BIODIVERSITY Native Vegetation

Trends

• Vegetation Extent: STABLE

• Vegetation Condition: UNKNOWN OVERALL but IMPROVED slightly for Kingoonya District in the Pastoral region ‘Lose no species’ is a statement of • Area of land under Protected Status: aspiration. Species decline and become INCREASED 1% since 2003, but slowing extinct naturally. This aspiration reflects compared to last SoE Report the foresight, mindset and commitment needed by all South Australians if we are • Indigenous Revegetation activity: to prevent further loss of our known native DECREASING species due to human impacts, and if we are to conserve our biodiversity for future generations. Goals

T3.1 Lose no species: lose no known native Native Vegetation species as a result of human impacts. and a sustainable South Australian Strategic Plan 2007 South

T3.2 Land biodiversity: by 2010 have five To achieve a sustainable future for well-established biodiversity corridors one of the key targets aimed at maximising ecological outcomes for sustainability in the South Australian particularly in the face of climate change. Strategic Plan is to Lose No Species. Native vegetation is an integral South Australian Strategic Plan 2007 component of our natural environment.

162 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Native Vegetation

As indigenous species provide habitat the importance of native vegetation in for animals native vegetation is maintaining a sustainable environment fundamental to sustainability. for humans. The economic value of these ecosystem services is identified Natural landscapes and the native as pertinent to ensure that their value is vegetation they contain are important included in economic considerations. components of the Australian identity. Native vegetation provides places of In conjunction with afforestation and scenic beauty that are very important to reafforestation, native vegetation could our tourism industry and at an individual provide a response to climate change as level, support our cultural, spiritual and carbon sinks included in emission trading recreational needs. Natural landscapes schemes (Australian Greenhouse Office are utilised to derive livelihood and 2006). Climate change is likely to result native vegetation in particular has a in rising temperatures and changes in role in supporting farming and other rainfall patterns, in turn affecting the production activities. intensity and frequency of droughts, bushfires, floods and storms (Australian Native vegetation is an economic Greenhouse Office 2006). Climate resource for genetic, biochemical change is expected to impact on Paddock trees and agricultural products, such as native vegetation but the extent of that tannins or quandong fruits. Importantly, is currently unknown (DEH 2007). The Paddock trees are defined as native vegetation protects landscapes dependence of species or communities scattered trees or small patches against land and water degradation. of species on the existing climate and of trees located in paddocks used Preventing degradation and loss of native their ability to respond to changes is an predominantly for grazing and vegetation is significantly less costly than important consideration for the future cropping. In SA, as in most other restoring and replacing it (Williams 2005). sustainability of native vegetation. temperate regions of Australia In gaining support for the conservation they are not mapped and their or sustainable management of native distribution and contribution vegetation, the value that it can bring to overall vegetation cover is to the quality of people’s lives is a critical Indicators unknown. Paddock trees represent consideration. The benefit of native tree species such as Red, Blue vegetation falls into the triple bottomline CONDITION INDICATOR and Pink Gum that are not well concept of social, economic and conserved in patches of intact environmental benefits. native vegetation. Paddock trees • Extent and Condition of remnant provide resources to all manner Many of the environmental benefits, such vegetation of wildlife. as protecting soil from wind and water The extent and condition of native erosion, are identified as ecosystem A case study to map paddock vegetation is considered the best services. Stemming from the observation trees across an area of 270,000 available measure currently available to that ecosystems provide a range of Ha in the state’s South East region determine the condition of ecosystem goods and services that underpin and was completed in 2005 (Carruthers diversity. benefit our economic production systems 2005). Canopy cover of these trees and quality of human life, ecosystem was found to represent 14.4% of the total native vegetation cover for services are defined as the conditions RESPONSE INDICATORS and processes through which natural the area. Results demonstrate that ecosystems sustain and fulfil human life • Area of land held under protected paddock trees are a geographically widespread feature of the region, (Williams 2005). status distributed over approximately Over the last few years there has been A comprehensive, adequate and half of the study area. Within this greater recognition of the role of native representative reserve system is necessary distribution, paddock trees at very vegetation ecosystems in supporting the to protect and maintain ecosystem, low densities (i.e. up to 2% canopy healthy functioning of our catchments species and genetic biodiversity. cover or 0.25 to 4 trees per Ha) and landscapes. In Victoria, an cover one quarter of the study area. assessment of the ecosystem services for the Goulbourn Broken Catchment • Area of revegetation using indigenous The study found that tree highlighted vegetation including native species, native species and exotics recruitment in paddocks in species, for its value to ecosystems the region is negligible. Legal While revegetated areas do not have the services (Binning et al 2001). clearance is the main threat to same environmental benefits as remnant paddock trees in the study area. Case studies by Eamus et al (2005) drew native vegetation, they contribute Extrapolating current rates of attention to the role of native vegetation towards the restoration of many clearance and dieback, paddock in the provision of ecosystem services. ecological values. It is critical that land is trees are predicted to disappear Services included carbon sequestration, revegetated with locally occurring native from the study area within 150 years. climate regulation, maintenance of species to achieve maximum biodiversity hydrological balance in catchments outcomes. and water quality. These underscore

