Cooperative Recovery Initiative: FY16 Proposal Cover Sheet

Project title: Preventing the Extinction of the Endangered of the ‘Ewa Plains through Restoration and Reintroduction at the Kalaeloa Unit of the Pearl Harbor National Wildlife Refuge, Hawai’i

Project summary (100 words or less): The Kalaeloa Unit of the Pearl Harbor NWR was established to protect and enhance the habitat for the endangered coastal dryland plants ‘Ewa round-leaved chaff-flower and ‘Ewa Plains ‘akoko. Due to intense industrial, military, and agricultural development of these coastal areas since the 19th century, only about 10% of the species habitat remains in Hawai’i. This proposal requests funding to prevent the extinction of these endemic species by establishing reproducing populations on the 37.4 acre Kalaeloa Unit of Pearl Harbor National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) complex.

Total amount requested:$539,500

Lead region: Region 1

Other participating Regions: none

National Wildlife Refuge(s) involved (please list): O‘ahu/Maui National Wildlife Refuge Complex (NWRC)

Are private lands involved? y/n: no

All FWS programs involved: O‘ahu/Maui National Wildlife Refuge Complex staff, PIFWO ES staff, NWR Invasive Species Strike Team staff, NWR Inventory and Monitoring staff, PIFWO and NWR Diversity Change Agent

Additional comments:

Project Contacts: Project Biologist, Ecological Services (name, title, station, phone, email)

Aaron Nadig, Assistant Field Supervisor, PIFWO, [email protected]. 808 792-9424

Project Biologist, NWRS (name, title, station, phone, email)

Joseph Schwagerl, Project Leader, O‘ahu/Maui National Wildlife Refuge Complex (NWRC) [email protected], 808 637-6330

Other Contacts, if necessary

Vickie Caraway, Botanist, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (PIFWO), Ecological Services, [email protected]. 808 792-9424

Signatures

Ecological Services Field Supervisor - Pacific Islands FWO Project Leader Date Mary~~ 4#~~~ /

Refuge Manager - /Maui NWRC Project Leader Date

Approyal of Assistant Regional Dfrcctors

Assistant Regional Director, Ecological Services Date ~Rai>oc ~ { {2A

Regional Chief, Refuges Date

Acting 1. Title: Preventing the Extinction of the Endangered Plants of the ‘Ewa Plains through Restoration and Reintroduction at the Kalaeloa Unit of the Pearl Harbor National Wildlife Refuge, Hawai’i Project Partners/Qualifications: • Joseph Schwagerl, Project Leader, O‘ahu/Maui National Wildlife Refuge Complex (NWRC) [email protected]. Joe has over 25 years managing tropical and subtropical National Wildlife Refuges, implementing endangered recovery actions including outplanting and maintaining native plants. • Jackson Letchworth, Biological Science Technician, O‘ahu NWRC [email protected]. Jackson holds a MS in Environmental Policy and Management and has several years of experience in Hawai’i in invasive plant removal, outplanting, and monitoring Hawai’i’s rare plants. • Vickie Caraway, Botanist, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (PIFWO), Ecological Services, [email protected]. Vickie holds a BS in Horticulture, MS in Botany and has 20 years of experience in rare plant restoration in Hawai’i. • Aaron Nadig, Assistant Field Supervisor, PIFWO, [email protected]. Aaron was a Refuge Biologist for Pearl Harbor NWR for 5 years before transferring to PIFWO, where he now addresses imperiled ’Ewa Plains species via ESA regulatory processes. • Jason Hanley, Invasive Species Strike Team, Hawai’i and Pacific Islands NWR, [email protected]. Jason has been the Strike Team task force leader in the Pacific since 2007 and is highly experienced in techniques and implementation of invasive plant removal. • Lorena Wada, Diversity Change Agent, PIFWO, [email protected]. Lorena has been working with community leaders and students on restoration projects at the Kalaeloa Unit of the O’ahu NWR since 2008. • Pauline Sato, Executive and Program Director, Malama Learning Center, [email protected]. Pauline has dedicated the past 25+ years to environmental preservation at The Nature Conservancy, Bishop Museum, and Moanalua Gardens Foundation.

