141

Biodiversity

1 Why is it important?

Biodiversity is the variety of all life forms, from genes The South Australian Government’s No Species Loss to species to entire ecosystems, that occur in all Strategy (Government of South Australia 2007a), the State environments on Earth—land, water, air and sea. Healthy, Natural Resources Management Plan (Government of natural ecosystems underpin South Australia’s economic, South Australia 2012) and the state of the environment environmental, cultural and social wellbeing. report for South Australia in 2008 (EPA 2008) all report that, despite our efforts, biodiversity in South Australia The components of biodiversity, including animals (birds, continues to decline. Climate change impacts are expected mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians, invertebrates), to exacerbate the decline. vegetation, soil, biogeochemical cycles and microorganisms, provide a range of essential ecosystem The following messages about Australia’s biodiversity services. ‘Ecosystem services’ describes the benefits that in Australia state of the environment 2011 (State of the humans derive from the environment, such as: Environment 2011 Committee 2011) equally apply to • purification of air and water South Australia: • pollination, seed dispersal and pest control • Biodiversity has declined since European settlement. • soil generation and fertilisation • Pressures are not being substantially reduced, nor is the decline in biodiversity being arrested or reversed. • detoxification and decomposition of wastes • Most pressures on biodiversity that arise directly • flood and drought mitigation or indirectly from human activities appear to still • ultraviolet protection be strong. • stabilisation of climate. • The major future drivers of change—climate change, For example, the rivers, wetlands and floodplains of the population growth, economic development and Murray–Darling Basin are estimated to provide $187 billion associated consumption of natural resources—must be in ecosystem services each year (Lindenmayer 2007). managed carefully if a sustainable relationship between Biodiversity also provides the basis for many economic biodiversity and human society is to be achieved. uses. For example, apart from our obvious use of crops • Data on long-term trends in biodiversity are limited, and domestic animals, invertebrates such as worms, ants, making it difficult to interpret the state or trends of spiders, wasps, leafhoppers and mites are being used in major animal and plant groups. adhesives, antibiotics and industrial products. • Australia can improve its biodiversity management.

Opposite page: Insects of South Australia State Library of South Australia B15276/48 142 Biodiversity In summary Aspect andobservation or stable(positive),andsomerising(negative). depth togroundwater, withmost measures declining There isavariabletrend indrylandsalinityand soil acidification. There hasbeenanincrease inthearea andrate of sowing methods. There hasbeenanincrease incrop area usingno-till and stable. Soil conditioninproduction areas isfairtomoderate protected from erosion. There hasbeenasteady increase incropping land Soil andlandmanagement Climate changehasaltered fire regimes. communities since 2008. endangered andvulnerable speciesandecological There hasbeenanetincrease inthenumberof communities ispoorand declining. The statusofthreatened species andecological 20 indicatorspecies. There isavariabletopositive trend inthestatusof and actions. There hasbeenanincrease inrecovery plans Threatened speciesand ecologicalcommunities revegetation since2008. There hasbeenadecrease inthearea of There hasbeenanincrease inillegal clearing. under someformofprotected statussince2008. There hasbeenanincrease ofabout10%inthearea moderate anddeclining. Native vegetationextentandconditionisfairto Native vegetation Very poor • Assessment grade • • Poor Good Very good ˜ ˜ ˜ In grade Confidence ˜ ˜ ˜ In trend Biodiversity 143 In trend › Confidence In grade ˜ Very good Very Good Poor Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Evidence Limited evidence or limited consensus Adequate high-quality and high level of consensus evidence Assessment grade Assessment • ™ › ˜ Very poor Very Very good Very Level of Level confidence Good Phytophthora Phytophthora and gorse are and gorse are Stable Unclear Poor • • Caulerpa taxifolia and sarcoptic mange of wombats have mange of wombats have and sarcoptic Improving Deteriorating Very poor Very • • the number of terrestrial vertebrate pests is vertebrate the number of terrestrial steady the number of wildlife diseases is unknown. feral camels, feral in distribution and abundance decreasing and chytridiomycosis is unknown in distribution abundance. the numbers of weeds, marine pests, aquatic pests and native plant diseases are increasing weatherloach, silverleaf nightshade, weatherloach, silverleaf cinnamomi abundance in distribution and increased and bridal creeper carp, European deer, feral distribution and steady in opuntioid cacti are abundance rabbits, feral goats, European fanworm, oriental goats, European feral rabbits, here has been an increase in number, distribution in number, has been an increase here • • • • • • • Grades Recent Recent trend There have been six confirmed detections of new have There pest incursions since 2008. vertebrate For new pests and diseases: For Introduced species species Introduced T pest plants, animals and and abundance of most have decreased. diseases. Only a few established pests and diseases: key For Aspect and observation Aspect and 144 Biodiversity flora are covered andfauna, inthe communities. Wetlands andrivers,theirassociated native vegetation,andthreatened speciesandecological In thissection,biodiversityisdiscussedwithreference to Source: Table 1 resources inSouthAustralia, showninTable 1. assessment oftheconditionandextentkeynatural (Government ofSouthAustralia 2012)provides an The State Natural Resources ManagementPlan 2 Key natural resource species Impact ofintroduced communities species andecological Status ofthreatened condition ecosystem extentand Coastal andmarine and condition Aquatic ecosystemextent landscapes Geological features and production areas Soil conditionin and condition Native vegetationextent What doweknowaboutit? Government ofSouthAustralia (2012) Condition andextentofkeynatural resources inSouthAustralia Condition Poor Poor Variable Variable Variable Fair/moderate Fair/moderate Water chapter. Trend Declining Declining Declining Variable Variable Variable Declining (Williams 2005). (Williams cultural benefits,andisimportantforAboriginalculture Native vegetationprovidessocialand manyeconomic, (Australian Greenhouse Office2006, Emesetal.2006). climate through carbonstorage andclimateregulation 2005);andmitigatestheimpactsofawarming (Williams for wildlife;maintainsthehealthofland,soilandwater environment. Itprovides habitatandasource offood Native vegetationisakeycomponentofSouthAustralia’s 2.1 and 2011–12. clearance applicationsundertheActbetween 2009–10 (see Table 2 Section 4.1.1). showsstatisticsforvegetation circumstances, butitmust beoffsetby restoration work Vegetation clearingcanbeundertakenunder some the introduction ofthe clearingofnativevegetationceasedafter Large-scale 2012). Lofty Ranges,as little as4%coverremains (Bradshaw areas, suchastheAdelaidePlains andadjacentMount to coveronly9%ofthestate’s totalarea andinsome Bradshaw2007; 2012).Nativeforests are nowestimated small tosupportbird etal.2003, biodiversity(Westphal southern MountLofty Ranges,where thepatchesare too remaining vegetationisnowfragmented, especiallyinthe since the19thand20thcenturies(Figure 1). The has beencleared foragriculture andhumansettlements native vegetationinthesouthernpartsofSouthAustralia native vegetationremains intheseareas. Much ofthe vegetation clearingrates andonly26%of inthepast, state) withhigherrainfall haveexperiencedmuchhigher In contrast, temperate areas (theremaining 13%ofthe degraded asaresult. Much ofthisisusedtosustainpastoral industriesandis and approximately 96%ofvegetationcoverremains. 87% ofthestate)havehadminimalvegetationclearance, approximately 85%.Thearidnorthernparts(covering land area (DSEWPaC 2010),nativevegetationcovers Of SouthAustralia’s 984 221.37 square kilometres in 2.1.1 Native vegetation Native vegetationextent Native Vegetation Act 1991 . Biodiversity 145 Barking owl Barbara Hardy Institute Hardy Barbara 146 Biodiversity the sevenyearsofcollectingdata. received for2011–12isabove theaverage recorded over information aboutNRMregions). Thenumberofreports 12 andthesixpreceding years (see the by natural resource management (NRM) region for2011– number ofreports allegingclearance ofnativevegetation Illegal clearingcontinuestooccur. Table 3 presents the Figure 1 Source: DEWNR (2013) Native vegetationextentinSouthAustralia Introduction for technical issues,andtoinconsistent investmentof on astatescale.Thisisdueto methodologicaland quantify nativevegetationcondition systematically modified tosomedegree. However, it is difficultto throughout SouthAustralia andmuchofithasbeen Human enterprisehashadanimpactonnativevegetation 2.1.2 Native vegetationcondition Biodiversity 147 47 110 to clear (n) Individual trees refused refused Individual trees ) 115 356 334 to clear (n) to clear (n) Individual trees consented Individual trees

Native Vegetation Act 1991 Act Native Vegetation The method focuses on ‘lead’ and ‘lag’ indicators to track and ‘lag’ focuses on ‘lead’ The method track indicators to to and how these relate vegetation condition changes in Lead (NCSSA 2010). of native vegetation management can of vegetation that attributes represent indicators threat of disturbance or after management change soon tend to change after while lag indicators reduction, after management intervention some time has elapsed 2009) (Table 4). et al. (O’Connor 30.00 135.57 to clear (ha) is a rare is a rare Scrubland refused Scrubland refused Nothomyrmecia macrops clear (ha) 1074.24 1107.09 1712.55 was rediscovered here in the 1970s, here was rediscovered Degraded native Degraded vegetation consented to Clearance applications (under section 28 of the section 28 of (under applications Clearance Vegetation clearance statistics for South Australia, 2009–10 to 2011– 12 Australia, statistics for South clearance Vegetation and the area still attracts myrmecologists. The still attracts and the area town has stencilled ants in various places along the public streets. Australia. This predatory insect is very similar to insect This predatory Australia. but now extinct widespread of previously a group in ants. The farm town of Poochera Cretaceous 24) is perhaps the (population South Australia tourism. only place in the world with ant-based Nothomyrmecia Nothomyrmecia The dinosaur ant in South nocturnal ant found only in mallee habitat 2010–11 2011-12 2009–10 Year ha = hectare; n = number ha = hectare; Council (2012) Native Vegetation Source: the agricultural zone (NCSSA 2010). the agricultural Table 2 condition assessment methods have been developed. condition assessment the Bushland Condition Monitoring In South Australia, parts of since 2003 in different method has been applied ‘vegetation condition’, but it has continued to grow in to grow but it has continued ‘vegetation condition’, of NRM programs with the implementation importance vegetation A number of different Australia. throughout Australian regions. the term definition for no standard currently is There effort in monitoring and evaluation in different South in different monitoring and evaluation effort in 148 Biodiversity completed in2000 andasecondround, begunin2005, more than14 years.The first round ofassessmentswas the conditionoflandinpastoral leasesat intervalsofnot The SouthAustralian Pastoral Board is required toassess Condition Monitoring indicators. condition inthethree regions basedon11 of12Bushfire Basin. Theresults provide asnapshotofvegetation Yorke, and partoftheSouthAustralian Murray–Darling regions—Adelaide andMountLofty Ranges,Northernand condition datafrom 840 sitesinthree SouthAustralian The followingcasestudy(Box 1) examines vegetation Table 4 Source: Note: a Table 3 Lead indicators Region Fallen logsandtrees Weed threat andabundance Total grazing pressure Feral animalimpact Total Program (CDP) Change Detection South East Murray–Darling Basin South Australian Lands South Australian Arid Northern andYorke Kangaroo Island Eyre Peninsula Lofty Ranges Adelaide andMount CDP usessatelliteimagerytodetectchangesinnativevegetationcover. No clearingwasrecorded fortheAlinytjara Wilurara region. Native Vegetation Council(2012) Lead andlagindicatorsofbushlandconditionintheBushlandConditionMonitoring Reports ofillegalclearance inhectares bynatural resource managementregion, method 2004–05 to2011–12 a 2004–05 163 26 31 26 14 16 41 9 2005–06 229 48 36 23 27 29 60 Lag indicators 6 Mistletoe infestation Lerp damage Structural diversityB:plantlifeforms Structural ground cover diversityA: Plant speciesdiversity Fallen logsandtrees Recruitment ofspecies Primary canopyhealth Hollow trees 2006–07 158 31 21 17 12 15 54 8 2007–08 recruitment ofmanyshrubs suchaspearlbluebushand with highrates ofproduction ofephemeral stockfeed and in 2009.Positive responses torainfall eventswere noted species hadoccurred, despitesomeheavyrainfall events losses ofbladdersaltbush,andnorecruitment ofthe periods overthe10 yearsto2010resulted inextensive (Pastoral Board 2011).Thereport noted thatextendeddry reported ongeneral trends intheir2010–11annualreport any dataanalysisatthistime,butthePastoral Board Itisnotpossibletoreportis dueforcompletionin2014. 161 30 30 11 25 59 2 4 2008–09 223 36 44 23 10 31 77 2 2009–10 255 54 48 37 18 48 49 1 2010–11 211 48 36 28 14 34 50 1 2011-12 231

