnose resistance (Table 2). start as small dark flecks that enlarge to irregular Note that some varieties (eg. '' and dark lesions, often with a distinct yellow halo. '') have different reported resistance levels Under wet conditions, lesions may coalesce into when evaluated in different countries. It is not large infected areas, especially along the leaf known whether this is due to different strains of margins. Symptoms on young succulent branch tips the fungus, environmental differences, or are similar. Infections begin as sm,:ll dark flecks evaluation methodology. that expand and coalesce on branches that are Sanitation. Because the fungus survives from usually no bigger than 1 cm diameter. Older leaves season to season on diseased branch terminals,

- 20- Table 1. M~or diseases of mango (those marked with an asterisk have been reported in Hawaii).

Disease Pathogen Remarks

Fruit Diseases Anthracnose* Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Most important Stem-end decay Lasiodiplodia theobromae Postharvest / storage Phomopsis mangiferae Dothiorella dominicana Bacterial black spot Xanthomonas campestris pv. Very serious; S. Africa mangiferae indica India, Brazil, Aust. Rhizopus soft rot Rhizopus stolonifer Postharvest/storage R arrhizus Soft brown rot Hendersonia crebemma S. Africa, cold storage Jelly seed* Physiologic Certain cultivars prone Flower And Leaf Diseases Anthracnose* C. gleosporioides Common Powdery mildew* mangiferae Recent introduction Mango malformation Fusarium monilifonne var. Mites often vectors subglutinans Bacterial black spot X campestris pv. mangiferae indica Scab E/sinoe indica Fla., Americas, Phil. Blossom blight* Botrytis cinerea Not serious Many leafspots Many Not serious Stem Diseases Anthracnose* C. gloeosporioides Mainly branch tips Bacterial black spot X campestris pv. mangiferae indica Can be moved on scion wood; serious threat Mango malformation F. monilifonne var. subglutans Can be moved on scion wood; serious threat Verticillium wilt Verticillium albo-atrum Old vegetable fields Scaly bark/woody gall * Unknown Colombia/Hawaii Dieback* L. theobromae (Botryosphaeria) Not severe Recife sickness ? Diplodia recifensis ? Assoc. w / ambrosia beetles Root Diseases Nematode Name Sting HoploLaimus sp. Dagger* Xiphinema sp. Lesion* Pratylenchus sp. Reniform Rotylenchulus renifonnis Rootknot Meloidogyne spp. Ring * Criconemoides sp. leaves, and old flower panicles, sanitizing orchards vary from weekly to monthly, depending on rain. by pruning and removing debris from under trees Spraying weekly during flowering and up to when should reduce inoculum and, therefore, disease fruits are about 4 - 5 cm long, and once every two levels. weeks during fruit development, appears to be a Field sprays. Commercial orchards in standard recommendation. reported to all but the driest environments need to be sprayed be effective against anthracnose in field trials are with a fungicide on a regular basis. Spray intervals benomyl, thiophanate methyl, captafol, mancozeb,