2. Statement of Need: Two hundred years ago, the natural habitat of the ‘Ewa round-leaved chaff-flower (Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata) and ‘Ewa Plains ‘akoko ( skottsbergii var. skottsbergii) most likely was the entire ‘Ewa karst habitat on the Island of O’ahu, approximately 14,000 acres. Today, these rare plants have been reduced to small pockets of existence, generally 1 to 10 acres or less. This proposal requests funding to prevent the extinction of these species by establishing reproducing populations on the 37.4 acre Kalaeloa Unit of Pearl Harbor National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) complex. Actions proposed by this proposal are the primary focus of the 2011-2016 PIFWO Strategic Plan; this proposal addresses 3 of 4 Strategic Conservation Themes that are the framework of the strategy.

The Kalaeloa Unit, formerly part of the Barbers Point Naval Air Station, was established to protect and enhance the habitat for the endangered coastal dryland plants ‘Ewa round-leaved chaff-flower and ‘Ewa Plains ‘akoko. The ‘Ewa round-leaved chaff-flower (hereafter chaff-flower) is endemic to Hawai’i with an existing distribution limited to coastal areas or dry cliffs on O‘ahu. The ‘Ewa Plains ‘akoko (hereafter referred to as ‘akoko) is an endangered plant found only on karst outcrops of the ‘Ewa Plains with approximately 200 naturally occurring individual plants remaining.

Due to intense industrial, military, and agricultural development of these coastal areas since the 19th century, only about 10% of the low elevation native shrubland remains in Hawai’i. The Kalaeloa Unit represents a small subset of this shrubland and the only example of a karst habitat still in existence in Hawai’i. Originally the unit was heavily dominated by woody and shrubby invasive species, but considerable effort has been expended at Kalaeloa by NWR staff since 2000 to clear areas of mature exotic kiawe trees (). Out of the original 37.4 acres, 7 acres are still dominated by mature kiawe forest. The other predominant exotic species on the unit include koa haole (Leucana leucocephala), marsh fleabane (Pluchea sp.), and buffelgrass (). These exotic invasive plants increasingly out-compete native plant species and degrade both current and future restoration work. In 2000, NWR staff began restoration efforts by outplanting a variety of native plants including these two listed species. Work units for outplanting and invasive plant control are established within the Kalaeloa Unit (see map); but efforts have been irregular due to limited funding/refuge staff turnover and currently are dependent upon volunteer groups lead by PIFWO staff. This proposal seeks to replace alien plant species with native species, increase natural recruitment of the target plant species, continue aggressive control of invasive plants, and reduce management levels for the future. When the chaff-flower was listed in 1986, the populations on the islands of and Lanai were considered extinct and just two populations remained on O‘ahu. Only one naturally occurring population remains on O‘ahu, but not at viable numbers to prevent extinction (HPPRCC 2011). Otherwise, only a few individual plants remain scattered across the ’Ewa Plains (USFWS 2007). The reintroduced population of chaff-flower at Kalaeloa, which currently consists of 250 to 300 individual plants, is the only population with documented recruitment.

The ‘akoko is a subshrub with deciduous stems, often dying back during the summer drought. Currently the ‘akoko has been reduced to a single population of approximately 200 wild individuals located on U. S. Navy property. This naval property is at risk of transfer to the State of Hawai’i Community Development Authority. Should this occur, the Navy’s draft management plan for ‘akoko on that property may not be funded or implemented as intended. At this time, the Service cannot rely on this population playing a long-term role in the recovery of this species. To bolster the single, at-risk population of ‘akoko on Navy property, the USFWS has established ‘akoko out plantings of 20 to 30 individuals at the Kalaeloa Unit of Pearl Harbor NWR, where recruitment is naturally occurring.