50 33 36 29 15 14 53 1 Biodiversity 149 range of distribution range occupied of habitat area number of populations estimated) (measured, number of individuals estimated). of population decline (measured, rate species. Species assessed as near threatened mostly align species. Species assessed as near threatened species. with Schedule 9: rare of South (Government Plan Strategic South Australia’s to ‘lose no native species 2011) includes a target Australia for this target The measure of human impacts’. as a result that are species is a set of 20 indicator species—threatened and habitats, organisms of South Australia’s representative by much effort is focused on their protection and where the state. An assessment is made of across organisations in population abundance of each species, taking into trends prevalence account its population numbers, distribution, etc. All speciesof native habitat, predators, food sources, (half of the list is annually reviewed on the indicator list are A summary of the most recent assessed every six months). in Table 5. is provided review In South Australia, the assessment of conservation status of conservation the assessment In South Australia, and uses the standardised at all four levels is undertaken criteria: IUCN assessment • • • • • assigned assessments, species are of these As a result conservation status category of IUCN to a standardised endangered, extinct, endangered, presumed critically Although or least concern. near threatened vulnerable, apply the standards Australia assessments in South NPW Act has not yet Australian described, the South IUCN categories. been amended to use the contemporary extinct, assessed as presumed Instead, species that are under all included are or endangered critically endangered (Schedule 7). Species species schedule the endangered with Schedule 8: vulnerable align assessed as vulnerable (NPW that protect such that protect (EPBC Act). Threatened (EPBC Act). Threatened Environment Protection and Protection Environment National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 and Wildlife Act National Parks Native Vegetation Act 1991 Act Native Vegetation communities Threatened species and ecological species and Threatened regional—recognised in South Australia through through in South Australia regional—recognised NRM plans. priority lists in regional threatened within Australian, with lists linked to the with lists linked to within Australian, threatened EPBC Act through state—recognised in South Australia species under the South schedules of threatened Australian Act) global—recognised through the IUCN Red List of the IUCN Red through global—recognised Species (IUCN 2012) Threatened lists of species through national—recognised • • • four levels: • or endangered’. The conservation status of species can be assessed at under the ‘the vegetation comprises the whole, communities where vulnerable or a part, of a plant community that is rare, under the Commonwealth’s under the Commonwealth’s 1999 Biodiversity Conservation Act recognised not generally ecological communities are provisions are there law; however, in South Australian native species and their associated abiotic environments’ environments’ native species and their associated abiotic one of several 2012). They are (Bonifacio and Pisanu significance’ listed ‘matters of national environmental Threatened ecological communities are threatened threatened ecological communities are Threatened distinct assemblages of interacting ‘geographically quality and connectedness or isolation; and relative risks and relative quality and connectedness or isolation; and competition, fire such as predation, posed by threats climate change. ecological requirements; geographic range; population range; geographic ecological requirements; of range size and numbers of populations; rates decline; habitat quantity, and population contraction International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) for Conservation of Nature International Union species (IUCN 2011). Different risk assessment criteria levels of risk based on their biology and have different Threatened species are those species deemed to be at risk those species deemed to be at risk are species Threatened under certain future, the foreseeable of extinction within 2.2 is an expansion of mining exploration and operations; and operations; of mining exploration is an expansion the available at were data no comprehensive however, time of writing. storms in 2009 were showing signs of recovery. showing 2009 were storms in zone the pastoral to vegetation in threat An emerging low bluebush. Areas that were affected by severe dust affected by severe that were Areas low bluebush. 150 Biodiversity Table A feral herbivores andweedscontinue. vegetation variesfrom property toproperty, andimpactssuchasselectivegrazing grazing bystock, by water points,resulting indegradation ofvegetation,soildisturbanceanderosion. Theconditionofnative vegetation inthepastoral zone.Historically, livestockimpactshavebeenprevalent around permanent The 2008stateoftheenvironment report forSouth Australia (EPA 2008)reported theconditionofnative from landmanagementimpacts. in allregions, andlowstructural diversityinsomeregions. Tree healthispoorbecauseofdiebackresulting recruitment ofplantspeciesandhighweedthreat andabundance.There isalownumberofhollowtrees Vegetation conditionremains affectedbygrazing pressure; the mostseriousconsequencesare low Negatives trees isgoodorexcellent in40–70% ofsites. species hasbeenlostfrom eachsite.Ground coverisrelativelyandtheabundanceoffallenlogs intact, Plant speciesdiversityremains reasonably highinthemajorityofsites,thoughanaverage of25–30% of Positives data from 2011. South Australian Murray–Darling Basinnatural resource managementregions ofSouthAustralia, using Vegetation conditionissummarisedfortheAdelaideandMountLofty Ranges,NorthernandYorke, and Box 1 Indicator pressure Total grazing Hollow trees of species Recruitment diversity Plant species Vegetation conditioninSouthAustralia’s agricultural zone Case study:Vegetation conditionintheSouthAustralian agricultural zone AMLR (2009) grazing pressure impacts excellent control of 91% ofsiteswith classified asexcellent with only4%ofsites numbers ofhollowtrees, 69% ofsiteswithpoor recruitment with poororvery Around 40%ofsites diversity or excellent species 69% ofsiteswithgood NY (2011) pressure control of grazing impacts, 25%with grazing pressure poor control of either poororvery 60% ofsiteswith of hollowtrees excellent numbers with goodor Only 40%ofsites recruitment poor orvery 57% ofsiteswith species diversity moderate togood >75% ofsiteswith SAMDB (2010) pressure impacts control ofgrazing with excellent 70% ofsites hollow trees numbers of with verypoor >75% ofsites recruitment poor orvery >35% ofsiteswith species diversity good orexcellent >70% ofsiteswith Summary ofregions models indifferent regions use typeandmixed farming relates todifferences inland- and SAMDB) andprobably low–moderate inAMLR is variable(highinNYand Grazing pressure impact very poorinallregions Hollow tree numbersare regions farming modelsindifferent land-use typeandmixed relates todifferences in prevalent. Thisprobably domestic grazing ismost lowest recruitment where poor toverypoor, with Recruitment isgenerally be lost or sensitivespeciesmay have changed,andrare abundance ofspeciesmay good; however, the Species diversitygenerally Biodiversity 151 of dieback from soil of dieback from compaction, fragmentation and competition with weed species is generally cover Ground good, with lower cover in NY than other regions, to relating probably in land-use differences farming type and mixed regions models in different life form diversity Plant good in was generally and and SAMDB, AMLR This is probably poor in NY. because of differences impacts in the in grazing regions different damage is isolated to Lerp some locations and some species tree Mistletoe infestation is isolated to some locations species and some tree Weed threat and threat Weed NY abundance is high in in AMLR and moderate This probably and SAMDB. in to differences relates land-use type and mixed farming models in different regions fallen logs of Retention good is generally and trees Canopy health is generally because probably poor, Summary of regions Summary infestation canopy health 90% of sites with good or excellent cover ground >85% of sites with or good moderate plant life form diversity >75% of sites with little or no lerp infestation All sites across had the region very low mistletoe 29% of sites with poor or very poor and weed threat abundance control >55% of sites with good or excellent abundance of fallen logs and trees 50% of sites with poor to very poor SAMDB (2010) SAMDB 80% of sites with little or no lerp infestation 85% of sites with very low mistletoe infestation ground cover ground 24% of sites with good or excellent plant life form diversity good or excellent good or excellent abundance of fallen logs and trees 70% of sites with poor to very poor canopy health 90% of sites with or good moderate 75% of sites with poor or very poor and weed threat abundance control 70% of sites with NY (2011) 73% of sites with little or no lerp infestation the region All sites across had very low mistletoe infestation 77% of sites with or good plant moderate life form diversity with good or excellent with good or excellent abundance of fallen logs and trees >70% of sites with to very poor moderate canopy health >80% of sites with good cover ground or excellent Around 40% of sites with Around poor or very poor weed and abundance threat control 40% of sites Around AMLR (2009) AMLR continued O’Connor et al. (2009), NCSSA (2010), O’Connor NRM Pty Ltd (pers. comm, 2012) NRM Pty Ltd et al. (2009), NCSSA (2010), O’Connor O’Connor Some indicators were only measured in woodlands and forests (e.g. canopy health and fallen logs and trees). (e.g. canopy in woodlands and forests only measured Some indicators were vegetation in intact native favour measurement ‘better’ native vegetation because data collection programs Sites included represent vegetation types in the NY random sampling of vegetation condition across stratified with those found through highly consistent are Results (i.e. eligibility criteria for some programs exclude sites of low to very low quality). sites of low to very exclude criteria for some programs (i.e. eligibility = 57; (n Milne and Mahoney 2011). region Mistletoe infestation Lerp damage Lerp Plant life Plant forms diversity Ground cover Ground Primary Primary canopy health Fallen logs and Fallen trees Weed Weed and threat abundance Indicator 1. 2. 3. Sources: AMLR = Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges; NY = Northern and Yorke; SAMBD = South Australian Murray–Darling Basin Murray–Darling = South Australian SAMBD = Northern and Yorke; Ranges; NY = Adelaide and Mount Lofty AMLR Notes: Box 1 Box 152 Biodiversity and periodicrandom eventssuchasfires anddroughts. and populationdeclines,fragmentations and isolation, 2011)—which is stilltoreach fulleffectfollowinghabitat of speciesislikelyduetoeventsinthepast(Szaboetal. reflect an ‘extinction debt’—where thefuture extinction and bird speciesstilllistedwithinthestatemayalso proportions ofendangered, vulnerable andrare mammal and ongoingthreats tomanysurvivingspecies.Thehigh centre ofmodern(last200 years) speciesextinctions Box 2 andTable 6 showthatSouthAustralia isamajor South Australia. listed threatened speciesthathavebeenrecorded in (e.g. Burbidge et al.1988).Box 2 showsthenationally those extinctionsthatwere SouthAustralian species and birds are welldocumented,asistheproportion of The extinctionrates anddeclinesofAustralia’s mammals 2.2.1 Source: Note: Table 5 of species Total number Plants Reptiles Birds Molluscs Fish Mammals trends, whichincludebycatch,drought andhabitatdestructionbybushfire. wing batandblack-eared miner. Progress reports fortheStrategic Plan 2011(SASPAudit Committee2012)includeassessmentsofthecausesthese Government ofSouthAustralia (2007a) For someoftheindicatorspecies,negativetrends were recorded inconsecutive assessments,includingfortheAustralian sealion,southernbent- National listsofthreatened species Trend instatusof20 indicatorspecies Positive Pin-lipped spider-orchid Small-flowered daisy-bush cockatoo South Australian glossyblack tammar wallaby South Australian mainland Yellow-footed rock-wallaby Southern rightwhale 6 Stable Pygmy blue-tongue skink Pygmy blue-tongue Black-eared miner tailed blackcockatoo AustralianSouth-east red- Southern bent-wing bat Southern brown bandicoot Monarto mintbush orchid White beautyspider- Hindmarsh greenhood 8 (Figure 2). of threatened speciesthanothertaxonomic groups of mammals,birds andfreshwater fishinnationallists There are proportionally more SouthAustralian species Negative southern emu-wren Mount Lofty Ranges Malleefowl population) (upper SpencerGulf Giant Australian cuttlefish Murray hardyhead Yarra pygmyperch Australian sealion 6 Total number of species 20 1 5 1 2 6 5 Biodiversity 153 continued calycina subsp. subsp. var. var. var. Environment Environment Grevillea treueriana Grevillea Hibbertia crispula achilleoides Ixodia arenicola Beyeria subtecta Caladenia brumalis Caladenia calcicola Caladenia concolor Caladenia formosa Caladenia ovata Caladenia versicolor Caladenia woolcockiorum volubilis Cheiranthera Codonocarpus pyramidalis calycina Correa calycina Correa halmaturorum Corybas dentatus Dodonaea procumbens Eleocharis papillosa Glycine latrobeana Acacia araneosa Acacia carneorum Acacia glandulicarpa Acacia latzii Acacia menzelii Acacia pickardii Acacia praemorsa Acacia rhetinocarpa Acacia phebalioides Asterolasia • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Vulnerable (63 listed) Vulnerable • • • • • • • • • , that have been recorded in South been recorded , that have subsp. subsp. (R.Bates

subsp. subsp. subsp sp. Hale sp. Prostanthera eurybioides Prostanthera despectans Pterostylis lepida Pterostylis Pterostylis 21725) trichophylla Pultenaea Senecio behrianus epipactoides Thelymitra Haloragis eyreana Haloragis limitanea Lachnagrostis equestre Leionema monoplocoides Lepidium Olearia microdisca frenchii Prasophyllum goldsackii Prasophyllum pruinosum Prasophyllum Eriocaulon australasicum Eriocaulon carsonii carsonii Eucalyptus paludicola collina Euphrasia muelleri Euphrasiacollina osbornii plicata Frankenia Caladenia richardsiorum Caladenia rigida Caladenia tensa Caladenia xanthochila Caladenia xantholeuca Dodonaea subglandulifera • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • subsp. subsp. Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 Act Conservation and Biodiversity Protection 2012) at April (as Australia Nationally listed threatened species, as listed under the Commonwealth the Commonwealth as listed under species, listed threatened Nationally Caladenia lowanensis Caladenia macroclavia Caladenia colorata Caladenia conferta Caladenia gladiolata Caladenia hastata Brachyscome muelleri Brachyscome Caladenia argocalla Caladenia audasii Caladenia behrii Acacia pinguifolia Acacia spilleriana Acacia whibleyana Acacia Allocasuarina robusta Veronica derwentiana Veronica homalodonta cretacea Acacia enterocarpa Acacia Hibbertia tenuis murfetii Prasophyllum bryophila Pterostylis cyanapicata Thelymitra Acanthocladium dockeri Acanthocladium Caladenia intuta Cassinia tegulata Senecio helichrysoides • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Endangered (43 listed) Endangered • • • • • • • Critically endangered (8 listed) Critically endangered • • • Plants (115 listed) (115 Plants extinct (1 listed) Presumed • Box 2 154 Biodiversity • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Box 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • Solanum karsense Senecio psilocarpus Senecio megaglossus Senecio macrocarpus glabrescens Pultenaea villifera Ptilotus beckerianus Pterostylis xerophila Pterostylis tenuissima Pterostylis mirabilis sylvicola Pterostylis cucullata cucullata Pterostylis cucullata Pterostylis chlorogramma Pterostylis arenicola Prostanthera nudula Prostanthera calycina Prasophyllum validum Prasophyllum spicatum Prasophyllum pallidum halmaturina Pomaderris halmaturina Pleuropappus phyllocalymmeus Phebalium lowanense pannosa Olearia pannosa Microlepidium alatum Logania insularis Limosella granitica Lepidium pseudopapillosum glabrisepalum Spyridium eriocephalum Spyridium coactilifolium continued subsp. var. subsp. subsp. var. subsp. • • Critically endangered (2listed) • Presumed extinct(1listed) Birds (39listed) • Vulnerable (1listed) Amphibians (1listed) Animals • • • • • • • • • • Endangered (15listed) (south-eastern subsp.) Red-tailed blackcockatoo graptogyne Calyptorhynchus banksii Australasian bittern Botaurus poiciloptilus Regent honeyeater Anthochaera phrygia Orange-bellied parrot Neophema chrysogaster Lofty Rangessubsp.) Spotted quail-thrush (Mount anachoreta Cinclosoma punctatum Kangaroo Islandemu Dromaius baudinianus Southern bellfrog Litoria raniformis Xerothamnella parvifolia Thelymitra matthewsii Tecticornia flabelliformis Taraxacum cygnorum Swainsona pyrophila Swainsona murrayana Stackhousia annua

• • • • • • • • Vulnerable (21listed) • • • • • • • Hylacola pyrrhopygiaparkeri Tristan albatross Diomedea exulans exulans Amsterdam albatross amsterdamensis Diomedea exulans Northern royal albatross sanfordi Diomedea epomophora subsp.) cockatoo (SouthAustralian halmaturinus Calyptorhynchus lathami (Mount Lofty Ranges subsp.) Chestnut-rumped heathwren Thick-billed grasswren Amytornis modestus Grey grasswren Amytornis barbatus (western subsp.) Slender-billed thornbill Acanthiza iredalei iredalei Grey-headed albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma Mallee emu-wren Stipiturus mallee Lofty Rangessubsp.) Southern emu-wren (Mount intermedius Stipiturus malachurus Night parrot Pezoporus occidentalis Black-eared miner Manorina melanotis Southern giant-petrel Macronectes giganteus Swift parrot Lathamus discolor

