The State of Health of the Mount Lofty Ranges Catchments from a water quality perspective

Government of South Australia The State of Health of the Mount Lofty Ranges Catchments from a water quality perspective

Environment Protection Agency Department for Environment and Heritage GPO Box 2607, Adelaide SA 5001 Telephone 08 8204 2000 www.epa.sa.gov.au

Mount Lofty Ranges Watershed Protection Office 85 Mt Barker Road, Stirling SA 5152 Telephone 1300 134 810 Facsimile 08 8139 9901

OCTOBER 2000

ISBN 1 876562 07 2

Front cover: First Creek at Waterfall Gully. The Environment Protection Agency's ambient water quality monitoring programme identified its waters as being one of the healthiest in South Australia. Its catchment is almost entirely native vegetation. Foreword

The water resources and catchments The government is therefore of the Mount Lofty Ranges are critical committed to protecting and improving to the well-being of the people of water quality in the Mount Lofty Ranges Adelaide and the future development watershed. Programmes in excess of of South Australia. $28 million are already under way and The catchments of the Mount Lofty additional funds, amounting to a total Ranges are used for different purposes funding package of $40 million, will be including harvesting of drinking water, spent over the next five years on a range agriculture, intensive horticulture, of measures that include: recreation, rural living, tourism, • accelerating sewering of major towns environmental conservation and • fencing our rivers and streams urban environments. These multiple uses place pressure on the water •undertaking more comprehensive and resource and can impact on water targeted monitoring programmes

quality. •providing resources for compliance management Large storage reservoirs have been constructed on some of the numerous •undertaking education and awareness rivers and streams of the Mount Lofty raising programmes on activities that Ranges to harvest its relatively high can impact on water quality. rainfall and supply Adelaide with The five-year programme is significant drinking water. This drinking water and targeted at improving water quality is supplemented with water from the and reducing the risks. Long term water River Murray. However, water collected quality improvements can only be within the catchments is a significant achieved if we all work together. component of the total supply needs of Adelaide. The issue of providing safe drinking water is a priority.

The higher rainfall and richer soils have meant that the Mount Lofty Ranges are used quite extensively for agriculture. Many people now live and work in towns and villages nestled in once pristine river valleys to take John Olsen FNIA MP

advantage of the climate and appeal Premier of South Australia of the ranges. Protecting and improving water quality in the Mount Lofty Ranges watershed is fundamental to the welfare of most South Australians.

Foreword Major catchments Figure 1. in the Mount Lofty Major Mt Lofty Ranges Catchments Ranges Mt Lofty Ranges Watershed Wider Mt Lofty Ranges Catchments Area

Rivers and Streams Light

Kapunda

Tanunda

Gawler Gawler Marne

Williamstown

Gulf St Vincent Mt Pleasant

Torrens

Adelaide Stirling River Murray

Mt Barker Onkaparinga Bremer-Barker Murray Bridge

Angas Finniss

Myponga Lake Alexandrina

Hindmarsh Victor Harbor Currency Creek 1. Introduction

Issues relating Some of the causes of Measures being taken to these issues are: tackle these issues to water include: •poorly maintained septic tank systems quality some of which discharge raw sewage • Domestic wastewater into the rivers and streams of the treatment systems are The Mount Lofty Ranges catchments catchment being audited and (Figure 1) are a significant source of drinking water for Adelaide and home •livestock access to watercourses required to comply with to a number of important aquatic which causes rapid erosion of health regulations. waterways and the movement of environments. Unlike the water • The programme to sewer sediment into weirs and reservoirs supply catchments of most other the major towns of Australian capital cities they are also •overgrazing, coupled with heavy Aldgate, Stirling and an important region for agriculture, rainfall, which erodes soils Bridgewater is being and urban and rural living. Over time, •cropping on steep valley slopes which accelerated. this has led to fundamental landuse contributes to extensive soil erosion • Additional funds will be conflicts that have resulted in a and delivers large amounts of number of water quality issues. provided to speed up sediment and nutrients into streams restoration of rivers The purpose of this document is to •past swamp drainage, to clear land for and streams. raise awareness of these issues, and agriculture, which can trigger stream to outline measures that are being bed deepening • Farm dam regulations undertaken to improve water quality. are being reviewed and •large numbers of farm dams which existing farm dams Water quality issues reduce the flow of many major watercourses assessed. include: •past planning practices which have • Planning strategies are •blooms of toxic algae in dams and allowed some inappropriate being reviewed with a reservoirs development in water supply stronger focus on water •major reservoirs closed because of catchments. quality. contamination of water by algae •Education programmes •stock deaths from animals drinking will be increased targeting water contaminated by toxic algae activities that impact on •pesticides causing contamination in water quality. some rivers and streams

•water-borne parasites, Cryptosporidium and Giardia, detected in rivers and streams

•sediment from erosion of degraded river banks, overgrazing and intensive horticultural practices deposited in reservoirs

•animal and human faecal contamination of rivers and streams making them unsuitable for drinking without disinfection

• localised heavy metal contamination.

3. The Gorge Why are the Weir (EPA). Mount Lofty Ranges important?

The catchments of the Mount Lofty Ranges cover an area of more than 4000 square kilometres and contain many significant natural and economic resources.

Early settlers determined the landuse character of the ranges within the first 50 years of settlement in South Australia. The main activities Land uses within our During the 1970s this changed with the were market gardening, fruit growing, Mount Lofty Ranges implementation of measures to control cropping, grazing and mining. These township development and intensive landuses continue today. •Local runoff from the catchments animal keeping activities in watersheds. contributes up to 60% of Adelaide’s Since settlement, the Mount Lofty water supply. Ranges catchments have also been Today, the issue of maintaining •The area is a major source of dairy, a major source of Adelaide’s water market garden and horticultural good water quality for the supply. Extraction for the city of products. Adelaide metropolitan area has Adelaide began in 1860 with the assumed great importance. construction of the Gorge Weir. •Different activities, such as forestry, Other reservoirs, Barossa (1902), viticulture, quarrying, intensive The five-year, $40 million Warren (1916), Millbrook (1918), horticulture, grazing and many programme to improve the Mount Bold (1938), South Para others, compete for resources. Mount Lofty Ranges catchments (1958), Myponga (1962) and •There are 160 townships and over clearly indicates that the issue of Kangaroo Creek (1969) were built 88 000 people living in the Mount maintaining good water quality to meet Adelaide’s growing demand Lofty Ranges. is a key Government priority. for water. As supplies of water are The significant demands on land in the This programme will include: variable from year to year, water is Mount Lofty Ranges can impact on • accelerating sewering of major piped from the River Murray and water resources. stored in Mount Bold, Millbrook and towns Although water quality issues arose as Kangaroo Creek reservoirs. Pumping • fencing rivers and streams to the River Torrens began in 1953 early as the 1880s, in the early years • undertaking more and to the Onkaparinga River in there was little attempt to control 1957. A second pipeline to the activities along major waterways. comprehensive and targeted Onkaparinga was completed in 1974. Rather, settlement and agricultural monitoring programmes development were given priority over • providing resources for the need to maintain catchments for compliance management water supplies. • undertaking education and awareness raising programmes on activities that can impact on water quality.