Current threats to chaff-flower and ‘akoko include:

• Development: Development is one of two major causes of decline. Ongoing development, resulting in habitat loss in the ‘Ewa Plains area, is restricting the range of these species. As the need for urban area increases, the demand for land in the area is also increasing, reducing the recovery options for both species (USFWS 2007a, USFWS 2007b). Demand for further development of the ‘Ewa Plains underscores the need for the USFWS to establish secure and managed populations on permanently protected refuge lands. • Invasive Species: The second major threat is encroachment of the habitat by aggressive, non-native woody species, such as kiawe, haole koa, and marsh fleabane, plus introduced grasses, which alter the natural habitat and compete with slow-growing native species for water, space, and light. The rapid growth of these weeds inhibits germination of native seeds. Kiawe trees are particularly detrimental to the ‘akoko, as they form a closed canopy forest, limiting the amount of light to low growing shrubs. • Wildfire: Fire is also considered a high threat for chaff-flower and ‘akoko because of the close proximity to urban and industrial areas that increase the threat of fire. During annual drought periods, vegetation becomes exceptionally dry and the accumulation of dried invasive grasses provides ready fuel for brush fires. The low elevation Hawaiian shrubland evolved in the absence of fire dominant ecology. Sparse cover is a predominant characteristic of this native ecosystem. Thus, it did not have the fuel sources that invasive grasses provide today, making it particularly susceptible to wildfire. The dominant soil type is uplifted karst with minimal organic material. As such, wildfire would also decimate seed banks which would be located at the surface of the karst.

Initial restoration efforts and control of the dominant alien plant species have been successful, but dedicated funds are needed to expeditiously complete removal of these plants using a systematic, purposeful approach. It is essential to continue to pursue the restoration efforts in this unique ‘Ewa coastal plain habitat and expand populations of these focal species of the Kalaeloa Unit. These plants are in real danger of extinction in the very near future. The constant pressures of urban sprawl and industrial development in the ‘Ewa Plain area will continue, increasing the need for plant reintroductions and habitat restoration on the permanently protected refuge lands. With CRI funding, this project can truly prevent the extinction of the ‘Ewa akoko and the chaff- flower by establishing reproducing populations within the Kalaeloa Unit of the Pearl Harbor NWR.

In addition to reintroduction of these species into their historical habitat, this project will stimulate full-scale restoration of their habitat. Given the degradation of the currently occupied critical habitat for both species, this aggressive habitat restoration on protected refuge lands will increase the likelihood of success for the proposed reintroductions, while decreasing the management needs for these populations in the future (HPPRCC 2011). Establishing populations within the Refuge will also provide a genetic resource for additional restoration efforts in the future as we work toward recovery. Without establishing and securing populations within protected areas like the Refuge, we will continue to lose the few remaining populations of these plants and, as shown by their recent history, the species will continue toward extinction.

3. Project Goals and Objectives: Goal #1: Prevent the extinction of the chaff-flower and ‘akoko by establishing one viable population of each species (via outplanting and natural recruitment) on the Kalaeloa Unit of Pearl Harbor NWR complex.

Objective #1: Achieve a total of 1,000 reproducing individuals each of the chaff-flower and ‘akoko on the Kalaeloa Unit of Pearl Harbor NWR by Dec 2020.

This objective is in concurrence with The Hawai’i and Pacific Plant Recovery Coordinating Committee’s revised recovery criteria (HPPRCC 2011). Criteria for preventing the extinction of ‘akoko and chaff-flower are as follows: • ‘Ewa Plains ‘akoko – For an obligate-outcrossing, short-lived perennial plant, such as ‘akoko, the HPPRCC criteria recommend 1,000 mature reproducing individuals to maintain a viable population, preserve genetic information, prevent extinction, and move toward recovery. Establishment of this viable population will reduce the threat of extinction due to lack of management of the one remaining natural population on U.S. Navy property or from a single stochastic event. • ‘Ewa Round-leaved Chaff-flower – For a short-lived perennial with a tendency for decline, such as the chaff-flower, the HPPRCC criteria recommend 1,000 reproducing individuals to maintain a viable population, preserve genetic information, prevent extinction, and move toward recovery. This species only has one population that may fulfill the criteria; scattered individuals currently found on the ‘Ewa Plains do not meet the preventing extinction criteria of HPPRCC. Establishment of this population will decrease the threat of extinction of the species by creating the second of three total populations required for stabilization (HPPRCC 2011). Goal #2: Restore the rare and unique lowland dry shrubland ecosystem of the Kalaeloa Unit of Pearl Harbor NWR to promote a native Hawaiian plant community that once coexisted with the endangered ‘Ewa round- leaved chaff-flower and ‘Ewa Plains ‘akoko.