Glossy black

continued

Biodiversity 155

continued

Short-tailed hopping mouse Short-tailed Notomys longicaudatus hopping mouse Long-tailed Onychogalea lunata wallaby nail-tailed Crescent Desert rat-kangaroo ecaudatus Chaeropus bandicoot Pig-footed Conilurus albipes rabbit-rat White-footed hirsutus hirsutus Lagorchestes hare-wallaby) Mala (rufous leporides Lagorchestes Eastern hare-wallaby apicalis Leporillus rat stick-nest Lesser eugenii eugenii Macropus (South wallaby Tammar Australia) greyi Macropus wallaby Toolache leucura Macrotis bilby Lesser Notomys amplus Euastacus bispinosus Euastacus Glenelg spiny freshwater crayfish Bettongia lesueur graii bettong Burrowing (boodie) Bettongia penicillata penicillata bettong Brush-tailed Caloprymnus campestris • • • • • • • • • • • Endangered (1 listed) Endangered • Mammals (52 listed) extinct (17 listed) Presumed • • •

Carcharodon carcharias Carcharodon white shark Great plana Synemon Golden sun moth Murray cod Murray Mogurnda clivicola Flinders Ranges purple- spotted gudgeon obscura Nannoperca pygmy perch Yarra variegata Nannoperca pygmy perch Ewen’s maraena Prototroctes grayling Australian Murray hardyhead Murray Maccullochella macquariensis cod Trout Macquaria australasica Macquarie perch Galaxiella pusilla Dwarf galaxias Maccullochella peelii peelii Thalassarche melanophris Thalassarche albatross Black-browed melanophris Thalassarche impavida Campbell albatross fluviatilis Craterocephalus • (2 listed) Invertebrates (1 listed) Critically endangered • • • • • • • (7 listed) Vulnerable • • • • (10 listed) Fish (3 listed) Endangered •

continued Thalassarche cauta salvini Thalassarche albatross Salvin’s Thalassarche bulleri Thalassarche albatross Buller’s cauta cauta Thalassarche Shy albatross Rostratula australis Rostratula painted snipe Australian malachurus Stipiturus parimeda (Eyre Southern emu-wren subsp.) Peninsula leucogaster (eastern whipbird Western subsp.) mollis Pterodroma petrel Soft-plumaged Princess parrot Princess anthopeplus Polytelis monarchoides parrot Eastern regent Psophodes nigrogularis Pedionomus torquatus Pedionomus wanderer Plains fusca Phoebetria Sooty albatross alexandrae Polytelis Macronectes halli Macronectes Northern giant-petrel rufogularis Pachycephala whistler Red-lored Southern royal albatross Southern royal Halobaena caerulea Blue petrel ocellata Leipoa Malleefowl Diomedea epomophora epomophora Diomedea epomophora • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Box 2 Box • 156 Biodiversity • Endangered (11listed) • • • • • • • • • • • • • Critically endangered (1listed) • Box 2 Sooty dunnart(Kangaroo Sminthopsis aitkeni Red-tailed phascogale Phascogale calura (mainland) Eastern barred bandicoot subsp. Perameles gunnii Marsupial mole(itjari-tjari) Notoryctes typhlops Southern brown bandicoot Isoodon obesulus Southern rightwhale Eubalaena australis eastern mainlandpopulation) Spotted-tailed quoll(south- Dasyurus maculatus Mulgara Dasycercus hillieri Brush-tailed bettong Bettongia penicillataogilbyi Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus Southern bent-wing bat bassanii Miniopterus schreibersii Gould’s mouse Pseudomys gouldii Desert bandicoot Perameles eremiana (mainland) Western barred bandicoot Perameles bougainvillefasciata Sandhill dunnart Sminthopsis psammophila Island dunnart) continued

unnamed

• • • • • • • • • • • • • Vulnerable (23listed) • • • • (McDonnell Rangesrace) Black-footed rock-wallaby Petrogale lateralis long-earedSouth-eastern bat Nyctophilus corbeni Dusky hoppingmouse Notomys fuscus Australian sealion Neophoca cinerea Numbat Myrmecobius fasciatus Southern elephantseal Mirounga leonina Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae Greater bilby Macrotis lagotis Greater stick-nest rat Leporillus conditor (Nuyts Islandsubsp.) Southern brown bandicoot Isoodon obesulusnauticus Golden bandicoot Isoodon auratus auratus Western quoll Dasyurus geoffroii Kowari Dasyuroides byrnei Ampurta Dasycercus cristicauda Fin whale Balaenoptera physalus Sei whale Balaenoptera borealis Subantarctic furseal Arctocephalus tropicalis

• • • • • • • • • • • • Vulnerable (6listed) • • • Endangered (3listed) Reptiles (9listed) Grey-headed flyingfox Pteropus poliocephalus Heath rat Pseudomys shortridgei Shark Baymouse Pseudomys fieldi Plains mouse(Plains rat) Pseudomys australis Long-nosed potoroo Potorous tridactylus Yellow-footed rock-wallaby xanthopus Petrogale xanthopus Bronzeback leglesslizard Ophidiocephalus taeniatus Krefft’s tigersnake Notechis scutatusater Tjakura Liopholis kintorei Striped snake-lizard Delma impar Green turtle Chelonia mydas Flinders worm-lizard Aprasia pseudopulchella skink Pygmy blue-tongue Tiliqua adelaidensis Leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea Loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta

Biodiversity 157

. None has yet been removed because of . None has yet been removed The action plan for Australian birds 2010 birds The action plan for Australian category than 10 years earlier. Eleven others are listed in a Eleven others are category than 10 years earlier. category for the first time, including six because of threat of new subspecies of grass- recognition taxonomic recent oceanic The list also includes at least 14 threatened wrens. but use in South Australia, that do not breed seabirds waters. It also includes an assessment South Australian waders for the first time, migratory of non-breeding 14 South Australian taxa have also been recommended for have also been recommended taxa 14 South Australian These birds. the national list of threatened from removal primarily due to better knowledge are recommendations and, of threat of distributions, population sizes or degrees used to define for some, because new criteria have been near threatened Section 4.2). (see recovery Birds species has bird The continuing decline of Australia’s of the EPBC Act list of threatened underpinned a revision species in et al. 2011). This follows earlier action plans for (Garnett plan (1990 and 2000). The 2010 action birds Australian new listings for 19 species or subspecies recommends already Eight of these were in South Australia. that breed now assessed to be in a worse status listed but are ) , Caladenia ( Glenelg Thelymitra Thelymitra Basedowia , subsp. subsp. ) and plant species (Australasian (Australasian Acacia spilleriana Acacia ( bird species (Gawler species (Gawler bird reptile (Pernatty (Pernatty reptile endangered Pultenaea trichophylla Pultenaea vulnerable and Hibbertia tenuis , endangered critically endangered mammal species (Pearson mammal species (Pearson vulnerable vulnerable Fisheries Management Act 2007. Management Act Fisheries endangered Acacia praemorsa Acacia Acacia imbricata Acacia , (fairy tern) ( Veronica derwentiana Veronica ), three ), three vulnerable and taxonomic group, April 2012 group, taxonomic Proportions of nationally listed threatened species recorded in South Australia by in South Australia species recorded of nationally listed threatened Proportions vulnerable vulnerable Cassinia tegulata , ), one spiny freshwater crayfish. This freshwater crayfish has crayfish This freshwater crayfish. spiny freshwater species under also been added to the list of protected the South Australian Prasophyllum pruinosum Prasophyllum and one species: three four bird albatross) and grey-headed bittern, mallee emu-wren and one crustacean: the one freshwater nine plant species: five intuta cyanapicata homalodonta Austrostipa nullanulla Austrostipa • • • Since the last South Australian state of the environment state of the environment Since the last South Australian 2008), 14 species that occur in South in 2008 (EPA report under the EPBC Act: have been added to the lists Australia Figure 2 knob-tail gecko) and one gecko) knob-tail de-listed have been grasswren) Ranges thick-billed species. A further the EPBC Act list of threatened from ( tenerrima one Island rock-wallaby), Over the same period, three Over the same period, three 158 Biodiversity et al. 2102). inaworseconservationstatuscategory(Szabo listing) Australia wouldnowbelisted (or recommended for listed threatened bird speciesthatoccurinSouth had notbeeninplaceoverthepastdecadeormore, eight ifconservationactions their analysesalsosuggestthat, driven bythreats operating outsideofAustralia. However, Australian statesandterritories, excluding statuschanges indices ofspeciessurvivalforcontinentalbirds ofall South Australia hasthesecond-worst IUCNRed List for Australian birds, Szaboetal.(2012)demonstrate that As afollow-up analysistothethree decadalactionplans mudflats andshorelines ona regular basis. and 15taxa assessedas threatened visitSouthAustralian Yellow-tailed blackcockatoo Barbara Hardy Institute vertebrate animalsinSouthAustralia aslistedunder Table 6 liststhenumbers ofthreatened plantand 2.2.2 fisheries managementpractices. their populationscarefully managedthrough sustainable conservation statusneedstoberecognised nationallyand species,acknowledgingthattheir dependent’ been addedtoadifferent EPBCActlistof ‘conservation orangeshark, roughy andsouthernbluefintuna—have exploited fishesthatoccurinSouth Australia—school found inSouthAustralia). In addition,three commercially (25% ofnativefreshwater fishspecieslistednationallyare overrepresented inthelistsofthosethatare declining fish speciesthatoccurinSouth Australia appeartobe (e.g. Hammer etal.2009)and,asFigure 2 indicates, inland watershascometothefore relatively recently The plightofmanyfishspeciesthatdependonour Fish extinct, eightthatshouldbelistedas extinct, are three speciesoffreshwater fishpresumed tobe atthestatelevel,thereet al. 2009)haveindicatedthat, Plan forSouthAustralia’s Freshwater Fishes (Hammer Status assessmentsundertakenasabasisfortheAction Freshwater fish revised periodically. changed betweenschedules,theentire schedulesare or afewspeciesbeingaddedto, deletedfrom, or gazetting, whichhasmeantthatrather thanone,two, to theschedulesrequire acomplexlegalprocess for in SouthAustralia. Itisprimarilybecauserevisions on actualchangesinthestatusofthreatened species environment report waspublished.Thisisnotareflection on havenotbeenrevised sincethe2008stateof The threatened speciesschedulesthatTable 6 isbased the NPWAct. Schedules 7, SpeciesSchedules) of 8and9(Threatened Threatened SpeciesSchedules. before anyofthemcanbeaddedtotheSouthAustralian Amendments willneedtobe made totheNPWAct in lightofmuchmore information nowbeingavailable. Management Act 2007 of aquaticspeciesthatare protected underthe identified intheactionplanhavebeenaddedtolists Several ofthe small-bodiedthreatened fishspecies listing. considered secure enoughtonotberecommended for rare nine as (or nearthreatened). Only26 species(45%)were endangered species South Australian listsofthreatened , nineas . Allspeciesawaitreassessment vulnerable critically endangered andthree as Fisheries , Biodiversity 159 (27) 0 (0) 4 (15) 4 (15) 8 (30) Amphibians 9 (4) 9 (4) (235) 35 (15) 53 (23) Reptiles National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972. Act and Wildlife National Parks (7) c Birds (473) 32 (7) 34 89 (19) 155 (33) (26) b (180) 21 (12) 32 (18) 74 (56) 21 Mammals (3) a Plants (5858) 196 (3) 431 (7) 161 788 (14) ) grassy ) grassy

