DOCSLIB.ORG

From Gondwana to Antarctica the Discovery Of, and Early Expeditions To, Antarctica Indigenous Plants and Animals Arc C 4 0 0

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
From Gondwana to Antarctica the Discovery Of, and Early Expeditions To, Antarctica Indigenous Plants and Animals Arc C 4 0 0 TTHEHE LLASTAST GGREATREAT Department of Science and Technology WWILDERNESSILDERNESS www.dst.gov.za Sou y from th Af From Gondwana to wa rica The discovery of, and a . I Antarctica km t t early expeditions to, 0 ak 0 e 1195-13695-136 mmyaya 0 s Antarctica 4 4 JURASSIC ERA – A single s i 0 335050 BBCC mass of land (a super- a d continent) called Early Greeks hypothesise ic a Gondwana begins t y that a large mass of land to break up to c s must exist to counter the r form modern day t weight of the Arctic. They a o Africa, Antarctica, t call this land Antarctica n t New Zealand, Australia and India. Dinosaurs r – meaning ‘opposite the Arctic’. evolve and oceans teem with fi sh. Bird-like A a . creatures evolve and the climate is warm and wet. v y e 11773773 a l Captain James Cook circumnavigates the 1136-6536-65 mmyaya t Antarctic and is the fi rst to cross the Antarctic M h CRETACEOUS ERA – Antarctica has a sub- / Circle. e l i tropical climate and is covered with ferns and r r conifers. Australia and New Zealand breaks e p 11819819 away from Antarctica as it drifts towards the b A Fabian von Bellingshausen becomes fi rst person South Pole. y d to see the Antarctic continent, after crossing the s n h Antarctic Circle. a 6600 myamya i p PALAEOCENE ERA – As the continents drift r . e Weddell Sea 11820820 further apart from each other, oceans begin to I t b Captain John Davis, on a sealing expedition, surround them. Antarctica drifts further south c m towards the South Pole and moves further away a reports fi rst landing on the continent of e n from New Zealand and Australia. c Antarctica. o e n D / l r y e 11823823 554-384-38 mmyaya b b e British whaler James Weddell sails m EOCENE ERA – Large ice caps form on r e e a v to 74 degrees South, which is the c Antarctica as it settles in its position over the o h N e n d e b furthest most south sailed. The e e t South Pole. The surface becomes jagged with ice w mountains which stretch from coast to coast. Weddell Sea is named after him. 338-268-26 mmyaya South Pole 11840840 OLIGOCENE ERA – Icebergs become British, French and American expeditions permanent and Antarctica becomes Indigenous plants and animals establish status of Antarctica as a continent. a frozen winterland with little vegeta- tion, the coldest temperatures and Antarctica is a hostile environment and most of the plants and creatures in 11899899 strongest winds. South Africa will not survive there. Lichen – a plant composed of fungus and Carsten Borchgrevink leads British expedition algae – is found growing on the rocky outcrops. Invertebrates (animals that landed men at Cape Adare. This was the fi rst 226-76-7 mmyaya without any backbones) such as ticks and mites are also found. Larger land expedition team to spend a winter in Antarctica. MIOCENE ERA – Whole surface of Antarctica animals include penguins and seals. Some breeds of becomes covered with ice and seal-like 11911911 creatures, or pinnipeds, become inhabitants penguin include the Emperor and Adelie penguin. Norwegian Roald Amundsen, along with four of Antarctica. Twelve seal species live on the coastline. The other expedition members, discovers a new surrounding ocean is the home of whales, route that leads to the South Pole. 77-1,8-1,8 mmyaya which feed on krill and Ross Sea PLIOCENE ERA – Fossils of plants and animals sometimes seals and 11923923 from this era indicate many ice sheet movements The beginning of large-scale factory-ship and melting. penguins. whaling in the Ross Sea. 11,8,8 mya-10mya-10 000000 yearsyears agoago 11928928 PLEISTOCENE ERA The Great Sir Hubert Wilkins makes the fi rst Antarctic fl ight Ice Age begins. 30% of the from the Antarctic Peninsular to the Ross Sea. Earth is covered by glaciers and some oceans freeze. 