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Introduction to Production Technologies

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: Introduction to Production Technologies

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN MEDIA WORLD

Mass communication and Journalism is institutionalized and source specific. Itfunctions through well-organized professionals and has an ever increasing interlace. Mass media has a global availability and it has converted the whole world in to a global village. A qualified journalism professional can take up a job of educating, entertaining, informing, persuading, interpreting, and guiding. Working in print media offers the opportunities to be a news reporter, news presenter, an editor, a feature writer, a photojournalist, etc. Electronic media offers great opportunities of being a news reporter, news editor, newsreader, programme host, interviewer, cameraman, producer, director, etc.

Other titles of Mass Communication and Journalism professionals are script writer, production assistant, technical director, floor manager, lighting director, scenic director, coordinator, creative director, advertiser, media planner, media consultant, public relation officer, counselor, front office executive, event manager and others.

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Introduction to Production Technologies

INTRODUCTION

The book introduces the students to fundamentals of production technologies. Today media productions are a part of our everyday life. It is all around us. The Post & Pre Production Stages of production technology are discussed in the book. Students of mass communication will also learn about t h e different stages of programme production from scripting to production in this book.

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INDEX 302 Introduction t o Production Technologies

1.1 T.V & Radio Production, 6-23 1.2 Post & Pre Production Stages, 23-27 1.3 Story Treatment, 2 7 1.4 Scripts 2 8 1.5 Script Layout 3 1 1.6 Budget, 4 1 1.7 Floor Plan 4 6 1.8 Sets, 4 9 1.9 Make Up, 5 4 1.10 Costume, 6 1 1.11 Jewellery 6 3 1.12 Television Sound 6 3 1.13 Shooting Schedule 6 5 1.14 Storyboards 6 7 1.15 Post Production 7 0 1.16 Post - Production Editing 7 2 1.17. Crew for Production, 7 7 1.18 Summary 8 1 1.19. Questions for Practice 8 6 1.20. Suggested Reading 8 7

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SYLLABUS

Introduction to Production Technologies

T.V & Radio Production, Post & Pre Production Stages, Story Treatment, Scripts, Storyboards, Budget, Floor Plan, Sets, Make up, Costume, Jewellery, Lights, Audio, Shots, Shooting Schedule, Crew for Production, Post Production & Editing.

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INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

OBJECTIVES

 To learn about production technologies  To know different stages of productions  To know pre and post production stages

1.1.T.V & RADIO PRODUCTION

The Radio

Guglielmo Marconi of Italy invented a way to transmit sound without using wires. By 1901, Marconi succeeded in creating a wireless communication link between Europe and North America. In 1906, Lee Forest with John Fleming perfected the ‘audion’ or the vacuum tube, which made clear transmission of voice and music possible. These developments paved the way for the first ever broadcast that took place on Christmas Eve, in 1906 in USA. Later it took ten years of hard work to perfect the radio.

Radio established its place very fast in the minds of listeners. Heavy doses of infotainment including music, drama, talk shows, etc supplemented with news made radio popular overnight. Soon radio industry developed wide spreading networks and by the 1930’s radio became prime mass medium. Radio broadcasting was introduced in India by amateur radio clubs in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Lahore, though even before the clubs launched their ventures, several experimental broadcasts were conducted in Bombay.

Radio programmes may be classified into two broad groups:

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1.Spoken word programmes, which include news bulletins, talks, discussions, interviews, educational programmes for schools and colleges, specific audience programmes directed at women, children, rural and urban listeners, drama, radio features and documentaries. 2.Music programmes, which include disc jockey programmes, musical performances of all types and variety programmes.

Strength of the Radio

1.Radio reaches messages to illiterates, neo-literates and highly educated receivers simultaneously. 2.It is a fairly affordable to be owed by everyone. 3.The want of visual effect is compensated by sound effects, both natural and mechanical and so live effect is moderately high. The quality of voice and sound makes the communication fairly enjoyable. 4.Musical sound effect enlivens the communication and often breaks monotony. 5.It has the capacity to deliver instantaneous messages. 6.Radio does not require captivity. Listeners can receive messages even when they are working. Farmer may listen to farm programmes while working in fields, a busy executive may listen to news bulletin even while driving or a housewife may listen to her favorite programme even while working in the kitchen. 7.Radio does not require power line for operation and so people in remote villages devoid of power lines can also receive messages from this medium. 8.Once a transistor radio is purchased, messages flow constantly and no cost is involved for reception of messages.

Weakness of the Radio

1.Communication through radio lacks visual component and so does not demonstrate but suggests. 2.Spoken messages are subject to interpretation of listeners according to their imagination, experience and predisposition; hence possibility of misinterpretation is very high. 3.Listeners need lot of imagination and therefore understanding of message depends largely on the characteristics of the receivers. 4.Communication is time limited and presents tiny fragments of topics in a haphazard mosaic. The medium has also limitations because of its audio nature.

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Introduction to Production Technologies

5.Receivers cannot put off listening parts of message for subsequent listening at their convenience.

Future of Radio

Radio’s future is a mystery. It is not easy to predict the future of radio. The future of radio would depend on changing regulatory scenarios, technological developments and change of listener’s appeal. Radio’s current localization and specialized programming will continue. Technologically, radio transmission will improve greatly. FM will continue to grow faster and bigger.

Radio listeners have indeed grown manifold, and the network is expanding a great deal an now it offers a daily service for many hours transmitting news, comments, songs, music, comedies, thrillers, sports, besides special programmes for children, youth and farmers. One of the best advantages that radio has over other media is that it can serve and entertain an audience, which is otherwise occupied. For example, people can listen to it while working at home, in the fields and factories and even while traveling.

Radio Broadcasting

Radio Broadcasting is an audio sound broadcasting service, traditionally broadcast through the air as radio waves a form of electromagnetic radiation from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast common programming, either in syndication or simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting also can be done via cable FM, local wire networks, satellite and the Internet.

The best known are the AM andFM stations; these include both commercial, public a n d nonprofit varieties as well as student-run campus radio stations and hospital radio stations can be found throughout the developed world.

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How the Radio technology works during the radio transmission:

1.The radio station sends out the analog and digital radio signals, along with a third signal for text data. 2.The digital signal is compressed before being transmitted. 3.The three-layered signal is transmitted from the radio station's upgraded digital transmitter. 4.Multipath interference, caused by the signal reflecting off of buildings, is ignored by the digital radio, which is able to discern the true signal and ignore interference. 5.Your radio receives the signal and, depending on your equipment, you hear either the digital or analog feed.

Although now being eclipsed by internet-distributed radio, there are many stations that broadcast on shortwave bands using AM technology that can be received over thousands of miles especially at night. For example, the BBC has a full schedule transmitted via shortwave. These broadcasts are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions and sunspots.

AM stations were the earliest broadcasting stations to be developed. AM refers to amplitude modulation, a mode of broadcasting radio waves by varying the amplitude of the carrier signal in response to the amplitude of the signal to be transmitted.

One of the advantages of AM is that its unsophisticated signal can be detected turned into sound with simple equipment. If a signal is strong enough, not even a power source is needed; building an unpowered crystal radio receiver was a common childhood project in the early years of radio.

AM broadcasts occur on North American airwaves in the medium wave frequency range of 530 to 1700 kHzknown as the "standard broadcast band". Many 9 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Production Technologies countries outside of the U.S. use a similar frequency band for AM transmissions. Europe also uses the long wave band. In response to the growing popularity of FM radio stereo radio stations in the late 1980s and early 1990s, some North American stations began broadcasting in AM stereo, though this never gained popularity, and very few receivers were ever sold.

AM Radio has some serious shortcomings

 The signal is subject to interference from electrical storms lightning and other EMI.  AM transmissions cannot be ionospherically propagated during the day due to strong absorption in the D-layer of the ionosphere. During the night, this absorption largely disappears and permits signals to travel to much more distant locations via ionospheric reflections.  Fading of the signal can be severe at night.  AM signals exhibit diurnal variation, traveling much longer distances at night. In a crowded channel environment this means that the power of regional channels which share a frequency must be reduced at night or directionally beamed in order to avoid interference, which reduces the potential nighttime audience. AM stereo broadcasts declined with the advent ofHD Radio.

FM refers to frequency modulation, and occurs on VHF airwaves in the frequency range of 88 to 108 MHz everywhere except Japan and Russia. Japan uses the 76 to 90 MHz band. FM stations are much more popular in economically developed regions, such as Europe and the United States, especially since higher sound fidelity and stereo broadcasting became common in this format.

FM radio was invented by Edwin H. Armstrong in the 1930s for the specific purpose of overcoming the interference static) problem of AM radio, to which it is relatively immune. At the same time, greater fidelity was made possible by spacing stations further apart. Instead of 10 kHz apart, they are 200 kHz apart.

The AM radio problem of interference at night was addressed in a different way. At the time FM was set up, the available frequencies were far higher in the spectrum than those used for AM radio - by a factor of approximately 100. Using these frequencies meant that even at far higher power, the range of a given FM signal was much lower, thus its market was more local than for AM radio. The reception range at night is the same as at daytime.

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The original FM radio service in the U.S. was the Yankee Network, located in New England. Broadcasting began in the early 1940s but did not pose a significant threat to the AM broadcasting industry. It required purchase of a special receiver. The frequencies used were not those used today: 42 to 50 megahertz. The change to the current frequencies, 88 to 108 megahertz, began after the end of World War II, and it was to some extent imposed by AM radio owners so as to attempt cripple what was by now realized to be a potentially serious threat.

FM radio on the new band had to begin from the ground floor. As a commercial venture it remained a little-used audio enthusiast's medium until the 1960s. The more prosperous AM stations, or their owners, acquired FM licenses and often broadcast the same programming on the FM station as on the AM station.

Digital Radio broadcasting has emerged, first in Europe t h e UK in 1995 a n d Germany i n 1999, and later in the United States. The European system is named DAB, for Digital Audio Broadcasting, and uses the public domain EUREKA 147 system. It is expected that for the next 10 to 20 years, all these systems will co-exist, while by 2015 to 2020 digital radio may predominate, at least in the developed countries.

Satellite radiobroadcasters are slowly emerging, but the enormous entry costs of space-based satellite transmitters, and restrictions on available radio spectrum licenses has restricted growth of this market.

Radio program formats differ by country, regulation and markets. In addition, formats change in popularity as time passes and technology improves. Early radio equipment only allowed program material to be broadcast in real time, known as live broadcasting. As technology for sound recording improved, an increasing proportion of broadcast programming used pre-recorded material. A current trend is the automation of radio stations. Some stations now operate without direct

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Introduction to Production Technologies human intervention by using entirely pre-recorded material sequenced by computer control.

A radio documentary orfeature is aradio documentary programme devoted to covering a particular topic in some depth, usually with a mixture of commentary and sound pictures. Some radio features, especially those including specially composed music or other pieces of audio art, resemble radio drama in many ways, though non-fictional in subject matter, while others consist principally of more straightforward, journalistic-type reporting – but at much greater length than found in an ordinary news report.

Radio Studio

A Radio Studio

Many Radio stations do not have their actual transmitter and broadcast tower on the same property as the studios. The tower above is a microwave relay tower.

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The signal is sent by microwave to a similar microwave receptor on the grounds where the transmitter and tower are. It is then converted into a signal that is broadcast to the general public. It is not uncommon for a Radio station's studios to be located 10, 15 even 30 miles away from the actual transmitter and tower. You'll notice there are several microwave dishes on this tower. That's because it is relaying signals for several different Radio stations.

Many Radio stations, especially those which air syndicated radio shows, receive these programs via satellite. The signal is fed into the Radio station's control room where it travels through a console, also known as a "board", and is then sent to the transmitter.

Today's typical broadcast studio at a Radio station consists of a console, microphones, computers, CD players.

Although more and more stations have switched over to completely digital operations, many still use CDs. It's unlikely too many actually use turntables or vinyl records anymore.

Console isa device that is used to control the audio mix and output from either a live studio broadcast or recorded sources. The two screens on console, directly ahead control the Radio station. Everything in this system is digital and stored on a hard drive including songs, commercials, promos, etc.

The computer on the right is hooked up to the Internet and also includes software for editing phone calls. The long rectangular object directly below this computer's keyboard is a phone interface for answering incoming lines. Below the console, you can see a flexible keyboard, two mouses and the red box is a remote control for the phone call editing software. Once a phone call is ready for playback, the DJ can just press the play button on the red remote instead of using the mouse to click a software control.

This is where all the sound sources are mixed before being sent to the transmitter. Each slider, sometimes known as a "pot" on older boards, controls the volume of one sound source: microphone, CD player, digital recorder, network feed, etc.

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Each slider channel has an on/off switch at the bottom and various switches at the top, which can divert to more than one destination.

A VU meter, such as the square box-like area toward the top of the console with the two green horizontal lines center top, shows the operator the level of sound output. The top horizontal line is the left channel and the bottom line is the right channel.

Most Radio stations have an assortment of microphones. Some microphones are especially designed for voice and on-air work. Often, these microphones will also have windscreens over them. The windscreen keeps extraneous noise to a minimum such as the sound of breath blowing into the microphone or the sound of a "popping" "P". Popping Ps occurs when a person pronounces a word with a hard "P" in it and in the process, expels a pocket of air that hits the microphone creating undesired noise.

Besides the on-air studio, every radio station has a Production studio overseen by the Production Director where commercials are assembled, music is recorded, promotional announcements are created, etc. The production studio is more of a workhorse studio and generally aesthetics are less an issue than functionality. Notice the special soundproofing on the walls upper right

The monitor usually in the center is for the recording computer. The black rectangular object on the right is actually this studio's "console" or mixer. The inset on the bottom left is CD player and other misc. controls and the inset in the upper left is a studio speaker.

Analog v/s. Digital: Today's modern Radio station has moved away from analog A signal with characteristics that are continuous in nature rather than pulsed or discrete nature) recording in favor of digital A description of data which is stored or transmitted as a sequence of discrete symbols from a finite set, most commonly this means binary data represented using electronic or electromagnetic signals recording. On top is an old-style analog tape deck, which recorded magnetic impulses on recording tape that was fed from left-to-right from reels. The audio is recorded on a hard drive where it is edited, stored and played back.