Objective #1: Control all major threats to the chaff-flower and ‘akoko populations in the immediate vicinity of the populations (as recommended by HPPRCC in order to prevent the extinction of the species and stated as part of NWR management goals).

Within the immediate vicinity, defined as the Kalaeloa Unit, the major threat is competition from aggressive, non- native plant species that alter the natural habitat and compete for water, space, and light. Fire is also a major threat due to the close proximity of the Refuge to urban and industrial areas that increase the threat of fire. The measurable targets for threat reduction through alien plant control and fire prevention are: • Less than 20 stems per acre of weedy invasive species, including marsh fleabane, kiawe, and koa haole • No mature kiawe • Less than 25% cover of herbaceous invasive plants (grasses) • Maintain roads as surrogate firebreaks; maintain an additional firebreak within the Refuge Objective #2: Restore a total of 33 acres of lowland dry shrubland on the Kalaeloa Unit of Pearl Harbor NWR by planting native plants that will maintain the open nature of an ‘Ewa karst outcropping, thereby enhancing the critical habitat and complimenting the biological needs of the outplanted chaff-flower and ‘akoko.

The goals and objectives outlined above are compatible with the Draft Recovery Plan for ‘Ewa round-leaved chaff-flower and ‘Ewa Plains ‘akoko (USFWS 1994), the Pearl Harbor NWR Comprehensive Conservation Plan (USFWS 2010), and the 2012 Recovery Needs and Strategy for ‘Akoko (USFWS 2012d). The Kalaeloa Unit of the Pearl Harbor NWR complex is part of designated critical habitat for both the chaff-flower and the ‘akoko. Establishment of new populations, in tandem with restoration of the ‘Ewa Plains habitat, is specifically referenced in the Pearl Harbor NWR Comprehensive Conservation Plan (CCP). The Kalaeloa Unit was established “...for the protection and recovery of endangered Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata plants and the conservation and enhancement of native coastal shrubland and dryland forest natural communities” (USFWS 2010).

In addition, the proposed actions will provide substantial conservation benefit for five additional plant species of concern (Wiliwili, Erythrina sandwicensis; Sandalwood, Santalum ellipticum; Naio, Myoporum sandwicense var stellatum; Maiapilo, Capparis sandwichiana; and Hawaiian cotton, Gossypium sandvicense). By providing additional native out plantings, the lowland dry shrubland will be functionally restored; the full restoration of this naturally functioning ecosystem will contribute to recovery of these species of concern.