11935935 1100 000000 yyearsears Caroline Mikkelsen from Norway becomes the fi rst aagogo – TTodayoday woman to land on HOLOCENE – The Earth Antarctica. warms and deserts form in some areas. Human civilisations develop. A cold 11961961 ocean current isolates waters around Antarctica, The Antarctic Treaty governing activities in and the continent is permanently frozen. Antarctica is signed. South Africa is one of the original signatories of this Treaty. Note: mya = million years ago. SSOUTHOUTH AAFRICA’SFRICA’S Department of Science and Technology IINVOLVEMENTNVOLVEMENT www.dst.gov.za 11663663 – 11773773 Discovery of the Prince Edward Islands which includes Marion Island. 11800800 – 11932932 Sealing industry thrives and leads to the near extermination of fur seals on Prince Edward Islands. 11939939 – 11948948 After World War II, Marion and Prince Edward islands are annexed in 1948 and offi cially proclaimed South Africa’s territory. SA Agulhas South African base in Antarctica The SA Agulhas is the Department of Environmental Antarctica has hostile living conditions that are not suitable for human Aff airs and Tourism’s research and supply ves- beings, therefore the design of the South African base requires careful sel, which is used by the South African National consideration. In addition to this, researchers are committed to pre- Antarctic Programme (SANAP) for the transpor- serving the fragile environment of the Antarctic and have to be extra tation of personnel and cargo to its three bases careful not to destroy or pollute the surrounding ecosystems. in Antarctica and on Marion and Gough islands. When South African researchers fi rst started staying in the 11958/59958/59 Other countries also charter the Agulhas to assist Antarctic they stayed in bases – SANAE I, II and III – which were The fi rst South African National Antarctic with their Antarctic programmes, e.g. Germany. The built on the ice shelf. However, these bases had a short lifespan Expedition (SANAE) based at an old Norwegian ship also conducts research, weather observations and due to impacting snow. The decision was therefore made to station. buoy deployments in the waters surrounding Antarctica, build SANAE IV about 170km inland on a ‘nunatak’ and Marion and Gough islands. Many weather buoys have (meaning rocky outcrop) at Vesleskarvet. 11962962 been released at 12-hourly intervals on these voyages, and The frame of the base is made of steel and the outer SANAE I, the fi rst South African base is built in meteorological reports are transmitted every three hours layer is rigid, pre-constructed foam and fi breglass panels. Antarctica. when at sea. The Agulhas uses satellite navigation to plot The base is built on stilts, to allow for wind fl ow and to prevent 11963963 its way from South Africa to the three bases. The ship has the accumulation of snow. The roof and bottom panels a large hanger that accommodates helicopters used for air are painted bright orange which makes it easier to see The fi rst postgraduate degree (MSc) is awarded for research conducted as part of South African support in the offl oading of personnel and cargo at all three the base from the air. The living quarters are heated National Antarctic Programme (SANAP). stations. The Agulhas can accommodate 94 non-naval passen- by heat exchangers that are run off a generator. Fresh gers and each cabin has its own shower and toilet facilities. water is obtained by melting snow. 11970/71970/71 The fi rst SANAE base in Antarctica replaced by a second base called SANAE II. Living conditions for 11978978 humans in Antarctica The research vessel, the mv SA Agulhas, makes its maiden Antarctica has no native human population. It is a hostile voyage. environment and living there is extremely diffi cult. Researchers from a number of countries occupy the 11978/79978/79 continent at various bases. Ship and air support provide the SANAE II is replaced transportation by SANAE III. of personnel, 11981981 equipment, cargo and supplies. This Two long-range Aerospatiale Puma helicopters become available on the SA Agulhas. includes vehicles, food, fuel, research 11991/92991/92 equipment, – 11996/97996/97 clothing, etc. The SANAE IV base is erected on hard rock at Vesleskarvet in Antarctica. 