Television Unlike other forms of mass media, television has become one of the most powerful media of Mass communication. With a modest beginning in the 1930s, it has

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2 : Introduction to Production Technologies grown into a massive network of mass information and mass entertainment in today’s world. The attraction of the ‘visual ness’ of the medium makes people remain glued to the TV set for hours. Television captures our imagination and is the most complete and dramatic of all mass media. In addition to providing news and events, television also packages fiction, drama, culture, economy and many other things. Thus, this idiot box because it provides everything on a pl atter and we need not do any thinking has been increasing its hold on us.

History of Television

The inventions and discoveries in the late 1990s and early twentieth century, which gave us radio, films and the telephone, also lead to the invention of the television. Vladimir Zworykin, an American scientist, who developed an all-electronic television system in 1923 and perfected it by 1928, took the first big step in the development of TV. However, only experimental TV broadcasts were conducted in the early days. In 1938, TV sets became widely available and since then there is no looking back. In India, television arrived with small scale experimental telecasting from Delhi in 1959. Slowly the half hour programme experiment grew. While Doordarshan was the only channel available through 1980, the TV in India has completely changed with the arrival of private TV channels.

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Born at Mouron in Russia, Zworykin studied electrical engineering at Petrograd now St. Petersburg, graduating in 1912. During World War I he served as a radio officer in the Russian army. He moved to America in 1919 and joined the Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1920. He did graduate research at Pittsburgh University, receiving a PhD in 1926. In 1929 he joined the Radio Corporation of America. Zworykin made a number of contributions to electron optics and was the inventor of the first electronic-scanning television camera – theiconoscope. The first such device was constructed at Westinghouse in 1923. The principle was to focus an image on a screen made up of many small photoelectric cells, each insulated, which developed a charge that depended on the intensity of the light at that point. An electron beam directed onto the screen was scanned in parallel lines over the screen, discharging the photoelectric cells and producing an electrical signal. Zworykin also used the cathode-ray tube invented in 1897 by Karl Ferdinand Braun to produce the image in a receiver. The tube which he called a ‘kinescope’ had an electron beam focused by magnetic and electric fields to form a spot on a fluorescent screen. The beam was deflected by the fields in parallel lines across the screen, and the intensity of the beam varied according to the intensity of the signal. In this way it was possible to reconstruct the electrical signals into an image. In 1923 an early version of the system was made and Zworykin managed to transmit a simple picture a cross. By 1929 he was able to demonstrate a better version suitable for practical use. Zworykin also developed other electron devices, including an electron-image tube and electron multipliers. In 1940 he invited James Hillier to join his research group at RCA, and it was here that Hillier constructed his electron microscope.

The television has become such an integral part of homes in the modern world that it is hard to imagine life without television. The television provides entertainment to people of all ages. Not just for entertainment value, but TV is also a valuable resource for advertising and different kinds of programming. The television as we see it and know it today was not always this way.

Different experiments by various people, in the field of electricity and radio, led to the development of basic technologies and ideas that laid the foundation for the invention of television. In the late 1800s, Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, a student in Germany, developed the first ever mechanical module of television. He succeeded in sending images through wires with the help of a rotating metal disk. This technology was called the ‘electric telescope’ that had 18 lines of resolution.

Around 1907, two separate inventors, A.A. Campbell-Swinton from England and Russian scientist Boris Rosing, used the cathode ray tube in addition to the mechanical scanner system, to create a new television system. From the

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: Introduction to Production Technologies experiments of Nipkow and Rosing, two types of television systems came into existence: mechanical television and electronic television.

In 1923, an American inventor called Charles Jenkins used the disk idea of Nipkow to invent the first ever practical mechanical television system. By 1931, his Radio visor Model 100 was being sold in a complete kit as a mechanical television.

In 1926, just a little after Jenkins, a British inventor known as John Logie Baird, was the first person to have succeeded in transmitting moving pictures through the mechanical disk system started by Nipkow. He also started the first ever TV studio.

From 1926 till 1931, the mechanical television system saw many innovations. Although the discoveries of these men in the department of mechanical television were very innovative, by 1934, all television systems had converted into the electronic system, which is what is being used even today.

The experiments of Swinton in 1907, with the cathode ray tube for electronic television held great potential but were not converted into reality. Finally, in 1927, Philo Taylor Farnsworth was able to invent a working model of electronic television that was based on Swinton’s ideas.

His experiments had started when he was just a little boy of 14 years. By the time he became 21, Philo had created the first electronic television system, which did away with the rotating disks and other mechanical aspects of mechanical

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2 : Introduction to Production Technologies television. Thus was born the television system which is the basis of all modern TVs.

Strength and Weakness of Television

It has all the strength of radio except that it needs captive audience, has not attained portability and miniaturization and needs power line for inexpensive working. TV viewing is essentially a family affair and so helps family unity. It is far from slow and availability is constant. Repetition of message does not incur expense except nominal fees for cable connections. Television like radio, is in all sense a ‘now’ medium.

Television gives cursory overview of the events and is never capable of providing in-depth analysis and reporting. It is severely time limited and presents tiny fragments of topics. Television programmes skip and jumps demands constant change of mental gears from programmes to commercial, from documentary to cartoon and news. Also contents are high in entertainment and low in information. Power line is needed for its inexpensive operation and battery operated television sets are most expensive.

Television Broadcasting

A television station is a type of broadcast station that broadcasts both audio and video to television receivers in a particular area. Traditionally, TV stations made their broadcasts by sending specially-encoded radio signals over the air, called terrestrial television. Individual television stations are usually granted licenses b y a government agency to use a particular section of the radio spectrum a channel through which they send their signals. Some stations use LPTV broadcast translators toretransmit orrebroadcast to further areas. Television stations are a form of television channel, but not all television channels are necessarily stations.

Many television stations are now in the process of converting f r o m analogue t o digital. In some countries, this is being forced on consumers and stations, while in others it is entirely voluntary. In countries such as the United States, television stations usually just have one transmitter or, more recently, two transmitters if the station broadcasts a digital signal in addition to its standard analog signal; most of these stations should be independent or affiliated to a television network such as ABC, CBS, Fox, or NBC.

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Outside the US, television stations are generally associated with a nationwide television network, through which they get all of, or at least significant amounts of, their programming. In those countries, the signals broadcast in different areas have no well-known callsigns or other individual traits known to the general public although a network might have regional variations, possibly broadcast from several different transmitters and therefore in practice, there is no distinction between a network and a station.

In the United States, each nationwide terrestrial broadcast network can have a few stations that it owns and operates, usually in the larger broadcast markets, like N e w Y o r k orChicago. They can only own a limited number of stations because of FCC regulations.

Large television stations usually have some sort of television studio, which on major-network stations is often used for newscasts or other local programming. There is usually a newsdepartment, where journalists gather information. There is also a section where electronic news gathering operations are based, receiving remote broadcasts viaremote pickup unit orsatellite TV. Vans, trucks, or SUVs with this equipment are sent out with reporters, who may also bring back news stories on videotape rather than sending them back live.

Weather is also a significant part of the station. Stations with newscasts also have their own meteorologists and Doppler radar, and produce their own forecasts, which often vary from station to station. In the U.S., most NBC stations now carry Weather Plus on a second digital channel, which mixes national and local segments.

Stations not affiliated with major networks generally do not produce news or weather, or much other programming. Some stations known as repeaters or translators only simulcast another, usually the programmes seen on its owner's flagship station, and have no production facilities of their own. This is common in most countries outside of the U.S., Canada, U.K. and Australia. Low-power stations typically also fall into this category worldwide.

TV stations may also advertise on or provide weather or news services to local radio stations, particularly co-owned sister stations. This may be a barter in some cases.

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As with other stations, the radio antenna is often located on a summit, the top of a high skyscraper, or on a tall radio tower. A studio/transmitter link STL, via either radio, is used to get the signal there. A transmitter/studio link TSL may also se n d telemetry back to the station, but this may be embedded insubcarriers of the main broadcast. Stations which retransmit or simulcast another may simply pick-up that station over-the-air, or via STL or satellite. The license usually specifies which other station it is allowed to carry.

TV Studio

A Television Studio is an installation in which television orvideo productions take place, either for live television, for recording live to tape, or for the acquisition of raw footage f o r postproduction. The design of a studio is similar to, and derived f r o m , movie studios, with a few amendments for the special requirements of television production. A professional television studio generally has several rooms, which are kept separate for noise and practicality reasons. These rooms are connected via intercom, and personnel will be divided among these workplaces. Generally, a television studio consists of the following rooms:

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The studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be recorded take place. A studio floor has the following characteristics and installations:

 decoration and/or sets  cameras onpedestals  microphones  lighting rigs and the associated controlling equipment.  several video monitors for visual feedback from the production control room  a small public address system for communication  A glass window between PCR and studio floor for direct visual contact is usually desired, but not always possible

While a production is in progress, the following people work in the studio floor.  The on-screen "talent" themselves, and any guests - the subjects of the show.  A floor director, who has overall charge of the studio area, and who relays timing and other information from the director.  One or more camera operators who operate the television cameras, though in some instances these can also be operated from PCR using remote heads. Possibly a teleprompter operator, especially if this is an e w s broadcast.

The production control room also known as the 'gallery' is the place in a television studio in which the composition of the outgoing program takes place.

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Facilities in a PCR include:  a video monitor wall, with monitors for program, preview, videotape machines, cameras, graphics and other video sources  switcher a device where all video sources are controlled and taken to air. Also known as a special effects generator  audio mixing console and other audio equipment such as effects devices  character generator creates the majority of the names and full screen graphics that are inserted into the program  digital video effects and/or still frame devices if not integrated i n the vision mixer)  technical director's station, with waveform monitors, vector scopes and the camera control units or remote control panels for the camera control units CCUs  VTRs may also be located in the PCR, but are also often found in the central machine room

Themaster control room houses equipment that is too noisy or runs too hot for the production control room. It also makes sure that wire lengths and installation requirements keep within manageable lengths, since most high-quality wiring runs only between devices in this room.

This can include:

 The actual circuitry and connection boxes of the vision mixer, DVE a n d character generator devices  camera control units  V T R s  patch panels for reconfiguration of the wiring between the various pieces of equipment.

In a broadcast station in the US, master control room or "MCR" is the place where the on-air signal is controlled. It may include controls to play back programs and commercials, switch local or network feeds, record satellite feeds and monitor the transmitter(s. The description of an MCR given above usually refers to an equipment rack room, which is usually separate from the MCR itself. The term "studio" usually refers to a place where a particular local program is originated. If

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Introduction to Production Technologies the program is broadcast live, the signal goes from the production control room to MCR and then out to the transmitter.

A television studio usually has other rooms with no technical requirements beyond program and audio monitors. Among them are:

 one or more m a k e - u p and changing rooms  a reception area for crew, talent, and visitors, commonly called the green room.

A green room is a space in a theater, a studio, or a similar venue, for the accommodation of performers orspeakers not yet required on stage. It functions as a waiting room or as a touch-up lounge so that a performer need not return to wardrobe or to the dressing room, while remaining immediately available for a call to the stage. The origin of the term is often attributed to such an area historically being painted green, yet a modern "green room" often has no green.

1.2.POST & PRE PRODUCTION STAGES

Writing the Proposal

The proposal is a document consisting essentially of the following items:

 A treatment  A proposed budget  A video format or video script  Proposed production schedule

The more thorough the proposal, the better the chances of the documentary being approved. Yet before undertaking the proposal another step is required i.e. research.

Researching a Topic

Research usually mean good library. Currently with high tech computer searches for topics, research is easier and faster than ever, but good research is time- consuming. One of the best ways to do quality research is to organize. If a producer organizes the topic carefully from the beginning, the whole organization of further research, the format or outline of the documentary, the pre-production script, and the order of videotaping the production will be created at the same time.

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Quality research can also reveal potential locations for videotaping, available prerecorded videotape and film, the acquisition of still photographs, contact persons, and potential interviewees, besides the content nature of the topic itself.

Scouting the Location Site

Scouting out a location for production of a programme or at least searching out the place to interview the spokespeople should at least follow adequate research into the subject of the film or the documentary. A producer may have to pay for the scouting trip beforehand and recoup the expense later in the proposed budget.

Writing the Treatment

The treatment portion of the proposal is a verbal description of the suggested topic or subject of the documentary. The content of the treatment should cover the topic and why it should be the focus of the documentary. It should also contain a proposed title, the proposed length, and the goals and objectives of the documentary. It is helpful to include the target audience and the reasons for targeting them and suggested production values to reach the audience. Once the producer has set goals and objectives for the documentary, a production statement can be written to accurately define in an emotional or rational few words the rationale for the documentary.

Constructing a Budget

Most budgets are a matter of organizing essential expenses both from producing personnel and from the projected costs of the production and postproduction. The basis for much equipment and facility costs can be obtained from a rate card, which most production facilities and equipment suppliers make available to the potential clients.

A story can be told in different ways depending upon the budget. Each variation will yield the same story, but it will be designed differently. To use an analogy, a house can be built with $100,000 or $1,000,000. Both variations will be a house, but the designs will be different based on budget constraints. The builder with $100,000 can afford a modest house, while the builder with $1, 000,00 can afford a mansion with all the extras. Similarly, a documentary's budget defines how the story is told in terms of variables such as locations, characters, special effects, etc.

Every Penny Must Go On Screen - Traveling to locations, unloading equipment trucks, rigging lights, laying dolly track, organizing crowd scenes, etc. is time 2 4 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

: Introduction to Production Technologies consuming and expensive. Most importantly, this work does not appear on screen per se. In order to make a successful low budget documentary, you must put every penny on the screen.

If a story can be told with 10 locations, why use 20? If it can be told with a cast of 6, why use 12? Are elaborate lighting setups and camera moves adding to the story or are they just burning up the budget and pulling down overall quality? You must ask these hard questions.