4. Project Activities, Methods, and Timeline: FIRST 6 MONTHS • Survey Kalaeloa Unit during the dry season to determine the number of endangered species established – include number of mature individuals and number of seedlings. Mature individuals are defined as plants producing seeds; seedlings are defined as plants with no obvious seed production. • Refurbish current existing irrigation system: o Complete before outplanting occurs. o Irrigate new outplantings for 1 to 2 years to establish seed bank in the Kalaeloa soils, gradually allowing them to harden-off to promote natural survival after irrigation. • Outplanting numbers for endangered plants will be dependent upon surveys: o Formula will be Y=(1,000-X), where X = the # of mature plants currently on the Kalaeloa Unit. . Y plus 25% will equal the number of outplants needed. (The additional 25% is included in anticipation of a minimum of 75% survivorship of outplants). o Collect seeds from remaining natural population and/or work with partner organization (University of Hawai’i’s Lyon Arboretum Seed Bank) to use stored seeds; numbers will depend upon seed germination rates determined by Lyon Arboretum for these two species. • Control all major threats present on the Kalaeloa Unit (Invasive Species and Wildfire) o Remove remaining woody invasive species on 7 acres by contractor. o Control grass species within Kalaeloa NWR, thereby increasing natural recruitment of chaff- flower, ‘akoko, and other native plants; Contractors and Service staff will initiate large-scale control of invasive grasses within the 37.4-acre Kalaeloa Unit using broadcast herbicide applications and/or mechanical removal; Service staff and volunteers will control invasive grasses around outplantings by hand spraying or hand pulling. o Maintain existing fire breaks/manage invasive grasses to reduce fire load. o Continuously monitor and manage adaptively to prevent the introduction of new or incipient non-native species which may threaten the ecosystem, habitat, or species. • Outplant common native plant species that will help enhance and maintain the long-term sustainability of the restored lowland dry shrubland ecosystem. o Outplant native species already under propagation, including the trees kou and wiliwili; shrubs naio, maipilo, sandalwood, and Hawaiian cotton. o Weeding around native outplant locations. o Determine seed availability of seed source from Kalaeloa area. o Conduct seed collections in area. o Utilize Lyon Arboretum seed bank as additional source. o Number of seeds collected will depend upon Lyon Arboretum seed germination trials. MONTHS 6-24 • Propagation of chaff-flower, ‘akoko, and other native species for outplanting o Contract to qualified conservation horticulturist with experience in growing rare native plants who has or can obtain the necessary Federal and State permits. o Ensure adequate genetic representation in propagation of all species. o Collection of seed using in-house expertise. o Propagation of other shrubland species as determined by plant community historically found on site. Use seeds collected on or near the ‘Ewa Plains. o Schedule outplanting in Units 1, 5, 6, and the northern portion of Unit 2 (see map); schedule will be planned according to anticipated weather (i.e., rainy season). • Continue weed control: o Treat sprouts of alien tree species with herbicide or remove by mechanical means. o Service staff and volunteers will continue to control invasive grasses around outplantings by hand spraying or hand pulling; Contractors and Service staff will eradicate large-scale areas of invasive grasses within the 37.4-acre Kalaeloa Unit using broadcast herbicide applications and/or mechanical removal to increase recruitment and reduce threat of fire. o Maintain existing fire breaks/manage habitat to reduce fire danger. o Continuously monitor and manage adaptively to prevent the introduction new or incipient non- native species, which threaten the ecosystem, habitat, or species.

5. Project Monitoring and Evaluation: To evaluate whether management actions are having the predicted results, it is vital to monitor actual results of the conservation actions for the ‘akoko and the chaff-flower. Data will enable managers to adjust tactics to enhance survivorship of seedlings and outplanted individuals, plus provide life history data for future conservation actions for the species. Data management will follow the PIFWO Data Management Plan (in development) and be stored on a shared drive with other Refuge staff. The data and metadata that will be collected will inform the following questions pertinent to the success of this project: 1. Did the rare plant outplantings yield the expected species response? • Biannual monitoring/recording of number of reproducing adults and seedlings; record number of seedlings during wet season vs. survival of seedlings during dry season. • Annual monitoring of outplanted population by conducting counts for survivorship and collecting life history information. • Monthly monitoring for pests or infectious pathogens (e.g., disease, infestations, etc.) and treat as needed. 2. Did the change in habitat evoke the expected species response? • Monitor quarterly for re-invasion of major plant threats and recommend control methods. • This information will help to determine species-habitat relationships and confirm whether alien weed control met the measurable targets outlined in the objective. • Monitor establishment of native plant species and success suppressing non-native plant establishment.

6. Strategic Habitat Conservation (SHC): This proposal was created with a SHC approach to be explicit about the desired outcomes and efficient in the use of limited resources. SHC is the conservation and business framework used by the Service to clearly and strategically focus our resources and expertise on where the Service can have the greatest positive impact on fish, wildlife, and plants for current and future generations. It starts by working at larger spatial and temporal scales, across programs and with our partners and stakeholders, in a focused way that links Service actions to outcomes, with learning as an explicit objective of our conservation actions.

Biological Planning: Habitat relationships, threats, and expected response to habitat management are known for chaff-flower and ‘akoko. Objectives come directly from (1) the revised recovery objective guidelines for plants compiled by the Hawai’i and Pacific Plant Recovery Coordinating Committee in 2011 (HPPRCC 2011), (2) ‘akoko research conducted by AECOS (1981), and the Service’s draft recovery plan (Plan) (USFWS 1994). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (2012c) designated the Kalaeloa unit as critical habitat primarily because this area is comprised of uplifted karst, which is the primary biological feature necessary for these plant species’ successful recovery.