22003003 Research support transferred to the Department of Science and Technology and logistics remains with the Department of Environmental Aff airs and Tourism. Department of Science and Technology DDIDID YYOUOU KKNOW?NOW? www.dst.gov.za GGoughough IIslandsland MMarionarion IslandIsland AANTARCTICNTARCTIC RRESEARCH:ESEARCH: Department of Science PPHYSICALHYSICAL SSCIENCECIENCE and Technology www.dst.gov.za Contact details University of KwaZulu-Natal Department of Physics www.ukzn.ac.za AANTARCTICNTARCTIC RRESEARCH:ESEARCH: Department of Science OOCEANOGRAPHICCEANOGRAPHIC SSCIENCECIENCE and Technology www.dst.gov.za to a concise unde utes rsta rib nd nt ing co o , f a th ic e r f w A e a t th of s sou h an e ce r o t and c as limat v e o e f h so t u t g h n i e t r a n g i Af t ric s a e . v n I measuring surfa ies include ce atmospher Study ctivit ic ing rch a th sea uch as turbulent fl uxes of momentum e o re es, s , sensibl c a’s fl ux e ea ic ce n fr rfa ern ocean. A u outh ic h s e s t n r th f a ra e u ea ve ce o ng n So c o n e v f o at e o i o d e s r Contact details n h e f o r c e a nt n s p y m e irls) n c e t d w e m o l a s a l S b l e l r o e a t l i d t n University of Pretoria r c a n n h i a a c e t m e v t o Dept.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Antarctic Primer
    Antarctic Primer By Nigel Sitwell, Tom Ritchie & Gary Miller By Nigel Sitwell, Tom Ritchie & Gary Miller Designed by: Olivia Young, Aurora Expeditions October 2018 Cover image © I.Tortosa Morgan Suite 12, Level 2 35 Buckingham Street Surry Hills, Sydney NSW 2010, Australia To anyone who goes to the Antarctic, there is a tremendous appeal, an unparalleled combination of grandeur, beauty, vastness, loneliness, and malevolence —all of which sound terribly melodramatic — but which truly convey the actual feeling of Antarctica. Where else in the world are all of these descriptions really true? —Captain T.L.M. Sunter, ‘The Antarctic Century Newsletter ANTARCTIC PRIMER 2018 | 3 CONTENTS I. CONSERVING ANTARCTICA Guidance for Visitors to the Antarctic Antarctica’s Historic Heritage South Georgia Biosecurity II. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Antarctica The Southern Ocean The Continent Climate Atmospheric Phenomena The Ozone Hole Climate Change Sea Ice The Antarctic Ice Cap Icebergs A Short Glossary of Ice Terms III. THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Life in Antarctica Adapting to the Cold The Kingdom of Krill IV. THE WILDLIFE Antarctic Squids Antarctic Fishes Antarctic Birds Antarctic Seals Antarctic Whales 4 AURORA EXPEDITIONS | Pioneering expedition travel to the heart of nature. CONTENTS V. EXPLORERS AND SCIENTISTS The Exploration of Antarctica The Antarctic Treaty VI. PLACES YOU MAY VISIT South Shetland Islands Antarctic Peninsula Weddell Sea South Orkney Islands South Georgia The Falkland Islands South Sandwich Islands The Historic Ross Sea Sector Commonwealth Bay VII. FURTHER READING VIII. WILDLIFE CHECKLISTS ANTARCTIC PRIMER 2018 | 5 Adélie penguins in the Antarctic Peninsula I. CONSERVING ANTARCTICA Antarctica is the largest wilderness area on earth, a place that must be preserved in its present, virtually pristine state.
    [Show full text]
  • The Quest for the Northwest Passage, by James P. Delgado
    REVIEWS • 323 learn the identity of what they have been reading up to that BRAY, E.F. de. 1992. A Frenchman in search of Franklin: De point. The document identified as HBCA E.37/3, which Bray’s Arctic journal, 1852–1854. Edited by William Barr. Barr, following Anderson, refers to as a full journal Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. (p. 166, n.1), turns out to be what I would call Anderson’s PELLY, D. 1981. Expedition: An Arctic journey through history on field notes, written daily during the expedition. In con- George Back’s River. Toronto: Betelgeuse. trast, the document that Barr has referred to in footnotes as the “fair copy of Anderson’s journal” (HBCA B.200/a/ I.S. MacLaren 31), although based on those field notes, was written after Canadian Studies Program the expedition: it shows signs of revision and narrative Department of Political Science polish. Barr’s use of the term journal to refer to both University of Alberta documents is misleading, as it blurs that important distinc- Edmonton, Alberta, Canada tion. Furthermore, justification for subordinating Stewart’s T6G 2H4 journal (Provincial Archives of Alberta 74.1/137) to Anderson’s is rendered only implicitly: Stewart’s is “gen- erally less detailed than” Anderson’s (p. 166–167). One is ACROSS THE TOP OF THE WORLD: THE QUEST FOR left to infer that the editing accords with the chain of THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE. By JAMES P. DELGADO. command, Stewart being Anderson’s junior. None of these Vancouver and Toronto: Douglas & McIntyre, 1999.
