ANTARCTIC Unit 3. Antarctic Oceanography Lesson 1. – Overview and Research Stations Lesson Objectives: • Introduces the continent of Antarctica and the oceans that surround it • The student will learn about the geography, history and climate. • The second section of this chapter discusses research stations and the scientists who live on the frozen continent. Antarctica is a continent located form 25 million years ago. The at the southern-most point of ice in Antarctica locks up more the globe. Millions of years ago, than two-thirds of the planet's this landmass was attached to fresh water. If the Antarctic ice a giant landmass that consisted were to melt, the sea would rise of modern-day South America, almost 200 feet. It is the only India and Africa. Powerful underground forces ripped a large piece of land from this giant landmass, which then drifted to its current position at the bottom of the globe. It is surrounded on all sides by the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. continent that man had left untouched for Antarctica's cold, thick hard millions of years. covering, called an Antarctica is ice considered the sheet, coldest and driest continent on began to earth. Temperatures decrease regions inland. Temperatures as one moves from the coastal during the long, dark winters ©PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY ANTARCTIC OCEANOGRAPHY 87 ANTARCTIC range from –4° F to –22° F on Blizzards are produced not by the coast, -40° F to –90° F falling snow, but when high inland. During the summers, winds (100- 200mph) blow coastal temperatures average ground snow around, creating 32° F (occasionally climbing to blinding conditions and 50° F), while the inland summer snowdrifts that can cover local temperatures range from –4° F research stations in an hour. to –31° F. The lowest temperature recorded in The snowfall has accumulated Antarctic history was in 1983, a over several million years to ο make Antarctica's average chilling -129 F. This is colder elevation 2.5 miles above sea than the surface of Mars. When level, making it the highest water was thrown into the air, it continent. But in a sense, it is froze before it hit the ground. also the lowest continent: the landmass itself, because of the Antarctica receives less snow weight of all that snow, has than you may think. Actually, it been pushed down so heavily only snows an average of 10" that some parts of the continent per year on the coast, and less are actually under sea level. than 2" inland. Because it is so cold, the snow never melts. History Aristotle, an ancient Greek John Davis, a US sealer, was philosopher, believed that if the the first to set foot on the world was round, then there continent. James Weddell, an must be a continent at the English sealer, had both a seal bottom of the globe holding all and a sea named after him the other continents in place. because of his discovery of an He named the continent unknown seal. Antarktikos, meaning "anti- Arctic". Most believe that the In 1911-1912, the first men to first man to sight Antarctica (in reach the South Pole were two 1820) was Fabian von teams led by Ronald Bellingshausen, a Russian Amundsen from Norway and explorer. Others believe it to be Robert F. Scott from Great a British seaman named Britain. Scott made it to the Edward Bransfield. Captain South Pole 10 days after ©PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY ANTARCTIC OCEANOGRAPHY 88 ANTARCTIC Amundsen, who had left his preparation on their part, Scott country's flag at 0ο to let Scott and his team perished from know he had made it first. cold and starvation on the way Amundsen left supplies behind back to their camp. for Scott, but because of poor Research Stations Having been isolated for so long, Antarctica provides numerous opportunities for scientists to conduct research. By the mid 1950s, seven countries had claimed territories of Antarctica as their own, establishing year-round operations and sharing weather research stations there. Soon reports. They, and eventually five more nations were 45 more nations, spent the IGY expressing an interest in the cooperating with each other on continent for research various scientific and research purposes. An 18-month period projects. This period of from 1956-57 was declared the harmony led to the signing of International Geophysical the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, Year (IGY). These twelve declaring Antarctica as a countries came together in the research preserve. This treaty interests of science and took effect in 1961, and since discussed how they could help then, many other countries each other in terms of locating have agreed to it. The and building research bases, preamble to the Antarctic setting up communication Treaty clearly sets forth its systems, launching rescue purpose: ©PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY ANTARCTIC OCEANOGRAPHY 89 ANTARCTIC Recognizing that it is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord; …the