) grassy woodlands ) grassy Eucalyptus odorata National Parks and National Parks presumed extinct presumed extinct presumed Eucalyptus microcarpa presumed extinct presumed Numbers of South Australian state-listed threatened species, 2012 state-listed threatened of South Australian Numbers National lists of threatened ecological National lists of threatened communities The total number of native species within each taxonomic group used to calculate the percentage in each threat category is the same as used in the category in each threat used to calculate the percentage group species within each taxonomic The total number of native 2008 state of the environment report. Fish are not included in the table because they are not listed under the not listed under the included in the table because they are not are Fish report. 2008 state of the environment the community of native species that depend on the Great from of groundwater discharge natural Artesian Basin. buloke woodlands of the Riverina and Murray– bioregions Darling Depression ( box grey of and derived native grasslands south-eastern Australia iron grass natural temperate grassland of South grassland temperate natural grass iron Australia ( peppermint box woodland of South Australia swamps of the Fleurieu Peninsula ------lower Murray River and associated wetlands, lower Murray the systems from floodplains and groundwater junction of the Darling River to the sea mallee communities. Island narrow-leaf Kangaroo - endangered - - - - - critically endangered Includes 8 species Includes 26 species Includes 26 species Total (%) Total Vulnerable (%) Vulnerable (%) Rare (No. of South Australian native species) native of South Australian (No. (%) and endangered Critically endangered Status under the Status 1972 Wildlife Act c Note: a b • Australia have been nominated for listing: Australia • An additional two ecological communities in South • • Six ecological communities that occur in South Australia South Australia Six ecological communities that occur in Act. under the EPBC listed as threatened currently are These are: 2.2.3 Table 6 160 Biodiversity fragmentation andincremental changes(Forman 1995). remaining nativevegetation covercontributestoongoing occurred butcontinued degradation inthepast, of Vegetation isnolongercleared tothe extentthatthis 3.1.1 number ofpressures thatcanleadtofurtherdegradation. colonisation. Nativevegetationremains subjecttoa hasdeclinedsincethetimeofEuropeanSection 2.1.2) (see andinmany areas Section 2.1.1) itscondition(see been greatly reduced intemperate partsofthestate In SouthAustralia, theextentofnativevegetationhas 3.1 population dynamics(Steffen etal.2009). genetic composition,geographic ranges, lifecyclesand and animalsare likelytoexperienceshiftsorchangesin remains difficultto predict impactsaccurately, butplants and changedfire regimes (Prowse andBrooks 2010).It overharvesting, modificationofthehydrological cycle pressures suchasfragmentation, introduced species, both directly andbyexacerbating existingstresses or change willimpactspeciesandecologicalcommunities Australia’s biodiversity(Prober andDunlop2011).Climate having, andwillcontinuetohave,asignificantimpacton There isalsoincreasing recognition thatclimatechangeis fragmentation andthespread ofinvasivespecies. the EPBCActandresulting recovery plansare habitat The mostfrequently citedthreats inlistingsunder • • • • • • • following pressures onAustralia’s biodiversity: of theEnvironment 2011Committee2011)identifiesthe The 2011Australian stateof the environment report (State 3 changed hydrology. altered fire regimes grazing pressure invasive speciesandpathogens land-use change climate change fragmentation ofhabitat What are thepressures? Pressures onnative vegetation Clearing andfragmentation biodiversity andisafactorthatinfluencesthe Fire playsanimportantrole inshapingAustralia’s 3.1.2 Fire Fischer 2006). pest plants,animalsandpathogens(Lindenmayer of theedgestheseremnant patchestoinvasionsfrom patches ofnativevegetationandincreasing theexposure threatening processes byreducing thearea ofremnant Fragmentation tendstoexacerbate theimpactsofother • remain, andinclude: environment report forSouthAustralia. These pressures vegetation were identifiedinthe2008stateof A numberofotherpressures thatimpactnative 3.1.3 documented (Clarke 2008,Driscolletal.2010). range ofspecies tofire remains poorlyunderstoodand and wildlifemanagementbecausetheresponse ofa (Penman etal.2011).Thisisthecaseforbothvegetation determine iftheyare beingimplementedsuccessfully programs throughout Australia haveinsufficientdatato how tousefire tomeetconservationgoals,andexisting dependent plants.There are manyuncertaintiesabout as forecologicaloutcomessuchregenerating fire- reduce therisksthatfire posestohumanassets,aswell Forestry SouthAustralia; SouthAustralian Water) to of Environment,Water andNatural Resources [DEWNR]; by SouthAustralian Governmentagencies(Department Prescribed burnsare animportantmanagementtoolused (Pittock 2009). 2010) becauseofmore frequent andprolonged droughts are likelytobelarger andmore frequent (Driscolletal. risk ofextinctions.Asaresult ofclimatechange,fires the structure ofecologicalcommunitiesandincrease the Inappropriate fire regimes canleadtomajorchangesin composition, structure andfunctionofnativevegetation. plant recruitment and seedlings,weeddispersal anddisruptionofnative stock grazing—trampling of plants,browsing ofadults Other pressures onvegetation Biodiversity 161 Barbara Hardy Institute Hardy Barbara Grey-box forest, Mt Lofty forest, Mt Grey-box Soil erosion to roads; disruption to transport and electricity supply; disruption to transport to roads; and marine contamination of wetlands, watercourses and human health impacts caused by environments; dust. raised by physical to a risk of erosion Soil is predisposed Very of surface vegetative cover. disturbance or removal where the risk of erosion dry seasonal conditions increase poor crop from vegetative cover resulting is reduced there growth. and pasture 3.2.1 and the clearance however, process; a natural is Erosion of in rates has resulted of land for agriculture cultivation higher than in undisturbed many times are soil loss that threat is the highest priority Soil erosion environments. Approximately soils in South Australia. to the agricultural of cleared land (58% of agricultural 6 million hectares and susceptible to wind erosion, inherently land) are susceptible inherently (31%) are 3.2 million hectares The 2007ab). and Land Program (Soil to water erosion in Target 70 is recognised magnitude of this threat land Sustainable Plan: Strategic of South Australia’s 2011). South Australia of management (Government can have adverse soil erosion Without intervention, impacts. Soil erosion social, economic and environmental of land as it removes capacity depletes the productive soil, which are matter and clay from nutrients, organic also has a Soil erosion most important for plant growth. impacts, including damage of costly offsite wide range on soil Land management and effects Land management and effects direct human impacts such as trampling and such as trampling human impacts direct vehicle movement, soil compaction, destruction and illegal and disturbance of vegetation, firewood collection. and ecosystem processes, and degradation of and degradation and ecosystem processes, habitat quality land and which impacts productive dryland salinity, affected 300 000 hectares native vegetation; of native 2008, 18 000 were by dryland salinity in classified as wetlands were vegetation and 45 000 senescence (ageing and deterioration) of adult plants of adult and deterioration) (ageing senescence of symptomatic of seedling recruitment, and low rates and other purposes for agriculture land cleared invasions— plant and pathogen pest animal, disruption of lifecycles of native species, displacement and pressures. uses affect biodiversity primarily by affecting vegetation. uses affect biodiversity primarily by affecting of soil processes shows a conceptual model Figure 3 land in the state has been changed through grazing, grazing, land in the state has been changed through and the application of fertilisers, herbicides and cropping, of these land pesticides. Changes in the soil as a result Approximately 10.4 million hectares of cleared land of cleared hectares 10.4 million Approximately Most of the in South Australia. used for agriculture are 3.2 • • • • 162 Biodiversity Figure 3 Conceptual modelofsoil processes andpressures

Biodiversity

163 70 2020

SASP SASP Target Target

2018

2016

2014 2012

Year

2010

2008 2006

period of protection of agricultural of agricultural period of protection soil erosion land from cropping (days in South Australia,2002–12 3-year per year, soil protection rolling mean Trend in the average annual in the average Trend 2004 DEWNR (2011)