4. An aerial view of Mount Bold reservoir, surrounded by a patch­ work of different landuses (EPA).

How have our • Only 1% of the stream network Improvements already of the Adelaide Hills has riparian implemented include: vegetation that is described as being Mount Lofty in a healthy condition. •No broadacre clearance is permitted. Ranges The Mount Lofty Ranges are unique changed? in Australia. Nowhere else does a • Over 60 km of streams metropolitan area depend for water have been revegetated. The rate of change throughout the supplies on catchments that are • Woody weeds have been ranges since settlement has been intensively used for living, industry removed from over 90 km significant. In recent years improved and agriculture. of streams. roads and quicker access have Nor does any other capital city resulted in significant population • More than 48 km of depend so greatly on the River Murray, growth in the catchments. streams have been fenced. a river with water quality severely tested by similar landuse issues. • 20 severe erosion sites Today have been rehabilitated. •Only 8% of native vegetation • More than 47 community remains, 70% of which is on groups are involved in private land. Landcare ‘Our Patch’ • 80% of the region is used for primary programmes throughout production. the Torrens catchment. •The ranges are now made up of highly fragmented rural holdings.

•Seven reservoirs have been constructed for Adelaide’s water supply.

•The hydraulic function of the rivers and floodplains (storing, releasing and directing flood flows) has been fundamentally altered or completely lost.

5. Water resource planning The Mount Lofty Ranges Regional Strategy Plan, which was released in What The catchment water management 1993, is being reviewed. improvements are boards must prepare catchment water management plans as being made prescribed in the Water Resources Education now? Act 1997. The requirements are quite Education and awareness specific and detailed. programmes include the following:

Monitoring and evaluation •‘Our Patch’ programmes run by the A number of different organisations Bulk water management Torrens and Patawalonga catchment monitor water quality. These include SA Water is responsible for bulk water management boards the Department for Environment and water management. Water is piped •training in the use of farm chemicals Heritage (DEH) through the from the River Murray to augment and pesticides run by the Farm Environment Protection Agency supplies and transferred between Chemicals Branch of PIRSA (EPA), the Department for Water some reservoirs to meet demand. •the Stormwater Code of Practice Resources (DWR), the catchment The water quality and quantity of for the General Community that water management boards, local reservoirs is monitored regularly. explains how people can improve government, Waterwatch groups, SA Copper sulfate dosing and stormwater quality by changing Water, community catchment groups, destratification are used to control algal practices for disposal of household and Primary Industries and Resources blooms and reservoir reserves are waste such as lawn clippings, (PIRSA). A State Water Monitoring maintained to control weeds and other washdown water from cars and paths, Committee has been established to pests. Water is filtered and disinfected animal faeces, swimming pool coordinate water monitoring, and to before being distributed to the Adelaide washwater, and other pollutants ensure that it is soundly based and metropolitan area. being undertaken efficiently. •Landcare groups who are actively engaged in advising landowners on Development control and Environmental regulation how to improve riparian vegetation planning and control noxious weeds. The EPA, the Department of Human Developments of environmental •Waterwatch, an important Services and local government are all significance, particularly those with community based water quality involved in different aspects of the potential to impact on water monitoring programme with a environmental regulation. Initiatives quality, are assessed though the strong emphasis on education and include: development application process. awareness raising. There are 60 •development of an Environment Approved developments frequently Waterwatch groups active in the Protection (Water Quality) Policy have conditions attached that must Mount Lofty Ranges. which will make it an offence to be met to ensure that they do not dispose of pollutants in rivers and pollute water. streams

Removed •development of codes of practice and willows from the Torrens guidelines for particular activities River, Cudlee Creek (EPA). such as wineries, dairies, piggeries and extractive industries, that explain how to avoid pollution of waterways

•reviews and updates of waste control regulations developed under the Public and Environmental Health Act for septic tanks and other waste disposal systems

•appointment of authorised officers under the Public and Environmental Health Act and the Environment Protection Act with powers to deal with pollution incidents.

6. Revegetation Restoration of a stream in the Piccadilly In conjunction with the catchment Valley (EPA). boards, the Mount Lofty Ranges Catchment Program Board, soil boards, local government, DEH (EPA), DWR, PIRSA and Planning SA participate in integrated catchment management schemes to develop large scale catchment improvements. Such schemes include:

•development of environmental flow regimes

•land management projects, including the development of small property plans

•natural resource management support, technical advice and Stream bed and bank stabilisation education for local action planning works at Watts Gully groups (EPA).

•revegetation and restoration projects for streams and corridors

•construction of fences to protect aquatic and riparian ecosystems from stock. The Torrens, Patawalonga, Onkaparinga, River Murray and Northern Adelaide and Barossa catchment water management boards all cover parts of the Mount Lofty Ranges. They have a strong focus on on-ground works. For example, the Torrens Board has:

• fenced off 48 km of streams Fencing and restoration • revegetated 60 km of streams of rivers and streams like these •removed woody weeds from over are needed throughout 90 km of streams the catchments • rehabilitated 20 erosion sites (EPA).

• direct-seeded 60 km of stream banks

•established 47 community-based ‘Our Patch’ sites throughout the Torrens catchment. They are used as a focus for education, clean-ups, revegetation and waterway restoration. The Mount Lofty Ranges Catchment Program Board and Landcare groups, with funding support from the Natural Heritage Trust fund, are undertaking extensive revegetation and fencing programs in many areas throughout the Mount Lofty Ranges.

7. 2. Water quality

Faecal coliforms or Escherichia coli Water quality Drinking (E. coli), which are present in large numbers in the gut of warm blooded objectives water animals, are used as indicators of faecal Objectives are determined by an Micro-organisms contamination of water supplies. The approach that identifies the important Australian Drinking Water Guidelines The most common and widespread values of the water resource. 1996 require that drinking water health risk associated with drinking contain zero faecal coliforms. For the rivers and streams of the water is the presence of micro­ Mount Lofty Ranges these values are: organisms that can cause disease. If faecal coliforms are detected in the The presence of such organisms in distribution system then the guidelines • drinking water water is usually the result of recommend that corrective action such • aquatic ecosystems contamination, either directly or as an investigative survey, which can • agricultural use indirectly, by human or animal faeces. include a survey of the catchment, be • recreational and aesthetic uses. undertaken to identify and stop sources Catchment protection is an of contamination. Of these values drinking water and important factor in minimising the risk aquatic ecosystems are paramount of disease from drinking water supplies. Detention in reservoirs to allow because by protecting these, other die-off, water treatment and disinfection values will also be protected. Indicators of faecal are all effective means of reducing the contamination numbers of micro-organisms that might Faecal contamination of water supplies otherwise be present in drinking water is a significant issue. Sources of supplies. The use of chlorine to disinfect contamination can include leaking or water supplies over the last five years is poorly maintained septic tanks, shown in the Table 1. discharges from septic tank effluent disposal systems, and animal waste or Financial Total chlorine dead animals in or near to waterbodies. year used (tonnes) 1993-1994 620.6 Multiple barriers are used to stop 1994-1995 514.1 contamination from polluting drinking 1995-1996 638.8 water. These barriers ideally include 1996-1997 830.9 selection of water sources that are 1997-1998 627.0 protected from human or animal faecal Table 1. Chlorine use in water supplies (source: SA Water). material, detention in reservoirs, water treatment and disinfection, and a secure distribution system.