One reason filmmakers refuse to be economical in terms of equipment and story variables is that they fear a rough, low quality look. The truth is, economy does not mean low quality. It means telling a story within one's means. This results in higher production values because every penny is put on the screen.

When you try to a make bigger movie than the budget can support, you spread resources too thin. As money runs out, you may take short cuts and foolish chances. This results in lower quality.

Writing the Pre -Production Script

With research completed and format for the production finished, a pre production script is not difficult to write at this stage. It is to be kept in mind that a script at this stage is only a pre production step and not a final production script. Yet with the advantage of research and information leads from research, a script is advantageous at this point. Major elements to be included in the pre production script are topic lead, proposed interviewees, bridges between segments, proposed video, proposed cut-away, internal summaries and final summary.

Story is King -Without name actors, a low budget movie must rely exclusively on the quality of its story to attract audiences. The story must be intriguing and must contain unwavering conflict. The conflict, whether physical or dramatic, must be intense, elevated, and memorable. When done right, this is what creates the word of mouth buzz that surrounds a movie.

Designing the Production Schedule

With the pre production work completed, the producer can now design a production schedule on the basis of available locations and available interviewees and travel arrangements. Production schedule information should include the following:

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 Dates of each individual videotape shoot  Place for travel  Transportation plans  Crew accommodations  Location sites  Interviewee names and titles

Structuring a Programme

Once the shoot has been done for the programme and the producer has the shoot tapes ready, the producer has to perform following duties to give a structure to the programme:

1.Reviewing tapes and recording editing work sheets- Even though location log sheets were kept during production, it is necessary for a producer to preview all tapes as a prelude to editing. This step allows the producer to study video and audio responses from location talent. This is the first step in the editing process deciding what might be used in the programme and what will not be used. It is also the beginning of the final script of the programme. The editing work sheets are a listing of all video on the coded source tapes with notations of in-cues and out-cue; length of segments, some videotape recorder counter numbers or stopwatch time and some judgmental notations on the relative value of takes on the source tapes. 2.Writing the final script for the documentary- although the pre production script has served an important service, it gives way to the final script. It can still serve as a frame of reference and a basic framework for the final script, but with the dynamics of location shoot and interviewing, many elements first considered important give way to new elements of ten more important or creative. 3.Coordinating editing cue sheets with the final production script- after each tape has been reviewed, work sheets completed, and the final production script written, the producer can spend quality time apart from the tapes and video monitors and, with the final script. 4.Editing or supervising the editing session- with the majority of editing decisions already made on the editing cue sheets and with the editing work sheets to aid in swift recovery of videotape segments from the source tapes, editing can begin. 5.Adding music and effects and mixing the audio channels- after the master tape has been edited, and assuming the most synchronous audio bites are also edited with the video, the second audio track is ready for voice-over 2 6 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

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tracks, location ambience tracks, music or sound effects. This means that audio channel 1dialogue track and audio channel 2 music and effects will have to be mixed down to one channel track. 6.Adding titling and credits-after the master tape is complete, then titles and credits can be matted on the video. Some producers may matte the character generator copy in editing suite over the proper video images, as they are being edited master through a studio control room switcher. This can also be done while the two audio tracks are being mixed down. 7.Final script transcription for the programme-many documentaries sponsoring organizations may wish to have a transcribed copy of the final documentary for legal purposes in addition to a videotaped dub of the master. If the organization or some interviewee were granted editing rights in lieu of their participation in the documentary, then they would require a copy of the final audio text of the documentary from which to make corrections or revisions to the text of the documentary.

1.3STORY TREATMENT

Writing a treatment is skill that can help any screenwriter succeed, at any point in the creative process. There are at least three parts of getting a screenplay sold or financed. Learning to write a treatment can jumpstart a writer's career because it allows a screenwriter to communicate his or her screenplay idea in a brief but compelling way. It also can be a powerful diagnostic and creative tool.

If you have a great idea, the only way to own it is to write it. Writing a treatment is a fast way to test out an idea before the screenwriter commits to writing a script. If it isn't terrific, move on. Part of succeeding as a screenwriter is to write at least one great screenplay. There is no substitute for craft. Screenplays are hard work and take time to perfect. If a writer has completed a screenplay, writing a treatment can help the writer determine whether or not their screenplay is viable, because the treatment creates distance. This allows the screenwriter to get an overview of their work and look at it objectively.

If the basic story is not something an audience will want to see, no amount of rewriting can fix it. Screenwriters often forget that they are writing for an audience. Writing a treatment before you write your next screenplay can help you work out problems and determine whether your story idea is a diamond in the rough, or just a lump of coal. The goal is to combine stories told from the heart with a deep understanding of what other people want to see.

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Craft and good ideas don't necessarily go together. The successful screenwriter must be able to master both aspects. Ideally, every serious screenwriter should have two really well written, well-structured screenplays as writing samples. Then it makes sense to devote time to learning how to write treatments because they force the writer to focus on structure and character development.

There is controversy about the length a treatment can be. Some say up to 60 pages, but the point of the treatment is to communicate your story as quickly as possible, so brevity without sacrificing juice is the key here. There seem to be three opinions about what a treatment is. One opinion is that it is a one page written pitch. The second is that it is a two to five page document that tells the whole story focusing on the highlights. The third opinion is that a treatment is a lengthy document that is a scene by scene breakdown of a script.

This two to five page document should read like a short story and be written in the present tense. It should present the entire story including the ending, and use some key scenes and dialogue from the screenplay it is based on.

Whether the screenwriter is creating a new story or writing a treatment based on an existing script, the first step is to make sure that the screenplay has a good title. The first contact a prospective producer has with a script is the title. Pick a title that gives a clear idea of what genre the screenplay is written in. A good title can predispose a producer or reader to like a screenplay because it suggests the kind of experience that is in store and arouses curiosity.

The second step is to write a logline. Preparing a log line for your screenplay is a basic marketing tool for developing treatments. The third step is to a synopsis. Begin by expanding the logline into a three-act story Start with the end. Once the synopsis is written, the preparation is complete and the screenwriter can take the synopsis and expand it into a treatment by correcting structure and adding detail.

1.4.SCRIPTS

Storyboard and Script Designing

Storyboards are graphic organizers such as a series of illustrations orimages displayed in sequence for the purpose of previsualizing a motion graphic o r interactive media sequence.

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The storyboarding process, in the form it is known today, was developed at the Walt Disney studio during the early 1930s, after several years of similar processes being in use at Disney and other animation studios. Storyboarding became popular in live-action film production during the early 1940s.

Description

A storyboard is essentially a large comic of the film or some section of the film produced beforehand to help film directors, cinematographers and television commercial advertising clients visualize the scenes and find potential problems before they occur. Often storyboards include arrows or instructions that indicate movement.

Usage

In creating a motion picture with any degree of fidelity to a script, a storyboard provides a visual layout of events as they are to be seen through the camera lens. In the storyboarding process, most technical details involved in crafting a film can be efficiently described either in picture, or in additional text.

Some live-action directors, use storyboard extensively before taking the pitch to their funders, stating that it helps them get the figure they are looking for since they can show exactly where the money will be used. Other directors storyboard only certain scenes, or not at all. Animation directors are usually required to storyboard extensively, sometimes in place of doing a script.

Storyboards were adapted from the film industry to business, purportedly by Howard Hughes ofHughes Aircraft. Today they are used by industry for planning ad campaigns, commercials, a proposal or other projects intended to convince or compel to action.

A "quality storyboard" is a tool to help facilitate the introduction of a quality improvement process into an organisation. More recently the term "storyboard" has been used in the fields of web development, software development a n d instructional design to present and describe interactive events as well as motion o n user interfaces, electronic pages a n d presentation screens.

Benefits

One advantage of using storyboards is that it allows in film and business the user to experiment with changes in the storyline to evoke stronger reaction or interest. 2 9 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

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Flashbacks, for instance, are often the result of sorting storyboards out of chronological order to help build suspense and interest.

Theprocess of visual thinking and planning allows a group of people to brainstorm together, placing their ideas on storyboards and then arranging the storyboards on the wall. This fosters more ideas and generates consensus inside the group.

Script Designing

It usually depends on the type of the programme. The normal format for a programme shooting script is essentially a two-column affair, which breaks down each sequence into its component shots. The left-hand side shows the type of the shot long shots, clo se-up etc), a description of the subject matter plus any instructions regarding movement of the camcorder. The right-hand of the script covers sound, i.e. narrative, dialogue and special sound effects.

Pre-planning and scripting will undoubtedly assist in making a good documentary but don’t be too hidebound. If, during the shoot, you think of something better, or an unexpected relevant event occurs, then use your common sense and accommodate changes.

Pre-location planning- one element of video work, which is sometimes overlooked with embarrassing results, is logistical planning. Dependent upon the

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: Introduction to Production Technologies type and scale of the documentary the logistics can cover a multitude of things like:

 Location- any required permissions should have been sought prior to or at the research stage but where applicable, confirm with the appropriate persons that a specific time is O.K. A reconnaissance exploring will also help to establish the best camera positions and whether there are likely to be any lighting, sound or power problems, which will need to be overcome. Where necessary and possible, take some trial shots.  Personnel- make sure that all concerned, be they crew or cast, are fully conversant with where the shoot is to take place, their personal time of arrival and how long it is likely to last. With a dramatized documentary, try to avoid having the cast standing around for too long waiting for their scenes to be shot. It is a sure way to soon kill enthusiasm.  Sustenance- thought must also be given to refreshments and food, the cheapest option being to suggest that all personnel bring their food. Sometimes with a large-scale project catering responsibilities are also allocated.  Equipment-prepare a checklist of all the equipment likely to be needed, including, safe main power leads, and batteries for camcorders and other equipments, microphones, tripod, lights, reflector and enclosed headphones etc. don’t forget props.

1.5.Script Layout

Screenplay has to be formatted:

So it's easy to read. It may be OK to have a scruffy looking script if you are the only one who will use it, but to allow your cast and crew to make sense of it applying a few rules of formatting makes it easier to read.

There are two main types of fictional screenplay - the spec script and the shooting script. The spec script is what gets sent out to producers and actors, but we can probably forget about that as we are going to pick up a camera ourselves, so we can write a shooting script.

Layout

 Scripts are best typed on only one side of the paper in 12-point courier.  Double spacing between lines allows you to read the script easier.

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 Leave good borders around the script.

Keep to the above tips and you will have a well laid out script. This can help you time your script, as now one page of screenplay will equal one minute of screen time.

Slug Lines- the scene heading/slug line. Consists of either INT. Interior - eg. in a room or EXT. Exterior eg. on the street, the location eg. CITY STREET. NEW YORK followed by either DAY or NIGHT Forget about morning/afternoon/sunset etc. as it makes no difference when it is being filmed - no one is going to shoot you for filming in the afternoon and pretending it is the morning. Here are a few examples to give you a rough idea.

INT. MORTUARY – NIGHT EXT. RACE TRACK - DAY

Scenes inside cars are Interiors despite the fact that the car is outside. You may occasionally see EXT/INT or INT/EXT on a script. This occurs when the camera is in one location and the action is happening in another. For example:

INT/EXT. HOTEL LOBBY/CITY STREET - DAY

The camera or a character is watching the action occurring outside)

EXT/INT. CAR/APARTMENT - NIGHT

The camera or character is sitting in a car watching something happening through an apartment's window. Hey, maybe they’re on a stakeout or something!)

The Business: The scene direction/business. This tells the reader what is going on. Clear, concise. Always showing rather than telling. Don't say that:

DAVID is suffering inner torment because of his wife's kidnapping.

...show us!

DAVID runs his hands through his hair. Picks up a shot of bourbon, tastes it and winces. He throws the glass across the room, hitting the mirror, which SHATTERS. Write in the present tense. It gives events and action much more immediacy, like they are really happening, which is what you want.

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Dialogue

Dialogue appears in a column down the center of the page indented from the business. It’s in the form:

NAME Direction Hey, this is what your character says.

The name is straightforward right? It goes in Upper Case.

The direction isn't always given, in fact in a spec script you would provide hardly any - telling an actor how to act is as bad as telling a director how to direct! The only occasion you might put some in would be if dialogue was directed specifically at another character e.g. To Alberto or if it has to be said in a particular style Whispering.

And finally the dialogue itself. Try to keep it to a minimum, no long speeches here. That way there is less for your actors to remember and less for them to muck up. Good actors will always make the best of what you have written for them and can provide so much more with their intonation and body language, which you simply cannot write. I'm sure I read somewhere that only 20% of communication is speech.

Avoid exposition that's when you character explains something in detail - try and show rather than tell. Keep it simple and heed Lew Hunter's words 'Good dialogue is dialogue that illuminates what the characters are not saying'.

Character Names

When a character first appears their name in the scene direction should be in CAPITALS. After that their name is in lower case.

Try to avoid giving minor characters names like THUG 4 as its pretty demeaning to have to play such a lowly character - 'Hey, I'm not even playing THUG 2'. You needn't go to extremes and give them a full name unless the character is named by another character), just spice it up, so that when you offer the part to your friend, rather then being the fourth thug they could be a MEAN THUG or a TATTOED THUG.

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Sound

You can put important sounds in CAPITALS, so that monsters SHRIEK and cars EXPLODE, but this is up to you. Some people like to, others don't. If you do put sounds in upper case try not to overdo it. You see the word OVER used in scripts. This means that there is an important sound OVER the normal soundtrack e.g. music.

Camera Directions

As this is a shooting script we can add camera and actor directions to the script - i n a spec script you wouldn't do this - just like you wouldn't turn round to Coppola and say 'Do a Close Up here'. But as this is our show we get to play director. There are several abbreviations to speed the writing and reading along.

C/U - Close-up MS- Medium Shot LS - Long Shot Two-Shot - Shot of two characters in the same picture V.O. - voiceover O.S. - off screen P.O.V. - Point of view e.g. one of those wobbly cameras they use when someone is breaking into an apartment in a horror movie.