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 163 BIODIVERSITY

Map 5.1: Remnant native vegetation cover across the agricultural zone of South Australia

Australia (IBRA version 6.1) subregions What is the current (Thackway and Cresswell 1995). These bioregions provide an indication of situation? the unique geographic and natural features of the State and are used to CONDITION INDICATOR: Extent and report biodiversity priorities. Within these condition of remnant vegetation regions, 33 of 56 have greater than 90% native vegetation cover and would be This indicator is considered the best considered intact landscapes (McIntrye available measure of the condition of and Hobbs 2000). These bioregions terrestrial biodiversity. The extent shows have not been cleared because of an how much remains after clearing but is arid climate. Three other subregions only half the picture. Humans have had included in the northern area are large an impact on most of South Australia areas of salt lakes that are typically and this has greatly altered the condition bare. In the remaining 19 bioregions of much of the native vegetation. It is clearance occurred for agricultural important to also consider that condition. pursuits and 26.5% of the native While 86% of South Australia is covered vegetation remains. (Table 5.1 and by native vegetation the majority of Map 5.2) this area experiences an arid climate and there has been minimal clearance. Instead, the land is managed under a Condition of native vegetation range of activities that have resulted in The importance of vegetation condition modification of the vegetation. In the in land management policy has State’s agricultural region where rainfall is increased in recent years, in particular higher the amount of clearance has been through Natural Resource Management high with only 29.5% of native vegetation (NRM). In its broadest sense vegetation remaining. This figure is based on the condition is about the state of being same definition of the agricultural region or health of the vegetation, which as was used in the State of Environment includes the process of change (Keith 2003 and remains unchanged. and Gorrod 2005). However, there South Australia has been mapped remains debate about how to measure into 56 bioregions based on Interim condition depending on the purpose Biogeographic Regionalisation for and practical difficulties of ecological

164 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Native Vegetation

Map 5.2: Percentage of native vegetation cover within IBRA sub regions of South Australia

processes (Keith and Gorrod 2005). Pastoral zone Within the National Natural Resource During dry times, particularly in the early and Management Monitoring and years of European occupation, large Evaluation Framework vegetation numbers of livestock concentrated condition has been defined as an around the few permanent water supplies indicator in the context of biodiversity resulting in high grazing pressure and conservation. At the national level work trampling of vegetation. This in turn lead is being done to establish an approach to soil disturbance and erosion. Today, to vegetation condition assessment at the majority of pastoral leases in South sites against benchmarks (Parkes and Australia have been fully developed Lyon 2005), however the expansion of and management strategies have been this process into the States is inconsistent. implemented to reduce the impact Vegetation condition information of grazing by livestock on the native is required to monitor and report at vegetation. Selective grazing pressures regional, state and national levels with it have resulted in changes to species being collected against varying criteria composition. Feral grazing is also a for site assessments, spatial modelling major pressure on native vegetation in and remote sensing (Gibbon et al 2005). pastoral areas.

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 165 BIODIVERSITY

Table 5.1: Vegetation area remaining within IBRA subregions

Subregion Code Ibra Area Veg Area Veg % Barrier Range BHC1 1088190 1087660 100 Barrier Range Outwash BHC4 786385 786170 100 Sturt Stony Desert CHC2 2319585 2315645 100 Diamantina-Eyre CHC4 853910 850840 100 Lake Pure CHC7 70080 70080 100 Mann-Musgrave Block CR1 1903030 1902475 100 Wataru CR2 424120 424120 100 Everard Block CR3 519805 519805 100 Tieyon, Finke P3 FIN3 1115585 1115185 100 Pedirka FIN4 846645 846645 100 Northern Flinders FLB5 1684140 1683210 100 Kintore GVD4 4379660 4379660 100 Tallaringa GVD5 3646605 3646280 100 Northern band, Carlisle NUL1 720980 720140 100 Central band, Nullabor Plain NUL2 4096430 4095520 100 Simpson Desert SSD2 2189840 2186265 100 Breakaways, STP1 4370610 4362195 100 Peake-Dennison Inlier STP4 256295 256295 100 Macumba STP5 1009995 1009005 100 Coongie CHC6 2099835 2074380 99 Kingoonya GAW5 4946845 4916540 99 Eastern, Maralinga GVD3 7534470 7476825 99 Yellabinna GVD6 4497775 4457235 99 Hampton HAM 44945 44510 99 Oodnadatta STP2 4627370 4581095 99 STP3 2978195 2946545 99 Gawler Volcanics GAW2 1778330 1746435 98 South Olary Plain, Murray Basin Sands MDD1 1887680 1847960 98 Yalata NUL3 1143560 1125930 98 Warriner SSD4 949690 926705 98 Olary Spur FLB3 2025260 1973210 97 Myall Plains GAW1 974230 941675 97 Plateau GAW4 1185920 1161405 98 Strzelecki Desert, Western Dunefields SSD5 5162630 4753660 92 Southern Flinders FLB4 2057230 1802135 88 Dieri SSD3 4679410 3526725 75 Gawler Lakes GAW3 3424955 2184485 64 Arid Subregion Total 84280220 80744650 96 Murray Scroll Belt RIV6 173790 100720 58 Talia EYB4 1086015 604615 56 Lowan Mallee MDD4 960060 453400 47 KAN1 441435 209065 47 Eyre Mallee EYB5 2288325 814970 36 Eyre Hills EYB3 1168240 342915 29 MDD2 2116480 438745 21 Tintinara NCP4 708025 136135 19 Southern Yorke EYB1 435440 79345 18 Ranges FLB1 299880 46420 15 Murray Lakes and Coorong MDD3 248960 35645 14 Bridgewater NCP1 447215 63910 14 Fleurieu KAN2 370005 45360 12 Lucindale NCP3 743205 95545 13 Broughton FLB2 1028760 105755 10 St Vincent EYB2 1088495 97625 9 Glenelg Plain NCP2 142005 12975 9 Mount Gambier VVP2 84645 3820 5 Wimmera MDD5 133000 6135 5