The multiple land uses throughout the Mount Lofty Ranges mean that it is not possible to select water sources that are totally protected from human or animal faecal material.

For this reason our water supplies are treated to comply with Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and ensure that there is no risk to the community.

8. Water-borne parasites Both Cryptosporidium and Giardia The following The parasites Cryptosporidium and have been detected in some rivers and improvements are being Giardia can cause gastro-enteritis streams of the Mount Lofty Ranges, taken to tackle faecal and and are of public health concern albeit in relatively low numbers. parasite contamination: worldwide. Cryptosporidium are particularly resistant In the United States alone there have to chlorination and are difficult to • Domestic wastewater been nine major outbreaks since 1984 detect and remove from water supplies. treatment systems are directly attributable to contamination A well-operated and maintained water being audited and required of drinking water supplies by water-borne treatment plant can be an effective to comply with health parasites. Both surface and groundwater barrier against these organisms entering regulations. sources have been affected. the drinking water supply. This needs • With support from land- Similar issues have been experienced to be coupled with sound catchment holders, extensive riparian in other countries. management practices such as improvement programmes Detection of these organisms in the preventing stock access to rivers and are being implemented to Sydney water supply in 1998 led to the streams in water supply catchment areas stop stock access and issuing of boil water notices for the whole and the control and proper maintenance improve stream condition. metropolitan area. of septic tank systems. Following the Sydney outbreak, • Urban stormwater systems increased monitoring by water authorities Dogs and cats are a significant source are being improved. throughout Australia has indicated that of Giardia. The risk of contamination • The use of environmentally these parasites are often present in can be reduced if owners collect and friendly domestic waste- catchment rivers and streams. dispose of all faeces safely. water treatment systems

A microscopic will be encouraged. view of Cryptosporidium within the • Education and awareness small intestine (Uni of programmes will be under­ Michigan). taken on the proper care and maintenance of domestic wastewater treatment systems. •Monitoring programmes will be expanded and coordinated across agencies. •Dairies will be audited and required to comply with waste management requirements.

9. Pesticides reservoirs were well below levels of The following public health concern, Atrazine levels Landuses in the Mount Lofty Ranges improvements are being four times in excess of drinking water catchments include various taken to tackle pesticide guidelines were detected in a catchment agricultural activities. The area is creek adjacent to a new pine plantation. contamination: renowned for apples, pears, cherries, Atrazine is no longer used in forestry • Education and awareness vegetables and other crops. There are applications in the watershed. also extensive forests and vineyards. raising programmes on the Though the pesticide concentrations proper use of farm Pesticides (including insecticides, were well below levels regarded as chemicals will be herbicides and fungicides) are used to significant from a public health control a variety of pests which would implemented. perspective, they should not be present otherwise affect the productivity of these in drinking water supplies. Activated • Regulations covering activities. Under some circumstances carbon was used in water treatment registration of commercial (for example transport by runoff after plants to reduce pesticide concentrations pesticide sprayers will be heavy rainfall) these pesticides can below detectable levels. Since July 1998, reviewed with conditions contaminate rivers and streams. the Government through SA Water has of licence restricting use invested an additional $600,000 in In 1998 Atrazine, Hexazinone and in the watershed. Simazine were detected at very low treatment. • A survey of pesticide use concentrations in Barossa, Millbrook, These issues emphasise the need for Mount Bold, Myponga, Happy Valley, regular monitoring of water resources, up- practices is being carried Warren and South Para reservoirs. These to-date information on land use, data on out to determine the pesticides are commonly used for weed pesticide usage and more stringent controls impact of restricting the control particularly in new forestry on their use, and effective catchment use of residual pesticides plantations, older vineyards and along surveillance. It also highlights the need to in the watershed. the verges of roads. Although ban, or severely restrict, the use of certain concentrations detected in water storage chemicals in reservoir catchment areas. • High risk areas in the watershed are being Ducted air- blast sprayer identified through used for fungicides in landuse mapping. vineyards. New technologies, • Comprehensive pesticide such as this, prevent monitoring programmes excessive pesticide are being implemented. drift (Farm Chemicals Branch, PIRSA).

Copper sulfate being applied by boat to Kangaroo Creek reservoir (EPA).

10. Intensive horticulture near Summertown in the Onkaparinga catchment (EPA).

Table 3. Native Intensive Mixed agriculture/ Relative mean vegetation Urban horticulture Grazing orchards annual yields of nutrients from different Total nitrogen 1 3.5 17.3 3.0 3.0 subcatchments relative to Total phosphorus 1 3.9 27.0 2.0 2.2 native vegetation (source: Wood, 1986).

Above: A thick Algae Nutrients The lack of effective monitoring surface of the load of nutrients in the scum of The warm climate of South Australia Nutrients encourage excessive plant Anabaena catchments of the Mount Lofty on Kangaroo and the relatively high nutrient inputs Creek growth and can result in algal blooms Ranges means that there is very little reservoir encourage algal growth in the water (EPA). on reservoirs. The term is usually information to determine if matters storage reservoirs. At times the applied to various compounds of are getting better or worse. growth is excessive and treatment nitrogen and phosphorus but can also with copper sulfate is used to control include carbon compounds. Sources Monitoring programmes are now the blooms. being established to provide this of nutrients are many and varied, and information and to assess the Without this treatment algal blooms include animal waste, effluent from effectiveness of measures being taken of public health concern could make sewage treatment works and septic the reservoirs unusable. For example to reduce nutrient levels in streams tanks, fertilisers and some industrial cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) can and reservoirs. discharges. produce toxins or blooms with unpleasant taste and odours. Studies undertaken in the Mount Lofty Ranges have found that there The usage and frequency of copper is a strong link between land use and sulfate dosing of some of the reservoirs the transport of nutrients. Generally over the last five years is shown in the there is less nutrient runoff from Table 2. catchments that have predominantly native vegetation than from Table 2. Usage of Number of Total tonnes copper catchments dominated by other types sulfate on Year times dosed used Adelaide’s of land uses (Table 3). For example 1993 19 313 reservoirs to intensive horticulture has by far the control algal 1994 9 131 blooms highest nutrient runoff: 20-30 times (source: SA 1995 8 133 Water). 1996 15 201 that from native catchments. 1997 15 216

11. Sediment Sediment accumulated on a bridge in Millbrook The levels of sediment present in reservoir rivers and streams of the Mount Lofty (EPA). Ranges are influenced by the extent of land clearance, particularly where soil has been disturbed by cultivation; by the intensity of rainfall events which can cause mobilisation of soil; and, in some rivers, by the extent of pumping of water from the River Murray.