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M.O.S. - without sound. Apparently comes from "Mit out sound" which some German director used to shout or something. Great for when your characters are staking out some joint, watching the bad guys pull off some drug deal and they can't hear what they are saying.

Camera Movements

CRAB - camera moves completely to the left/right PAN- camera pivots left or right TILT - camera pivots up or down BOOM - camera moves up or down. DOLLY - camera moves in/out from subject ZOOM - camera zooms in/out from subject not strictly a camera movement because i t ’ s the lens that's moving not the camera)

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Transitions

These are how you change from one scene to another. They always sit over to the right of your script and on the whole you will find yourself using:-

CUT TO: which is a straight change of picture from one scene to the next.

There are some other transitions available but be careful, they have different connotations to the viewer.

DISSOLVE TO: The final shot of the previous scenes fades into the first shot of the next scene. This can be used to suggest the passing of time. And you will need a three-machine edit suite or a non-linear computer editing system to achieve this.

FADE IN: Usually used at the start of films, with FADE OUT used to end the movie. You can also use CUT TO BLACK a n d CUT FROM BLACK/CUT IN. You can use these transitions together to alter the mood and pace. For example:

NICK grins at ALBERTO. NICK: ‘You're even uglier than I remember’.

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CUT TO BLACK:

FADE IN:

INT. BEDROOM - DAY.

Story Treatment

Even though you may have a clear idea in your head of what you want to get across in a production, unless you can clearly communicate that idea to the people who can help you launch your production, that's just where your idea will stay - i n your head. The people involved in story treatment, include the producer, director, production crew, sponsor, and, most importantly, your audience.

Writing the Program Proposal or Treatment

The first step in a complex production is to write a clear and succinct summary of your ideas. We refer to this summary as a treatment in dramatic productions and a programme. A sample program proposal for a local TV station is often, just the process of putting things down on paper allows you to better organize and clarify your ideas. This step often reveals weaknesses and gaps you should address before it's too late. Or before you're asked about some embarrassing details you hadn't thought of.

Get Agreement on Your Proposal

Getting the go-ahead on a proposal affords everyone a bit of insurance. Once everyone agrees on the treatment or program proposal, it's difficult for someone to say later, "This isn't what we agreed on."

This is especially important in large production facilities and television networks, where a variety of people will be involved in program development. A simple program proposal may be just a couple of pages or, in the case of a feature-length dramatic production; a treatment can run 60 pages or more.

This is as good a place as any to mention the importance of writing.

There may even be some people out there who decided to go into TV rather than print journalism, for example) because they thought they might be able to escape having to learn how to write.

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A lthough it's a visual medium, TV is still based on the written word. W h e n you get down to it, your ability to write and effectively communicate your ideas ends up being the most important criterion for success. Unless you want to stick with the very basic jobs in TV, you have to face this reality -- and the sooner the better.

Interestingly, most producers the people in charge, remember?) arrived at their jobs by first being writers. Wouldn't you rather end up being someone who makes the major decisions and is paid accordingly?

Although we write them as an aid in presenting and getting agreement on the focus and direction of the production, we can also use them to interest key people in supporting the production especially financial backers.

See That Your Proposal Engages the Audience's Interest and Imagination

A program proposal or treatment should cover the essence of the production; or, in the case of a dramatic production, the basic story line.

Dramatic treatments also include the locations and talent required, as well as t h e key scenes. In non-dramatic program proposals, the basic production needs and approximate times of the segments are included.

Anyone reading a program proposal or treatment should be able to get a clear idea of the entire production. If disagreement exists on the program concept, it is much easier to change things at this stage than after the complete script is written.

Brief instructions on writing a treatment can be done.

Finally, the treatment or program proposal must engage the interest of readers and go a long way toward convincing them of the probable success of the production.

It would be difficult to think of any business that's more competitive than TV broadcasting. The average viewer in the United States has dozens of TV channels from which to choose. Each year, the TV industry spends millions of dollars trying to make successful new TV shows. And each year most of these attempts don't even make it to air broadcast.

First, Get Their Attention!

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The success of a TV show and, therefore, your own professional success will depend in large measure on your ability to effectively capture and hold an audience.

And, once you do, you'd better have something interesting to communicate or they'll quickly go elsewhere either tuning to another channel or just mentally tuning you out.

TV productions cost a lot of money, especially today. To cite just one example, in 1966 the budget for each full episode of Star Trek was $100,000. In 2003, each episode of Enterprise, which is similar in form, cost about $100,000 per minute t o produce. Today, the cost would be even higher. Before people put up that kind of money, they have to believe there will be some kind of return on their investment.

Depending on the type of production, that return may be to communicate a corporate message effectively, to get viewers to understand a series of concepts or, in the case of commercial television, to generate profits by selling products.

Hit the Target Audience)

A s we've noted, we use the term target audience to indicate the specific segment of a potential audience we're "aiming at." Regardless of the type of production, you must start with a clear understanding of the needs and interests of your specific target audience.

Advertisers spend millions of dollars determining these things. Depending on the products they want to sell, advertisers will have certain demographic preferences.

For designer jeans, for example, the target audience would be fairly affluent teenagers. The same advertisers wouldn't be interested in sponsoring reruns of Murder, She Wrote, which appeals primarily to an older audience.

By the way, the principles of determining the needs and interests of your target audience also apply to something as simple as producing a video for your class. If only an instructor will be evaluating your video, you'll probably take a different approach than if it's intended for a graduation party. In either case, meeting the needs of your target audience is the key to success.

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Using Audience-Engaging Techniques

We've noted that audiences react emotionally to program content. This is a key concept. Although people may want to believe they're being completely logical in evaluating a program, their underlying emotional reaction most influences their evaluation. Even a logical, educational presentation evokes -- for better or worse -- an emotional response.

W h a t types of production content is most apt to emotionally engage us? First, we have an interest in other people, especially in "experiencing the experiences" of other people.

We're interested in people who lead interesting romantic, dangerous, wretched, or engrossingly spiritual lives. Part of this involves gaining new insights and being exposed to new points of view. This includes learning new things.

Here's something else to keep in mind.

Viewers like content that reinforces their existing attitudes and, right or wrong, they tend to react against ideas that run contrary to their beliefs. Production people, therefore, must be careful in presenting ideas that blatantly challenge widely held beliefs.

The trick is to know how far you can go without alienating an audience.

To cite a rather extreme example, a number of years ago an East Coast TV station did an exposé on a local police chief. An undercover reporter put a camera in a lunch box and filmed the police chief clearly taking a bribe.

When the segment was broadcast, there was negative reaction — against the TV station.

It seems the police chief was popular with many influential people in the community and having the truth presented in this way challenged their commitment to this individual. This reaction on the part of many viewers was justified by cries of entrapment, a liberal media bias against a law-and-order official, etc.

This wasn't the first time a messenger was blamed for the message.

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The same negative anti-media reaction took place when former U.S. President Richard Nixon was forced to resign from office for engaging in illegal activities while in the White House. To see how this came about, rent the Academy Award winning feature-length film, All the President's Men. The film represents an important piece of U.S. history presented in a dramatic and even exciting way. It also illustrates how two tenacious reporters faced down major high-level opposition to expose wrongdoing. Eventually, a U.S. president had to resign. The reporters involved kept the identity of "Deep Throat," the inside informer involved, secret for several decades.

If a democracy is to be successful, the news media have a social responsibility to bring truth to light -- even though that truth may be unpopular.

A udiences also like to hear about things that are new and that generate excitement. This is why mystery, sex, fear, violence, and horror do so well at the box office.

It also explains why we see so many car chases, explosions, and general instances of mayhem in our films and TV programs. Such things stir our adrenaline and involve us emotionally. In short, they hold our attention.

This, of course, brings up the possibility of exploitation; presenting things that appeal to elements of human nature that how shall we say this aren't the most positive.

Sometimes a rather blurry line exists between honestly presenting ideas and stories and unduly emphasizing elements such as sex and violence just for the sake of grabbing and holding an audience. Beyond a certain point, audiences will sense they're being exploited and manipulated, and resent it.

And, keep in mind, the content of a production, good or bad, tends to rub off on the reputations of those who produce it and even on the sponsors who support it. With this general background on programming elements that appeal to audiences, we'll next turn to the production sequence.

1.6.BUDGET

A budget is a quantitative expression of plans. Business firms, governmental agencies, non-profit institutions, and even households commonly use it. While there is considerable variation in the scope, degree of formality, and level of sophistication applied to budgeting, most of the well-managed business firms use a 4 1 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Production Technologies budget, which is a comprehensive and coordinated plan for the operations and resources of the firm.

Most budgets are a matter of organizing essential expenses both from producing personnel and from the projected costs of the production and postproduction. The basis for much equipment and facility costs can be obtained from a rate card, which most production facilities and equipment suppliers make available to the potential clients.

Unfortunately, the best things in life are not always free. This applies especially to major television shows, which can cost several million dollars an hour to produce.

A lthough you may have come up with a truly great idea for a script -- one you're certain will make you famous! Unless you can raise the money to get it produced it'll remain simply that: a great idea.

So the first question is ‘what will it cost to produce’? We call this process costing out a production.

Traditionally, we think of expenses as falling into two broad areas: above the line and below the line.

A lthough the "line" blurs at times, above-the-line expense performing and producing elements: talent, script, music, and others.

Below-the-line elements refer to two broad areas:

 The physical elements: sets, props, make-up, wardrobe, graphics, transportation, production equipment, studio facilities, and editing  The technical personnel: stage manager, engineering personnel, video recording operators, audio operators, and general labor

To cost out a major production accurately, go beyond the above-the-line and below-the-line designations and divide production into at least 15 categories:

1. Pre-production costs 2.Location scouting and related travel expenses 3.Studio rental 4.Sets and set construction 5.On-location expenses 6.Equipment rental 4 2 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

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7.Video recording and duplication 8.Production crew costs 9.Producer, director, writer, creative fees 10.On-camera talent costs 11. Insurance, shooting permits, contingencies, etc. 12.On-line and off-line editing 13.Advertising, promotion, and publicity 14. Research and follow-up 15.Materials, supplies, and miscellaneous expenses

Smaller productions, of course, will not involve all of these categories.

Note that one of the categories covers equipment rental. Except for studio equipment that's used every day, it's often more economical to rent equipment rather than buy it.

First, production equipment especially cameras and recorders becomes outdated quickly. At more than $70,000 for a top-notch video camera, you might assume you'll recoup the cost through several years' use. If you pay cash for a $70,000 camera and use it five years, the cost breaks down to $14,000 a year, plus repair and maintenance expenses.

Even though the camera might still be reliable after five years or more, compared to the newer models it will be outdated. It may even be difficult to find repair parts.

Several different production facilities can use equipment available for rent, however. This means the rental company can write off the initial investment on their taxes more quickly, making it possible to replace the equipment with newer models.

Even for consumer grade equipment, the rental cost which may be only $50 a day might make sense if you'll use it for just a few days.

Second, the rental company, rather than the production facility, is responsible for repair, maintenance, and updating. If equipment breaks down during a shoot production, most rental companies replace it within a few hours.

Third, renting provides an income tax advantage. When equipment is purchased, it must be depreciated written off on income tax over a number of years. But sometimes this time span exceeds the practical usefulness of the equipment. This may mean that the production facility will need to sell the used equipment in order 4 3 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Production Technologies to recoup some of their initial investment. Companies often donate their equipment to schools for a tax write-off.

If you rent non-studio equipment, however, you can write it off immediately as a production expense.

Although rules governing income taxes change regularly, deducting the cost of rental equipment can represent a quicker, simpler and in many cases greater tax deduction.

Finally, when you rent equipment, you increase the opportunities to obtain equipment that will meet the specific needs of your production. Purchasing equipment can generate pressure to use it even though, at times, other makes and models might be better suited to your needs.

Again, in each of these examples, we're talking about equipment that you wouldn't use every day.

Approaches to Attributing Costs

Once you figure the cost of a production, you may need to justify it, either in terms of cost-effectiveness or expected results. There are three bases on which to measure cost effectiveness:

 Cost per minute  Cost per viewer  Cost vs. measured benefits

Cost per Minute Cost per minute is relatively easy to determine; simply divide the final production cost by the duration of the finished product. For example, if a 30-minute production costs $120,000, the cost per minute is $4,000.

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Introduction to Production Technologies

Cost per Viewer Cost per viewer is also relatively simple to figure out; divide the total production cost by the actual or anticipated audience. In the field of advertising, CPM or cost- per-thousand is a common measure. If 100,000 people see a show that costs $5,000 to produce, the CPM is $50. On a cost-per-viewer basis, this comes out to be only five cents a person.

Cost per Measured Results C ost per measured results is the most difficult to determine. Here, we must measure production costs against intended results. Suppose that after airing one 60-second commercial we'll sell 300,000 packages of razor blades at a resulting profit of $100,000. If we spent a million dollars producing and airing the commercial, we would have to question whether it was good investment.

But, advertisers air most ads more than once.

If the cost of TV time is $10,000 and we sell 300,000 packages of razor blades after each airing, we will soon show a profit. All of these "measured results" are easily determined by a calculator.

Return on Investment

Things may not be this simple, however. What if we also run ads in newspapers and on radio and we have huge, colorful displays in stores? Then it becomes difficult to determine the cost-effectiveness of each medium, and the question becomes, which approaches are paying off and which aren't?

And there can be another issue. We can count razor blades, but it may be more difficult to determine the returns on other "products." For example, it's very difficult to determine the effectiveness of programming on altering human behavior and attitudes.

How do you quantify the return on investment of public service announcements designed to get viewers to stop smoking, "buckle up for safety," or preserve clean air and water?

Even if we conduct before-and-after surveys to measure changes in public awareness, it can be almost impossible to factor out the influence of the host of other voices the public may encounter on that issue.

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Introduction to Production Technologies

Apart from in-depth interviews with viewers, we may have to rely largely on "the record."

If we know a series of 60-second TV spots increases razor blade sales by 300,000, we might assume a 60-second Advertisement would also have some influence on smoking, buckling seat belts, and preserving clean air and water. The question is how many people modified their behavior as a direct result of your advertising?