166 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Native Vegetation

There is considerable information • soil surface disturbance and erosion; available on the current condition of • vegetation cover and composition; native vegetation in the pastoral areas BushBids – of the State, based on the scientific • the level of visible grazing impact. market based assessment and monitoring of all Mining and exploration expansion in South pastoral leases under the Pastoral Land Australia has also tended to focus on the incentive Management and Conservation Act pastoral zone and poses a significant risk 1989. In some areas, inappropriate to native vegetation. The appropriate program for grazing practices over the past 150 years management of native vegetation biodiversity have lead to land degradation, a loss of at every stage of the development, productivity potential and an impact on operation and decommissioning of mines stewardship biodiversity. in South Australia is extremely important. As part of the State Government’s At present, mines are exempt from most In the Eastern Mount Lofty Pastoral Lease Assessment Program of the provisions of the Native Vegetation ranges a program funded by from 1990-2000, more than 5,500 Act 1991 and while changes outlined the Maintaining Australia’s permanent photopoint monitoring elsewhere in this chapter have improved Biodiversity Hotspots program sites were established in the pastoral accountability within this sector, there is (Commonwealth Government) zone. These were set up to provide a still considerable work required to protect was implemented to improve the baseline to monitor the condition of soil native vegetation from mining and condition and management of and vegetation resources over time. exploration activities. native vegetation. Under the Pastoral Land Management The BushBids project used a single and Conservation Act 1989, lease bid, reverse auction process to Kingoonya District (SA Arid Lands NRM) assessments are to be carried out every establish management contracts 14 years. These include a revisit and The completion of the second round of with owners of 2,274 Ha native remeasuring of these sites. assessments for this district has enabled vegetation on 70 privately owned In 2005 the second lease assessment a comparison of the condition of the sites in the Eastern Mount Lofty program began in the Kingoonya area vegetation (Table 5.2). Data was Ranges. collected at a total of 2,515 LCI points and to date 22 stations have been The approach required a in 1991 (Round 1) and 2,325 in 2005/06 reassessed. The lease assessment relative biodiversity value to be (Round 2). Hummock grasslands locations program for the Gawler Ranges began determined and for landholders to were picked up in the second assessment in late 2006 and it is due for completion enter a tender price for the cost of and an extra vegetation community (non statewide by 2014. conservation and management chenopod shrubland) was assessed in of the native vegetation under Land condition is assessed using the the district. There has been an apparent 10 year agreements. Landholders Land Condition Index (LCI) approach increase in the number of pasture committed to achieving targeted and has been carried out on the majority communities of Moderate Disturbance levels of management and threat of leases south of the dog fence where Rating, with the incidence of both the control including controlling total sheep have traditionally been run. On High and Low Disturbance Ratings grazing pressure, weeds, feral the more extensive cattle properties decreasing. north of that fence, the LCI has not animals, litter removal and other Vegetation condition has improved slightly been used, but for part of the Marla types of unwanted disturbance. across the district with an average LCI of Oodnadatta NRM District, photopoint The project has protected habitat 2.12 in Round 1 and 2.17 in Round 2. All monitoring has been complemented by at 49 sites for 27 threatened vegetation communities have generally assessments of land cover changes using species and over 400 Ha of remained stable with the exception of Landsat imagery. These measurements threatened plant communities. the ephemeral plains (Table 5.3). This are limited instruments for measuring BushBids combined measures of may be attributed to the current dry vegetation condition, particularly from landscape context (site area, conditions, the nature of ephemeral plains an ecosystem basis and their value will connectivity, fragmentation and grazing pressures. The chenopod be minimal in providing comparisons with indices, habitat type) with shrublands are extremely resilient and condition measurements taken using traditional measures of site scale, have improved slightly. more detailed methods. structure, function and plant In the sheep pastoral zone an additional species diversity to derive a 20,000 land condition sampling locations Agricultural regions relative biodiversity value score. were assessed in the first round (1990- Over the 10 year agreement In contrast, the assessment of the 2000) with approximately 100 locations period assessments will be condition of native vegetation within forming the basis for the calculation of undertaken to measure evidence the agricultural regions cannot be LCI scores for each lease. of improvements in the biodiversity reported. The State NRM Plan identifies values of the sites. The LCI shows sampling locations the following target: as having high, moderate or low “By 2011, no further net loss in natural ‘disturbance’ or departure from the habitat extent and condition below that original, pristine condition. These of 2006” (DWLBC 2006). disturbance categories are based on:

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 167 BIODIVERSITY

Table 5.2: Condition of pasture communities in the Kingoonya Soil Conservation District, 1991and 2005/06

Vegetation community LCI Disturbance Rating (% count) Assessment 1991 Assessment 2005/6 High Moderate Low Total High Moderate Low Total Chenopod shrublands 14.16 15.62 34.92 64.03 8.04 29.16 28.0 65.20

Low woodlands 14.49 9.57 6.43 30.49 5.63 20.56 3.96 30.15 Hummock grasslands 0.29 0.08 0.13 0.50 0 0 0 0 Mount Eba country 1.75 1.71 0.96 4.42 1.46 2.19 0.26 3.91

Ephemeral plains 0.04 0.13 0.33 0.50 0.04 0.30 0 0.34 Non Chenopod shrubland NA NA NA NA 0 0.34 0.04 0.38

Total 30.06 27.11 42.77 99.94 15.17 52.55 32.26 99.98

Vegetation community LCI Score LCI Score Table 5.3: Condition of pasture Assessment 1991 Assessment 2005/6 communities (average LCI) in the Chenopod Shrublands 2.31 2.31 Kingoonya Soil Conservation District, 1991and 2005/06 Low Woodlands 1.73 1.94 Mount Eba Country 1.82 1.69 Hummock Grasslands 1.67 NA Ephemeral plains 2.38 1.88 Non Chenopod NA 2.11 shrublands AVERAGE LCI 2.12 2.17

Waitpinga Headland after rehabilitation, 2006. Note: Low Disturbance = 3; Medium Disturbance = 2; High Disturbance = 1 Photos: Ron Taylor.

All NRM regions are developing processes o detected through satellite to measure and monitor this target. In monitoring or reported by some regions data has been collected concerned local landowners; but the ability to report it meaningfully is and not currently available. o undetected or not discovered within the four year legally Coastal vegetation specified timeframe for the initiation of legal proceedings. Coastal vegetation is covered in the Coastal Water Quality and Pollution Threats to native vegetation that lead chapter to decline and degradation include: • Grazing stock within native vegetation. Damage arises from trampling of plants, browsing What are the pressures? of seedlings and resultant poor recruitment and introduction of weeds. Forms of Clearance • Senescence of trees and plants Clearance of native vegetation takes combined with a lack of regen- several forms including active clearance eration of replacement stock. In or a decline through degradation and many areas there has been no poor management. occurrence of new trees, so that Loss of native vegetation cover and as old trees that survived land associated habitat can occur through: clearance for agriculture decline • Legal clearance resulting from formal and die the landscape becomes consent with an offset environmental increasingly sparsely vegetated. benefit, eg clearance of scattered • Invasion of remnant scrub by feral trees for a centre pivot irrigator or animals, weeds and overabundant clearance for approved house sites; native species (see Introduced • Specific clearance activities under Species). These displace native particular regulations that do not species, disrupt ecosystem require consent, eg 5m fuel breaks processes and degrade habitat and access tracks; quality. • Illegal clearance that is: • Inappropriate fire regimes –

168 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Native Vegetation

frequency, intensity and seasonality. sa.gov.au/data/press/firewood_270707. Most Australian vegetation pdf). Recording the enforcement of communities have adapted to some regulations for firewood removal began degree to the incidence of fire with in August 2005 and 10 fines have been a number of species benefiting issued when there was no doubt that an from fire-stimulated germination offence had been committed. Cautions . However if fire is too frequent, are an alternative method for sending a there may be insufficient time for message about inappropriate action to germination, growth to reproduc- the public . tive age and seed production, all of