350 300 250 200 150 Soil protection (days per year) per (days protection Soil Figure 4 Source: sustainable land management The adoption of more sowing and stubble retention, such as no-till practices, No-till erosion. of soil from the protection has improved slot in the sowing involves sowing the seed in a narrow soil to minimise soil disturbance and maximise residue on the soil surface. protection Soil protection is expressed as the average number of number as the average is expressed Soil protection land is adequately cropping that agricultural days per year overall has been an There erosion. from protected 10 years, over the last in soil protection trend upward and other challenging years of drought despite several Strategic Australia’s South (Figure 4). management issues in South to achieve a 25% increase has a target 2011 Plan land that is adequately cropping agricultural Australia’s the 2003 baseline. from by 2020, erosion from protected of 272 days from an increase requires The target 2003 to From to 340 days in 2020. in 2002 protection 272 to 328 days. from increase, was a 21% 2011 there Tim Herrmann Spreading lime Spreading the occurrence, intensity and timing of tillage intensity and the occurrence, operations cover. of surface and nature the quantity the land management practices they use. These trends they use. These trends the land management practices change that can quantitative evidence of practice provide protection. explain observed changes in erosion Telephone surveys of agricultural land managers are also land managers are surveys of agricultural Telephone in land managers’ knowledge conducted to assess trends soil management issues, and and attitudes towards, of, in actual erosion in the long term. The DEWNR has used in actual erosion protection observational field surveys to assess the since 1999. erosion land from cropping of agricultural occurrence is highly sporadic. Instead, the protection Instead, the protection is highly sporadic. occurrence because is monitored, the risk of erosion of soil from a matching trend in in the risk would result any trend severe or prolonged drought. or prolonged severe because its directly is difficult to measure Soil erosion areas of South Australia over the past 70 years because over of South Australia areas soil losses but farming practices, in of improvements events, and after wind or rainfall still occur with extreme in late summer and autumn, when feed availability and in late summer and is declining. residues and pasture crop the cover of annual declined in the agricultural has steadily Soil erosion as tillage and stubble burning. Grazing management management burning. Grazing as tillage and stubble especially in dry years and factor, is also an important occur risks associated with grazing The highest droughts. • such practices risk is due to cropping Most of the erosion soil erosion are: soil erosion • The critical management practices that affect the risk of that affect the risk management practices The critical 164 Biodiversity of agricultural land(20%) are affectedbysoilacidity in SouthAustralia. Approximately 1.9 million hectares threat tothesustainable managementofagricultural soils After erosion, soilacidityisthesecondhighest priority 3.2.2 late summerandautumnwhenground coverdeclines. technique forpreventing erosion duringdroughts andin below criticalprotective levels.Itisaveryimportant removed from paddocksbefore surfacecover declines from erosion. Confinementfeedingallowsstock to be providing higherlevelsofplantcovertoprotect the soil erosion. Crop andpasture production is also increased, the surfacesoil,improving soilstrength andresistance to Clay spreading anddelvingincreases theclaycontent of there are large areas ofseverely water-repellent soils. in theSouthernMalleeandupperSouthEastareas, where soils from winderosion. Thesetechniquesare widelyused repellent soilisbecomingafactorintheprotection of The useofclayspreading anddelvingtomanagewater- Source: Figure 5 improvement inerosion protection. no-till sowingislevellingoff, andthismaylimitfurther burning before sowingthecrop. Thetrend inadoptionof corresponding reduction intheuseoftillageandstubble in allthemajorcropping regions. There hasalsobeena 2000 to66%in2011(Figure 5). Thistrend hasoccurred sown usingno-tillmethodshasincreased from 16%in Telephone surveysshowthattheproportion ofcrop area Crop area sown to no-till (%) 80 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 DEWNR (2011) Soil acidity 2000 16 methods inSouthAustralia, 2000–11 crop area sownusingno-tillsowing Change intheproportion (%)of 2002 23 Survey year 2005 47 2008 62 2011 66 Surface soilaciditycanbereadily treated byapplying • • • • The consequencesofuntreated highlyacidicsoilsinclude: higher acidification rates. soils andhigherlevelsofproduction alsotendtolead derived from legumeplantsorfertilisers.Sandy-textured ammonium-forming fertilisers,andleachingofnitrogen or useofammonium-containing from thepaddock, including removal ofgrain, hayandlivestockproducts acidification canbeaccelerated byagricultural practices higher rainfall areas ofthestateare naturally Soil acidic. (Soil andLandProgram 2007ab). Manysoilsinthe cost asakeybarriertoitsuse. Australia compared withotherstates,farmersoften cite areas. Despitetherelatively lowcostoflimeinSouth understanding andawareness ofsoilacidityinacid-prone indicate thatthere isinconsistencyinlandmanagers’ to damaginglevels.TheDEWNRlandmanagersurveys are stilllarge areas oflandwhere acidification continues only 53%ofthatrequired tobalanceacidification.There year overthisperiodwasapproximately 113 000tonnes— 213 000 tonnes.Theaverage amountoflimeappliedper the agricultural zoneofSouthAustralia is approximately of limerequired tobalancetheannualacidification rate in steady since2007–08 (Figure 6). Theestimatedamount declined through theearly2000s,andhasbeenrelatively Lime useinthestaterose through thelate1990sbutthen addressed thesoilacidificationproblem. extent towhichfarmershavebothrecognised and since 1999.Thisprovides anindirect measure ofthe annually intheagricultural regions ofSouthAustralia The DEWNRhasmonitored theamountoflimesold increased riskofsubsurfaceacidification. acidic topsoilsare notadequatelytreated, there isan 10 cm depth) ismore difficultandexpensivetoIf treat. rate ofacidification.However, subsurfaceacidity(below and effectivemanagementofsoilnitrogen can reduce the irrigation water. The use of deeper rooted perennial plants incorporating calcareous oralkaline clay, orusingalkaline liming products. Aciditycanalsobeameliorated by structural breakdown ofthesoil. groundwater nutrients, leadingtocontaminationofsurfaceand increased leachingofiron, aluminiumandsome rainfall togroundwater increased soilsalinityduetoincreased drainage of plants reduced growth andproduction ofmostagricultural Biodiversity 165 land that was affected by dryland salinity in most regions land that was affected by dryland salinity in most exception The one 2% per year. by around decreased factors such as time since Island, where was Kangaroo clearing the original native vegetation, and a continuation 2% in an average resulted rainfall, of close to average in land affected by dryland salinity in monitored increase the visits to monitoring sites through catchments. Field and its replacement with annual crops and pastures has and pastures with annual crops and its replacement This has caused levels. in higher groundwater resulted land wetlands, native vegetation and agricultural streams, degraded. to become salt affected, waterlogged and that approximately Dooley et al. (2008) reported affected by dryland salinity were 360 000 hectares This equates to 2.3% of all land in in South Australia. that the net zone. They also reported the agricultural has not measurably extent of salinity in South Australia to 11 years (1997–2008) due largely since 2000, increased South experienced across rainfall of lower than average districts. agricultural Australia’s the extent of early 1990s to the mid-2000s, the From management region, and total for South Australia management region, Estimates of the amount of lime sold from 1998–99 to 2010–11 by natural resource resource 1998–99 to 2010–11 by natural sold from Estimates of the amount of lime Dryland salinity Regional lime sales data is approximate because of difficulties in delineating lime sales between regions. because of difficulties in delineating lime sales between is approximate lime sales data Regional because of to lost agricultural production and salt damage production because of to lost agricultural In many parts buildings and other infrastructure. to roads, of native vegetation of the state, historical clearance and biodiversity assets, and the productivity and and biodiversity assets, and the productivity Dryland salinity has many and pastures. quality of crops communities, economic impacts, particularly in regional 3.2.3 impacts land, water Dryland salinity in South Australia an issue in the Mount Lofty Ranges, Kangaroo Island Ranges, Kangaroo an issue in the Mount Lofty Soil acidification will continue to and South East regions. action is improved. unless remedial increase cropping districts due to high levels of production and districts due to high levels of production cropping fertilisers. Subsurface acidity use of nitrogenous increased and is recognised, than previously widespread is more acidic (DEWNR 2011). issue in Soil acidification is becoming an increasing Lime also needs to be applied to raise the pH of soils that Lime also needs to be applied to raise acidic. additional 1.1 million An estimated already are already topsoils that are to treat tonnes of lime is required Figure 6 Basin; SE = South East Note: EP = Eyre Penisula; NY = Northern and Yorke; AMLR = Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges; KI = Kangaroo Island; SAMDB = South Australian Murray–Darling Murray–Darling = South Australian Island; SAMDB Ranges; KI = Kangaroo = Adelaide and Mount Lofty AMLR NY = Northern and Yorke; Penisula; EP = Eyre 166 Biodiversity Source: Table 7 2 metres, whichtheninducessurfacesoilsali critical salinisationdepthofthesoilsurface(lessthan recharge hasbrought shallowgroundwater towithina Of more immediateconcernare areas where episodic reactivated outbreaks ofdrylandsalinityislikely. reversed, acorresponding increase intheriskofnewor previously fallingtrends indepthtogroundwater are If theserisesingroundwater are sustainedsuchthat in bothlocalandregional groundwater flowsystems. (Figure 7; trend 1inTable 7). Thisscenariowasobserved than 4 metres deeptowithin1 metre ofthesoilsurface has resulted inepisodicriseofgroundwater from more However, areturn toabove-average rainfall since2008 early 1990s. depth togroundwater (13 centimetres peryear)sincethe decreased. Figure 7 illustrates adeclininglineartrend in salinity posedtovaluableassetsacross thestatehad due totherainfall deficitand,asa theriskthat result, South Australia were exhibitingstableorfallingtrends to 2008,themajorityofgroundwater levelsacross In summary, theanalysisshowsthatfrom themid-1990s trends (Table 7). to groundwater canbesummarisedusingfourresponse average orabove-average rainfall inrecent yearsondepth since 2008(DEWNR2012a).Theimpactofareturn to were analysedtodeterminewhethertrends hadchanged of depthtogroundwater from 130 bores across thestate monitoring trends indrylandsalinity. Latein2011,records Depth togroundwater isthemainindicatorusedfor dryland salinitysince2008(DEWNR2012a). state haveshownlittlechangeintheextentorseverityof Trend 4 3 2 1 DEWNR (2012b) 2012 groundwater response torainfall Trends 2012 forgroundwater depthandsalinityrisk, Salinity riskisincreasing where groundwater isapproaching 2mof the soilsurface Bores maintainarisinglineartrend, with orwithoutamarkedepisodicrisein20102011. unchanged intheshortterm Bores continuetoexhibitavariableorseasonalresponse torainfall. Salinityriskremains groundwater, ortosite-specific rainfall variability be related totimelagsassociatedwithregional groundwater flowsystemsanddepthof ThelackofanobservedepisodicriseingroundwaterNo increased levelsmay salinityrisk. Bores maintainafallinglineartrend, butwithnomarkedepisodicrisein2010or2011. within 2 metres ofthesoilsurface No increased salinityriskintheshortterm,except where episodicrisebringsgroundwater to Bores maintainafallinglineartrend, butwithamarkedepisodicrisein2010and/or 2011. nity), and these canbeusedasanindicatorofsoilhealth. resistance tobreakdown, andtherelative proportions of components oforganic carbonhavevaryingdegrees of carbon thatcanbegrown andstored insoils.Thevarious texture are twokeyfactorsthatdeterminetheamountof (from natural breakdown anderosion). Rainfallandsoil inputs (from plantsandmicroorganisms) andlosses The amountoforganic carbonisabalancebetween organic matterinsoilsandisanindicatorofsoilhealth. Soil organic carbonisameasure oftheamount 3.2.4 of interventionstosloworhaltariseingroundwater. nature ofthegroundwater systemandtheeffectiveness largely onfuture rainfall patterns,climatechange,the The future impactandriskofdrylandsalinitywilldepend Northern AdelaidePlains. groundwater havecontinuedunabated,suchasonthe areas where long-term risingtrends indepthto management practices, soilhealthandproductivity. techniques, analyticalmethods,andrelationships with carbon, andresearch iscontinuingtoimprove sampling Currently, there are toofewdataavailableonsoil change through carbonsequestration. deficit insoilsprovides opportunitiesformitigatingclimate management practices suchasreduced tillage.Thecarbon but someofthelosscanbereversed byusingappropriate of historicallandclearance foragricultural production, of climatechange.Soilcarbonlosshasoccurred asaresult impact onfertility, productivity, resilience andmitigation A long-term declineinsoilorganic carbonhasanegative Soil carbon Percentage of bores 20 30 15 35 Biodiversity 167 Australia (Biosecurity SA) and the DEWNR, based on a Australia reports, including study sites, field of data sources range and observations by programs control specimen records, the can be variable across land managers. Such trends to whether a pest is new or widespread state, according have been coordinated and whether there in a region, programs. control Australian agriculture and horticulture from pest animals from and horticulture agriculture Australian Difficulties in valuing natural was $620 million per year. no are there ecosystems in dollar terms means that costs. However, for environmental equivalent figures recognised are biological invasions by non-native species ecosystems to natural internationally as a leading threat and biodiversity (Vitousek et al 1997). International and is a constant risk and tourism means there national trade of entry of new pests and diseases to South Australia. is also an ongoing risk of animals and plants held in There captivity or cultivation becoming new pests. This requires effective systems to identify new pests and diseases early so that their establishment can be prevented. have been derived for Distribution and abundance trends expert knowledge in Biosecurity South from this report management region) with long-term mean rainfall and annual rainfall for Jamestown, rainfall and annual mean rainfall with long-term management region) 1991–2011 Bore hydrograph from the Jamestown area (Northern and Yorke natural resource resource natural (Northern and Yorke area the Jamestown from hydrograph Bore Data from DEWNR and the Bureau of Meteorology DEWNR and the Bureau Data from Pests and diseases and Pests control to South Australian farmers in 2006–07 as $209 farmers in 2006–07 to South Australian control million for weeds and $68 million for pests. Gong et al. (2009) estimated the total annual economic loss to species pose costs to both productivity and the natural and the natural species pose costs to both productivity (ABS of Statistics Bureau environment. The Australian 2008) estimated the annual cost of weed and pest marine pests in ballast water or soilborne diseases on vehicles and footwear. The impacts and management of invasive introduced (i.e. established wild populations; Virtue et al. 2004), (i.e. established though many fewer have become major weeds. Other such as accidental introductions, pests originated from escaped or were released to form wild populations. released escaped or were 70% of settlement,Since European approximately have become naturalised plants in Australia garden and pathogens (including fungal, bacterial and viral and viral and pathogens (including fungal, bacterial originated as deliberate Some pests organisms). plants and pets, which such as garden introductions, Introduced pests and diseases cover a wide range of pests and diseases cover a wide range Introduced plants, algae invertebrates, life forms—vertebrates, 3.3 Figure 7 SWL = standing water level Source: 168 Biodiversity 80 kilometres downstream theprevious season.Expert South Australian border, havingmoved approximately toads are currently about 500 kilometres from the A surveybyBiosecuritySAin 2011confirmedthatcane South whichflows intonorth-eastern Australia.Creek, south-western Queenslandriversystemstowards Cooper Cane toads( illegally heldspecieswithinSouthAustralia. incursions from interstate,andescapeorrelease of Australia remains atriskfrom natural orhuman-aided bulbul wasdiscovered intheAdelaidesuburbs.South was discoveredandared-whiskered atAdelaideairport, illegally offered forsaleinAdelaide,anIndianmynah on interstatetransport, ared-eared sliderturtlewas incursions since2008:three lonecanetoadsarrived There havebeensixconfirmeddetectionsofvertebrate Incursions environment report. figure hasnotchangedsincethe2008stateof fish) establishedinthewildSouth Australia. This There are currently 35 exotic vertebrates (excluding pest animalmanagement. Animals Strategy provide nationalpolicyframeworks for Vertebrate Pests CommitteeandtheAustralian Pest legislation (see Section 3.3.2).Theintergovernmental South Australia (PIRSA).Fish are managedunderseparate SA intheDepartmentofPrimary IndustriesandRegions andstatecoordination throughthe DEWNR, Biosecurity Act), withregionally ledprograms bytheNRMboards in under the mammals, birds, reptiles andamphibians) are managed In SouthAustralia, terrestrial vertebrate pests(invasive 3.3.1 • • • as follows: Trend innumbersofnewpestsanddiseasesare • • • • pests anddiseasesare asfollows: Trends indistributionandabundanceofkeyestablished Unknown—wildlife diseases. Steady—terrestrial vertebrate pests plant diseases Increasing—weeds, marinepests, aquaticpests,native Unknown—chytridiomycosis. Decreasing—feral camels, opuntioid cacti Steady—feral deer, European carp, bridalcreeper, Phytophthora cinnamomi oriental weatherloach,silverleafnightshade, Increasing—rabbits, feral goats,European fanworm, Vertebrate pests Natural Resources ManagementAct 2004 Bufo marinus ) are currently movingdown , sarcoptic mangeofwombats Caulerpa taxifolia , gorse (NRM strong increase inpreceding years.Thiscoincideswith about 300 000, counteringfourconsecutiveyearsof some oftherangelands area declinedduring2010to with kangaroo surveydata),goatnumbersacross Dog Fence. BasedonDEWNRaerialcounts(collected Flinders ranges andeasternpastoral areas southofthe central areas ofthestate,particularlyGawlerand Feral goats( levels(DEWNR2012b).to pre-disease Flinders RangesNationalPark,numbershaverecovered numbers inthestatesince2008.For example, inthe disease havebothcontributedtoincreased rabbit and thewaningeffectivenessof rabbit haemorrhagic animal pesttomanage.Favourable seasonalconditions mainland SouthAustralia andcontinuetobeadifficult Rabbits ( Established vertebrate pests their long-term survivalinaridcentral Australia. opinion isdividedonwhetherconditionsare suitablefor Management Act 2007. are managedbyBiosecurity SAthrough the industries oftendepend.At thestatelevel,aquatic pests ecosystems onwhichfishing, aquaculture andtourism species forhabitatandfood, and adverselyaffectingthe biodiversity andindustriesby outcompetingnative and freshwater environments. Suchpestscanimpact and algaethatposeathreat toSouthAustralia’s marine Aquatic pestsincludeexotic fish,shellfish,invertebrates 3.3.2 infrastructure, andscarce waterresources. cultural sites, pastoral production, communityandrural severe impactsonrangelands biodiversity, Aboriginal reduction inferal camelnumbersisrequired toreduce movement across stateandterritoryborders. Asubstantial Project, unpublisheddata),withconsiderable seasonal 750 000 in2012(Australian Feral CamelManagement the feral camelpopulationwasestimatedatapproximately across therangelands northoftheDogFence. Nationally, Feral camels( livestock diseasesandcanbetraffic hazards. native vegetation,damagepasture andcrops, host Feraloccurring intheupperSouthEast. deerimpact and MountLofty Ranges,withthehighestabundance southern SouthAustralia, particularlytheMidNorth Feral deer( breeding success. in response tofavourable seasonalconditionsandgreater estimated populationrose againto390 000, mostlikely and ongoinghelicopterculling.However, in2011,the a program oflandholderincentivesforgoatcontrol Aquatic pests Oryctolagus cuniculus Cervus Capra hircus Camelus dromedarius spp.) occurinfrequently across ) occurinthesouthernand ) occuracross mostof ) are widelydistributed Fisheries Biodiversity 169 ) ) was Nassella tenuissima ) was detected and destroyed ) was detected and destroyed Phalloceros caudimaculatus Phalloceros Nassella trichotoma in 2010. Incursions and maintains into an area A plant that is introduced naturalised itself without human help is considered number of and can become a weed. The recorded has increased in South Australia plant species naturalised is indicative of the The increase since 2008 (Figure 8). cultivation of plants escaping from ongoing process linked to increased but is also plantings), (e.g. ornamental since 2009. government investment in field surveillance a under the NRM Act provides of plants The declaration of serious weeds. legal basis for containing the spread 2008 plants have not changed since Numbers of declared NRM SA and regional Biosecurity However, (Figure 