This is important for nonprofits and other organizations to know in order to determine the best use of their informational and educational dollars. With some of the major pre-production concerns covered, our next step is to become familiar with the tools of production.

Even if you have no interest in producing, the better your grasp of this issue, the better your chance of success. Why waste your time coming up with great ideas that may have little chance of making it to the screen?

And keep in mind that no production company will commit to a production without a reasonable idea of how much it'll cost.

FLOOR PLAN, SETS, MAKE-UP COSTUME, JEWELRY, LIGHTS, AUDIO

1.7.Floor Plan

Typical floor plan activities include:

 Checking that equipment, e.g. microphones and earpieces, are working before the show;  Seating the audience if in attendance);  Relaying instructions from the control room to the studio floor;  Keeping the director and producer informed of action off-camera;  Assisting in the planning and preparation of productions;  Overseeing the work of other departments, such as lighting and props;  Rehearsing live shows;  Giving cues and time counts to presenters, actors or guests;  Organizing runners to make the best use of studio time;  Looking ahead in the programme schedule to anticipate any changes to the set or to see what props are required later in the show;  Briefing and looking after those involved in the programme;

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 Managing the audience, explaining safety requirements, show timings and explaining what will happen during filming and when the programme will be aired;  Referring to floor plans;  Dealing with any technical problems or crises;  Controlling the studio and halting production if necessary;  Liaising with public relations staff to agree who will be interviewed, for example at sports matches;  Passing information and progress reports from live events to studio presenters;  Adhering to health and safety regulations, e.g. keeping 'safe areas' and fire exits clear of equipment.

In video production, an understanding of cameras, lenses, etc., is fundamental. But those who never get beyond this basic understanding, as essential as that might be, never distinguish themselves. At best, they will be considered good technicians.

Floor Manager

If you're well organized and can deal with the unexpected without losing your cool, you could enjoy being a floor manager at a television station. Prior to filming, the floor manager ensures that the sets, props and technical equipment are safe to use and in the right place. If there's an audience, floor managers are responsible for making sure people are seated in good time. When on-air, the director relays instructions through an earpiece and the floor manager gives cues to the presenters and guests to ensure timings are met. In a studio setting, the floor manager is the essential link between the director up in the gallery and the floor below.

Typical activities include:

 Relaying instructions from the control room to the studio floor;  Assisting in the planning and preparation of productions;  Rehearsing live shows;  Giving cues and time counts;  Keeping time;  Looking after the people involved, including the audience;  Referring to floor plans;  Tackling any crisis/conflict with calm authoritative control; and  Being diplomatic.

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Floor managers and assistant directors provide an essential link between the director and the other people involved in a production. They deal with important practicalities and make sure that everyone knows what to do and when.

Floor managers work across a range of television programmes. They are in charge of the production 'floor', which may be the main production area in a television studio or a temporary area for outside broadcasts. Their duties may include:

 assisting with planning and logistics  briefing presenters, performers and guests  ensuring that equipment is in place and technical checks carried out.  providing cues, timing and other information to presenters and performers.

Assistant Directors ADs perform a similar role in film, television drama, and commercials production. Their tasks might include:

 creating the filming schedule  controlling discipline on set  ensuring the health and safety of everyone on set and location.

Working hours are often long and irregular and are likely to involve early starts, late finishes, night and weekend work, and shift working. The work often involves standing for long periods. Working outdoors in all conditions may be necessary.

A floor manager/assistant director should:

 have excellent communication skills  have excellent organizational skills  be interested in the media and the way TV and film productions are made.

Floor managers work for terrestrial, satellite, digital and cable broadcasters as well as independent television production companies. Assistant directors work for film, television and commercials production companies. Most are freelance. TV floor managers may move into other areas of broadcasting, such as producing or directing. Assistant directors may progress to other production roles, such as line producer or producer.

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1.8.Sets & Locations

The sets & the location sites must fit the dramatic requirements of the scenario. However, there are other requirements, which can complicate the selection. The weather record of the proposed location for the past years is reviewed. Normally, shooting is done only in brilliant sunlight, and a few weeks of solid overcast or rain can play havoc with the budget. Before a location is selected, both the cameraman and the soundman should survey it. The writer, producer, and the director may have grand ideas, but it is the technicians who actually put the picture and sound on the film. They, too, have their problems.

In set design, as in composition, formal balance and regularity should be avoided. Certainly the traditional interior, set is elementary to design and easy to construct. But if all the sets in the programme are of that nature, the scenes may be monotonously alike and lack the compositional movement that comes with foreground pieces, winding stairs, interesting fireplaces, and large, bay windows. However, extremes in that direction are to be avoided.

The story and its mood, the editorial pattern and movement, the effects the director desires to secure-all must be considered in the design of the sets. In addition, the director must consider the conditions under which he will be working, the available

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Introduction to Production Technologies space, and the budget. After the director and the art director agree on all aspects of a set, the designers go to work on the plans. As the sets begin to assume their proportions on the stage, the director may be called in from time to time to answer questions about items not too clear in the plans and of which the art director is uncertain. Perhaps the carpenters and painters will also want to know how close the camera will come to a particular door.

A filming location is a place where some or all of a film or television series is produced, in addition to or instead of using s e t s constructed on a movie studio b a c k lotor soundstage. On location is a term used to describe the filming on such a real site. The term is often mistakenly believed to mean that the production is being filmed on the actual location in which its story is set, but this is not necessarily the case.

Location filming has several advantages over filming on a studio set:  It can be cheaper than constructing large sets  The illusion of reality can be stronger - it is hard to replicate real-world wear-and-tear, and architectural details

Its disadvantages include:  A lack of control over the environment - passing aircraft, traffic, pedestrians, bad weather, city regulations, etc.  Finding a real-world location which exactly matches the requirements of the script  Members of the audience may be familiar with a real-world location used to double as a fictional location  Taking a whole film crew to film on location can be extremely expensive

Location filming can provide significant economic development benefit to an area because local cast and crew use facilities such as catering and accommodation.

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Introduction to Production Technologies

Set Designer

Set designers are responsible for the visual aspects of a theatre, film or TV production. In film and TV they are often known as production designers.

The main tasks are likely to include:  studying scripts and discussing ideas with the director  researching details for the production  communicating ideas to costume, make-up, props and lighting designers  producing sketches, scale models and technical drawings and elevations of the proposed set or designs using computer-aided design CAD  supervising costs and set building.

Set designers may work on a resident permanent or freelance per production basis. Working hours vary. Some periods of long, unsocial hours are likely to ensure production deadlines are met. During quieter periods, freelancers may work in an additional, related area, such as model making or teaching.

Set designers should have:  imagination, creativity and the ability to communicate ideas to others  excellent visual awareness, drawing and design skills  an understanding of technical processes such as camera and lighting  an interest in cultures, lifestyles and historical periods.

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Set designers are involved in all aspects of “creating the scene,” from stage construction to costume creation to the use of props. They research, design, and supervise construction of the visual aids required in stage, film, and television productions. Set designers have above-average artistic ability. They are drawers, painters, sculptors, sewers, and carpenters of the set. Set designers usually start with freehand sketches of what the scene should be. They then move to scale models, working in tandem with the director of the production, the production manager, and writers. Once their plans are finalized, the set designer supervises construction workers who build the sets. They also work with people in charge of lighting and sound. They have to have a strong understanding of theatrical rigging and safety.

Lately, as the trend of movies using computer generated worlds, specially trained set designers are called upon to create fantastic worlds using a mouse and a keyboard. The set designer has to take into consideration a production’s budget when building sets. The smaller the budget, the more creative the set designer may have to be to build a world that entrances the audience without costing a fortune. Set designers mostly work in large production theaters and movie studios, and they work long hours, particularly up to the night of the first performance.

Scenic designer or set designer is the creation of theatrical, as well as film ortelevision scenery. Scenic designers have traditionally come from a variety of artistic backgrounds. The 'stage picture' is the 'look' or physical appearance of the stage for a play, whether in rehearsal or performance. It reflects the way that the stage iscomposed artistically in regard to props, actors, shapes and colours. The stage picture should express good principles of design and use of space. It should be visually appealing for the audience or should express the show's concept.

The scenic designer is responsible for collaborating with the theatre director a n d other members of the production design team to create an environment for the production and then communicating the details of this environment to the technical director, production manager, charge scenic artist and p r o p master. Scenic designers are responsible for creating scale models of the scenery, renderings, paint elevations and scale construction drawings as part of their communication with other production staff.

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A cyclorama is a panoramic painting on the inside of a cylindrical platform, designed to provide a viewer standing in the middle of the cylinder with a 360° view of the painting. The intended effect is to make a viewer, surrounded by the panoramic image, feel as if they were standing in the midst of a historic event or famous place."Cyclorama" can also refer to the building designed to show the panoramic painting pictured. A cyclorama is a large curtain or wall, often concave, positioned at the back of the stage area. It was popularized in the German theater of the 19th century and continues in common usage today in theaters throughout the world.

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1.9.MAKE UP

Makeup for Television and Film

T he use of makeup is divided into three categories:

 Basic - designed to compensate for undesirable changes in appearance introduced by the television process.  Corrective - designed to enhance positive attributes and downplay flaws.  Character - which introduces major changes in appearance

A lthough people might think that makeup is reserved for people "who just want to look better" on TV or in film, in actual fact, makeup may be required to just retain a subject's normal appearance.

This is because the television and film processes to some degree can introduce or make obvious undesirable attributes to skin tones and features. In particular, they can appreciably smooth out wrinkles and conceal minor blemishes.

Video engineers may not always want to apply these techniques, however, since they to some degree degrade optimum video sharpness, color, and quality. W ith the advent of high-definition television, the need for people skilled in the application of effective but subtle makeup has increased. As in most areas of television, makeup is an element that is best when it goes unnoticed.

Basic Makeup

In both film and video work, makeup on the face and possibly even the body is needed—especially for people who will be on camera any length of time.

For starters, normal skin contains a certain amount of oil that generally goes unnoticed until viewed in a close-up. The heat of studio lights and personal tension can exaggerate this shine. At the very least, subjects should use a face powder that matches their skin tone.

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After this, we move to so-called basic makeup.

For this, the skin should first be cleaned with mild soap or cleansing cream prior to the application of a makeup base or foundation. Both are available in either oil or water base, but the latter has the advantage of not requiring face powder and being easier to remove.

Before these are applied, it's best to use an astringent to tighten facial pores and prepare the skin.

A shade of base or foundation should be selected that matches the normal skin tones, unless the goal is to slightly lighten or darken all skin tones. In this case, it's best not to go beyond two shades lighter or darker than the normal tone.

There are some 20 shades available, and if for some reason the proper shade isn't available, shades can be mixed to provide an in-between shade.

A foam rubber sponge, which can be moistened slightly, is used to apply the base or foundation to the face, ears, and neck.

With deeply tanned skin tones it may be necessary to even out skin tones around the eyes or bridge of the nose by mixing the base or foundation with a touch of rouge. Other evidences of uneven tan, such as the halter strap marks over the shoulders of a woman, should be filled in so they blend with adjacent skin. Even right after shaving, dark-haired men will evidence "a five o'clock shadow" that can be reduced or eliminated by blending in the foundation or makeup base.

Lighting Considerations

Makeup should always be checked, and if possible even applied, under the lighting that will be used in photographing the subject.

Even when video cameras are properly color balanced, sunlight, incandescent, and fluorescent lighting will all affect subject matter in different ways. For this reason, many makeup mirrors have adjustments for each of these types of light.

This consideration is particularly important with fluorescent light—if you can't avoid that type of lighting— because these lights tend to be low in red light and high in green.

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Because normal skin tones contain a significant amount of green to start with, you may note obvious green skin tones under fluorescent light. The problem may be compounded if the makeup, itself, has green elements.

This is just another reason that you should use a high-quality, properly color- balanced video monitor to check the results.

The Eyes

Eyebrows should be brushed with a clean eyebrow brush and plucked of any stray or unruly hairs. Though bushy eyebrows may be acceptable for men, women should carefully shape their brows into a gentle arch that tapers off at the ends.

Making fine delicate strokes use an eyebrow pencil of an appropriate shade to fill in or reshape the eyebrows.

For women, a touch of eye shadow is almost always desirable. The dry powder or cake type of eye shadow is preferred over the cream type, since it both lends itself to easier and more subtle blending and holds up better under hot studio lights.

Whether a woman's eye shadow should match her eyes, clothes, or neither, are a fashion opinion, which can vary from season to season. Whatever the color choice, it should be subtle.

A darker shade of the same color used on the eyelids or a soft brown shade) can be lightly brushed into the lid crease to add depth and size to the eye. Women with heavy-lidded eyes should avoid this last technique because it will probably emphasize the problem. A dot of ivory or pale yellow eye shadow smoothed under the brow bone will lighten and "open" the eyes.

Eyeliner can be applied close to the top lashes either by using a soft, fine brush or a sharp eyebrow pencil. An eyelash curler and a light application of mascara will accent eyelashes. Excess clumps of mascara should be removed with a few upward 5 6 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

ntroduction to Production Technologies strokes of a clean brush. False eyelashes can be used, but they should be carefully trimmed to fit the individual's eyes.

The Lips

A nother aspect of particular importance to women is the proper selection of lipstick. Some types of lipstick and rouge not designed for television have a latent blue hue, which can take on a decided purple appearance w h e n photographed. A pure red lipstick that will harmonize with the skin coloration and wardrobe is best. At the same time you will not want to choose a bright red lipstick that will dominate the face and create a garish appearance.

Before applying lipstick, lips should be outlined by using either a lipstick brush or a lip pencil. If the lips are well proportioned, this accentuates them. But lip outlining can also be used as a corrective technique.

People with either overly thin or full lips can improve their lip line by first covering their lips with their base makeup and then drawing or outlining a more desired shape. A lip brush should also be used to give color to the entire lip.