which can lead to loss of species and degradation of habitat. Issues of Fire management potential changes to fire frequency Fire plays an important role in shaping and intensity associated with climate Australia’s biodiversity and is a significant change are a significant issue for factor affecting native vegetation and its environmental managers. ecological health. • Fragmentation and isolation of Bushfires can have devastating effects on remnants that can lead to species the community and native vegetation. being unable to re colonise after However, many species of flora and fauna a disturbance such as a fire. In a are well adapted to cope with fire and fragmented landscape the potential some even rely on it. Should fuel hazard exists for the extinction of local and levels accumulate to very high or extreme regional species following large levels in long unburnt native vegetation The aftermath of Kangaroo Island Bushfires, scale natural disasters, or over time or where there has been no lower risk 2007. Photo: DEH. as remaining parcels of native mechanical fuel reduction activity, vegetation become too small to neighbouring communities and assets may support viable populations. be threatened. Frequent and/or very large • Inappropriate maintenance and bushfires can adversely affect biodiversity grazing pressures on remnant native values and also have hydrological vegetation on roadsides. implications with increased water requirements as vegetation recovers. • Human impact such as trampling, Habitat fragmentation and increased vehicle movement, removal of settlement, grazing pressure, disease and dead wood, soil compaction, root weed invasion in landscapes shaped by disturbance. fire make ecologically appropriate fire management a complex task. Firewood removal DEH Fire Management Policy provides a framework for the management of The removal of firewood from parks fire in South Australia’s reserve system and roadsides is illegal and fines are spcecifically on or adjacent to DEH endorsed under the National Parks and land. The implementation of this policy Wildlife Regulations 2001. is facilitated through fire management Wood typically collected for firewood plans for regions or parks that identify provides shelter for native species – small the risks associated with fire and detail mammals, lizards and insects. As it is strategies to manage it. Between organic, wood provides nutrients to September 2003 and June 2008, 1,253,700 keep soil healthy and is a food source for hectares were burnt, including areas micro-organisms.It can also shelter seeds where native vegetation had been until they propagate and regenerate cleared. conservation areas. Dead trees provide Prescribed burns are undertaken to nesting sites for critically endangered manage fire and these require approval species such as the South East Red-tailed under the Native Vegetation Act Black Cockatoo. Fallen timber also 1990. Both DEH and Forestry SA use this provides perches and foraging habitat method to manage their land. Between for ground foraging birds such as robins. September 2003 and June 2008, DEH The impact of firewood removal is more conducted prescribed burns over 8,070 than the removal of the timber as it also Ha. As part of the approval process, generates increased vehicle traffic that there is a requirement to monitor native carves up the land damaging parks vegetation before and after a burn. This and increasing the risk of soil-borne information is used to assess the impact diseases and the spread of weeds of burning against the objectives of the (DEH Media release www.environment. Native Vegetation Act. The program has

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 169 BIODIVERSITY

been conducted for almost three years a species response and to develop the and data analysis will investigate trends in: most appropriate and practical solutions to move forward in an informed way • Species presence/absence at (DEH 2007). The objective in the state regional scales following fires; strategy, Tackling Climate Change identifies • Species presence/absence for the need “To increase the capacity of particular vegetation types on a ecosystems to adapt to climate change” regional basis; (Department of Premier and Cabinet • Presence/absence of weeds. 2007). The strategy highlights the need to determine priorities for biodiversity DEH’s fire management program will be conservation and to identify opportunities important for evaluating the long-term to build resilience in ecosystems and impact of fires on vegetation extent and improve ecological function and condition across the state. It has high connectivity. relevance for gaining understanding of the impact of climate change as the incidence of wildfires is expected to Vegetation clearance increase. Historically South Australia has extensively cleared its cover of native vegetation, Climate change significantly contributing to the decline in Red Mallee ( oleosa) over Triodia, biodiversity, land degradation and loss of NW of S.Aust. Photo: Peter Lang Climate change will become a critical ecosystem services. Clearance activities factor in the challenge to manage have contributed to a quarter of all plants biodiversity. The ability of plants and and animals recorded in South Australia animals to migrate as climate change now being considered threatened. occurs is a significant issue in the management of native vegetation as a corridor for the migration (DEH 2006). Legal Clearance Approvals 2001-2007 Native vegetation provides core areas of The information presented reports only legal habitat for South Australian biodiversity. clearance requiring formal consent. In South Management of native vegetation needs Australia approval for broadacre clearance to ensure adaptation can occur in the of previously undisturbed vegetation cannot face of climate change while conserving be granted by the Native Vegetation the existing biodiversity. It is important to Council. This level of clearance is easily ensure that core areas are managed in detected and is now quite rare. Table 5.4 such a way that their integrity is maintained summarises native vegetation clearance and populations are viable. Providing approvals from July 2001 to June 2007. There linkages to other areas for migration is clearly an ongoing upward trend in total across landscapes for species, genes or area cleared. individuals are required. Linkages can be Care must be taken in interpreting across rainfall gradients or topographic these figures. In most years they have been gradients depending on the needs of the heavily influenced by a small entity that is to be conserved. number of large applications. In addition The effect of climate change is the figures do not show the quality of highlighted by increases in temperature the vegetation under application. It is and changes to rainfall patterns (CSIRO difficult to meaningfully compare, for 2001). Changes in climate could lead example, removal of 0.02 Ha of intact to changes in suitable locations for stringy-bark forest in the Hills plants and animals, which in a cleared that has been cleared under the landscape could become more restricted regulations for a house site, with the due to existing land uses. Sea level clearance of 100 Ha of degraded regrowth rises would reposition South Australia’s chenopod shrubland cleared for cropping. coastline. Vegetation on the existing There are also provisions for Significant coastline would have to migrate to the Environmental Benefits to offset this appropriate new location however, due clearance as discussed later in the report. to existing land use in some areas there may be no capacity for this migration and vegetation such as Mangroves Change Detection Program will be lost. The Native Vegetation Council has Climate change is a serious emerging introduced a change detection program threat to biodiversity and there is a to monitor any loss in extent of native need to improve our understanding of vegetation cover across the rural