8). state-level reviewing have been collaboratively boards under the NRM Act, and policies and plant declarations plants is likely to increase the total number of declared pending the outcomes of this review. plant since 2008 The most serious incursion of a declared ( was the sale of Mexican feathergrass undertook a traceback boards NRM retailers. by several to detect Mexican feathergrass program and destroy planting of serrated plantings. In addition, a garden tussock ( Ranges NRM Board by the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Speckled livebearer ( Speckled livebearer in Willunga Creek of stretch four-kilometre found in a in South of this species record was the first 2008. This implemented. was program and an eradication Australia, 18 months, the over of the area treatment Following galaxia species and native population was eradicated area. into the treated reintroduced were 3.3.3 Weeds some form of wild plants that require are Weeds their harmful effects to reduce management action the environment, human health or on the economy, oversight the government’s Australia, In South amenity. the is primarily through in managing weeds role by the NRM led programs NRM Act, regionally with in the DEWNR, through boards and state coordination Committee Weeds Biosecurity SA in PIRSA. The Australian national provide Strategy Weeds and the Australian policy frameworks. ) was has increased has increased has declined in its . ) has extended its range to ) has extended its range , which was confirmed in , which was confirmed Sabella spallanzanii Misgurnus anguillicaudatus Caulerpa taxifolia Cyprinus carpio Cyprinus Teredo navalis Teredo almost the whole of the Murray–Darling Basin. Carp can almost the whole of the Murray–Darling water quality and damage aquatic habitats, and reduce (Koehn et al. 2000). is difficult large-scale control Fisheries Management Act 2007 Management Act Fisheries carp ( European detected for the first time in South Australia in 2011, when Australia detected for the first time in South during survey work in the upper caught fish were several of any Basin. Release of the Murray–Darling reaches is illegal under the of these species, following capture, waterways, with unknown biological repercussions. Oriental weatherloach ( intentional release of exotic aquarium species. Species of exotic intentional release are basins in Australia native to other drainage that are into South Australian being released also increasingly on the distribution and extent of these species in on the distribution and extent of these South Australia. to the accidental or related directly are Newer threats available food and habitat, predate on native species available food and habitat, on native predate impacts on entire with adverse and affect water quality, is very little information available ecosystems. There Freshwater pest species Freshwater for pest fish compete with native species Freshwater The European fanworm The European Island and potentially Kangaroo after reaching its range disturbed habitats. of the state in other regions remains clear after the 2003 eradication program and the program clear after the 2003 eradication remains marina in 2008 secondary infestation in the North Haven was effectively eradicated. recent records. recent The invasive seaweed Lakes area River since 2008. The West in the Port range Port Lincoln by Biosecurity SA in 2011 after Wiltshire Lincoln by Biosecurity SA in 2011 after Wiltshire Port report. An et al. (2010) could not list it as a confirmed based on be present likely to species are additional three considered currently established in South Australia established in South Australia currently considered (Wiltshire naval et al. 2010). This number includes the shipworm Australia, based on those species examined in the study. based on those species examined Australia, could be marine species that 20 introduced are There organisms attach to the outside of ships—has been a the outside of ships—has attach to organisms of marine (60%) to the translocation contributor larger in shipping ballast water (24%) pests than commercial increases in vessel traffic and climate change. Commercial change. Commercial and climate in vessel traffic increases recognised one of the most commonly shipping is by Hewitt and research Recent carriers of marine pests. that vessel biofouling—where Campbell (2010) suggests South Australia’s coastal waters are under increasing increasing under waters are coastal South Australia’s of pest species as a result of marine a range from threat Marine pest species Marine pest 170 Biodiversity control programs. distribution ofgorseisdeclining asaresult ofintensive Ranges, Clare Valley Theoverall andthelowerSouthEast. problem inhigh-rainfall areas includingtheMountLofty Gorse ( biological controls. Adelaideandisnotsusceptibletothe East andnorth-east Western Capebridalcreeper, hasestablishedintheSouth established. However, avariantoftheweed,termed Rust andleafhopper biologicalcontrols are nowwidely bushland across muchofsouthernSouthAustralia. South African vine thatspread from gardens toinvade Bridal creeper ( are availableat impacts, biology, current distributionandmanagement, and waterhyacinth). Full detailsonWoNS, includingtheir serrated salvinia, tussock sagittaria, weed, pricklyacacia, parthenium mesquite,parkinsonia, weed, cabomba, subject tosurveillanceandresponse programs (alligator gorse, silverleafnightshadeandwillows) and10are boneseed, brooms, Chileanneedlegrass, opuntioidcacti, boxthorn, asparagus weeds,athelpine,blackberry, 11 are widelyestablishedinSouthAustralia (African (Australian Weeds Committee2012).Ofthe32WoNS, followingariskassessmentprocessmanagement, governments asrequiring nationallycoordinated by theAustralian Governmentandstateterritory established weedsthathavebeenformallyendorsed (WoNS)Weeds are ofNationalSignificance high-impact Established weeds Figure 8 NRM Act= Ulex europaeus Natural Resources ManagementAct 2004 Changes inindicatorsfor introduced plants,2008and2012 Asparagus asparagoides www.weeds.org.au/wons ) isaspinyshrubthatcauses a ) isavigorous . far north-west (BiosecuritySA2012).Buffelgrass invasion northern pastoral zone,withextensiveinfestationsinthe control. InSouthAustralia, itisnowscattered across the in northernAustralia forpasture production anddust ciliaris and impacts.Akeyexample isbuffelgrass ( Australia thathavethepotential toincrease theirrange Besides WoNS, there are other established weeds in South seed bymovementsoflivestockandfodder. Its distributionisslowlyincreasing becauseofdispersal region, where regular control programs are implemented. Mid North,easternEyre Peninsula andupperSouthEast land, present inallregions butmostabundantinthe deep-rooted perennial weedofpasture andcropping Silverleaf nightshade( vegetation andreduce pastoral productivity. state’s extensiverangeland regions. Theydisplacenative shrubs withthepotentialtospread widelyacross the (known genericallyaspricklypears) are spiny, succulent Wheel cactus( fire frequency. monocultures thatdisplacenativeplantsandincrease poses ahighrisktoaridrangelands, formingdense ), aperennial tussockgrass thathasbeenplanted Department ofPrimary Industries andRegions SouthAustralia Opuntia robusta Solanum elaeagnifolium Jumping chollaatArkaroola Wilderness ) andotheropuntioidcacti Cenchrus ) isa Biodiversity 171 var. var. Sarcoptes scabiei Sarcoptes Batrachochytrium Batrachochytrium has spread throughout the the throughout has spread and controlling its spread relies relies its spread and controlling is a water mould that is carried is a water mould that P. cinnamomi P. ) is a potentially fatal epidermal disease of ) is a potentially fatal epidermal disease P. Cinnamomi P. that burrows under the skin, resulting in under the skin, resulting that burrows Native plant and wildlife diseases and wildlife Native plant the Yorke Peninsula (Taggart and Sparrow 2010). (Taggart and Sparrow Peninsula the Yorke southern hairy-nosed wombat population is affected by southern hairy-nosed the et al. 2009), and it also threatens the mite (Ruykys survival of some of the smaller wombat populations on may eventually lead to liver and kidney damage and may eventually lead to liver and kidney months to three pneumonia. can die within two Wombats 75% of the the disease. In the Murraylands, of contracting It is caused by a parasitic mite ( It is caused by a parasitic wombati) loss, and intense itching, wounds, scabs and hair prevalence in South Australia is largely unknown. is largely in South Australia prevalence mange is a skin disease that affects wombats. Sarcoptic vulnerable southern bell frog (Voros et al. 2012). The frog southern bell vulnerable in the 1970s. It is Australia in fungal disease emerged although its in Australia, believed to be widespread Chytridiomycosis (caused by Chytridiomycosis (caused dendrobatidis et al. 2004), including the nationally amphibians (Berger eradicating eradicating and adopting strong areas affected on quarantining hygiene procedures. is suspected to have spread to the lower Eyre Peninsula. to the lower Eyre is suspected to have spread in the South Australian been detected It has recently known method of is no There Arid Lands NRM region. causing eventual death of a wide variety of native causing eventual death plant species. Island, and and parts of Kangaroo Ranges Mount Lofty and species. cinnamomi Phytophthora of susceptible plants, the roots rots in soil and water and particularly if they are already stressed by other factors by other factors stressed already particularly if they are loss and climate change, with such as drought, habitat populations of vulnerable survival risks to the long-term potentially impact agricultural crops, domestic animals domestic crops, impact agricultural potentially the is likely to reduce health. An outbreak and human animals in a population, and/or number of native plants Exotic diseases have the potential to devastate have the potential to diseases Exotic as animals, as well of native plants and populations 3.3.4 172 Biodiversity ha =hectare; km=kilometre; na=datanotavailable Table 8 natural resources. TheGovernmentofSouthAustralia, that contributetotheprotection andmanagementof the three spheres ofgovernment(local,stateandfederal), There are manyorganisations andindividuals,aswell 4 Activity Number ofvolunteersandhours contributed strategies/guidelines completed Number ofresource managementplans/ established Number ofnewmonitoringprograms Number ofstudies/reports completed maintained Number ofcultural heritagesitesprotected or water qualitycompleted Number ofconstructionworkstoimprove measures New areas ofnativeanimalconservation Area revegetated Extent offencing improved New areas ofnativevegetationprotected or New conservationagreements established Area treated forsustainablelandmanagement developed Number ofawareness-raising materials events Number oftraining orawareness-raising What are wedoingaboutit? Number ofactivitiesandoutputsdelivered between2008–09and2010–11,asreported in Natural Resource ManagementProgram annualreports 260 750 ha 9631 hours 2008–09 213 384 129 135 65 na na na na na na na outputs between2008and2011. subprograms. Table 8 describessomeoftheactivitiesand through itsNRMProgram, investsmoneythrough several 453, covering4130ha 1227 volunteers, 3.1 millionha 31 140 hours 10 500 ha 2009–10 104 km 762 ha 159 106 148 20 45 10 na 8 2136 volunteers, 141, covering 54 308 hours 60 140 ha 44 852 ha 11 139 ha 3167 ha 2010–11 646 ha 68 km 436 125 251 81 63 27 1 Biodiversity 173 757 763 389 592 850 867 1696 4 500 2 187 ($‘000) Funding Funding 12 601 2010–11 9 2 21 22 46 14 13 42 17 186 No. of No. projects 406 807 ($‘000) 1 134 1 328 1 223 6 379 2 472 1 043 1 208 Funding Funding 16 000 2009–10 7 17 11 12 41 11 27 55 24 205 No. of No. projects 20 an additional $18.7 million (GST exclusive) was allocated was exclusive) $18.7 million (GST an additional for our Country Caring Country (a on Working through subprogram). by individuals, groups, contribution made The relative the and a comparison of and agencies, organisations complex and not activities are value between different here. reported 998 948 558 a 1 802 1 088 7 674 3 286 1 828 ($‘000) 18 202 Funding Funding 2008–09 2 8 8 16 35 38 17 13 46 183 No. of No. projects Resource Management Program annual reports, 2008–09 to 2010–11 2008–09 annual reports, Management Program Resource Funding allocated by the Government of South Australia, as reported in Natural in Natural as reported of South Australia, allocated by the Government Funding b the contribution and funding made by local government associations and environmental nongovernment organisations. the contribution and funding made by local government associations and environmental Australian Government Caring for our Country (CFOC) baseline funding, CFOC competitive grant funding, environmental stewardship, Community stewardship, funding, environmental competitive grant baseline funding, CFOC Government Caring for our Country (CFOC) Australian etc. Action Grants, funding other small grant) (and Government Vegetation SA State the contribution made by ‘friends of’ groups • • • • Reported differently in different annual reports (combines state government agency, multiregion strategic projects and stormwater projects; does not stormwater projects and strategic multiregion (combines state government agency, reports annual in different differently Reported Water Quality with Plan for Salinity and Trust and National Action Heritage combines the final year investment of the joint Natural The 2008–09 figure Other than 2008–09, the information does not include: Includes Australian Government funding Includes Australian South Australia’s NRM Program investment; however, the 2009–10 and 2010–11 figures do not. the 2009–10 and 2010–11 figures investment; however, NRM Program South Australia’s include projects with no assessment process—for example, legislative review legislative example, with no assessment process—for include projects Total South East NRM Board Other South Australian Murray–Darling Basin Murray–Darling South Australian NRM Board Northern and Yorke NRM Board Northern and Yorke Arid Lands NRM Board South Australian Eyre Peninsula NRM Board Peninsula Eyre Island NRM Board Kangaroo Board NRM Board Wilurara Alinytjara Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges NRM Ranges NRM Adelaide and Mount Lofty Proponent 2. b Notes: 1. NRM = natural resource management resource NRM = natural a Table 9 2008 and 2012, $17.5 million was allocated to fund was 2012,2008 and $17.5 million received eight NRM regions The 91 competitive projects. in base-level exclusive) and funding, $88.36 million (GST the state’s natural resources. The Australian Government Government The Australian resources. natural the state’s through in South Australia investment a large has made initiative; between for our Country funding its Caring Table 9 shows the financial investment made in managing made in managing financial investment shows the Table 9 174 Biodiversity 2007 includes a target to‘losenonative speciesasa extent andcondition. SouthAustralia’s Strategic Plan environment. Thisincludestargets fornativevegetation is toimprove thecondition andresilience ofthenatural A keygoalofthe2012State NRMPlan (DEWNR2012b) the managementofallnatural resources inthestate. animal andplantcontrol. Theintentistobetterintegrate togetherwithlegislationfor soil andlandmanagement, and functionstointegrate theadministration ofwater, The NRMActprovides regional NRMboards withpowers 4.1.2 reform project onenvironmental offsets. with theCouncilofAustralian Governments’national of restoration. Thisworkisbeingdoneinconjunction of anoffsetare equitableand realistically reflect thecost requirements, andtoensure thatpaymentsmadeinplace consistency betweenmethodsusedtodetermineoffset benefit offsets are calculated.Thisisintendedtoimprove Vegetation Councilofthewayinwhichenvironmental The DEWNRisundertakingareview fortheNative Source: Table 10 (column 2)(Table 10). (column 1),orpaymentintotheNativeVegetation Fund through managementorrestoration ofnativevegetation by anenvironmentalThiscanbeachieved benefitoffset. native vegetationinSouthAustralia mustbeaccompanied Vegetation Regulations 2003, authorisedclearance of Under the historical clearance. to provide alevelofprotection towhatremains following Native vegetationlegislationhasbeeninplacesince1991 4.1.1 pressures onnativevegetation. strategies andprograms are beingusedtoaddress At thestatelevel,arange oflegislation,policies, 4.1 2011–12 2010–11 2009–10 Native vegetation Year Native Vegetation Council(2012) State governmentpolicy Native vegetationlegislation Native Vegetation Act 1991 Summary ofenvironmental benefit clearance, 2009–10to2011–12 offsets fornativevegetation Total benefit 2166.26 area (ha) 161.10 320.24 and Native Financial offset($) 29 509.00 39 804.59 8 278.00 private landconservationissupportedthrough heritage and Public landconservationismanagedbytheDEWNR, forests 2008), as changes havebeenincreases inthearea oflandclassed area increased to27 906 210 hectares. Theprimary status, anincrease of1%since2003.In2011,thetotal ofthestate,wasundersomeformprotected25.8% report, approximately 25 306 485 hectares ofland,or the NPWAct In SouthAustralia, protected areas are establishedunder 4.1.3 communityandindustry(DEH2007). government, for SouthAustralia 2007–2017 strategy 2011). Thedeliveryofthistarget issupportedbythe result ofhumanimpacts’(Government ofSouthAustralia environmental problem (Lindenmayeretal.2012). anticipate howdifferent groups ofpeople respond toan planting trees andfailingto thatbecome invasivetaxa, clearing nativevegetationto establish tree plantations, are include possible.Thesepotential ‘bio-perversities’ but policymakersare aware thatnegativeoutcomes to promote positivecarbon andbiodiversitybenefits, Government BiodiversityFund. Thishasthepotential new fundingopportunitiessuchastheAustralian Further investmentinrevegetation isoccurringthrough lowest in2008. revegetation activities(except forestry—softwood) was decreased in2008from theprevious year. Thearea of all than the2007level)(Table 11).Allrevegetation activities 2008 wassubstantiallylowerthantheaverage (50%less revegetated of12 876hectares eachyear. Revegetation in South Australia fluctuatedconsiderably, withameanarea Between 1999and2008,thetotalarea ofrevegetation in Country) funding. Australia usingstateandnational(e.g. Caring forour have beenconductedoverseveral decadesinSouth programs torestore nativevegetationcommunities response tothelossofnativevegetation.Large-scale Revegetation isausefulindicatorofmanagement 4.1.4 native forest reserves underthe under Commonwealthlegislation.Forestry SAmanages andIndigenousprotectedunder theNPWAct, areas agreements undertheNativeVegetation sanctuaries Act, Indigenous protected area (an increase (Figure 9). of35.6%) wilderness area Protected areas Revegetation programs No speciesloss—a nature conservationstrategy . Inthe2008stateofenvironment (an increase of27.9%) and (an increase of39.6%since , whichaimstoinfluence Forestry Act 1950 . native Biodiversity 175 Protected areas in South Australia areas Protected Figure 9 176 Biodiversity and needtolook beyondanevent-based management need tobebasedonthebest information available for biodiversityconservation, managementdecisions vegetation istoprovide ecologically sustainableoutcomes Act 2005 recognised inSouthAustralia ( and property andenhances biodiversityvalues,iswell The needtomanagefire inawaythatprotects life land (DEWNRFire ManagementBranch, pers.comm.). by unplannedbushfires, includingasmallarea ofprivate During thesameperiod,244 700 hectares were burnt Forestrymanaged bytheDEWNR, SAandWater. were burntinprescribed burningoperations onland Between July2008andDecember2011,33 900hectares of high-riskpubliclands. target touseprescribed burningforfuelreduction in5% levels. In2010, theSouthAustralian Governmentseta and conductingprescribed burningtoreduce fuelhazard agencies haveplacedastronger emphasisonplanning the subsequentRoyal Commission,landmanagement private lands.Sincethe2009Victorianbushfires and framework forthemanagementoffire onpublicand The DEWNRfire managementpolicyprovides a 4.1.5 Source: Table 11 vegetation Type of Total softwood Forestry— hardwood Forestry— species Product Tagasaste Saltbush Farm forestry grasses Native indigenous) Native (non- Indigenous DEWNR (2012) Fire managementpolicyandprograms , DENR2011a).Iffire management ofnative Area ofSouthAustralian revegetation activities(hectares), 1999–2008 12 890 3 050 2 940 1 490 1 050 3 770 1999 570 10 10 0 30 620 21 130 2000 2 940 1 210 4 050 210 630 380 Fire andEmergency Services 50 20 13 190 6 730 1 300 3 910 2001 250 790 90 10 70 40 12 230 2002 6 010 4 060 100 320 450 330 890 10 60 1 090 4 540 7 420 2003 590 440 100 560 30 50 20 maximise biodiversityoutcomes. applying thisknowledgetofire managementpractices to communities andtheirresponse tofire regimes, andthen knowledge offlora andfaunaspecies,populations and biodiversity istherefore basedonaccumulating The managementoffire tomaintainorenhance • • • 2011a). Zoningisderivedfrom: management planningonDEWNR-managed lands(DENR has azoningpolicythatoutlinestheusedforfire areas ofnativevegetationinSouthAustralia. TheDEWNR fire regimes willtherefore beneededwhenmanaging view. Careful consideration ofthedifferent elementsof perspective toincludeabroader spatialandtemporal environmental assets. the threat thatfire posestolife,property and the activitiesconsidered appropriate tomitigate manual 2011b) inaccordance withthe Overall fuelhazard guideforSouthAustralia the overall fuel hazard, whichisassessedusingthe procedure manual environmental assets,usingthe the levelofperceived risktolife,property and 13 750 2004 6 640 5 130 580 510 190 590 (DENR2011a) 70 10 30 11 870 2005 1 120 4 630 4 430 640 920 (DENR2011a) 30 10 60 30 1 300 3 390 9 140 3 810 2006 180 170 230 10 50 0 Fire policyandprocedure Fire policyand 11 000 2007 2 000 3 470 5 180 240 10 20 80 0 0 (DENR 1 750 6 740 4 030 No data 2008 610 160 180 10 0 0 Biodiversity 177