Conservation design: The design of this proposal is based on revised recovery objective guidelines (HPPRCC 2011) indicating that for obligate-outcrosser, short-lived perennial plants, such as chaff-flower and ‘akoko, 1,000 mature reproducing individuals per population are recommended to maintain a viable population, preserve genetic information and achieve recovery (HPPRCC 2011).

Conservation Delivery/Implementation: The bulk of this proposal delivers the on-the-ground actions needed to remove chaff-flower and ‘akoko from the threat of extinction. Past habitat restoration activities conducted by the Service and its partners have yielded positive results. We anticipate our proposed actions will achieve more of the same beneficial outcomes.

Assumption-Driven Research: Mission-critical research has been, and continues to be, utilized in the biological planning, conservation design, and conservation delivery. For example, specific habitat characteristics and successful seed storage techniques are assumed to be necessary for establishment of outplantings and propagation. Weed removal, herbicides, and specific outplant spacing are all tools that are used to provide these characteristics within the Kalaeloa unit (AECOS 1981).

Outcome-Based Monitoring: Recovery plans require extensive monitoring to ensure that recovery criteria have been met. Habitat parameters will be monitored frequently for compliance with restoration timeline, using standard protocols.

7. Landscape Approach and Cross-programmatic Coordination, Partnerships, and Benefits: The Pearl Harbor CCP noted that the Kalaeloa Unit can function as a ‘living classroom” (USFWS 2010) and the Refuge, in conjunction with PIFWO staff, has developed onsite work activities for volunteers, including weed removal, replanting native species, and mentoring high school and university students to allow them to gain experience in natural resource management for employment in the future. As such, much of the maintenance for reintroduction of these species and the more common components of this habitat has been highly dependent upon volunteer groups lead by Lorena Wada from PIFWO. These volunteer groups hand-weed near outplanted ‘akoko and chaff-flower, hand-water newly established plants, and create learning stations focused on native plants, geology, and past history of Kalaeloa. The Hawaiian term for this is Kaananiau or the beauty of the management of time. Lorena’s volunteer groups and their goals include the Malama Learning Center, teaching high school students horticultural and natural resource management skills; Aina Stewardship project, a partnership of seven high schools and the University of Hawai’i System that provides field experiences for students to instill a sense of connection and kuleana (responsibility) to promote aina (land/family) stewardship; and SACNAS (Society for the Advancement of Chicano/Hispanic and Native American students in Science), a college organization focusing on non-traditional students in science.

Over the past five years, an education and community outreach program has been slowly growing in an effort to establish community support for the continued protection and maintenance of the Refuge. The community is largely rural and hosts the three largest Native Hawaiian communities in the state (Waianae, Nanakuli, and Kapolei.) These communities are also the most impoverished, with over 21.2% of individuals in Nanakuli and 19.8% in Waianae living below poverty level. Outreach efforts have been aimed at stimulating student educational success and increasing the native workforce in natural resources management and sustainable technology through integrated curricula of contemporary scientific methods and traditional ecological knowledge. The Refuge serves as an “outdoor living classroom” where partnerships have been formed with nearby high schools, community colleges, and universities, along with cultural practioners and other community non-profit organizations, to promote restoration of the area by synergistically incorporating both empirical science and cultural knowledge. Learning stations have been created focusing on native plants, geology, and past history of Kalaeloa. High school and college interns conduct the stations for visitors to the Refuge and guide them in participating in restoration efforts. Internships are available to learn monitoring and survey skills, restoration techniques, horticulture, natural resource management, and gain insight into cultural practices. Cultural practioners have created and implemented culturally appropriate protocols for entering and working on the Refuge. Community service days that aid in on-site restoration have begun operating on a quarterly basis.

Cooperators and Partners: • Koa ‘Ike (community non-profit organization) • Hālau ‘Ike o Pu‘uloa (Leeward Community College) • Pacific Biosciences Research Center (University of Hawai’i) • Malama Learning Center (community non-profit organization) • Society for the Advancement of Chicano/Hispanics and Native Americans in Science (College student organization) • Hawai’i Division of Forestry and Wildlife, Greg Mansker, Conservation Horticulturist – has provided ‘akoko seedlings for outplanting. • University of Hawai’i’s Lyon Arboretum Seed Bank, Tim Kroessig and Marian Chau – seed source for restoration of rare and common plant species; provided seedlings resulting from seed germination testing to Greg Mansker for outplanting at Kalaeloa Unit. • Laukahi Ex Situ Network, Matt Kier coordinator, propagule source and cooperator for collections of rare and common plant species found in ‘Ewa Plain area.