170 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Native Vegetation

Table 5.4: Vegetation clearance statistics for South Australia, 2001-07

Clearance Applications Regulations b Total Clearance Financial Year (under Section 28 of Native Vegetation Act) Area (ha) Area (ha) Area of (ha) Scattered Trees Canopy area Total area degraded scrub of Trees cleared a (ha) 2001-02 148 933 18.7 167 0 167 2002-03 386 241 4.8 391 0 391 2003-04 254 271 5.4 259 7.2 267 2004-05 296 379 7.6 304 495 799 2005-06 930 c 413 8.3 938 56.1 995 2006-07 504 375 7.5 512 1880 d 2390

Notes: a. Equals area of degraded scrub plus canopy area of trees to give a total area of clearance approved under section 28 of the Native Vegetation Act. b. Area of clearance approved under the Native Vegetation Regulations c. Includes 891 ha of previously cleared regrowth. d. Includes mining applications totalling 1803 ha, with one application of 1660 ha. These figures do not include approvals where the vegetation is expected to regenerate: eg brush-cutting (Melaleuca uncinata) or ecological burns. Tree area was generated by multiplying tree numbers by the average canopy area of 0.02 hectares

Table 5.5: Reports of illegal clearance in hectares of native vegetation by region, 2004-2007

Region 04/05 05/06 06/07 Adelaide 41 60 54 Kangaroo Island 14 27 12 31 36 21 Outback 8 6 4 South East 26 48 31 1 0 4 West 16 29 15 Yorke and Mid Nth 26 23 17 Total 163 229 157

agricultural regions of South Australia an onsite inspection will be undertaken using satellite imagery. Reports of to verify detected changes that cannot clearances can be provided by the be explained by other means. Clearance public, officers of various government detected through this program from 2004 agencies as well as through the Change to 2007 indicates that illegal clearance is Detection Program. minimal in South Australia. Satellite imagery over the same location at different times provides the basis of Other pressures the program. Any observed changes A number of other pressures on native are then cross-referenced with aerial vegetation overlap into other areas of this photography, contact with landholders report and are covered elsewhere. and on ground inspections. This These include: eliminates change detected due to, for example planted vegetation, approved • Changed hydrology – see Water or exempt clearance activities, Quantity (which is particularly seasonal variations and bushfire related important in some of the southerly vegetation changes. Archived satellite regions, like the Adelaide and Mount imagery and high-resolution aerial Lofty Ranges regions), photography dating back to the 1950s • Disease – see Introduced Species, are also accessed to help determine the age of the vegetation and its • Abundant native herbivores – see clearance history. Introduced Species, and Where a detected change cannot • Urban sprawl – see Urban Form and be verified using external methods, Population. the Department of Water Land and Biodiversity Conservation (DWLBC) will write to landholders inviting their assistance in providing additional relevant information. Where necessary