When water containing sediments reaches a reservoir the velocity is reduced and the heavier or coarser particles settle out. Over time this can lead to silting up of the reservoir.

High sediment levels can cause other Highly turbid water in a Mount Lofty issues. The sediment can adsorb Ranges nutrients, heavy metals, pesticides and stream (EPA). micro-organisms. High sediment levels can therefore be indicative of other water quality issues.

As an example of the change in suspended sediment levels during a storm event, Figure 2 shows data from Houlgrave Weir upstream of Mount Bold reservoir during a storm event in 1979. The baseline concentration of suspended sediment is around 5 mg/L but this rises to over 900 mg/L at the peak of the flood.

Figure 2. Suspended River Murray water is pumped into 1000 500 sediment some of the reservoirs in the Mount concentrations Suspended during a storm 900 450 event (source: sediment Lofty Ranges through upstream rivers. EPA). 800 400 Flow The turbidity or cloudiness of this water 700 350 can be very high at times giving a very 600 300 muddy appearance. The particles in 500 250 suspension are usually very small and do 400 200 not readily settle out in the reservoirs. Flow (ML/hr) 300 150 The water treatment plants are very

Suspended sediment (mg/L) 200 100 effective at removing suspended 100 50 sediment and producing water that 0 looks ‘crystal’ clear. There is however a 3 October Time 12 October cost. Table 4 shows the amount of alum used by the treatment plants over the last five years to remove suspended sediment.

12. Table 4. In this case the exposed rocks in the Alum use Financial Total alum used Other measures being (source: SA year (tonnes) Water). now disused mine are actively oxidising taken to tackle water 1993-1994 14524 to produce acid which dissolves heavy quality issues 1994-1995 9387 metals from the ore. Notices have been 1995-1996 17697* placed along Dawesley Creek warning •Extensive riparian 1996-1997 27630 people that the water is not suitable for improvement works are 1997-1998 25005 drinking, nor for recreational and being implemented to *Note: table does not include data for the period from July to December 1995 agriculture use. improve stream condition and stop erosion. This will The Brukunga mine site is licensed involve restricting stock under the Environment Protection Act Heavy metals access to rivers and and now has an agreed Environment The heavy metals copper, lead, Improvement Programme which is streams and providing chromium, cadmium, mercury and being implemented. a buffer strip to stop others, can be toxic to humans and to nutrient and sediment aquatic animals. Some of these Generally, however, elevated runoff from adjacent land. metals are present in rivers and concentrations of heavy metals are not regarded as being a significant issue for •Urban stormwater streams through runoff from roads or practices are being waste discharges. Occasionally, the rivers and streams of the Mount Lofty Ranges. improved. elevated levels have been detected as a result of particular activities. • Education and awareness Salinity raising programmes will Monitoring of Dawesley Creek be implemented covering downstream of the Brukunga iron The replacement of deep-rooted stormwater practices and pyrites mine near Nairne has shown perennial vegetation with shallow- Dawesley care of riparian areas. Creek which high levels of a number of heavy metals rooted annual agricultural crops and has high levels of including cadmium, aluminium, iron pastures, or urban development, can • High risk areas will be heavy metals (EPA). and manganese. result in increased saline ground- identified. water discharge, or seepage, into • Comprehensive and rivers and streams. Salt previously coordinated monitoring stored in the soil and groundwater programmes are being can be mobilised at an increased rate implemented. to the soil surface and transported, by runoff, into streams.

Studies have indicated that the transport of salt through these processes in cleared catchments is likely to be about 4-5 times greater than in a pristine catchment. Although the salt stored in the soil is eventually depleted this can take hundreds to thousands of years. Average salt concentrations in the rivers and streams of the Mount Lofty Ranges vary from about 80 mg/L at Dashwood Gully to approximately 900 mg/L in the Marne River. Concentrations are very dependent on flow.

It has been estimated that significant reductions in salt export from soils could be achieved by modifying landuse and land management practices.

13. Figure 3. Assessment of water Nutrients Nutrients quality at sites (Ox N) Water clarity throughout Water clarity (Turbidity) the (Turbidity) Onkaparinga Salinity catchment Salinity (TDS) (source: EPA). Physical Physical Nutrients (Ox N & total P) Water clarity Inverbrackie Creek (Turbidity) Lenswood Salinity Creek Physical Atrazine

Adelaide Piccadilly

Aldgate Creek Mylor

Nutrients

Water clarity

Nutrients Salinity Scotts Water clarity Houlgrave Physical Creek Weir Salinity (TDS, conductivity) Physical Nutrients Water clarity (Turbidity) Echunga Creek Salinity Physical Faecal coliforms

Noarlunga

Faecal coliforms N

Water quality classification 051 0 Monitoring sites Kilometres Poor

Onkaparinga catchment Moderate

Major streams Good

Mt Bold Reservoir

Note: Water quality classifications were developed based on the percentage of time that the water quality conditions exceeded drinking water and aquatic ecosystem guidelines. For more information, see the report Ambient water quality monitoring of South Australia’s river and streams (1998) published by the Environment Protection Agency. Microbiological quality is based on meeting recreational use guidelines (NHMRC, 1990).

14. A predacious diving beetle larva (Family Aquatic Dytiscidae: Antiporus sp.) commonly ecosystems found in healthy streams in Pesticides, heavy metals and the Mount Lofty Ranges sediment can impact on the health (EPA). of aquatic ecosystems and are the traditional chemical indicators of water quality. Biological indicators can be a useful additional tool to assess the overall health of aquatic ecosystems.

Biological monitoring involves studying the responses of animals or plants to changes in their environment.

Aquatic organisms need the water quality to be good enough to meet stoneflies and caddisflies) and adults of The following their needs and enable them to some groups (eg waterbugs, beetles, improvements are being complete their life-cycles. springtails). The more familiar taken to protect aquatic crustaceans include yabbies and ecosystems: Any disturbance, pollution source freshwater shrimps and prawns, as well or event can lead to the death of some as less obvious scuds, isopods and crabs. • Extensive riparian or most of the aquatic life in a improvements are being In general terms greater species waterway. implemented to improve diversity (more different types of Since many contaminants can pass stream condition and stop organisms) indicates a healthier aquatic through a stream over a short period ecosystem. In the pristine rivers and erosion. of time, chemical monitoring streams of Victoria and NSW it is not • Widespread use of programmes will not usually detect uncommon to find 40 or more different persistent pesticides is such events. types of macroinvertebrates from any being reviewed and This is where biological monitoring one habitat at a sampling site. In South controls are being is important, as the structure and Australia, where it is difficult to find implemented. composition of plant or animal truly pristine rivers and streams and communities provide a measure of where flows are sometimes intermittent, •Environmental flows are the water conditions in a waterway the numbers of different macro- being determined so that over a period of time which is related invertebrates at relatively unimpacted normal seasonal cycles can to each organism’s life-span. or reference sites is usually around 20. be identified.