8. Long-Term Sustainability: Global and regional predictive climate simulations may not capture unique and important features of the Hawaiian climate. Existing large-scale models show large variability and uncertainty for the Hawaiian Islands. For instance, estimates from climate models predict annual temperatures in Hawai‘i could range widely, between 3°F and 9°F, by the end of the 21st century. Future changes in precipitation, which are largely dependent on shifts in El Niño/La Niña events, are also uncertain. Some predictions forecast an additional increase of 17 to 25 inches of precipitation by 2100, while others suggest decreased precipitation (Timm and Diaz 2008). Therefore, applying current climate change models to predict local conditions must be done with caution until more fine-scale models are developed.

In an effort to address the potential effects of sea level rise (SLR) on National Wildlife Refuges, the Service contracted the application of the SLAMM 6 model for several Hawaiian refuges. The SLAMM model predicts that in scenarios exceeding 4.9213 ft of eustatic SLR, considerable stretches of low-lying coastal rocky shelf are predicted to erode within 50 to 100 years. However, the Kalaeloa Unit, with its raised karst shelf and native species that have evolved to withstand harsh conditions, will be more resilient to SLR effects than the rest of the NWRs on O’ahu and Maui.

Aggressive species such as kiawe, pluchea, and buffelgrass have altered the natural habitat. During annual drought periods, which could be exacerbated under some future climate change scenarios, vegetation becomes exceptionally dry and the accumulation of dried, invasive grasses provides ready fuel for brush fires. As a result, fire is considered a high threat to chaff-flower and ‘akoko because of the close proximity to urban and industrial areas that increase the threat of fire. Our aggressive, 2-year plan to eliminate or substantially reduce the prevalence of fire-prone invasive species will maximize resiliency of the Kalaeloa Unit, regardless of what climate change models come to fruition in Hawai’i.

9. Anticipated Outcomes/Likelihood of Success: Due to less rain and closer proximity to the sea, conditions at the Kalaeloa Unit are harsher than the other sites where the chaff-flower and ‘akoko are found. Soils of the Kalaeloa Unit are less developed and more conducive for growth of native plant species adapted to these harsh conditions. In general, these conditions make alien plant species easier to control.

It is the belief of PIFWO staff, both Refuges and Ecological Services, that the species and habitat management proposed in this project will be successful. Originally, Kalaeloa was heavily dominated by woody and shrubby invasive species. Working with limited and intermittent funding, considerable effort has been expended since 2000 to incrementally clear some areas of mature exotic kiawe trees, and to begin native plant restoration by outplanting a variety of native plants, including the endangered chaff-flower and ‘akoko. The former predominance of kiawe has been reversed in all but 7 acres of the Kalaeloa Unit by cutting and removing trees. Initial restoration efforts and control of the dominant invasive plant species at the Kalaeloa Unit have been successful, but additional funds are needed to complete the task. Hawai’i has a year-round growing season, making the need for consistent treatment and monitoring extremely important. This proposal seeks to continue aggressive invasive plant control, and in turn, reduce much of the work to a low maintenance level for the years to come. Low maintenance level can be defined as quarterly transect monitoring to detect and treat reoccurring invasive species.

Preventing the extinction of the ‘akoko and the chaff-flower is possible by continuing to pursue restoration efforts in this unique ‘Ewa coastal plain habitat, and establishing secure viable populations of these endangered species for the future.

10. Project Budget: Estimated costs of project: $539,500. Details of funding needed for Service management activities, contract activities, and monitoring activities can be found in Tables 3A-3D.