- 21- and vinclozolin (9). Fungicides effective against Anthracnose is best controlled by a anthracnose that are registered for use in Hawaii combination of preventive measures, field are benomyl, captan, basic copper sulfate, and fungicide sprays, and postharvest treatments. sulfur plus basic copper sulfate. Mancozeb is currently recommended on a weekly basis in Australia (13), and maneb and Powdery Mildew mancozeb is recommended on a 5 -10 day interval Powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae) is the in the Philippines (1). Ferbam and chlorothalonil only other significant disease of mango in Hawaii. were being used under a Section 18 Emergency It is a relatively new introduction to Hawaii, Use Exemption in (10), but most growers having been first reported in 1983. It is most currently use copper-based fungicides for severe in the drier areas of the state when rain anthracnose control. occurs during the flowering season. Worldwide, it PosthalVest treatments. Postharvest hotwater is found in most mango growing areas. It is often treatments (15 minutes at 5eC (124-125°F)) sporadic in severity but has been reported to cause have been shown to reduce anthracnose up to a 20 percent loss in production (6). Mango is development in ripe fruits of the cultivar 'Larravi' the only known host. in Puerto Rico (12) and with the cultivars 'Zill', Symptoms. Powdery mildew is primarily a '', '', '', and '' for 5 disease of flowers, young shoots, and young fruits. minutes at about 55°C (131°F), and 15 minutes at From a distance, the infected parts of the mango 49°C (120°F) in Florida (17). Hot water dips also tree have a grayish haze resulting from the masses reduced stem end decay caused by several fungi of conidia and fungal growth on the infected (21). Because of varietal differences in heat surface. Closer inspection will show a velvety, tolerance, tests must be conducted to determine white growth. The fungus grows primarily on the the optimum time and temperature for each plant surface but obtains its nutrients from living cultivar. plant cells through a system of haustoria that Vapor heat (4) and forced-air dry heat used to grows within the infected plant cells. meet quarantine regulation against fruit flies have Young leaves are mostly infected on the shown some efficacy against postharvest diseases underside, especially along the veins, but more on the cultivars 'Tommy Atkins', 'Keitt', and susceptible varieties are also infected on the upper '' (8). The major disadvantage of these surface. Infection causes flowers and small fruits methods is the long treatment time required, to abort and fall off, usually when the developing typically 3 - 6 hours. fruits are about pea size (11). Early infection of Refrigeration at 10°C (50°F) will significantly shoots causes panicles and young leaves to become slow the development of anthracnose. However, curled, distorted, and reduced in size. Infected since chilling injury might occur, fruit should be areas eventually may turn brownish and necrotic. ripened before refrigerating. Fruits that become infected after they have set Benomyl and thiabendazole at 500 - 1000 ppm have purple-brown blotchy lesions that crack and heated to 52°C (126°F), in which mango fruits form corky tissue as the fruitlet enlarges. were dipped for 1-3 minutes, were effective in Disease cycle. The fungus survives in old controlling postharvest decay on 'Tommy Atkins' leaves and branch tips when young succulent and 'Keitt' (7, 19, 20). Unheated benomyl was growth is not present on the tree. Spores are ineffective. However, within a short time the spread short distances by wind and long distances fungus developed resistance to benomyl and had by infected scion wood. Unlike most fungi, spores cross resistance to the related fungicides of the fungus do not require free water or high thiabendazole and thiophanate methyl (18). humidity for germination. Spores are capable of 70 Heated iprodione (14), unheated prochloraz percent germination at 20 percent RH and 33 (7), and unheated imazalil (21) have also shown percent germination at 100 percent RH. However, efficacy in controlling anthracnose. Gamma germ tubes and hyphae from spores that radiation has shown some efficacy in reducing germinate at low relative humidities are less anthracnose, but the doses required are higher aggressive than those that germinate at higher than the dose required for fruit fly quarantine humidities. The disease is most severe in dry areas treatments. Radiation does not appear to be that receive intermittent rains during the flowering feasible for postharvest mango disease control at season. Ideal temperature for disease this time. development is 20-25°C (68-77°F) (11). Control. As with any disease, the use of 9. McMillan, RT., Jr., 1984. Control of mango resistant varieties is the ideal control measure. anthracnose with foliar sprays. Proc. Florida Varieties vary considerably in their susceptibility State Horticultural Soc. 97:344-345. to powdery mildew. Table 3 is a compilation of to. McMillan, RT., Jr., and K.J. Mitchell. 