Macroinvertebrates A total of 57 sites were sampled in the rivers and streams of the Mount Macroinvertebrates are most Lofty Ranges catchments during frequently used in biological 1994-95 as part of the Monitoring monitoring studies because they are River Health Initiative (now called common, widely distributed, easily AUSRIVAS). Initial results suggest sampled and most can be identified that sites on many of the streams, were by experienced biologists. significantly impacted compared to Macroinvertebrates are aquatic reference sites elsewhere. The impacted animals without backbones which are sites had much lower species diversity large enough to be seen with the (fewer than 10 species) than expected naked eye. They include insects, based on water chemistry and habitat crustaceans, snails, worms, mites and features. Some sites, such as the sponges. The insects include the Dawesley Creek downstream of the larvae of flying insects (eg midges, Brukunga Mine, were very heavily two-winged flies, dragonflies, mayflies, impacted (only one species).

15. 3. Water quantity

What has impacted How has water quality been The following on the flow of streams in affected by modified flows? improvements are being the ranges? Changes in vegetation cover have had made in relation to farm dams: Impacts on stream flow include: a major effect on important hydro- logical processes, in particular by • Surveys are being • extensive farm dam development reducing the infiltration of water undertaken to determine throughout the catchments, through the soil profile and increasing the number and size of particularly the upper reaches of erosion. Water extractions from farm farm dams in the major tributaries dams, pumping for livestock and watershed. domestic use, irrigation and inputs •reservoir and mitigation works from the River Murray pipelines have • Farm dam regulations will • water transfers (water from the River all modified catchment hydrology so be reviewed. Murray to Adelaide pipeline) that winter flows have been generally • Conditions of approval will reduced and summer flows increased. • industrial and agricultural landuses be enforced. (orchards, irrigated pastures, market Water diversions, stormwater inputs gardens, riparian rights for stock and and wastewater discharges affect water domestic water, and grazing) quality and quantity. Most notably, low stream flow reduces the ability of the • stormwater (towns, rural settlements, system to flush out pollutants, thereby freeway runoff) intensifying their adverse effects on Not only people use water. • release of treated effluent from the aquatic environments and water supplies. The environment needs Hahndorf, Heathfield, Meadows, The community is now better it too. Birdwood, and Bird in Hand educated about the need to maintain wastewater treatment plants flow to protect the aquatic

•extensive land clearance since environment. Flows must be managed settlement. to maintain aquatic and riparian ecosystem diversity and health. We Not all of these factors have reduced measure water flows throughout the flows. They have, however, impacted catchments to make decisions on water on the flow regime of the catchment allocations, including water and subsequently on the ecological for the environment. sustainability of the riverine and associated aquatic ecosystems, such as floodplains, wetlands and estuaries.

The first discharge from the River Murray- Onkaparinga pipeline near Hahndorf occurred in 1974. Water pumped from the River Murray is released into the Onkaparinga River when Adelaide’s demand for water exceeds what is available at Mount Bold Reservoir. A similar pipeline supplies the reservoirs of the River Torrens (EPA).

16. The differences What is the influence of in vegetation cover in these reservoirs on the two streams are very distinct. catchments? The stream on the left flows past Rain that falls within the rapidly eroding banks which catchments is stored in seven increases turbidity. major reservoirs across the ranges. The stream below has Gauging stations are used to a stable bank and clear determine the volumes of water water. (EPA) that reach the reservoirs and how much is being diverted, via pipes, to other areas.

Figure 4 shows the effect of river regulation on flow during a flood in 1992. The Gumeracha Weir (shown in blue) is above Kangaroo Creek reservoir and the Gorge Weir (shown in pink) is below the reservoir.

At Gumeracha, the volume of water is far greater and flows for a shorter period than at the Gorge Weir. Water has been held in the reservoir, thereby reducing the impacts of flood downstream. With each flood, more sediments and nutrients reach the reservoirs, affecting water quality.

Figure 4. 350 Comparison Upstream of flow Downstream between 300 gauging stations upstream and

/sec) downstream 3 250 of Kangaroo Creek 200 reservoir (EPA).

150

100

Maximum discharge (m 50

0 August September October November

17. Floodwaters What is the influence of in the Torrens River, 1974 farm dams on the (EPA). catchments? Farm dams have changed the hydrology of the catchments by holding waters that would otherwise flow into the tributaries that feed reservoirs. Estimates of the numbers of dams and their impacts vary greatly. A study in 1998 revealed that over 600 dams had been constructed in the Marne River catchment (Table 5). Over 90% of the dams are small, holding between less than one and five megalitres. Similar figures are likely to apply in other catchments. The Cox Creek ‘v-weir’ Table 5. Percentage of farm dams by their size and their gauging total holding capacity within the Marne River catchment station (source: EPA). within the Onkaparinga catchment Size Class Percentage Volume (ML) (EPA). Note the highly <0.5 ML 25 38.5 turbid water from recent 0.5–2 ML 53 312.7 irrigation water that 2–5 ML 13 227.9 has runoff 5–10 ML 3 154.8 from the Piccadilly 10–20 ML 2 192.9 market gardens. 20–50 ML 2 416.2 > 50 ML 2 816.3 Total 100 2159.4

Most dams are found high in the catchment where rainfall is greatest. If the dam is large, water can be completely prevented from flowing A farm dam downstream or recharging aquifers. in the upper reaches of the Onkaparinga These dams have substantially catchment with fences altered the flow regimes of waterways used to exclude and have restricted our ability to livestock accurately quantify water use. This (EPA). has severely limited the ability to calculate the amount of water available for sustainable use.

18. 4. Sources of pollution

A potential point source of pollution: Point landfills. All these activities sources are licensed by the Environment Protection Authority to Licensed activities ensure best management The Environment Protection practices and to prevent Authority licenses activities of scenes such as those on environmental significance as a the left (EPA). means of reducing and eliminating the environmental harm, or potential harm, that might otherwise occur. Licences have been issued to 84 such activities in the Mount Lofty Ranges including:

• 17 waste or recycling depots

•2 wastewater treatment plants (over Stormwater drains 1000 persons per day or 100 persons Pollutants present in stormwater can per day in a water protection area) include: •10 septic tank effluent disposal • heavy metals such as zinc and lead (STED) systems (exceeding from roads 100 persons per day in a water protection area) • oil and grease

•16 wineries (exceeding a crush of • detergents

500 tonnes of grapes per year) • green waste such as lawn clippings

•5 concrete batching works • pesticide residues (exceeding 0.5 cubic metres per • animal faeces production cycle) • fertilisers •4 composting works (compost production exceeding 200 tonnes • sediment

per year) • sewage from poorly maintain systems. •6 extractive industries (exceeding The total load of these pollutants production rate of 100 000 tonnes carried in runoff can be considerable. per year) For example it has been estimated that

•3 abattoirs (exceeding 100 tonnes of the Torrens River discharges 4.5 tonnes red meat or 200 tonnes of white meat of phosphorus, 83 tonnes of nitrogen products per year). and 800 tonnes of sediment to the sea annually. Other significant point sources Activities listed above that operate below the threshold, shown in brackets, are therefore not licensed under the Environment Protection Act 1993, but can be significant point sources of pollution. In addition to these activities, significant point sources include the following.