11. Literature Cited AECOS. 1981. Ecological and horticultural studies of Euphorbia skottsbergii at Barbers Point, Oahu, . Final Report. Prepared for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division, contract no. DAWC84-80-C- 0017. 168 pages. Botanical Consultants. 1984. Flora and Fauna report of Naval Air Station, Barbers Point, Oahu, Hawaii. E.J. Funk, principal investigator, contract no 62742-84-C-0082. 104 pages. Char, W. and N Balakrishnan. 1979. ‘Ewa plains botanical survey. Dept. of Botany, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai. USFWS contract no. . 14-16-0001-78171. 119 pages + appendices.

CIRI Land Development Company. 2012. Draft Round-leaved Chaff Flower (Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata) Habitat Conservation Plan for the Kenai Industrial Park Project, Kapolei, County of Honolulu, Hawaii 96707. Prepared by AMEC Environmental & Infrastructure, Inc. Honolulu, Hawaii. March 2012. 82 pages. Department of the Navy BRAC PMO West, Department of the Navy NAVFAC Pacific, and Isle Botanica. 2012. Botanical Survey for the ‘Ewa Plains ‘Akoko (Chamaesyce skottsbergii var. kalaeloana), Northern and Southern Trap and Skeet Range, former Naval Station Barbers Point, Oahu, Hawaii. 23 pages.

Guerrant, E.O. Jr., P.L. Fiedler, K. Havens, and M. Maunder. 2004. Appendix 1: revised genetic sampling guidelines for conservation collections of rare and endangered plants. Pages 419-441 in E.O. Guerrant, Jr., K. Havens, and M. Maunder (editors), Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild. Island Press, Washington, DC.

[HPPRCC] Hawaii and Pacific Plant Recovery Coordinating Committee. 2011. Revised recovery objective guidelines. Developed for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office. Unpublished. 8 pages.

Timm and Diaz. 2009. Synoptic-Statistical Approach to Regional Downscaling of IPCC Twenty-First-Century Climate Projections: Seasonal Rainfall over the Hawaiian Islands. American Meteorological Society 22: 4261- 4280.

[USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination that Euphorbia skottsbergii var. kalaeloana (Ewa Plains Akoko) is an Endangered Species. Federal Register 47(164): 36846-36849.

[USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Achyranthes rotundata; final rule. Federal Register 51(58): 10518-10521. [USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Draft recovery plan for Chamaesyce skottsbergii var. skottsbergii and Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, Oregon. 79 pages.

[USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2007a. Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata (Round-leaved chaff- flower). 5-Year Review Summary and Evaluation. Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office Honolulu, Hawaii.

[USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2007b. Euphorbia skottsbergii var. kalaeloana (‘akoko): 5-Year Review Summary and Evaluation. Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office Honolulu, Hawaii.

[USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2008. Strategic Habitat Conservation Handbook. A Guide to Implementing the Technical Elements of Strategic Habitat Conservation (Version 1.0). 24 pages.

[USFWS] U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010. Pearl Harbor National Wildlife Refuge Conprehensive Conservation Plan. O’ahu National Wildlife Refuge Complex and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Honolulu, Hawaii.

[USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012a. Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata (Round-leaved chaff- flower). 5-Year Review. Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office Honolulu, Hawaii.

[USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012b. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Achyranthes rotundata; final rule. Federal Register 51(58): 10518-10521. [USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012c. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered State for 23 Species on Oahu and Designation of Critical Habitat for 124 Species; Final Rule. 77 (181): 57648- 57862. [USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012d. Recovery Needs and Strategy for Chamaesyce skottsbergii var. skottsbergii. Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, Honolulu, Hawaii. Unpublished.

[USFWS] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2015. Rare plant tracking database. Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, Honolulu, Hawaii. Accessed October 27, 2015. Unpublished.

Wagner, W.L., D.R. Herbst, and S.H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawai'i, Revised edition. 2 vols, Bishop Museum Special Publication 97. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press: Honolulu, HI.

Whistler, A. 1998. Chamaesyce skottsbergii botanical survey of the Naval Air Station Barbers Point, O’ahu, Hawai’i. Unpublished report prepared for Belt Collins Hawaii.

Whistler, A. 2008. Botanical Surveys for ‘Akoko on Seven Parcels at Kalaeloa, O’ahu, Hawai’i. Isle Botanica, Honolulu, Hawai’i. Prepared for Helbert Hastert, & Fee, Planners.

12. Map of Project Area (i.e., Refuge name or other description of project area)