endangered ), as these are the the ), as these are ) grassy woodlands of ) grassy and ) often benefit from the ) often benefit from rare vulnerable and Eucalyptus odorata critically endangered endangered . A proportion of the species for which no of the species . A proportion feral animal management, weed management,feral fire management, and propagation assisted pollination plans, with many species recovery implementing range the species’ entire out across activities carried of a range and storing seeds from collecting plant populations. threatened individuals in different information highlighted the need for emergency rescue rescue information highlighted the need for emergency in the design of a captive breeding action and resulted from the collected fish species were Different program. in captive facilities, which included primary wild and bred fish habitat schools and farm dams. Activities to restore implemented and additional water was allocated in were undertaken key sites. These management actions were until water levels and groups organisations by different species compared with those that are considered considered with those that are species compared vulnerable noted include oceanic specific conservation activities are species and a few poorly poorly known whale seabirds, parrot). species (e.g. night known terrestrial plans ecological communities, recovery threatened For of the for the buloke woodlands have been prepared bioregions, Depression Riverina and Murray–Darling on natural the community of native species that depend Artesian the Great from of groundwater discharge of grassland temperate natural grass Basin and iron for being prepared plans are Recovery South Australia. ( peppermint box and for swamps of the Fleurieu Peninsula. South Australia surveys underpin effective conservation Systematic is the species. One example actions for threatened fish habitats within the South surveys of freshwater Basin and the south-east of Murray–Darling Australian the state. Data collected over the past decade identified native declines in populations of several catastrophic Yarra fish species, such as the purple-spotted gudgeon, The loss of aquatic hardyhead. and Murray pygmy perch declines due to drought vegetation, and water-level identified as the causes. This were and over extraction • • of state-listed summarises the numbers Table 12 of these for which one or more species threatened only is being employed. The table focuses strategies in Schedules 7 and 8 of the on those species listed NPW Act ( attention. The many other priority species for immediate 9 ( species listed in Schedule the habitats and improve to protect activities undertaken species. and vulnerable and populations of endangered species of threatened shows the percentage Figure 10 plans. recovery that have current that investment has demonstrate and Figure 10 Table 12 focused on the South Tackling Tackling (Bardsley and (Bardsley Prospering in a Prospering A regional climate change decision A regional (Government of South Australia 2010), of South Australia (Government (Government of South Australia 2007b), 2007b), of South Australia (Government Climate change policy and research Climate change Native vegetation reform project reform Native vegetation (CCSA 2009) and (CCSA communities Threatened species and ecological Threatened implementing local action plans to help protect implementing local action plans to help protect species through individual populations of threatened • Several conservation strategies are being used to try to are conservation strategies Several the decline in possible, recover halt and, where slow, species, including: threatened many of the state’s national carbon sequestration models (Hobbs et al. 2010). national carbon sequestration 4.2 and Tertiary Education) and the Future Farm Industries Farm and the Future Education) and Tertiary carbon to improve Centre Research Cooperative assessment methodologies and refine sequestration Government Department of Climate Change and Energy and Energy Government Department of Climate Change of Government Department Australian (now the Efficiency Innovation, Climate Change, Science, Research Industry, et al. 2011, Fordham et al. 2012), and participating et al. 2012), and participating et al. 2011, Fordham with the Commonwealth Scientific and in a project the Australian (CSIRO), Organisation Industrial Research research projects that focus on climate change. These projects research species populations as part of include modelling flora (Delean Linkage project an Adelaide University ARC as climate change occurs through actions such as as climate change occurs through (DEH 2006). maintaining native vegetation corridors a partner in a number of The DEWNR is currently Management regimes need to increase the capacity of need to increase Management regimes including by ecosystems to adapt to climate change, opportunities for plants and animals to migrate creating framework for natural resource management management resource for natural framework 2008). Sweeney climate change: South Australia’s Greenhouse Strategy Strategy Greenhouse climate change: South Australia’s 2007–2020 in a changing climate: blueprint for a sustainable Australia future for South Australia to climate policy approach outlines South Australia’s This is complemented by change adaptation. South Australia’s adaptation framework, adaptation framework, South Australia’s climate change adaptation framework changing climate: a priority urban growth areas. priority urban growth 4.1.7 the land-use planning system. The outcome of the project project The outcome of the planning system. the land-use value of high conservation mapping of areas will be the plans for structure part of producing native vegetation as The Government of South Australia is undertaking a is undertaking of South Australia The Government vegetation in of native the integration improve to project 4.1.6 178 Biodiversity Note: c b a State SeedConservationCentre attheAdelaide Botanic long-term conservationoptionsformanyplants.The threatened plantspecies isanimportantadjuncttothe the collectionandlong-term storage ofseeds threatenedmost, speciesand theirvariouspopulations, Although itmaynotbefeasibletomanageall,oreven two threatened speciesare highlightedinBox 3. increased andhabitatwasimproved. Recovery plansfor Figure 10 Table 12 Taxonomic group Vascular plants(totalspecies) Amphibians (totalspecies) Reptiles (totalspecies) Birds (totalspecies) Mammals (totalspecies) et al. 2011) established attheAridRecovery Reserve (Moseby etal.2011) Slater’s skinkhasnotbeenrecorded inSouthAustralia formanydecadesandshouldbelistedaspresumed extinct(Pavey 2004). Mount Lofty Rangesspottedquail-thrush shouldnowbepresumed extinctgiventhetimesincelastrecord andamountofsearching undertaken(Garnett Two mammalspeciespreviously considered extinctfrom SouthAustralia—the burrowing bettongandthewesternbarred bandicoot—are nowwell of Nature criteria(IUCN2012b). Schedule 7statisticshavebeendividedinto Percentage threatened ofstate-listed speciesineachthreat categorywithrecovery Numbers ofspeciesforwhichconservationorrecovery strategies are beingemployed, April 2012 actions occurring,April2012 Presumed extinctin presumed criticallyendangered extinct, South Australia 26 26 8 1 0 b a c endangered collections are summarised inTable 13. Australian threatened speciesrepresented in these occasionally checkedforviability. ThenumbersofSouth the UnitedKingdom.Theseeds are carefully stored and coordinated bytheRoyal BotanicGardens atKew in more thanadecade,originallybasedonglobalproject Gardens hasbeenaccumulatingsuchcollectionsfor Critically 17 (20) 1 (1) 1 (5) 3 (3) and 0 endangered Endangered 62 (142) 13 (18) 12(29) according toInternational UnionforConservation 2(7) 0 114 (196) Vulnerable 10 (21) 5 (32) 1 (4) 0 (9) 18 (66) 26 (42) 193 (357) 3 (17) Total 1 (4) Biodiversity 179 Dr Jane McKenzie Adult female Australian sea lion and her pup at Lilliput Island, near Franklin Island sea lion and her pup at Lilliput Island, near Franklin Adult female Australian Case studies: The most effective recovery plans depend on good science depend on good recovery plans The most effective Case studies: Red-tailed black cockatoos Red-tailed in the south-east black cockatoos of of feeding habitat for red-tailed has also guided recovery Research on the seeds of bulokes, that these cockatoos feed almost exclusively has shown Research South Australia. will birds 2003). It has also shown that the stingybark eucalypts (Koch desert stringybark and brown have better because these trees on isolated and small stands of stringybark trees often feed preferentially and woodland blocks. This information has clumps and in forest in larger growing than trees seed crops plantings of stringybarks and bulokes the importance that fence-line and paddock-corner demonstrated their on farmland across trees these to restore This is the basis for a project can have for these birds. in South Australia. range natural Australian sea lions Australian sea Australian on the work undertaken management is the informing effective of science A good example over the Institute and collaborators and Development Research at the South Australian lion by researchers has shown that et al. 2011). This research 2011; Lowther et al. 2010, (Goldsworthy past 20 years or more that the same may be true at Seal Bay is declining, and suggested colony of sea lions breeding the large and Eastern in nets used by the Southern It has also shown that sea lions drowning for other colonies. Australian the on the populations. As a consequence, Fishery is having an impact Scalefish and Shark establish of sea lion colonies to and proximity numbers has used relative Management Authority Fisheries recently detected has This level of management this fishery. sea lion management zone for an Australian it is expected that some sectors of the fishery; over time, of closures have triggered bycatch levels that to be maintained, and need management protocols lines in place of gill nets. These fishers will adopt long begin to recover. determine when and if the colonies colonies continued, to monitoring of breeding Box 3 180 Biodiversity Mount Lofty Ranges andKangaroo Islandregions. Assessments havecommenced forboththeAdelaideand NRM region andfinal reports are nearingcompletion. have beencompletedfortheSouthAustralian AridLands Species ConservationAssessmentProject communities/Regional significantprojects/Regional plants-and-animals/Threatened speciesecological environment.sa.gov.au/managing-natural-resources/ Murray–Darling BasinandSouthEastregions (see the Eyre NorthernandYorke, Peninsula, SouthAustralian To date,regional assessmentshavebeencompletedfor ecosystems andthreats. also assistintheidentificationof regional priorityspecies, assessments canbederivedinthefuture. Thesereviews related baselinefrom whichstateandnationalstatus local populationtrends, toprovide adetailed,ecosystem- vertebrate andassessing animalsusingIUCNcriteria, regional statusclassificationsofvascularplantsand interested individuals,hassystematicallybeenassessing This process, involvingstateandlocalexperts subregions ofAustralia (see Section 2.1.1). Regionalisation forAustralia (IBRA)regions and for eachNRMregion, basedontheInterimBiogeographic the statebyleadingaprogram of speciesstatusreviews to reassess thestatusofplantandanimalspeciesacross populations ofthreatened species,theDEWNRcontinues While focusingconservationeffortonmanagingpriority climate change. viable inthesoil),andseedtolerance totemperatures and collected isactuallyfertileandhowlongitmayremain seed viabilityandlongevity(what proportion ofseed aspects ofseeddormancyandhowthismaybebroken, much more aboutseedbiologyforeachspecies,including These seedcollectionsalsoprovide abasisforlearning Table 13 if seedbankincluded(%) Threatened plantswithconservationactivity Seed bankonly Seed bankandotheractions Total numberofthreatened species Numbers ofthreatened plantspeciesforwhichthere are representative seed collections attheState SeedConservationCentre, April2012 ). Assessments endangered Critically www. 85 17 20 2 Endangered 4.3.1 and soilquality. programs toaddress variousissuesinlandmanagement The GovernmentofSouthAustralia hasputintoplace 4.3 industry groups. communication betweenNRM staffandfarming practices, improving grazing andincreasing management, increasing theadoptionof stubbleretention andno-till Mallee SustainableFarming Theprojects Inc. focuson the SouthAustralian No-Till Farmers Associationand of SouthAustralia, Agriculture Excellence Alliance, industry collaborators includetheAgricultural Bureau Australian Murray–Darling BasinNRMboards. The the Eyre NorthernandYorke, Peninsula, andSouth developed withfarmingindustryorganisations and implement thetarget.Partnership projects havebeen provides strategic andfinancialsupportforprojects to The DEWNRSustainableDrylandAgriculture Initiative management practices toreduce theriskofsoilerosion. and encouraging bestpractice are drivingtheadoptionof projects aimedateducatingandinforminglandholders farming zone.Arange ofcommunity, industryand agency between thegovernmentandNRMboards inthegrain East NRMboards. Thisreflects strong collaboration Yorke, SouthAustralian Murray–Darling Basin,andSouth plans prepared bytheEyre Northernand Peninsula, erosion protection targets andstrategies intheNRM A keyachievementtodatehasbeentheinclusionof farming businesses. industry organisations, communitygroups andindividual Australian regional Government, groups, farming an ongoingcollaborative effortbetweentheSouth area ofcropping landprotected from erosion requires Achieving theStrategic Plan target ofincreasing the 142 45 23 62 Land management Soil erosion Vulnerable 114 196 49 70 Rare 253 256 431 59 Total 238 348 449 789 Biodiversity 181 Upper South East drain Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources and Natural Department of Environment, Water Soil carbon 4.3.4 is conducted by the DEWNR and the CSIRO A project rainfall and farming assessing the influence of soil type, carbon. of soil organic system on the amount and nature the clay content of sandy soils, through Increasing and delving, has the techniques such as clay spreading the amount of carbon improve potential to dramatically held in the soil. The DEWNR is also working with industry to gain a better understanding of how soil carbon groups emissions. to offset carbon dioxide can be improved Dryland salinity Soil acidity erosion, water quality, and habitat and native vegetation. water quality, erosion, regions. Most projects have involved an integrated have involved an integrated Most projects regions. package of NRM and sustainable land management soil outcomes, including management of dryland salinity, include salinity management. Programs to promote to promote include salinity management. Programs recharge the management of dryland salinity through have been undertaken in all agricultural reduction reduction are being developed through the state being developed through are reduction partnership with the FFICRC. government’s plans and investment strategies NRM boards’ The regional Practical and profitable options for large-scale adoption and profitable Practical plant systems and associated recharge of perennial over an estimated area of more than 100 000 hectares than 100 000 hectares of more over an estimated area of 50% of land (Dooley et al. 2008). This is a reduction affected in the upper South East, or almost 30% of the land. agricultural dryland salinity–affected state’s 200 000 hectares affected. The Upper South East Dryland 200 000 hectares has established Salinity and Flood Management Program the risk of salinity has reduced network that a drainage The area in the state most severely affected by dryland severely in the state most The area salinity is the upper South