19. A milking shed and The following yard (a source of improvements will be nutrients) (EPA). taken to deal with domestic wastewater treatment systems: •A comprehensive audit of existing systems is being undertaken. •Failing systems will be required to comply with waste control regulations. •Education and awareness programmes will be under­ taken on the proper care and maintenance of these systems. Dairies New septic tanks are required to • The use of environmentally In the Mount Lofty Ranges, dairies, comply with the Waste Control friendly systems will be which are a major source of nutrients, Regulations issued under the Public encouraged. are now required to comply with the and Environmental Health Act 1987 Environment Protection (Milking Shed but while these regulations specify • SA Water is accelerating Effluent Management) Policy 1997 and certain requirements for construction its programme to sewer install effective waste storage facilities and installation they are not Stirling, Aldgate and with effluent reuse so that wastes prescriptive on maintenance practices. Bridgewater over the next cannot enter waterbodies and cause Old septic tanks, which are the main five years at a cost of environmental harm. issue, are not required to comply with $16 million. the waste control regulations. Septic tanks Septic tanks fall into two categories: Domestic wastewater Options for improving septic tank • Effluent discharged from the tank is management systems performance and reducing connected to a septic tank effluent pollution impacts include: disposal (STED) system. STED systems • Approximately 88,000 people live in • improved and regular are usually run by the local council and the Mount Lofty Ranges. maintenance treat the effluent in lagoons prior to • 75% of allotments in the Adelaide disposal. STED systems serving over Hills have septic wastewater • installing new systems where 100 persons in the water protection treatment systems. necessary areas of the Mount Lofty Ranges are • connecting systems to sewer • 65% or approximately 5000 septic licensed under the Environment tanks do not comply with waste • constructing septic tank effluent Protection Act. Septic tanks control regulations and many leak disposal systems. connected to STED systems are not raw sewage. considered to be an issue although the STED system itself can be. • The effluent is often piped or left to run into stormwater drains and •Effluent is disposed on-site through waterways. a soakage trench or through an aerobic wastewater treatment system. • This source of nutrients contributes to algal blooms in reservoirs and the Septic tanks using soakage trenches presence of water-borne parasites in to dispose of effluent are a significant streams. source of nutrients and pathogens. • There are 1500 households in the Many of these septic tanks fail due townships of Stirling, Aldgate and to poor maintenance and polluted Bridgewater that can be connected effluent can run off into rivers and to the mains sewer. streams.

20. Effluent Table 6. pooling in a Landuse Area (ha) Area (%) The extent creek after of major leaking from Grazing 341 222 49 landuses in a septic tank the Mount (EPA). Crops 92 032 13 Lofty Ranges catchments Dairy 43 880 6 in 1993 (source: Native PIRSA). vegetation 39 175 6 Note: Other Conservation landuses parks 18 271 3 include Urban 13 756 2 dams, dairy, vegetables, Vineyards 12 574 2 recreation, horticulture Rural living 11 517 2 and mining. Plantation forest 9 592 1.5 Vegetables 8 713 1.5 Orchards 5 757 1 Horses 5 627 1 Other 12 659 2 Not mapped 67 218 10 Total Area 690 370 100

Vineyards (a growing landuse type Diffuse in the Mount Lofty Ranges) sources (EPA). Degradation of riparian vegetation resulting in erosion of stream banks and runoff from land are significant sources of diffuse pollution. Certain landuses, if incorrectly managed, can have a major impact on water quality. Nutrient and sediment loads from catchments dominated by intensive horticulture in particular and, to a lesser extent, grazing, mixed agriculture and the urban environment, are much higher than those from catchments dominated by native vegetation.

A heavily Among the dominant landuses grazed pasture in the Mount in the Mount Lofty Ranges are dairying, Lofty Ranges (EPA). livestock grazing, potato crops, orchards, vineyards, forestry and market gardens. There are also significant urbanised areas. Patches of native vegetation exist on the steepest slopes and within the immediate vicinity of reservoirs (Figure 5).

In 1993, landuse was mapped in many Mount Lofty Ranges catchments (Table 6). Current aerial photography is now being assessed by Primary Industries and Resources SA (PIRSA) to determine changes in landuse between then and now.

21. An aerial View of view of the different Piccadilly landuse Valley practices at Piccadilly.

Figure 5. Landuse map of the Onkaparinga catchment (map source: EPA, aerial photos: Lobethal DEHAA, other photos: EPA).

Adelaide

Woodside

Stirling

Mount Barker

Port Noarlunga

Kangarilla

Market An aerial garden view of opposite Mount Bold Cox Creek Reservoir. gauging station.

22. How has landuse impacted catchment is pasture (containing Steps being taken to on riparian vegetation? grasses) with no trees and shrubs. improve riparian condition: Many activities within the catchments It is estimated that in the whole of •With support from land­ of the Mount Lofty Ranges have the Mount Lofty Ranges, only 1% of owners, extensive riparian caused long-lasting and severe riparian vegetation is healthy. In the improvement works have impacts on water resources. Poor Onkaparinga catchment, 4% of stream already been undertaken. water quality is the legacy of vegetation is considered to be in good degradation of riparian vegetation condition. The degraded riparian zone •Riparian improvement and direct water pollution from poor is a direct result of clearing and programmes will be land management practices. livestock grazing spanning more than accelerated. Past removal of native riparian 100 years. •The Myponga Creek vegetation is causing the continued This comprehensive change in catchment is a priority area erosion of waterways. Exotic plants, such riparian habitats has significant and additional funds will be as blackberry, gorse, broom and willow, implications for both the ecological provided for fencing and block waterways, exacerbate bank health and water quality of the riparian works. erosion and provide poor habitat for watercourses. aquatic animals. The native vegetation •Education programmes along the surveyed watercourses of the The EPA has recently undertaken will be implemented on upper Onkaparinga catchment has been a survey of riparian condition in the the importance of the severely degraded. Only 11% of the Myponga reservoir catchment. riparian zone. length of all streams in the catchment The results are shown in Figure 7. has native vegetation. The percentage of surveyed streams Figure 6 shows that the dominant affected by stock access and other riparian vegetation in the Onkaparinga factors is shown in the Table 7.

Issue Length of Streams Other 11% streams affected affected Domestic (km) (%) Gardens and Horticulture 4% Unrestricted stock access 33 60 Open forest Woody weeds 6 11 of varying condition 11% Lack of native vegetation 6 11 Remnant native vegetation 2 4 Exotic trees 2 4 Pasture with Poor bank exotic trees and stability 0.25 0.5 shrubs 25% Pasture, no trees and Other 2.5 4.5 shrubs 49% Unsurveyed 3 5

Figure 6. Riparian vegetation types in the Onkaparinga Table 7. Stream and riparian zone condition in the Myponga catchment (source: EPA). catchment (1998) (source: EPA).

Figure 7. Riparian condition in the Myponga catchment (source: EPA).