After the application of lipstick, you should blot the lips with a tissue to avoid an unnatural shine. Lip-gloss is generally undesirable for television. Although lipstick is not generally used on men, it is sometimes appropriate to add a touch of a natural-colored lipstick to smooth out a possible line between the lips and the beginning of the base makeup. A brown shade of lipstick applied with a brush is recommended.

Hands, Ears, and Teeth

I f hands are to appear on camera, as when products are demonstrated through close-ups, special care must be taken.

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Use an appropriate shade of makeup base to ensure that hands match other parts of the body and to minimize wrinkles and color variations.

Nails should be well manicured. Clear or colored fingernail polish can be used. The appearance of the hands should be carefully checked on a TV monitor prior to a production. Extreme close-ups will often reveal makeup flaws that are not normally visible.

Because they are often slightly lighter and redder than adjacent skin tones, ears can be a special problem. Added to this is the fact that backlights will often shine through ears to some degree, further raising their tonal value.

To control this and bring ears back to their proper tonal perspective, they should be covered with a base makeup that is two or three shades darker than the face. The makeup base should then be covered with a translucent face powder.

Bad teeth can be minimized with an appropriate shade of tooth enamel or dentine fluid. Special coverings are available for this purpose.

The Body

Since more and more skin seems to be showing up in films and on TV, we need to mention parts of the body other than the face and hands.

Elbows, knees, and ankles can look unnaturally dark unless you use makeup to lighten these areas. Using a Q-tip, or the edge of a sponge, stretch marks on the stomach can be "painted in" to some degree with a liquid makeup two to four shades lighter than the base.

With dark-haired individuals, areas of the body that have been shaved will need the same treatment. Scars and removed tattoos will take extra amounts of base or foundation. Often, you can use liberal amounts the same shade as adjacent skin.

Dark-Skinned People

The makeup needs of dark-skinned people are not greatly different from those that have been outlined. Appropriate shades of makeup are available for most of the darker skin tones; however, to arrive at the needed tone, it may be necessary to do more in the way of blending different makeup shades.

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Generally, makeup for dark-skinned people should be applied sparingly. Black males and other males with dark skin may not need makeup at all. They often photograph well without it.

Problems can arise, however, with very dark-skinned black males who do not exhibit natural skin sheen, since the tonal reflectance level can drop so low that a loss of form and dimension results. It is desirable to preserve these highlights, and occasionally even accent them with baby oil or glycerin.

Concealing and Emphasizing Facial

Features with Corrective Makeup

Through corrective makeup procedures it may be necessary to play down undesirable facial features and emphasize positive attributes through contouring and highlighting.

In corrective makeup we are starting with the base or foundation and then blending in shades or makeup that are either darker or lighter.

In contouring, a darker shade of makeup than the foundation or base is used to downplay features, such as a high forehead or an overly prominent nose. Contouring can also be used to bring out the classic jaw line that's seen as desirable for women.

In this case, a darker shade of makeup is carefully blended into the foundation or base. To achieve this "classic look," the darker makeup will go from the chin line up to the earlobes and into the hollows of the cheeks.

In highlighting, the object is to reverse this effect— to emphasize or pull the eye toward certain facial features or areas. In this case, use a shade of makeup that is lighter than the foundation or base.

This approach should also be used in shadowy areas under the eyes and under the lower lip to keep them from looking unusually dark on camera. Either use makeup two to three shades lighter than the base, or a translucent white highlighter.

In the case of both men and women, color can be added to the cheeks by mixing a very light trace of rouge with the existing base makeup and then blending it in with a sponge.

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After all this is done, it's often necessary to use some transparent powder to dull down some but not all of the facial sheen. This is normally applied with a powder puff or soft bristled brush.

Sometimes there will be light spots on the skin, due to aging or whatever, that can be covered with a tanning spray—such as Wall greens Deep Dark Tan Sunless Tanning Spray—carefully painted on with a Q-tip. The spray rather than the lotion is best for this.

Since it takes a number of hours—even up to a day—before the effect becomes noticed, this is a technique that definitely requires planning ahead. And, since results aren't immediately apparent and last several days, you need to experiment with this technique well in advance of going on camera.

However, once mastered, this represents a relatively inexpensive and convenient way of keeping this type of skin discoloration hidden. Prescription skin dye is also available, for this purpose, but it's quite expensive.

Makeup Removal

Women may prefer to leave makeup on after leaving the TV studio. Unlike stage makeup, it should be so natural looking that there should be no need to remove it, especially early in the day. Men, being a bit more sensitive to these things, will probably want to remove makeup with a cleansing cream or lotion. After removing makeup, women may want to use an astringent to condition their skin. Men can use aftershave lotion for the same purpose.

Character makeup covers great range, from adding or subjecting years, to today's grisly science fiction and horror-film transformations. It would take a good-sized book to cover character makeup; and, in fact, numerous books have been written on the subject.

Rehearsals

In the past few years, some directors have taken advantage of what is called the pre-production rehearsals. Usually, during production, considerable time is consumed while the actors rehearse. It is impracticable to do much lighting or camera rehearsing until the action is pretty well jelled, and this is time wasted fro the crew. Thus, pre-production rehearsals for the cast accomplished a twofold purpose: they eliminate wasted time for the crew, and they enable the actors to give a more finished performance. 6 0 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

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1.10TV COSTUMES

TV productions usually require a costume team comprising of a Costume Designer, Costume Assistant or Wardrobe Supervisor and two dressers.

A programme may take weeks or months to film, and such a team is required in order to collate and maintain costumes, paying particular attention to the portrayal of characters and costume continuity. In general a filming day for wardrobe would begin at 6.30 or 7am and end at 7.30 or 8pm. It would be filmed on location and or in studio.

Light Entertainment and Comedy shows normally have a different schedule and may involve either a team of people or one wardrobe person alone. If it is an individual who is employed they would still be required to fulfil the activities of the whole department!

In the Wardrobe Department you find the following positions

 Costume Designer  Costume Assistant or Wardrobe Supervisor  Dressers or Wardrobe Mistress orMaster

The Role of the Costume Designer

Coordination and sourcing of costumes for a TV Programme, modern or period. There is input from the director and actors. A team of assistants helps to ensure the smooth running of a production. Once initial script reading has taken place, the process starts with bringing together costumes for each character.

As the designer is required to work to a budget, items are purchased hired or made according to the funds available. In addition to the garments required, jewellery and accessories have to be sourced; they can make a major contribution to the ambience of the production.

Wardrobe is required for Period and Modern Drama, Comedy, Light Entertainment and the Arts in Film, Television and Theatre. If the production is a period piece or involves specific sectors of the community, for example military, clerical or industrial the costumes must be researched thoroughly in order to achieve the accuracy necessary to make the production look entirely authentic. In accordance with the script, garments may need to be broken down, distressed with imitation 6 1 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Production Technologies blood, mud, oil or require some other particular attention. Costumes for an Actor must enable him or her to feel appropriate to the character being portrayed.

Wardrobe assistants help to make or source the costumes for theatre, TV and film productions.

The job might include:  helping to make or assemble costumes  buying and hiring suitable costumes and accessories  mending, altering, cleaning, washing, ironing, packing and storing costumes  fitting performers with costumes and accessories  organizing and keeping records of outfits  making sure all items are ready to wear when needed.

Wardrobe assistants work variable, often unsocial hours. Some work part time. Work in film/TV may involve being away from home for long periods.

A TV/film/theatre wardrobe assistant should:  have good sewing, altering and ironing skills  have a good memory and an eye for detail  be calm and sensitive when helping performers to dress and change  be prepared to work under pressure, and for long, often unsocial hours  have a strong interest and knowledge of costumes from different periods.

Wardrobe assistants work in theatres and concert halls, and for film and TV production companies, touring artists and companies. There are no set entry requirements for becoming a wardrobe assistant. The key to getting work is gaining practical experience, and a real interest in costume and good sewing skills are equally important. Some people enter the profession full time after working as part-time or casual wardrobe staff with a local theatre or production company.

Competition is fierce, though, so many assistants will have gained one of a range of costume related diplomas or degrees. Many of the skills required for theatre and TV/film costume work are learnt on the job.

An experienced wardrobe assistant may gain promotion to wardrobe supervisor. Those working in theatre may need to attend short courses or training to progress into film and TV work. Some go on to work in costume design, to specialize in an area such as historical costume or to act as consultants in a particular field.

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A Costume Assistant works closely with the costume designer during the initial prep time and throughout the making of the programme. Assisting the designer in fittings, the purchase or hiring of garment, liaising with actors, production and the rest of the wardrobe team. The role of the assistant comes to the fore on set when filming actually takes place. He or she will be responsible for continuity. As scenes are often filmed out of sequence, over various story days, costume continuity is of the utmost importance. On larger budget dramas the assistant will have a team of dressers as aides.

1.11 Jewellery for TV

Jewellery can represent two problems. First, if it's highly reflective, the results can range from a simple distraction to the creation of annoying streaks in the video. The simplest solution is to either substitute non-reflective jewelry or possibly remove it all together. The second problem with jewelry such as necklaces and beads is noise -- especially if it comes in contact with a personal mic.

1.12. Television Sound

Until rather recently, far more attention was paid to video in television than to audio. "Good sound" was when you could make out what was being said; "bad sound" was when you couldn't. This has changed. With the advent of stereo and surround-sound, audiences have much greater expectations.

Before we can discuss some of the basic audio production concepts, sound itself must be understood. Sound has two basic characteristics that must be controlled: loudness and frequency.

Loudness

Although sound loudness is commonly measured in decibels dBs, that term actually refers to two different things.

First is dBSPL for sound pressure loudness, which is a measure of acoustic power. These are sounds we can directly hear with our ears.

These decibels go to and beyond 135, which is considered the threshold of pain and, by the way, the point at which permanent ear damage can occur. If your ears "ring" after being around a loud sound, this should be a warning sign that you have crossed the threshold of potential hearing damage. The damage, which is

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: Introduction to Production Technologies irreversible, often goes unnoticed, which probably explains why the average 50- year-old in some countries has better hearing than many U.S. teenagers.

Frequency

Frequency relates to the basic pitch of a sound -- how high or low it is. A frequency of 20 Hz would sound like an extremely low-pitched note on a pipe organ -- almost a rumble. At the other end of the scale, 20,000 Hz would be the highest pitched sound that most people can perceive, even higher than the highest note on a violin or piccolo.

Frequency is measured in Hertz Hz or cycles per second CPS). A person with exceptionally good hearing will be able to hear sounds from 20-20,000 Hz. Generally, women can hear higher frequencies than men.

Since both ends of the 20-20,000Hz range represent rather extreme limits, the more common range used for television production is from 50 to 15,000 Hz. Although it doesn't quite cover the full range that can be perceived by people with good hearing, this range does cover almost all naturally occurring sounds.

The Frequency-Loudness Relationship

Even though sounds of different frequencies may technically be equal in loudness register the same on a VU meter) , human hearing does not perceive them as being of equal strength.

The red line on the graph roughly shows the frequency response of the human ear to different frequencies. Because of the reduced sensitivity of the ear to both high and low frequencies, these sounds must be louder to be perceived as being equal to other frequencies.

Listening Conditions

Equipment and listening conditions also greatly affect how different frequencies will be perceived. To compensate for some of these problems, we can adjust bass and treble controls of playback equipment.

More sophisticated equipment will include a graphic equalizer, which goes a step further and allows specific bands of frequencies to be individually adjusted for loudness.

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A graphic equalizer may be necessary to match audio segments recorded under different conditions, or simply to customize audio playback to the acoustics of a specific listening area. Note that the graphic equalizer shown here can control nine specific frequency areas.

Any piece of audio equipment -- microphone, amplifier, recorder, or audio speaker -- can adversely affect the fidelity of sound. However, it's the microphone t h e initial device that transducers sound waves into electrical energy and the audio speaker the device that changes electrical energy back into sound waves that represent the weakest links in audio quality.

To some degree it's possible to use graphic equalizers and other audio equipment to "clean up" the frequency response of a poor microphone. However, even the most sophisticated audio techniques can't work miracles. Thus, the better the original audio signal, the better the final product will be.

Sound, both as it's recorded and played back, is more affected by the acoustics of a room or studio than most people realize. In an effort to create totally soundproof studios, early radio stations used to use thick carpets on the floors and heavy soundproofing on the walls.

Although possibly successful as soundproofing, the result was a lifeless and dead effect that we're not used to hearing in a normal environment, such as our living rooms.

Two types of soundproofing material are:

 Parallel walls that reflect sound, the result is reverberation a slight echo that interferes with the intelligibility of speech.  The ideal room for recording or listening to sound has just enough reverberation to sound realistic, similar to your living room possibly, but not enough to reduce the intelligibility of speech.

1.13SHOOTING SCHEDULE

A shooting schedule is aproject plan of each day's shooting for a film production. It is normally created and managed by the assistant director, who reports to the production manager managing the production schedule. Both schedules represent a timeline stating where and when production resources are used.

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Script—> Shot List—> Shooting Schedule

When you go on a shoot, you’ll want to have a few different kinds of paper records of your ideas to guide you through the often technical and time-consuming process of getting images on tape.

Because scenes are often filmed out of sequence and out of a continuous line of progression, daily schedules must be planned. The shooting schedule contains the locations, times, equipment and personnel required for a day's shoot. The schedule itself may be compiled for a single day but is usually planned ahead for a number of days if not a week.

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1.14. Storyboards are graphic organizers such as a series of illustrations o r images displayed in sequence for the purpose of pre-visualizing a motion graphic orinteractive media sequence.

The storyboarding process, in the form it is known today, was developed at the Walt Disney studio during the early 1930s, after several years of similar processes being in use at Disney and other animation studios. Storyboarding became popular in live-action film production during the early 1940s.

A storyboard is essentially a large comic of the film or some section of the film produced beforehand to help film directors, cinematographers and television commercial advertising clients visualize the scenes and find potential problems before they occur. Often storyboards include arrows or instructions that indicate movement.

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In creating a motion picture with any degree of fidelity to a script, a storyboard provides a visual layout of events as they are to be seen through the camera lens. In the storyboarding process, most technical details involved in crafting a film can be efficiently described either in picture, or in additional text.