East, with approximately assess the extent of surface and subsurface acidity. assess the extent of surface and subsurface 4.3.3 improve land managers’ understanding and awareness land managers’ understanding and awareness improve options; retest its causes and treatment of soil acidity, monitoring sites; and test additional sites to previous 4.3.2 The DEWNR, and in partnership with industry groups to is developing and delivering programs NRM boards, FFICRC through the DEWNR and the South Australian Australian the DEWNR and the South through FFICRC and Development Institute. Research rainfall areas. This will provide land managers with land managers This will provide areas. rainfall The South erosion. the soil from options to protect more of the partners to the Government is one Australian The Future Farming Industries Cooperative Research Research Industries Cooperative Farming The Future (FFICRC) is evaluating and developing farming Centre plants in medium to low- systems based on perennial These practices also provide opportunities for farmers to for farmers opportunities also provide These practices landscapes. manage carbon in their Plan includes initiatives that promote practices that practices that promote includes initiatives Plan as of the target, such the achievement complement practices. and no-till residue burning of crop reduced The Australian Government’s Clean Energy Future Future Clean Energy Government’s The Australian 182 Biodiversity thought toberemaining inearly2012. management unitsontheisland, withonlyafewgoats NRM Board haseradicated feral goatsfrom fiveofseven decommissioning waterpoints. TheKangaroo Island through fencing,shootingandtrapping goats,and Basin NRMBoard isrunningprograms tocontrol goats South Australia. TheSouthAustralian Murray–Darling of theFlindersandGawlerranges andOlaryHillsof at protecting andrestoring thesemi-arid environments anecological restorationBounceback, program aimed Flinders Rangesthatfocusesonareas associatedwith funded program ofaerialcullingintheGammonand run ‘Gammons Goats’, aCaringforourCountry– The SouthAustralian AridLandsNRMBoard has Feral goats identify prospective newbiocontrol agentsoverseas. effectiveness of rabbit haemorrhagicdiseaseandto (IACRC), andisparticipatinginresearch toimprove the in theInvasiveAnimalsCooperative Research Centre funded bytheNRMProgram. BiosecuritySAisapartner Murray–Darling BasinNRMregions inrecent years, Yorke, SouthAustralian AridLands,andSouthAustralian been conductedintheEyre Northernand Peninsula, coordinatedLarge-scale, rabbit control programs have Rabbits introduction ofcanetoads. awareness ofthepotentialforhuman-assisted nurseries andotherrelevant organisations toraise Biosecurity SAhasworkedwithtransport industries, Cane toads are underway. established inSouthAustralia andmanagementstrategies A numberofpestvertebrate speciesare already 4.4.1 managing pestspeciesare describedbelow. to managingpestsanddiseases.Recent initiativesfor for amore collaborative efficient, andstrategic approach the integration ofNRMintotheDEWNRaimstoallow coordination. TheestablishmentofBiosecuritySAand provision oftechnicaladvice,regulation, educationand (where applicable)providing supportthrough research, managing terrestrial pests,withgovernmentandindustry community. Landholdershavetheprimeresponsibility for industryand partnerships betweengovernment, Pest anddiseasemanagementisbestachievedthrough 4.4 Pests anddiseases Vertebrate pests focusing onaerialcullingandmusteringforslaughterto withcurrentcamel management, removal activities South Australia istakingastrategic approach toferal funding hasalsobeenprovided viatheNRMProgram. Management Project. InSouthAustralia, complementary through theCaringforourCountryAustralian Feral Camel the NationalFeral CamelActionPlan, primarilyfunded Feral camelmanagementisbeingimplementedthrough Feral camels prescribed undertheNRMRegulations. farms toensure thattheycomplywithfencingstandards NRM boards across SouthAustralia regularly inspectdeer technical assistancefrom theIACRC andBiosecuritySA. program, alsofundedthrough CaringforourCountrywith The Kangaroo IslandNRMBoard hasadeereradication for ourCountry, whichinvolvesaerialsurveyandculling. feral deerproject (2008–13),withsupportfrom Caring East NRMBoard. Theboard hasimplementedafive-year Feral deercontrol isahigh-priorityissuefortheSouth Feral deer the longterm. communities toself-manage the feral camelpopulationin protect priorityassets,pluscapacitybuildingofAboriginal Department ofEnvironment,Water andNatural Resources Feral camelsintheSimpsonDesert Biodiversity 183 Cassytha causing extensive dieback of gorse infestations. causing extensive dieback at outlier infestations and at key biodiversity assets at outlier infestations and at key biodiversity by opuntioid cacti. threatened Silverleaf nightshade for silverleaf nightshade was A state-level strategy and adopted by the minister in 2011. Currently, prepared NRM by regional administered programs control on containment by eliminating concentrate boards of seed small infestations and minimising the spread ingested by stock. a Silverleaf nightshade was declared and Biosecurity SA is hosting the national in 2012 WoNS to develop and implement a national strategy coordinator for the weed. Buffel grass in September 2010 Augusta A workshop held in Port the plan that informed a state operational drafted Strategic Buffel Grass development of the South Australia of in October 2012. The declaration released 2012–17, Plan in the under the NRM Act is being considered buffel grass of plant declarations. review current Gorse Peninsula, Island, Eyre on Kangaroo Isolated occurrences the subject North are South East and Mid and in the the National under programs eradication of long-term Lofty the Adelaide and Mount In Plan. Gorse Strategic protected are areas and forestry grazing Ranges region, and gorse is managed in native gorse infestations from using the Biological control vegetation in the region. the the gorse thrips is reducing gorse spider mite and has investigated The University of Adelaide vigour. weed’s plant the native parasitic the phenomenon of pubescens Wheel cactus cacti was prepared for opuntioid A state-level strategy and Minister for Environment and adopted by the a declared Opuntioid cacti were Conservation in 2010. in 2012, and Biosecurity SA is hosting a national WoNS plan for the weed. A national strategic coordinator WoNS further development of chemical and biological proposes programs onground of techniques and targeting control , for home gardeners. The review The review for home gardeners. Fisheries Management Act 2007 Management Act Fisheries Aquatic pests Aquatic Grow me instead Grow biodiversity assets. Western Cape bridal creeper in north- Cape bridal creeper biodiversity assets. Western by the for eradication east Adelaide is being targeted Ranges NRM Board. Adelaide and Mount Lofty The Western Cape form of bridal creeper has now been Cape form of bridal creeper The Western extensively mapped in the South East, the focus is and high-value and protecting on containing further spread in South Australia and management strategies are are and management strategies in South Australia under way. Bridal creeper of the state. established already A number of weed species are of declared plants (see section 3.3.3) is also likely to plants (see of declared for sale of some key ornamental declaration recommend in certain parts species that cause serious weed problems weed outbreaks. To address this, the South Australian this, the South Australian address To weed outbreaks. and Garden Government has worked with the Nursery the to produce Industry Association of South Australia booklet 4.4.3 Weeds of new source a key plants remain Invasive garden for the koi herpes virus as a biological control agent for the koi herpes virus as a biological control for carp. in the exclusive production of male offspring, and the production in the exclusive of a fatality gene to kill individuals (Koehn introduction is also investigating the potential et al. 2000). The IACRC molecular approaches include immunocontraception include immunocontraception molecular approaches technology’ ‘daughterless in carp fertility, to reduce results gene which modification of a sex-determination national approach to managing existing and new exotic to managing existing and new exotic national approach to approaches Biological species threats. freshwater Potential being explored. are carp control European Committee and its working group associated with pest Committee and its working group Freshwater fish management has developed a National which aims to develop a coordinated Strategy, Fish Pest of exotic species and diseases is the most cost-effective species and diseases is the most cost-effective of exotic management approach. Pests Vertebrate the intergovernmental Nationally, tools to stop the further spread of these species within of these species spread tools to stop the further aquatic challenging to eradicate the state. It is technically methods to minimise the entry pests, and prevention and responds to incursion reports by the community and by the community and reports to incursion and responds species exotic where It monitors areas other stakeholders. and supports and develops known to be present, are eradication programs for aquatic pests within South for aquatic pests programs eradication and boards with NRM collaboration often in Australia, surveys undertakes Biosecurity SA regularly industry. Working under the Working local management and SA leads education, Biosecurity 4.4.2 184 Biodiversity Source: GovernmentofSouthAustralia (2012) Table 14 resources( GovernmentofSouthAustralia, 2012). for themanagementofSouthAustralia’s natural plan, SouthAustralia 2012–2017 Our placeourfuture: statenatural resources management 4.5 Goal 3:Improved condition andresilience ofnatural systems Goal 2:Sustainablemanagementandproductive useofland,water, airandsea Goal 1:People takingresponsibility fornatural resources andmakinginformeddecisions Target 13:Limittheestablishment ofpestsanddiseasesreduce theimpactsofexistingpests Target 12:Improve theconservationstatusofspeciesandecologicalcommunities Target 11:Increase andculturally understandingoftheconditionlandscapes(geological importantfeatures) Target 10:Improve conditionofcoastalandmarineenvironments Target 9:Improve conditionofterrestrial aquaticecosystems Target 8:Increase extentandimprove conditionofnativevegetation Target 7:Improve soilandlandcondition Target 6:Maintaintheproductive capacityofournatural resources Target 5:AllNRMplanning andinvestmentdecisionstakeintoaccountecological,socialproduction considerations Target 4:Improve capacityofindividualsandcommunitytorespond toclimate change Target 3:Improve institutionalandorganisational capacitytosupportpeoplemanagenatural resources Target 2:Involvemore peopleinthesustainable management ofnatural resources Target 1:Ensure peopleare betterinformedandimprove capacityinNRMdecision-making Overall direction fornatural resources management Guiding targets fornatural resources management provides overall direction environment reporting. valuable contributionofdataforfuture stateofthe these targets, theresults ofwhichshouldprovide a the stateandconditionofnatural resources against monitorandevaluate The NRMCouncilmustaudit, natural(Table 14). resources managementeffort The plan includes3goalsand13targets toguidethe Biodiversity 185 to stop investing. will depend on an The success of the new approach level of whole-of-government cooperation unprecedented commitment of and commitment, and on the long-term Government. the South Australian use the same information to make informed planning use the same information to make informed and how to invest will decisions. Decisions about where by assessing the effectiveness of current be improved investments against ecological, social and and future condition of of the and measures economic targets, resources. natural will be that information will ensure The framework and the same information collected and used regionally, consistent and to deliver credible, will then be aggregated health for resource of natural measures easily interpreted underpin high-level will thereby the state. The framework and be used to regularly investment in NRM programs on the state of the environment. report is the development of clearly to this framework Key measurable and indicators that are articulated targets resources. of the condition of the natural and reflective is no way there that can be measured, Without targets of investments in of comparing the cost-effectiveness or management efforts. Information projects different different 1) across must be comparable: on these targets and resources natural times, 2) between different parts of the state. Only then can 3) between different be used to guide when, and to what extent,targets to and when resources, of natural invest in the improvement 5.3 Information is not enough ongoing that there It is widely recognised monitoring information available long-term) (especially policy development and decision- in a form to support evaluating monitoring and to targeting, making in relation resources. investments in natural a Government is developing The South Australian that will framework based NRM reporting regionally managers to resource natural allow state and regional Alternative energy Climate change What can we expect? What can we Environment 2011 Committee 2011). Environment needs such as land conversion for biofuels and carbon technologies like biochar as possible future sequestration of the challenges for biodiversity management (State The 2011 Australian state of the environment report report state of the environment The 2011 Australian human energy from pressure identifies increased currently experienced in Australia. currently 5.2 the interactions of climate change with newly arrived of climate the interactions pressures create pests and diseases has the potential to than those widespread and more far stronger that are of the Environment 2011 Committee 2011) notes that of the Environment effects of existing climate change is likely to magnify the example, For in coming decades. biodiversity on pressures 5.1 (State report state of the environment The 2011 Australian challenge biodiversity and management practices. challenge biodiversity and management management of natural resources, as well as to more as well as to more resources, management of natural such as climate change. In threats and emerging recent that will further emerging are addition, new pressures focused restoration of important habitats to reduce of important habitats to reduce focused restoration This would and fragmentation. further loss, degradation responses to conventional threats effective more require use and such as invasive species and the unsustainable decline remain present. Some historical biodiversity decline remain but it is possible to loss may never be fully recovered, decline and to undertake reduce future effectively more in South Australia, we will continue to see the effects in South Australia, to come. for many years pressures of existing and past many of the causes of biodiversity Despite our efforts, While the Government of South Australia and its agencies of South Australia While the Government the in place to address and programs putting policies are challenging biodiversity that are issues most pressing 5 186 Biodiversity Research management: scienceorjustwishful thinking? Clarke MF(2008).Cateringfor theneedsoffaunainfire Australia, Adelaide. for asustainablefuture CCSA (2009). of Australia. Aboriginal knowledgeofthemammalscentral deserts Fuller PJand SouthgateRI(1988). JohnsonKA, Burbidge AA, Journal ofPlant Ecology forest degradation inAustralia sinceEuropean colonisation. 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