Myponga catchment Myponga reservoir Streams that flow into Myponga reservoir

23. 5. Catchment management

The concept of planning on a The most common and widespread Good catchment protection and catchment scale is growing in health risk associated with drinking management is therefore an important acceptance – and for good reason. water is the presence of micro­ barrier in minimising the risk of disease Outbreaks of Cryptosporidium and organisms that can cause disease. from drinking water supplies as well as Giardia, runoff containing pesticides The presence of such organisms in achieving positive environmental from agricultural and forestry areas, water is usually the result of outcomes. elevated nutrient levels in streams contamination, either directly or and blooms of cyanobacteria in indirectly, by human or animal faeces. Without effective catchment reservoirs represent issues directly Sources of contamination can include protection, SA Water estimates that associated with a fragmented leaking or poorly maintained septic the investment required to upgrade management approach that does tanks, discharges from septic tank treatment facilities at metropolitan not adequately address conflicting effluent disposal systems, and animal water filtration plants to counter the landuse practices. waste or dead animals deposited in or deteriorating water quality of runoff near to waterbodies. from the Mount Lofty Ranges Ideally, Adelaide should have watershed would be $300 million. pristine water supply catchments; Contamination of the rivers and however, it is not possible to turn the streams in the Mount Lofty Ranges by clock back. We have multiple-use faecal material is a significant issue. catchments and must derive the best Water should be treated (eg by boiling quality water we can from them. It also or disinfection) before it is used for means that we must be vigilant in our drinking. catchment management practices. The table below (Table 8) shows the approximate cumulative effectiveness of each of the barriers in dealing with Barriers faecal bacteria and the water-borne to stop parasites Cryptosporidium and Giardia.

contamination Table 8. Cumulative effectiveness of each of the barriers.

The Australian Drinking Water Barrier % removal of faecal % removal of bacteria and Giardia Cryptosporidium Guidelines 1996 stress the Effective catchment protection up to 97% up to 97% importance of multiple barriers to Detention in reservoirs >99% >99% stop or reduce contamination getting Water treatment >99.99% >99.99% into drinking water supplies. Disinfection Effectively full removal >99.99%* The barriers are: * Disinfection is not effective for Cryptosporidium

•catchment protection to stop contamination from entering streams

•detention in reservoirs where contaminants can settle, degrade or die off naturally

• security of water storages

•coagulation, settling and filtration in water treatment facilities

• disinfection

•a secure distribution system to stop recontamination.

24. Who manages •Mount Lofty Ranges Catchment Program Board streams in •State Government agencies: Department for Environment and the Mount Lofty Heritage (EPA); SA Water; PIRSA; Planning SA; Transport SA; Ranges? Department for Water Resources. Many groups are involved in For example, the Onkaparinga River managing different aspects of the and its catchment is managed by the Mount Lofty Ranges, including: Onkaparinga Catchment Water

•seven councils (Barossa, Playford, Management Board, four councils, a Tea Tree Gully, Onkaparinga, regional economic development board, Mount Barker, Adelaide Hills and the Central Hills and Southern soil Alexandrina) boards, a water resources planning committee and the Mount Lofty Ranges •five catchment water management Catchment Management Board. The boards (Torrens, Patawalonga, roles and responsibilities of government Onkaparinga, River Murray, and agencies involved with catchment Northern Adelaide and Barossa) management in the Mount Lofty • approximately 67 Landcare groups Ranges are shown in Table 9.

•four soil boards (Central Hills, Northern Hills, Southern Hills and Murray Plains)

• thousands of landholders

Development Table 9. The roles and Monitoring Environmental Water Resource Bulk Water Control responsibilities and Evaluation Control Planning & Control Management and Planning Education Restoration of government agencies and Catchment Catchment Catchment other stake­ holders Water Water Water in water Management DTUPA Management Management management. Lead agency DEH (EPA) DEH (EPA) Boards SA Water (Planning SA) Boards Boards Contributing Catchment SAHC DWR Local DEH (EPA) Landowner agency water government partnership management Local DEH (EPA) programmes boards government Catchment PIRSA water SA Water SA Water management Local boards government PIRSA PIRSA DEH (EPA) Soil boards DEH (EPA) Human Services Mt Lofty Ranges DWR DWR Catchment DWR Program Soil boards

Landcare groups

Mt Lofty Ranges Catchment Program

Strategies Meet water Environment Development of Water transfers Mt Lofty Ranges Codes of Catchment quality objectives Protection Act catchment water Strategy Plan Practice management licences management Reservoir plans Monitor point plans management Planning Demonstration source pollution Environment Amendment schemes Riparian protection Water Water Reviews restoration Monitor streams policies Resources Act treatment Newsletters and reservoirs licences Development Retention of Septic tank Water applications Farm extension wetlands Catchment audits regulation supply Subdivision Wastewater Risk evaluation Environment control upgrades protection Monitor orders Stormwater Trash racks licensed activities control Erosion control Community awareness Revegetation

Monitor water quantity and flows

25. 6. Conclusions

The issues are being Large numbers of farm dams in the A lot of progress has been addressed upper catchments have reduced made and more is being runoff to rivers and streams resulting done The catchments of the Mount Lofty in diminished catchment yields and Ranges are used for different poor environmental flows. The •Catchment water purposes including harvesting of reduction in stream flow is adding management boards have drinking water, agriculture, intensive to the cost of, and our reliance been established and have horticulture, recreation, tourism, rural on, pumping water from the initiated on-ground works, living, environmental conservation River Murray. education and awareness- and urban environments. These • Riverine environments have been raising programmes that multiple uses place pressure on the eroded, animals have free access to will improve water quality. water resource and can impact on many waterways, and introduced water quality. species of plants dominate many •Monitoring and evaluation stretches of rivers and streams. have been strengthened • There are significant water quality These have the effect of increasing issues associated with faecal and through the formation of nutrient, faecal and sediment loads to pesticide contamination, high levels a State Water Monitoring the system. of nutrients that can cause algal Coordinating Committee • Planning controls have not been blooms on reservoirs and lakes, and reporting to the State as effective as they could be in sediments which add to the cost of Water Policy Committee. protecting and improving water water treatment and can hasten the Groups with a significant quality. There is a need for a silting up of reservoirs. These combined focus on protecting water interest in monitoring issues are widespread and could quality, particularly in water supply water quality and quantity cause significant public health catchments. are represented on this concerns. Outbreaks have been These issues focus attention on the committee and their task avoided to date partly by well need for a programme of on-ground is to develop an integrated designed and operated water work, clearly defined management approach to monitoring treatment plants. structures and responsibilities, strong and, where appropriate, •Over many decades, flow regimes planning controls, accountability, and to make the data publicly have been significantly altered an enforceable legislative framework to available. reducing the capacity of the system protect and improve water quality in to flush out pollutants. the catchments. •Most point sources of pollution are controlled First Creek at Waterfall either by licensing under Gully (EPA). the Environment Protection Act or though other means. •The Mount Lofty Ranges Catchment Programme and catchment boards have revegetated substantial sections of many waterways, although much still remains to be done. •Education and awareness raising programmes have been implemented. Examples include the ‘Our Patch’ programme run by the Torrens and Patawalonga catchment water management boards, and small farm management training courses presented by soil conservation boards.