1991. published evaluations of resistance by mango Effect of hot water treatment on mango fruits cultivars to powdery mildew. sprayed with fungicides for anthracnose Avoiding the disease through site selection is control. Proc. Florida State Horticultural Soc. difficult because the disease is relatively 104:114-115. independent of moisture. Hot, dry areas are still 11. Palti, J., Y. Pinkas, and M. Chorin. 1974. best overall for mangos. If possible, avoid areas Powdery mildew of mango. Plant Disease that consistently have rain during the flowering Reporter 58:45-49. season. 12. Pennock, W. and G. Maldonaldo. 1962. Hot­ Powdery mildew can be controlled by sprays water treatment of mango fruits to reduce applied during flowering at 10-14 day intervals. anthracnose decay. J. Agriculture Univ. Puerto Sulfur dusts and sprays have been demonstrated to Rico 46:272-283. be very effective and are exempt from tolerance. 13. Persley, D.M., K.G. Pegg, and J.R Syme. 1989. However, sulfur must be used with caution Fruit and nut crops, a disease management because of the potential for scorching if used guide. Queensland Dept. Primary Industries during too-hot periods or if used in conjunction Information Series QI88018. p. 35-37. with oils. In Israel, wettable sulfur provided better 14. Peterson, RA 1984. Mango diseases. Proc. control than benomyl and piparazin (11). First Australian Mango Research Workshop, Cairns, Queenland, 23-30 Nov. 1984. CSIRO. References p.233-247. 1. Anonymous. 1976. Anthracnose lowers mango 15. Pordesimo, AN., L.O. Namuco, and D.E. production. Plant Protection News (Philip­ Mendoza, Jr. 1983. Pathogenic reaction of pines) 5:58. twenty mango cultivars to anthracnose and 2. Aragaki, M., and S. Goto. 1958. Mango Diplodia stem-end rot. Phillipines Conf. on anthracnose control in Hawaii. Plant Disease Crop Protection, 14th Annual Conv., Abstr. of Reporter. 42:474-475. Papers, p. 18. 3. Aragaki, M., and M. Ishii. 1960. Fungicidal 16. Rodriguez, L.A, and A Figueroa. 1963. control of mango anthracnose. Plant Disease Aparacion del "Oidio" 0 "Ceniza" del mango Reporter 44:318-323. en Venezuela. Rev. Fac. Agron. Univ. Cent. 4. Blalock, J.W. and D.F. Starr. 1946. Mortality Venezuela, Maracay 3:2-5. of the Mexican fruit fly in mangos treated by 17. Smoot, J.J. and RH. Segall. 1963. Hot water as the vapor-heat process. J. Economic a postharvest control of mango anthracnose. Entomology 38:646-651. Plant Disease Reporter 47:739-742. 5. Cook, AA, G.M. Milbrath, and RA 18. Spalding, D.H. 1982. Resistance of mango Hamilton. 1971. Woody gall and scaly bark of pathogens to fungicides used to control post­ indica in Hawaii. Phytopathology harvest diseases. Plant Disease 66:1185-1186. 61:1320. 19. Spalding, D.H., and W.F. Reeder. 1972. 6. Cook, AA. 1975. Diseases of tropical and Postharvest disorders of mangos as affected by subtropical fruits and nuts. Hafner Press, New fungicides and heat treatments. Plant Disease York. p. 229-241. Reporter 56:751-753. 7. Johnson, G.I., S. Sangchote, and AW. Cooke. 20. Spalding, D.H., and W.F. Reeder. 1978. 1989. Control of stem end rot (Dothiorella Controlling market diseases of mangos with dominicana) and other postharvest diseases of heated benomy!. Proc. Florida State mangos (cv. ) during short­ Horticultural Soc. 91:186-187. and long-term storage. Tropical Agriculture 21. Spalding, D.H., and W.F. Reeder. 1986. Decay (Trinidad) 67:183-187. and acceptability of mangos treated with 8. McGuire, RG. 1991. Concomitant decay combinations of hot water, imazalil, and reductions when mangos are treated with heat gamma radiation. Plant Disease 70:1149-1151. to control infestations of Carribbean fruit flies. 22. Yee, W. 1958. The mango in Hawaii. Univ. of Plant Disease 75:946-949. Hawaii Coop. Extension Svc. Circ. 388. 26 p.

- 23 - Table 2. Resistance or susceptibility of mango cultivars to anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides).

Country Resistant Moderate Susceptible Very susceptible

Australia14 Kensington Pride Willard Caraboa Neelum Manaranij an Tommy Atkins Phillipines15 Palmer Fernandin Carrie Ah Ping Siam Arumanis Peter Passand Velei Columban Cherakurasa Joe Welch Gedong Hingurakgoda Tjenkir Kensington Otts Pope Willard Zill Hawaii22 Paris Haden Exel Pirie Rapoza Florida Zill Haden Sensation Kent Keitt Tommy Atkins

Table 3. Resistance or susceptibility of mango cultivars to powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae).

Country Slightly susceptible Moderately susceptible Very susceptible

Australia 14 Carrie Zill Sensation Kent Tommy Atkins Israelll Carrie Haden Bullock's Heart Gondo Mabroka Zill Mistakawi Pairee Faizanson Venezuela16 Carrie Haden Amini Sensation Divine Kent Tommy Atkins Smith Peter Labich Banana Keitt Hilacha Apple Bocado Zill deLoro Edward Blackman Martinique Mango criolla Fresca Rosa

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