    [Show full text]
  • European Patent Bulletin 1988/32
    Bib'iotnek , EPA r.p'0 GEB 10.08.1988 j 10. AUG. 1SS3 1 Eirrgegsngpn 0277113-0277939 ISSN 0170-9305 Europäisches European Bulletin européen Patentblatt Patent Bulletin des brevets Inhalt Contents Sommaire I. Veröffentlichte Anmeldungen 10 I. Published Applications 10 I. Demandes publiées 10 1.1 Geordnet nach der Internationalen 10 1.1 Arranged in accordance with the 10 1.1 Classées selon la classification 10 Patentklassifikation International patent classification internationale des brevets 1.2(1) Int. Anmeldungen (Art. 158(1)) 113 1.2(1) Int. applications (Art. 158(1)) 113 1.2(1) Demandes int. (art. 158(1)) 113 1.2 (2) Int. Anmeldungen, die nicht in die 117 1.2 (2) Int. applications not entering the 117 1.2 (2) Demandes int. non entrées dans la 117 europäische Phase eingetreten sind European phase phase européenne 1.3(1) Geordnet nach Veröffentlichungs- 118 1.3 (1) Arranged by publication number 118 1.3(1) Classées selon les numéros de 118 nummern publication 1.3 (2) Geordnet nach Anmeldenummern 125 1.3 (2) Arranged by application number 125 1.3 (2) Classées selon les numéros des 125 demandes 1.4 Geordnet nach Namen der 133 1.4 Arranged by name of applicant 133 1.4 Classées selon les noms des 133 Anmelder demandeurs 1.5 Geordnet nach benannten 148 1.5 Arranged by designated Contracting 148 1.5 Classées selon les Etats contractants 148 Vertragsstaaten States désignés 1.6(1) Nach Erstellung des europäischen 177 1.6(1) Documents discovered after 177 1.6(1) Documents découverts après 177 Recherchenberichts ermittelte neue completion of the
    [Show full text]
  • Unit 3. Antarctic Oceanography Lesson 1
    ANTARCTIC Unit 3. Antarctic Oceanography Lesson 1. – Overview and Research Stations Lesson Objectives: • Introduces the continent of Antarctica and the oceans that surround it • The student will learn about the geography, history and climate. • The second section of this chapter discusses research stations and the scientists who live on the frozen continent. Antarctica is a continent located form 25 million years ago. The at the southern-most point of ice in Antarctica locks up more the globe. Millions of years ago, than two-thirds of the planet's this landmass was attached to fresh water. If the Antarctic ice a giant landmass that consisted were to melt, the sea would rise of modern-day South America, almost 200 feet. It is the only India and Africa. Powerful underground forces ripped a large piece of land from this giant landmass, which then drifted to its current position at the bottom of the globe. It is surrounded on all sides by the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. continent that man had left untouched for Antarctica's cold, thick hard millions of years. covering, called an Antarctica is ice considered the sheet, coldest and driest continent on began to earth. Temperatures decrease regions inland. Temperatures as one moves from the coastal during the long, dark winters ©PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY ANTARCTIC OCEANOGRAPHY 87 ANTARCTIC range from –4° F to –22° F on Blizzards are produced not by the coast, -40° F to –90° F falling snow, but when high inland. During the summers, winds (100- 200mph) blow coastal temperatures average ground snow around, creating 32° F (occasionally climbing to blinding conditions and 50° F), while the inland summer snowdrifts that can cover local temperatures range from –4° F research stations in an hour.