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increase in area of 597,810 hectares What are we doing (www.environment.gov.au/indigenous/ ipa/index.html). about it? Under the Forestry Act 1950, Forestry SA manages Native Forest Reserves RESPONSE INDICATOR: Area of land held including since 2003, 3 additional under protected status reserves (1,595 Ha). Forest Reserves contain areas of native vegetation that Protected Area Statement are managed for conservation. South Australia’s protected area system The Heritage Agreement Scheme was is an important tool for the conservation launched in 1980 to protect areas that of biodiversity within the broader context have significant biodiversity under of integrated landscape management. private ownership and predominantly In June 2008 it was estimated that 25.8% operates across the agricultural region of the state was under some form of of the State. Once approved a protected status subject to various landowner can apply for grants to assist legislation and ownership. The existing with the management of the land, such protected area system has increased by as funding for fencing or weed control. 1% since 2003. It is important to consider how successfully this land is being In 2003 the Heritage Agreement Waitpinga cliff erosion project at managed for biodiversity conservation Scheme protected 557,870 Ha and commencement of planting. Photo: Ron Taylor and a measure of this should be since the last report that area has considered for future reporting. increased 8% to 611,170 Ha. It should be noted that the figure reported for 2003 The Department for Environment and has been revised due to the method Heritage (DEH) manages the network of capturing heritage agreements. of public protected areas and also There was a considerable backlog in supports landowners managing the the capture of older agreements and private conservation system of Heritage this work has been accelerated in Agreements and Indigenous Protected recent years. Areas. Since August 2003 the number of parks under formal protection and Heritage Agreements in themselves managed by DEH has risen to 338 and do not directly address ongoing includes: management requirements. To adequately measure whether positive • 14 newly proclaimed parks (4,675 Ha); outcomes are being achieved by the • 13 parks that had additional areas system details are needed of whether proclaimed (41,450 Ha); and the condition in these remnants is increasing, stable or decreasing. There • 23 parks that were proclaimed under is also a need for a better system a higher level of protection (733,020 to provide long term management Ha) with six of them (619,590 Ha) assistance for affected landholders. proclaimed under the Wilderness Protection Act, the highest form of South Australia has committed to the Waitpinga cliff erosion project 8 years later. statutory protection. establishment of the (NRS) as part of a certified Photo: Ron Taylor. On 1 May 2006 the 1993 proclamation approach to the conservation of of pastoral lands as part of the Strzelecki native biodiversity. In 2005, the Natural Regional Reserve was deemed invalid Resource Management Ministerial resulting in a reduction to the reserve Council (NRMMC) issued the Directions system of approximately 356,800 Ha. for the National Reserves System – A Therefore, when reporting on DEH Partnership Approach (the Directions managed reserves there is a decrease in Statement) to guide delivery of the area even though the number of reserves NRS Program. has increased as the resumption was greater than the additions. The Interim Biogeographic Regionalisa- tion for Australia (IBRA) provides the Indigenous owners are supported in national and regional framework for the management of their lands for delivering the NRS program. the protection of natural and cultural features in accordance with internation- The Directions Statement outlines ally recognised standards and guidelines a strategic approach for making for the benefit of all Australians. Since quantifiable progress towards the 2003 an additional reserve has been establishment and management of added to the Commonwealth Indigenous a Comprehensive, Adequate and Protected Areas in South Australia, an Representative terrestrial protected

172 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Native Vegetation

Map 5.3: Areas protected under the NPW reserve system in South Australia

area system (CAR Reserve System) and South Australia’s progress towards an its targets include: effective CAR Reserve System has been assessed. The information used to • Examples of at least 80% of measure the status is IBRA , a hierarchy the number of extant regional of nested regions. Associations are ecosystems in each IBRA region are nested in subregions that are in turn to be represented in the protected nested in regions. Comprehensive- area system - Comprehensive ness has been achieved for 82% of • Protected areas need to be selected the regions, with representativeness and managed to maximise the achieved in 55% of them. The ability to probability of survival of their biota measure the adequacy component of including replication of ecosystems; CAR assessments is still being developed ensuring areas are of sufficient size nationally. and condition to ensure long term sustainability; are managed in a bioregional context and optimise Park management plans opportunities for species dispersal DEH manages 301 areas that are - Adequate protected under the National Parks and • Examples of at least 80% of Wildlife Act 1972 and the Wilderness the number of extant regional Protection Act 1992 and for which ecosystems in each subregion are there is a legal requirement to prepare represented in the protected area formal management plans (reserves system - Representative under the Crown Lands Act 1929 are not legally required to have management

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 173 BIODIVERSITY

Table 5.7: Details of South Australia’s Table 5.6: Summary of South Australia’s protected areas protected areas % regional ecosystems (associations) number % with some protection in a subregion subregions subregions Land Status Number Area (Ha) Nil (0) 5 9 Conservation Reserves 33 130,040 Very Low (<25) 1 2 Conservation Parks 244 5,868,950 Low (>25 – 50) 6 11 Game Reserves 10 25,890 Medium (50 – 80) 13 23 National Parks 21 4,535,145 High >80 31 55 Recreation Parks 14 3,165 Regional Reserves 7 9,691,840 a 56 100

Wilderness Areas 9 684,540 Source: DEH 2008. NPWS subtotal 338 20,939,570 b Note: Representativeness is based on numbers of IBRA associations protected within their respective subregion. Heritage Agreements 1372 611,170 Indigenous Protected Areas 5 3,739,695 c Native Forests 61 16,050 Total 1776 25,306,485