Some live-action directors, such as Joel and Ethan Coen, storyboard extensively before taking the pitch to their funders, stating that it helps them get the figure they are looking for since they can show exactly where the money will be used. Other directors storyboard only certain scenes, or not at all. Animation directors are usually required to storyboard extensively, sometimes in place of doing a script.

Storyboards were adapted from the film industry to business, purportedly by Howard Hughes ofHughes Aircraft. Today they are used by industry for planning ad campaigns, commercials, a proposal or other projects intended to convince or compel to action.

A "quality storyboard" is a tool to help facilitate the introduction of a quality improvement process into an organization. More recently the term "storyboard" has been used in the fields of web development, software development and instructional design to present and describe interactive events as well as motion o n user interfaces, electronic pages a n d presentation screens.

One advantage of using storyboards is that it allows in film and business the user to experiment with changes in the storyline to evoke stronger reaction or interest. Flashbacks, for instance, are often the result of sorting storyboards out of chronological order to help build suspense and interest.

The process of visual thinking and planning allows a group of people to brainstorm together, placing their ideas on storyboards and then arranging the storyboards on the wall. This fosters more ideas and generates consensus inside the group.

A storyboard is an extremely valuable tool, if you have time to make one. If you don’t make a storyboard, at the very least you need to create a shot list — a version of the script that breaks down the story into a series of shots, and describes each in simple notation of scale and subject.

The shot list included here uses arrows down the right side to indicate nonconsecutive shots that can and should be filmed in continuous takes — that is, the director plans to cutaway briefly to a reaction and then return to the same

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Introduction to Production Technologies image, so there’s no reason to stop the camera. The parenthesis indicates the cutaways that are bracketed by the continuous shots.

The function of the shot list during the shoot is that it allows the filmmaker to quickly place the particular shot being recorded into the larger narrative context of the production.

Since it is extremely inefficient to shoot a story in the order the shots appear in the final production — if a dialogue scene cuts back and forth between two people, you’d have to keep resetting the tripod and lighting over and over, repeating all your tech labor after each little snippet — films are always shot out of sequence, organized in a way to get as many of the same kind of shot in a single setup as possible. Do all the shots from one side of scene at once; do all the shots in the same location at once, no matter if some come at the very beginning of the story and some at the very end. This requires pre-planning: the goal being to arrange the shoot so that it requires the least amount of repetitive labor — a big make-up change is more complicated than a camera set-up, so that would take priority, and so on.

The plan for exactly what gets shot in what order is called the shooting schedule. As you go through the shooting schedule, check off each shot as you complete a satisfactory take — then check it off on the shot list too. Just having a shooting schedule is not enough, because you quickly lose the sense of what’s reall y supposed to be happening in the shot when you look at all the notations out of sequence.

The shot list and shooting schedule examples here contain the minimal amount of information you’d want such documents to contain. On the one hand, you want to keepthem compact, using as few sheets of paper as possible, so you can keep the paperwork organized amidst any chaos on the set. On the other hand, more detailed notes can help you avoid potential problems more readily.

One thing that is recommended, is adding to the info shown in these examples, a note about continuity — how you get will need to get into or out of a shot in editing. Indicate where you may have a Match-On-Action planned by noting ‘MOA’; make notes on where the screen direction of eye lines, exits/entrances should be at the beginning and end of shots. All of these things are very easy to forget if they’re not written down.

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Cue Sheet

A cue sheet, orcue file, is ametadata file which describes how the tracks of a CD o r DVD are laid out. Cue sheets are stored as plain text files and commonly have a ".cue" filename extension. CDRWIN first introduced cue sheets, which are now supported by many optical disc authoring applications and media players.

For an audio CD, a cue sheet specifies titles and performers for the disc and its tracks as well as the names of one or more audio files to be used. MP3, WAV, and BIN files are often used, although some programs support other formats. Cue sheets are especially useful when burning or listening to live sets where all tracks are recorded in one file. Cue sheets are also used for many types of CDs in conjunction with an image file. The image file generally has a ".bin" extension.

1.15POST - PRODUCTION

Post-production occurs in the making of audio recordings, films/movies, photography a n d digital art, videos and television programs. It is the general term for all stages of production occurring after the actual recording and ending with the completed work.

Post-production is in fact many different processes grouped under one name. These typically include:

 Editing the picture / TV program  Editing the soundtrack.  Writing and recording the soundtrack music.  Adding visual special effects - mainly computer generated imagery CGI) and digital copy from which release prints will be made although this may be made obsolete soon by digital cinema technologies.

Typically, the post-production phase of creating a film takes longer than the actual shooting of the film, and can take several months to complete.

Other film production stages include very broadly - financing, pre-production, writing the screenplay, rewriting the screenplay repeat, and the actual shooting.

Movie making is a complicated business, but the workload is generally split into three sections: pre-production, principal shooting and postproduction. Pre-

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: Introduction to Production Technologies production involves matters such as scriptwriting, financial backing, hiring of cast and crew, and scouting for locations. Once all of these details have been worked out, principal shooting can begin. This is the actual filming of individual scenes, without any special effects or musical background. Because time is money, principal shooting days are often long and hectic for actors and crew alike.

A l l of this planning and filming leads up to the most vital aspect of film making -- post production work. P o s t production turns individual scenes, called raw footage, into a finished motion picture. Editors splice all of the usable footage together into a coherent storyline according to the script. Composers add background music to create dramatic or comical effects. Special effects teams add computer-generated images and backgrounds to enhance the set or provide an as-yet-unseen character. All of this work can only be performed during post production.

Post production may also involve fixing mistakes not corrected during principal shooting. Quite often an actor's microphone will not pick up crucial bits of dialogue or another microphone may pick up extraneous noises. During post production, an actor may have to return to a sound booth in order to re-record lost dialogue or improve the original delivery. This is called looping. Another function of post production is to add incidental sound effects not captured during the original scenes. A specialist called a Foley artist will record such sounds as an actor's footsteps, a creaking door or gunshots.

Many directors and producers rely heavily on the ability of post production teams to create a marketable film. Since principal shooting can be a hectic time for both actors and directors, some footage may prove to be unusable during the post production editing process. A film's original ending may also be unpopular with test audiences. This could lead to reshoots with the principal actors before a final film is produced. Other responsibilities during post production may include publicity tours, promotional posters, and contracts with distributors and the creation of auxiliary formats such as DVDs and soundtrack albums.

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1.16 P o s t - production Editing

The Editor's Cut

There are several editing stages and the editor's cut is the first. An editor's cut sometimes referred to as the "assembly edit" or "rough cut" is normally the first pass of what the final film will be when it reaches picture lock.

The film editor usually starts working while principal photography shooting starts. In the first stage of editing the film editor will usually work alone save for his or her own team of assistant editors, associate or co -editors and/or visual effects and music editors. Likely, prior to cutting, the editor and director will have seen and/or discussed "dailies" raw footag e shot each day as shooting progresses. Screening dailies gives the editor a ballpark idea of the director's intentions.

Because it is the first pass, the editor's cut might be somewhat longer than the final film. The editor continues to refine the cut while shooting continues, and often the entire editing process goes on for many months and sometimes more than a year, depending on the film.

The Director's Cut

When shooting is finished, the director can then turn his or her full attention to collaborating with the editor and further refining the cut of the film. This is the time that is set aside where the film editor's first cut is molded to fit the director's vision, and before the studio and/or producers are generally allowed to have input. In the United States, under DGA rules directors receive a minimum of ten weeks after completion of principal photography to prepare their first cut.

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While collaborating on what is referred to as the "director's cut," the director a n d the editor go over the entire movie with a fine tooth comb; scenes and shots are re- ordered, removed, shortened and otherwise tweaked. Often it is discovered that there are plot holes, missing shots or even missing segments which might require that new scenes be filmed.

Because of this time working closely and collaborating - a period that is normally far longer, and far more intimately involved, than the entire production and filming - m o s t directors and editors form a unique artistic bond.

The Producers vs. the Director

Often after the director has had his or her chance to oversee a cut, the subsequent cuts are supervised by one or more producers, who represent the production company and/or movie studio. At times, the final cut of films produced by the major studios is the one that most closely represents what the studio wants from the film and not necessarily what the director wants. Because of this, there have been several conflicts in the past between the director and the studio, sometimes leading to the use of credit signifying disownership.

Some directors are also the producers of their films, and, with the approval of the funding studio, have a much tighter grip on what makes the final cut than other directors. Independent directors who work outside of the "studio system" are usually freer to have a final cut; thus independent films often take more risks and have more creative rewards than studio films.

Continuity

Often a film editor is blamed for improper continuity. For example, cutting from a shot where the beer glass is empty to one where it is full. Continuity is, in fact, very nearly last on a film editor's list of important things to maintain. Continuity is typically the business of the script supervisor a n d film director, who are together responsible for preserving continuity and preventing errors from take to take and shot to shot. Generally speaking, the editor utilizes the script supervisor's notes during post-production to log and keep track of the vast amounts of footage and takes that a director might shoot. However, to most editors what is more important than continuity is the editing of emotional and storytelling aspects of any given film - something that is much more abstract and harder to judge - which is why films often take much longer to edit than to shoot.

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Methods of Montage

In motion picture terminology, a montage from the French for "putting together" or "assembly" is a film editing technique.

There are at least three senses of the term:

1.In French film practice, "montage" has its literal French meaning and simply identifies a movie's editor. 2.In Soviet filmmaking of the 1920s, "montage" was a method of juxtaposing shots to derive new meaning that did not exist in either shot alone. 3.In classical Hollywood cinema, a "montage sequence" is a short segment in a film in which narrative information is presented in a condensed fashion. This is the most common meaning among laymen.

Continuity Editing

What became known as the popular 'classical Hollywood' style of editing was developed by early European and American directors, in particular D.W. Griffith in his films such as The Birth of a Nation a n d Intolerance. The classical style ensures temporal and spatial continuity as a way of advancing narrative, using such techniques as the 180 degree rule, establishing shot, and Shot reverse shot.

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Editing Techniques

The original editing machine

Stanley Kubrick noted that the editing process is the one phase of production that is truly unique to motion pictures. Every other aspect of filmmaking originated in a different medium than film photography, art direction, writing, sound recording, but editing is the one process that is unique to film. In his book, On Film Editing, Edward Dmytryk stipulates seven "rules of cutting" that a good editor should follow:

Rule 1 : Never make a cut without a positive reason. Rule 2: When undecided about the exact frame to cut on, cut long rather than short". Rule 3: Whenever possible cut 'in movement'. Rule 4: The 'fresh' is preferable to the 'stale'. Rule 5: All scenes should begin and end with continuing action. Rule 6: Cut for proper values rather than proper 'matches'. Rule 7: Substance first—then form.

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W h e n it comes to film editing, there are six main criteria for evaluating a cut or deciding where to cut. They are i n order of importance, most important first:  emotion — Does the cut reflect what the editor believes the audience should be feeling at that moment?  story — Does the cut advance the story?  rhythm — Does the cut occur "at a moment that is rhythmically interesting and 'right'"?  eye-trace — Does the cut pay respect to "the location and movement of the audience's focus of interest within the frame"?  two-dimensional place of the screen — Does the cut respect the 180 degree rule?  three-dimensional space of action — Is the cut true to the physical/spatial relationships within the diegesis?

Film Editing

Film editing is part of the process of filmmaking. It involves the selection and combining of shots into sequences, and ultimately creating a finished motion picture. It is an art o f storytelling. Film editing is the only art that is unique to cinema, separating film-making from other art forms that preceded it such 7 6 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

2 : Introduction to Production Technologies as photography, theater, dance, writing, and directing, although there are close parallels to the editing process in other art forms like poetry ornovel writing. Film editing is often referred to as the "invisible art" because when it is well-practiced, the viewer can become so engaged that he or she is not even aware of the editor's work.

On its most fundamental level, film editing is the art, technique, and practice of assembling shots into a coherent whole. A film editor is a person who practices film editing by assembling the footage. However, the job of an editor isn’t simply to mechanically put pieces of a film together, cut off film slates, or edit dialogue scenes. A film editor must creatively work with the layers of images, story, dialogue, music, pacing, as well as the actors' performances to effectively "re- imagine" and even rewrite the film to craft a cohesive whole. Editors usually play a dynamic role in the making of a film.

With the advent of digital editing, film editors and their assistants have become responsible for many areas of filmmaking that used to be the responsibility of others. For instance, in past years, picture editors dealt only with just that— picture. Sound, music, and more recently visual effects editors dealt with the practicalities of other aspects of the editing process, usually under the direction of the picture editor and director. However, digital systems have increasingly put these responsibilities on the picture editor. It is common, especially on lower budget films, for the assistant editors or even the editor to cut in music, mock up visual effects, and add sound effects or other sound replacements. These temporary elements are usually replaced with more refined final elements by the sound, music, and visual effects teams hired to complete the picture.

Film editing is an art that can be used in diverse ways. It can create sensually provocative montages; become a laboratory for experimental cinema; bring out the emotional truth in an actor's performance; create a point of view on otherwise obtuse events; guide the telling and pace of a story; create an illusion of danger where there is none; give emphasis to things that would not have otherwise been noted; and even create a vital subconscious emotional connection to the viewer, among many other possibilities.

1.17 Crew for Production

Following is a list of crew positions you could encounter in a multi-camera television production. Not all positions will be filled all of the time--smaller

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Introduction to Production Technologies productions will not have some of the more specialized job duties or one person will fill several positions. Larger productions will have more specialized positions and assistants or associates to provide, well, assistance.  Producer: Executive, Associate, Line, etc.  Director: Associate, Assistant, Floor, Technical  Writer  Set Designer  Makeup/Wardrobe  Talent  Audio Engineer A1, A2  Video Engineer  Videotape Engineer/Operator  Camera Operator  Production Assistant

It is important that each person understands and performs his/her job responsibilities with maximum efficiency. Multi-camera television production is teamwork, and for the team to operate effectively, it must coordinate and communicate. While the television production process may at times appear to be a confusing ballet lyrics in Italian, there is a method to the madness. Please read and put into practice the following procedures for studio set-up and strike.