    [Show full text]
  • History of Antarctica - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia Page 1 of 13
    History of Antarctica - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 1 of 13 Coordinates: 67°15′S 39°35′E History of Antarctica From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the natural history of the Antarctic continent, see Antarctica. The history of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe. The term Antarctic, referring to the opposite of the Arctic Circle, was coined by Marinus of Tyre in the 2nd century AD. The rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn in the 15th and 16th centuries proved that Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), if it existed, was a continent in its own right. In 1773 James Cook and his crew crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time but although they discovered nearby islands, they did not catch sight of Antarctica itself. It is believed he was as close as 150 miles from the mainland. In 1820, several expeditions claimed to have been the first to have sighted the ice shelf or the continent. A Russian expedition was led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev, a British expedition was captained by Edward Bransfield and an American sealer Nathaniel Palmer participated. The first landing was probably just over a year later when American Captain John Davis, a sealer, set foot on the ice. Several expeditions attempted to reach the South Pole in the early 20th century, during the 'Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration'. Many resulted in injury and death. Norwegian Roald Amundsen finally reached the Pole on December 14, 1911, following a dramatic race with the Englishman Robert Falcon Scott.
    [Show full text]
  • Nature Conservation in Antarctica During the Early Treaty Years, 1958
    Book of Abstracts Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) Joint Workshop of the History EG and the Social Sciences AG British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, UK (1-5 July 2013) This workshop is co-sponsored by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and the British Antarctic Survey (BAS). Our heartfelt thanks go to Ellen Bazeley-White, Alison Teague and Anisha Quadros at BAS for their invaluable help and their organisational talents. We would not have been able to organise this workshop without their help. We are also grateful for the support provided by Joanna Rae (BAS Archives Service), Naomi Bonham (SPRI Archives), Bryan Lintott (SPRI Events), and last but not least, the SCAR Executive Office (Mike Sparrow, Renuka Badhe and Rosemary Nash), the SCAR President, Executive Committee and Delegates. At an institutional level, we thank the following organisations for their support: Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), British Antarctic Survey (BAS), Scott Polar Research Institute (SPRI), and Cambridge University The workshop was organized by Daniela Liggett (SCAR Social Sciences Action Group) and Cornelia Lüdecke (SCAR History Expert Group). The abstracts were edited with the help of Sherrie-lee Evans (Hobart, Australia). 2 Contents Nature conservation in Antarctica during the early Treaty years, 1959–1964 Alessandro Antonello..................................................................................................7 Evaluating the Success of Scientific Research on Antarctic Expeditions, 1898-1914
    [Show full text]
  • John Davis (Ca. 1550-1605)
    I76 ARCTIC PROFILES John Davis (Ca. 1550-1605) Photograph courtesy of the Hakluyt Society, British Library, London. First published in The Voyages and Works of John Davis, the navigator, including The Senmens Sewers 1607, ed. Albert Hastings Markham, for the Hakluyt Society, London 1880. John Davis, “The Navigator”, is deservedly the favourite Born in Devon, England, about 1550, John Davis’s boyhood of historian and biographer among the early English sailors in association with sons of the local gentry may account for his Canadian waters. He was dedicated to his work and lacked the good education and proficiency in mathematics. He took to the greed for money and fame that marked many of his contem- sea early and was a skilled navigator when, in 1585, he was poraries; he was of kindly disposition and exerted himself to authorized by Queen Elizabeth to search for “the Northwest win the confidence of pilfering Greenland Eskimos. Unlike Passage to China”, with the backing of the Queen’s minister, Frobisher, he was a scientific seaman and, along with Jacques Sir Francis Walsingham, and the merchant William Sander- Cartier, may be said to have rough-charted the eastern Cana- son. He ran up the west Greenland shore, where he showed his dian seaboard from the Gulf of the St. Lawrence to Cumber- good nature in trying towin the friendship ofthe local land Gulf on Baffin Island. He “fixed” the entrance to Hud- son Strait, discovered Cumberland Gulf - later the resort of Eskimos in spite of their thieving habits. Crossing the strait whalers - and sailed far up Baffin Bay.