26. million Monitoring Planning $40 •Monitoring programmes •The Mount Lofty Ranges investment will be increased with Regional Strategy Plan better coordination and is being updated with a The Government data sharing across strong focus on protecting recognises that agencies. water quality. there are issues •Land use mapping, rainfall •The State Water Plan and topography data, and recognises the importance associated with other information will be of protecting water quality multi-use used to identify high risk in the watershed. catchments upon areas in the watershed. •Planning controls relating which we depend •Targeted monitoring to non-complying programmes will be developments will be for our water supply. implemented in high risk improved and enforced. Having taken stock, areas. Compliance management the Government will •Access to monitoring data implement a $40 will be provided to the •Water quality controls will community through the be strengthened and million programme Web and other means. enforced. covering a range of •Widespread use of measures aimed at Resources pesticides will be either improving water •Programmes worth over restricted or managed in $28 million are already the watershed. quality in the Mount under way and additional •Regulations governing the Lofty Ranges. funds will be spent over the operation and maintenance next five years to augment of on-site domestic This integrated and accelerate these wastewater treatment programme will programmes. systems will be tightened up and enforced. cover: Responsibility •Farm dam regulations will •The Environment be reviewed and enforced. On-ground works Protection Agency will have •The present programme of the responsibility for Education sewering properties in the ensuring that the major towns of the programmes are delivered. •Education and awareness- watershed will be raising programmes will be •Responsibility for water increased targeting accelerated and completed quality matters in the within five years. domestic wastewater watershed will be treatment systems, farm •Additional funds will be coordinated through a chemicals, stormwater provided for fencing and multi-agency Watershed management, riparian restoration of rivers and Protection office in the management, property streams. Mount Lofty Ranges. planning and other matters •The use of well maintained, that can impact on water environmentally friendly quality. domestic wastewater treatment systems will be encouraged.

27. 7. Selected reading

Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC). 1992. Australian Water Quality Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Waters. National Water Quality Management Strategy. Glossary Black A, Goodwin N and Sliuzas A. 1995. Mount Lofty Ranges septic tank survey. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Adelaide. ambient water quality

Buckney RT. 1995. Water pollution, biodiversity and the effectiveness of water quality criteria. In RA the overall quality of waterbodies; Bradstock, TD Auld, DA Keith, RT Kingsford, D Lunney and DP Sivertsen (eds), Conserving biodiversity: indicates the quality of water when Threats and solutions, Surrey Beatty & Sons. all potential effects are considered Burdett M. 1936. The flora and fauna of Basket Range: Before and after settlement. Author. as a whole rather than focusing on the effects of particular discharges Clark R. 1987. The estimation of flow, turbidity and loads of nitrogen and phosphorus imported to Mt Bold reservoir via the Murray Bridge-Onkaparinga pipeline, 1973-1985. EWS 87/17. catchment Department for Environment and Natural Resources. 1995a. South Australia – Our water, our future, the area determined by topographic sustainable management. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. features within which rainfall will Department of Housing and Urban Development. 1993. Mount Lofty Ranges Regional Strategy Plan. contribute to runoff at a particular Department of Housing and Urban Development. point under consideration Dyson M. 1997. Navigating the South Australian Water Resources Act 1997. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Adelaide. diffuse source pollution pollution from sources such as an Environment Defender’s Office. 1994. Inland rivers: Regulatory strategies for ecologically sustainable eroding paddock, urban and suburban management. EDO, Sydney. lands and forests, which are spread Environment Protection Agency. 1999. Water quality monitoring report: Ambient water quality monitoring of out, and often not easily identified South Australia’s rivers and streams (chemical and physical quality) June 1995-January 1997, Report no. 1. Department for Environment, Heritage and Aboriginal Affairs. or managed

Environment Protection Authority. 1998. State of the Environment Report for South Australia 1998. ecosystem Department for Environment, Heritage and Aboriginal Affairs. a dynamic complex of plant, animal Environment Protection Authority. 1997. Stormwater pollution prevention, Code of Practice for the community. and micro-organism communities Department for Environment, Heritage and Aboriginal Affairs. and their non-living environment Gardner A. 1990. Legislative implementation of integrated catchment management in Western Australia. interacting as a functional unit Environment Planning Law Journal, 7, 199-208. water-borne parasite Glatz A. 1985. Surface water quality data in South Australia, July 1978-June 1983. EWS 84/34. a minute intestinal invertebrate Harvey P. 1995. Mt Lofty Ranges Catchment Program. Environment South Australia, 4(1), 10-11. environmental indicators Hollick M. 1990. Why won’t they do it? Problems of integrating catchment management at the farm level. physical, chemical or biological Proceedings of the Fifth Australian Soil Conservation Conference, 1990. measures that are used to assess Maschmedt DJ. 1987. Soils and land use potential, Onkaparinga South Australia. 1:50 000 map sheet. natural resources and environmental Department of Agriculture, South Australia. quality McClellan P (QC). 1998. Assessment of the contamination events and future directions for the management of the catchment. Sydney Water Inquiry, 3rd Report. eutrophication

NHMRC and ARMCANZ. 1996. Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. National Water Quality enrichment of water with nutrients, Management Strategy. primarily nitrogen and phosphorus,

NHMRC. 1990. Australian guidelines for recreational use of water. Commonwealth of Australia. which can stimulate the growth of algae or other aquatic flora and fauna Nicholson BL. 1992. Nutrient loads in the Onkaparinga river system. EWS 92/17. riparian Onkaparinga Catchment Water Management Board. 1998. Initial Onkaparinga Catchment Water Management Plan. Onkaparinga Catchment Water Management Board. vegetation or habitats along the banks of watercourses Riparian Zone Management Project. 1997. A watercourse management action plan for the Onkaparinga River catchment. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. runoff Stewart J. 1997. Australian water management: Towards the ecological bureaucracy? Environment and that portion of precipitation not Planning Law Journal, 14, 259-267. immediately adsorbed into or detained Teclaff LA. 1996. Evolution of the river basin concept in national and international law. Natural Resources upon the soil and which thus becomes Journal, 36, 359-391. a surface flow Thomas DA. 1987. A study of land characteristics, use and management in relation to water quality in the pathogen catchment of the Mt Bold reservoir. EWS 86/23. agent causing disease Williamson DR. 1990. Effect of dryland salinity on selected water resources in South Australia. CSIRO Division of Water Resources, Technical Report. point source pollution

Williamson DR and van der Wel B. 1991. Quantification of the impact of dryland salinity on water resources in pollution from an easily discernible the Mt Lofty Ranges, SA. International Hydrology & Water Resources Symposium, Perth. single source such as a factory

Wood G. 1984. The Mt Lofty Ranges watershed: Impact of landuse on water quality and implications for reservoir water quality management. EWS 86/19.

28.