establishment of a firm foundation for the continuation and development of such cooperation on the basis of freedom, of scientific investigation in Antarctica as applied during the IGY accords with the interest of science and the progress of all mankind…." The treaty states that Antarctica research laboratories and will remain open for research support facilities. for any scientists from nations McMurdo is built on the bare who agree to the treaty. It also volcanic rock of Hut Point calls for a ban on military and Peninsula on Ross Island, the weapons (including nuclear) most southerly solid ground testing; international that is accessible by ship. It is cooperation and freedom of located just 20 miles south of scientific investigation; and free Mt. Erebus, an active volcano exchange of science program that steams continually and plans, results and personnel. erupts frequently though not This treaty guarantees that no violently. country's claim on any territory will ever be acknowledged by Heat and lighting is provided the other parties. Any disputes by small power plants. The are to be settled by the buildings must be designed to International Court of Justice. withstand blizzards, and due to The Treaty was re-examined in the dry conditions, fire remains 1991, 30 years after signing, a major threat. The base is run and re-affirmed. by an administrative director, Some of the modern research who is not necessarily a stations, especially the larger scientist. The base requires ones, are like small towns. personnel to perform a myriad McMurdo Station, the principal of tasks: cooks, bulldozer U.S. facility, on Ross Island, coast of Antarctica (peak summer population capacity 1,258; 1996 winter, 232) is Antarctica's largest station, it has airports and a seaport, ©PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY ANTARCTIC OCEANOGRAPHY 90 ANTARCTIC operators, pilots, mechanics, One of the problems created by communication specialists. the research stations is the Some bases even have accumulation of trash. chaplains to help those on the Garbage does not break down base deal with the isolation and or biodegrade in the frigid the cramped living conditions. climate. Piles of trash that accumulated over the decades Although nations build their of research, including own bases, it is not unusual to thousands of oil barrels and have scientists from many broken or abandoned nations working together on machinery, littered the research projects at one base. landscape. Recently, the US There are 40-50 research and other nations have started stations in Antarctica, and more cleanup procedures and now than 50,000 people from many transport trash from the different countries work on continent back to their these bases. countries. The Oceans that Surround Antarctica Antarctica is surrounded on all the Southern Ocean. This is the sides by water; the Atlantic, area located south of 50° Pacific and Indian Oceans all latitude. meet at Antarctica. The three oceans are collectively called The Antarctic Divergence The East Wind Drift drives the In the Southern Hemisphere, waters closest to Antarctica, the Coriolis Effect deflects which move in a westerly moving masses to the left. The direction around the continent. inner East Wind Drift moves Further out from the continent toward the continent while the the waters are driven by outer West Wind Drift moves westerly winds called the West away from the continent. This Wind Drift. These westerly creates an area of divergence winds remain strong through called the Antarctic out most of the year. Divergence. ©PROJECT OCEANOGRAPHY ANTARCTIC OCEANOGRAPHY 91 ANTARCTIC The Antarctic Convergence The Antarctic Convergence is waters into the cold water of the the irregular ocean zone that Southern Ocean. surrounds Antarctica. It is where warm deep water from These nutrients are necessary the northern oceans collide with for photosynthesis and create colder surface water from the the perfect environment for Southern Ocean and the colder zooplankton and bottom water. Because the phytoplankton to thrive. colder water is saltier, and Because plankton is so therefore more dense, it flows abundant, they form the beneath the warmer water. This foundation of the food web. A convergence brings the rich small shrimp-like creature nutrients from the warmer called krill feeds on the plankton. Krill Krill is a general term used to microscopic ocean plants describe about 85 species of suspended in the upper water crustaceans found in open column where light is sufficient oceans. They belong to the to allow for growth. Most of the group of crustaceans called Antarctic creatures, everything euphausiids and look like from penguins to whales, feed smaller versions of familiar on krill. Without it, the crustaceans such as prawns or ecosystem would collapse. lobsters. They range in size from small tropical species of less than a centimeter in length to little known deep-sea giants that can reach 14 centimeters.