    [Show full text]
  • Alan Johnston Petition
    ALAN JOHNSTON PETITION BBC News website users around the world have written in their thousands to demand the release of BBC Gaza correspondent Alan Johnston. An online petition was started on Monday, 2 April. It said: “We, the undersigned, demand the immediate release of BBC Gaza correspondent Alan Johnston. We ask again that everyone with influence on this situation increase their efforts, to ensure that Alan is freed quickly and unharmed.” More than 8,000 people responded in the first few days. In total, more than 69,000 have signed. The latest names to be added are published below. A Brook Ontario, Canada A. Colley Cardiff, UK A Butcher Los Gatos, USA A. Giesswein New Jersey, USA A Capleton Cardiff, UK A. Homan Sheffield, UK A Crockett Looe, Cornwall A. Ockwell Edinburgh, UK A Farnaby Middlesbrough A. Parker Johannesburg, South England Africa A Fawcett Cardiff, Wales A. Saffour London, UK A Foster Macclesfield England A. Yusif Sizalo Accra, GHANA A Kennedy London, UK A.J. Janschewitz Brooklyn, New A KUMAR Birmingham, UK York, USA A Mc Sevenoaks UK A.J. Whitfield sydney, Australia A Norman Brighton UK A.M. Majetich hicksville, usa A P Jurisic Pittsburgh, USA A.M.Sall St-Louis, Senegal a pritchard Treforest Glamorgan Aaliya Naqvi-Hai Belmont, USA A R Pickard Pontypridd, Wales Aaron Ambrose NY, NY US a skouros uk Aaron Bennett Berkeley, CA U.S.A A Stevenson Aberdeenshire Aaron Beth'el Byron Bay, Australia A Tudor Dartington, UK Aaron Cullen Aberdeen A Whiting Aberdeen, Scotland Aaron Davies London, UK Aaron Dublin, Ireland. Abraham Sont Lanark(area)- Aaron H.
    [Show full text]
  • Supplement: Sea Ice Observations and Sources
    1 SUPPLEMENT: SEA ICE OBSERVATIONS AND SOURCES I. Observations from Voyages of Exploration 1576 Frobisher Sources Richard Collinson, ed., The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher: In Search of a Passage to Cathaia and India by the North-West, A.D. 1576-8, Reprinted from the First Edition of HakLuyt’s Voyages, with SeLections from Manuscript Documents in the British Museum and State Paper Office (London: Hakluyt Society, 1867). James McDermott, ed., The Third Voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin IsLand, 1578 (London: Hakluyt Society, 2001). Vilhjamur Stefansson, ed., The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 2 vols. (London: Argonaut Press, 1938). George Best, A True Discourse of the Late Voyages of Discoverie, for the Finding of a Passage to Cathaya, by the Northweast, Under the Conduct of Martin Frobisher GeneralL (London: Henry Bynnyman, 1578). E Greenland “sayling norhweast from Englande upon the firste of July, at length he hadde sighte of a highe and ragged lande, whiche he judged Freeselande (whereof some auhtours have made mention), but durst not approche the same by reason of the greate store of ise that lay alongst the coast, and the great mistes that troubled them not a little.” (George Best, “A True Discourse of the Late Voyages of Discoverie,” in The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, ed. Richard Collinson (London: Hakluyt Society, 1867), 71. “and on the 11th day of July they had sight of land unknown to them, for they could not come to set fote theron for the marveilous haboundance of monstrous great ilands of ise which lay dryving all alongst the coast therof.