Set-up Responsibilities

Producer & Director

Learn to delegate responsibility. If you personally move props, cue music, or tweak lights you are wasting valuable time. The more you can put on paper prior to the day of production the less you'll have to try to remember. If the program is fully scripted, spend time with the script and mark it carefully. Become very familiar with any pre-produced elements. If the program is not fully scripted, study the subject matter of the show in order that you might be able to anticipate the direction and flow of the show. The more organized and prepared that you are the less chance for disorganization and confusion when those inevitable changes arise.

Assignments to your crew must be clear, oftentimes in written form, and usually distributed in the following order:

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1 Give the floor director his/her floor plan and directions as to the set design and dressing. Usually a floor assistants will be available to help with the set -up. Ideally you will have met with the FD before class, so he/she has a good idea of what you are doing.

2 Provide your audio engineer with his/her specially marked script and explain exactly what you want in the way of microphones, audio carts, CDs, etc. Often this can, and should, be written down to save time during production.

3 Provide ori entation for your camera operators as to position, main subject for each camera, shot lists, etc. Give operators shot sheets if warranted. Remember; remain flexible so that changes during rehearsal can be incorporated in the final taping/broadcast. Cameras will not be ready to move into position for rehearsal until the basic set and lighting are completed.

4 Meet with your talent to firm up last minute details and to make him/her comfortable in what may be a strange environment. It is important for the FD to meet with the talent to explain what is taking place during rehearsal and what will take place during the actual production. Also, hand signals and cues must be reviewed so that the FD and talent are "communicating".

5 Provide your production assista nt or graphics operator with a detailed list of graphics to be inserted and a copy of the script with graphics noted. Ideally the graphics will already be composed and stored to disk. If so, disk page numbers will be highlighted on the PA's script. Ask the PA to double-check the graphic pages for accuracy.

6 Make sure that your videotape operator has any playback tapes with cue points noted and the record tape(s. Ask the VT operator to review the playback segments that will be used in order to gain familiarity with them.

7 Check out your technical director on any special or unusual switcher effects to be used. Routine switcher transitions should be picked up during the run through and rehearsal.

8 Review the program with your assistant director maki ng sure that he/she understands the flow of the program and knows what time cues will be needed. Important--Make sure that you, your AD and talent all agree as to whether the time remaining cues are to end of talent, or end of show.

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Run Through: Begin a run through of your shots as soon as talent and cameras can get into position. Check all your shots in the order that they appear in the program. Do this first run through in the studio, as you watch the studio monitor. Any changes can be noted by your assistant director and incorporated into the first rehearsal in the control room.

First Rehearsal: Move into the control room and do your first full rehearsal from there, utilizing camera changes and other notes that your AD took down during the run through. This will be your first opportunity to time your production; so conduct a full rehearsal--do not stop for each and every mistake. Your AD can make note of changes to be made before the next rehearsal.

Second Rehearsal: If you planned properly, your second rehearsal should go smoothly and should be videotaped just in case this one is a "save". If the taping turns out well, consider this your final take. If it still needs some fine-tuning, go on to the final taping.

Assistant Director

You are the second eyes and ears for the director. During the run through and rehearsals you will be at the side of the director making any notations re script changes and timing. Once inside the control room you may be expected to perform various tasks, probably the most important being keeping track of timing and giving timing cues to the studio and control room crew. In addition to timing, ADs are sometimes asked to assist the director by watching the monitors for framing, setting up the next shot, calling for videotape segments to roll in, calling graphic supers in and out, etc. It is important that the AD become familiar with the operation of the countdown clock and stopwatch.

Floor Director

Report to the Producer/Director for instructions regarding the set and set dressing. With the help of floor assistants, set-up and dress the set as instructed. Make certain that you introduce yourself to the talent and call them by name when addressing them. Review the hand signals that you will be using with the talent. Make sure that talent is comfortable and understands what is going on. You'll be on PL intercom this whole time --be sure to listen for the voice of the director and respond quickly to his/her directions.

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As floor director, you are the most important crew member in the studio and you must understand the production nearly as well as the director. Be careful to delegate set-up responsibilities to your assistants and make sure that the talent is as comfortable and relaxed as possible. If there is a break in the taping, all of the crew on headsets will know what is going on, but you must remember to let the talent know what is going on.

Audio Engineer

Obtain your marked script from the producer/director. Note the audio elements specified by the script and gather the necessary microphones and accessories. When laying microphone cables, consider camera movement and placement. Cables should be positioned so that they are out of sight of the cameras.

Ideally you are responsible for miking talent; however this may be delegated to the FD if necessary. Be sure that microphones and cables are hidden. When assisting a member of the opposite sex with a lavaliere microphone, be careful to protect his/her privacy. The talent may want to step into the green room or backstage to run the cable under her blouse. Make sure that mike batteries are inserted properly and that switches are set to on.

Next, move to the audio control room and test the microphones to make absolutely sure that they are working properly. Mark the audio console's channels for talent's name and the approximate level for each microphone. The FD can assist you with this by having each talent speak in turn. Be sure that they are speaking at a level representative of their real performance. Next, check out the other audio sources that you will be using. Audio carts must be checked for level and to ensure that they are cued. CDs should be previewed for level and to become familiar with the cut to be used.

Camera Operators

Get your shot sheets if they are being used fr om the director and attach them to the back of the camera. Make sure that you have sufficient cable to reach the furthermost position you will occupy. Uncap the lens after you have obtained permission from the video operator and set your filter wheel to the proper setting. For studio work it should be set to 3200 K to match the studio lights. Adjust the viewfinders VF) brightness and contrast controls for optimum picture on your monitor. Unlock the pan and tilt locks and adjust the pan and tilt friction drag adjustments to suit your preference. Next, familiarize yourself with the program 8 1 Edited with the trial version of Foxit Advanced PDF Editor To remove this notice, visit: www.foxitsoftware.com/shopping

Introduction to Production Technologies and your responsibilities. Visualize the shots that will be required of your camera and rehearse any complicated moves. Practice with the zoom and focus controls to ensure that you can operate them smoothly. While operating the camera, the pan and tilt locks are to remain unlocked at all times. Locking down a camera shot during a rehearsal or production is unacceptable in most studio operations! On the other hand, never leave your camera without first locking the pan and tilts locks and capping the lens.

Videotape Operators

Once you have been given the playback videotape if there is one), cue it up and familiarize yourself with the video to be played back into the program. Note video levels and color accuracy. Adjust the video tracking if necessary for optimum playback. Also note the audio and whether it is recorded on channels 1 and/or 2, normal or Hi-Fi. Adjust your audio playback levels if necessary and coordinate with the audio operator so that he/she can set levels at the audio board.

Regarding setting cue in/out points for videotape you have two options. Either make note of the TC time code) numbers of the in and out points, or set the readout to CT control trac k and zero the counter at the in cue point.

Confirm the position of the record tape and cue it up for recording. Again, set the readout to control track and zero it at the proper record-in point. This should be approximately 10 seconds past the last audio/video recorded on the tape. Confirm the proper setting of switches and patches so that you are in fact recording program video as output from the Vista switcher and program audio from the Howell audio board on channel 1 normal and Hi -Fi and director' s PL on audio channel 2 normal and Hi -Fi. Monitoring the video and audio monitors connected to the record VTRs output can confirm this.

When recording the new program, be sure to record at least 10 seconds of black video and silent audio after the program fades to black.

NOTE: If the Director chooses to record a second take of his/her production; rewind the record tape to the previous in-point and record over the previous recording. Only one recording will be saved for each student project.

Technical Director

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2 : Introduction to Production Technologies

Before the first run through, take time to familiarize yourself with the switcher and the transitions you will be expected to execute. During the run through you will switch while taking direction over the PL intercom. During rehearsals you wil l follow the director's requests while seated next to him/her in the control room. In addition to knowing the switcher, it is important that you know the monitor layout and preview shots and/or effects before taking them on-line. If there is a technical oraesthetic problem with a shot, video source or effect, bring it to the director's attention before switching to it on-line.

Production Assistant CG Operator

As the CG character generator) operator it is important that you pay attention to detail and accuracy. If graphic pages are stored to disk, review them for content and accuracy. If you are composing or correcting pages, make sure that spelling, drop-shadow, and other details are correct. Review all pages and note position in script. Review credits for accuracy or last minute changes/additions. Coordinate with TD to review pages while keyed over video to ensure proper key settings clip on switcher.

1.18. SUMMARY

Radio Broadcasting is an audio sound broadcasting service, traditionally broadcast through the air as radio waves a form of electromagnetic radiation from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast common programming, either in syndication or simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting also can be done via cable FM, local wire networks, satellite and the Internet.

A radio documentary orfeature is aradio documentary programme devoted to covering a particular topic in some depth, usually with a mixture of commentary and sound pictures. Some radio features, especially those including specially composed music or other pieces of audio art, resemble radio drama in many ways, though non-fictional in subject matter, while others consist principally of more straightforward, journalistic-type reporting – b u t at much greater length than found in an ordinary news report.

Console isa device that is used to control the audio mix and output from either a live studio broadcast or recorded sources. The two screens on console, directly

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: Introduction to Production Technologies ahead control the Radio station. Everything in this system is digital and stored on a hard drive including songs, commercials, promos, etc.

Unlike other forms of mass media, television has become one of the most powerful media of Mass communication. With a modest beginning in the 1930s, it has grown into a massive network of mass information and mass entertainment in today’s world. The attraction of the ‘visual ness’ of the medium makes people remain glued to the TV set for hours. Television captures our imagination and is the most complete and dramatic of all mass media. In addition to providing news and events, television also packages fiction, drama, culture, economy and many other things. Thus, this idiot box because it provides everything on a platter and we need not do any thinking has been increasing its hold on us.

A Television Studio is an installation in which television orvideo productions take place, either for live television, for recording live to tape, or for the acquisition of raw footage f o r postproduction. The design of a studio is similar to, and derived f r o m , movie studios, with a few amendments for the special requirements of television production. A professional television studio generally has several rooms, which are kept separate for noise and practicality reasons. These rooms are connected via intercom, and personnel will be divided among these workplaces.

Theproposal is a document consisting essentially of the following items:  A treatment  A proposed budget  A video format or video script  Proposed production schedule

Major elements to be included in the pre production script are topic lead, proposed interviewees, bridges between segments, proposed video, proposed cut- away, internal summaries and final summary.

Storyboards are graphic organizers such as a series of illustrations o r images displayed in sequence for the purpose of previsualizing a motion graphic o r interactive media sequence. The storyboarding process, in the form it is known today, was developed at the Walt Disney studio during the early 1930s, after several years of similar processes being in use at Disney and other animation studios. Storyboarding became popular in live-action film production during the early 1940s.

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Introduction to Production Technologies

A budget is a quantitative expression of plans. Business firms, governmental agencies, non-profit institutions, and even households commonly use it. While there is considerable variation in the scope, degree of formality, and level of sophistication applied to budgeting, most of the well-managed business firms use a budget, which is a comprehensive and coordinated plan for the operations and resources of the firm.

Floor managers and assistant directors provide an essential link between the director and the other people involved in a production. They deal with important practicalities and make sure that everyone knows what to do and when. Floor managers work across a range of television programmes. They are in charge of the production 'floor', which may be the main production area in a television studio or a temporary area for outside broadcasts.

Thesets & the location sites must fit the dramatic requirements of the scenario. However, there are other requirements, which can complicate the selection. The weather record of the proposed location for the past years is reviewed. Normally, shooting is done only in brilliant sunlight, and a few weeks of solid overcast or rain can play havoc with the budget. Before a location is selected, both the cameraman and the soundman should survey it. The writer, producer, and the director may have grand ideas, but it is the technicians who actually put the picture and sound on the film. They, too, have their problems.

Set designers are involved in all aspects of “creating the scene,” from stage construction to costume creation to the use of props. They research, design, and supervise construction of the visual aids required in stage, film, and television productions. Set designers have above-average artistic ability. They are drawers, painters, sculptors, sewers, and carpenters of the set. Set designers usually start with freehand sketches of what the scene should be. They then move to scale models, working in tandem with the director of the production, the production manager, and writers. Once their plans are finalized, the set designer supervises construction workers who build the sets. They also work with people in charge of lighting and sound. They have to have a strong understanding of theatrical rigging and safety.

A shooting schedule is aproject plan of each day's shooting for a film production. It is normally created and managed by the assistant director, who reports to the production manager managing the production schedule. Both schedules represent a timeline stating where and when production resources are used.

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: Introduction to Production Technologies

Post-production occurs in the making of audio recordings, films/movies, photography a n d digital art, videos and television programs. It is the general term for all stages of production occurring after the actual recording and ending with the completed work. Post-production is in fact many different processes grouped under one name. These typically include:  Editing the picture / TV program  Editing the soundtrack.  Writing and recording the soundtrack music.  Adding visual special effects - mainly computer generated imagery CGI) and digital copy from which release prints will be made although this may be made obsolete soon by digital cinema technologies.

Typically, the post-production phase of creating a film takes longer than the actual shooting of the film, and can take several months to complete.

1.19. QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1.Write short notes on:  Storyboard  Key light  Floor manager  Cyclorama  Sequence  Screenplay  Non-linear editing  Character make up  Cue sheet

2.Briefly describe a radio studio? 3.What are the different types of make UP 4.Discuss the importance of editing? 5.List different type of microphones based on scientific principles? 6.How important is a director for any TV production? 7.What are the main lights used for a shot? 8.Discuss various transitional devices? 9.What are the different types of shots based on distance of the subject from the camera? 10.How is a radio feature produced?

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Introduction to Production Technologies

11.What things should be kept in mind while preparing the budget for a TV programme? 12.How important are costumes and jeweler for television?

1.20. SUGGESTED READING

1.Television production Handbook by Herbert Zetti 2.Conflict: The Producers Guide to Storytelling in Reality TV & Film b y Robert Thirkall Published by Methuen Drama)

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