    [Show full text]
  • Antarctica Fellowship Research & Logistics at Princess Elisabeth
    Antarctica Fellowship Research & Logistics at Princess Elisabeth ANTARCTICA Antarctica is on average the coldest, driest, and windiest continent on the planet and has the highest average elevation. The name ‘Antarctica’ arrives from the Greek word ἀνταρκτική (antarktiké) meaning "opposite to the Arctic" or "opposite to the north". QUICK FACTS & FIGURES DISCOVERY American Captain John Davis (sealer), first set foot on the ice, ~1821 Norwegian Roald Amundsen (explorer), reached the South Pole on December 14, 1911 GEOGRAPHY Size: ∼14,000,000 km2 (5,400,000 square miles), fifth-largest continent Coastline: 17,968 km (11,165 mi) surrounded by the Southern Ocean Highest peak: Mount Vinson, 4892 metres (16050 ft) Largest lake: Lake Vostok, one of the largest sub-glacial lakes in the world Ice: ∼98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, averaging at least 1.6 km (1.0 mi) thick Freshwater: ~90% of the world's ice (and ~70% of the world's fresh water) TEMPERATURE Average: -5°C to -50°C Coldest: -89.2 °C (-128.6 °F) recorded at Soviet Vostok Station (21 July 1983) Warmest: 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) recorded at Esperanza Base (24 March 2015) PRECIPITATION Desert, with annual precipitation of ~200 mm (8 in) along the coast and far less inland FLORA & FAUNA Algae, bacteria, fungi, plants, protista, and certain animals, such as mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades. Vegetation, where it occurs, is tundra. POLITICAL STATUS Politically neutral Antarctic Treaty System (1959): signed by 12 countries (49 nations today) Territorial Claims: new claims have been suspended since 1959 The Treaty prohibits military activities, mineral mining, nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal.
    [Show full text]
  • The Following Section on Early History Was Written by Professor William (Bill) Barr, Arctic Historian, the Arctic Institute of North America, University of Calgary
    The following section on early history was written by Professor William (Bill) Barr, Arctic Historian, The Arctic Institute of North America, University of Calgary. Prof. Barr has published numerous books and articles on the history of exploration of the Arctic. In 2006, William Barr received a Lifetime Achievement Award for his contributions to the recorded history of the Canadian North from the Canadian Historical Association. As well, Prof. Barr, a known admirer of Russian Arctic explorers, has been credited with making known to the wider public the exploits of Polar explorations by Russia and the Soviet Union. HISTORY OF ARCTIC SHIPPING UP UNTIL 1945 Northwest Passage The history of the search for a navigable Northwest Passage by ships of European nations is an extremely long one, starting as early as 1497. Initially the aim of the British and Dutch was to find a route to the Orient to grab their share of the lucrative trade with India, Southeast Asia and China, till then monopolized by Spain and Portugal which controlled the route via the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497 John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto), sponsored by King Henry VII of England, sailed from Bristol in Mathew; he made a landfall variously identified as on the coast of Newfoundland or of Cape Breton, but came no closer to finding the Passage (Williamson 1962). Over the following decade or so, he was followed (unsuccessfully) by the Portuguese seafarers Gaspar Corte Real and his brother Miguel, and also by John Cabot’s brother Sebastian, who some theorize, penetrated Hudson Strait (Hoffman 1961). The first expeditions in search of the Northwest Passage that are definitely known to have reached the Arctic were those of the English captain, Martin Frobisher in 1576, 1577 and 1578 (Collinson 1867; Stefansson 1938).
    [Show full text]
  • Naming Antarctica
    NASA Satellite map of Antarctica, 2006 - the world’s fifth largest continent Map of Antarctica, Courtesy of NASA, USA showing key UK and US research bases Courtesy of British Antarctic Survey Antarctica Naming Antarctica A belief in the existence of a vast unknown land in the far south of the globe dates The ancient Greeks knew about the Arctic landmass to The naming could be inspired by other members of the back almost 2500 years. The ancient Greeks called it Ant Arktos . The Europeans called the North. They named it Arktos - after the ‘Great Bear’ expedition party, or might simply be based on similarities it Terra Australis . star constellation. They believed it must be balanced with homeland features and locations. Further inspiration by an equally large Southern landmass - opposite the came from expressing the mood, feeling or function of The Antarctic mainland was first reported to have been sighted in around 1820. ‘Bear’ - the Ant Arktos . The newly identified continent a place - giving names like Inexpressible Island, During the 1840s, separate British, French and American expeditions sailed along the was first described as Antarctica in 1890. Desolation Island, Arrival Heights and Observation Hill. continuous coastline and proved it was a continent. Antarctica had no indigenous population and when explorers first reached the continent there were no The landmass of Antarctica totals 14 million square kilometres (nearly 5.5 million sq. miles) place names. Locations and geographical features - about sixty times bigger than Great Britain and almost one and a half times bigger than were given unique and distinctive names as they were the USA.
    [Show full text]