Source: DEH 2008. Notes: Calculated in Lamberts Conformal Conic and rounded to the nearest 5 Ha. plans). Prepared to provide direction management problems including a. There was a resumption of 356,000 ha of the Regional Reserves which has caused a known decrease in protected areas. over approximately a decade, these those that have arisen from clearance b. Due to improvements in the accuracy of the data, the reported area of reserves has become more precise compared to the last plans are used to establish the context of of vegetation (Emes et al 2006). reporting period. c. One reserve overlaps with existing adjacent park and duplication longer-term roles for reserves in meeting Information on revegetation activity has been removed. Locality Forests have been removed as they have no legal legislative and policy objectives such in South Australia has been collected protection other than Native Vegetation Act 1991. as conserving biodiversity in the face of on an annual basis by DWLBC since climate change. 1999. Revegetation activity covers the At 30 June 2008, management plans establishment of perennial vegetation had been adopted for 189 of the DEH including indigenous native plants, managed reserves. That represents a 30% fodder shrubs, farm forestry and increase from 2003 when 129 reserves had commercial forestry. management plans from a total of 282 . Revegetation is undertaken for a range The preparation of management plans of reasons including adding value to has been accelerated from an average traditional farming systems, such as of 3.9 plans per year between 1997-98 providing windbreaks or new potential and 2003-04 — a total of 27 plans, to an perennial crops, eg broombush. It is average of 19 plans completed per year also used to address land and water between 2004-05 and 2007-08 for a total degradation issues and biodiversity of 75. decline. Revegetation benefits differ Management plans are prepared as soon depending on the application. The as is practicable and until one is adopted use of indigenous species mimicking for a reserve the area is managed in a natural local plant association will accordance with the appropriate Act. have significant biodiversity value while The current aim is to ensure that by 2011 others, like timber plantations, have high all reserves will have a management plan carbon value with limited biodiversity no more than 10 years old. value. The effects of a drier climate are likely to have a considerable impact on To truly understand whether management the survival rate of plantings and needs plans are achieving good outcomes, to be considered in forward planning for progress towards their aims must be future revegetation activities. monitored. For future State of the Environment reports it will be desirable not Table 5.10 summarises the major only to measure the number of plans that revegetation activity in South Australia have been adopted, but also which are from 1999 to 2006, and is based on the being successfully implemented. numbers and area of seedling or direct seeding and gives no indication of the success of the re-vegetation work. RESPONSE INDICATOR: Overall the table shows that Area of revegetation revegetation activity has remained Revegetation excluding regeneration is a relatively constant throughout the very useful indicator for native vegetation period except for a large increase in as well as broader land management hardwood plantings in 2000. Planting purposes and even carbon storage. of indigenous species (revegetation Revegetation work in agricultural regions for biodiversity) has remained stable of South Australia has been undertaken over the period while industrial forestry to address a range of natural resource plantings for commercial purposes show

174 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Native Vegetation

% regional ecosystems (subregions) number % Table 5.8: Comprehensive, with some protection in a region regions regions Adequate and Representative Nil (0) 1 6 terrestrial protected area Very Low (<25) 0 0 system (CAR Reserve System) Low (>25 – 50) 1 6 – Comprehensiveness Medium (50 – 80) 1 6 High >80 14 82 17 100

Source: DEH 2008. Note: Comprehensiveness is based on numbers of IBRA subregions protected within their respective region

% regional ecosystems (associations) number % Table 5.9: Comprehensive, Adequate with some protection in a subregion subregions subregions and Representative terrestrial Nil (0) 5 9 protected area system Very Low (<25) 1 2 (CAR Reserve System) – Low (>25 – 50) 6 11 Representativeness Medium (50 – 80) 13 23 High >80 31 55 56 100

Source: DEH 2008. Note: Representativeness is based on numbers of IBRA associations protected within their respective subregion.

National Tree Day. Photo: Adelaide City Council

the greatest variability. Despite climbing can offset the clearance through steadily to a peak of 5,130 Ha in 2004, management or restoration of existing indigenous revegetation dropped by 34% native vegetation or revegetation of a to 3,390 Ha in 2006. This reduction needs cleared area. Where this is not possible to be further analysed and monitored for applicants can offset clearance via a any longer term trend in the figures. payment into the Native Vegetation Fund, established in 2003. SEB money in The expansion of Tasmanian Blue the Fund is pooled by region and used Gum plantings for wood chipping and to establish biodiversity benefits. The use carbon credits, has raised issues about of the payment option has increased the sustainable use of groundwater over the past four years, indicating that resources. In the South East of the it is more favourable to applicants and state it was identified that deep rooted thus may need review to ensure that the plantations were accessing shallow two options remain equitable and there groundwater resources (Benyon 2004). is active engagement in revegetation This will result in plantations having a activities. direct impact on groundwater recharge in the regions where watertables are shallow and as a result of this altered Programs and policy hydrology, will impact indirectly on local surface waters. In recognition of the vital role that native vegetation plays in maintaining healthy ecosystems the high level of protection Significant Environmental Benefits 2001- given to the remaining stock in South 2007 Australia continues and efforts are increasing. With the review of the Native Vegetation Act 1991 in 2003-04, amendments South Australia has led the nation in introduced a requirement for vegetation clearance legislation, with approved clearance to be offset by the first such controls introduced in an environmental gain, referred to as a 1983. Since then native vegetation Significant Environmental Benefit (SEB). legislation has evolved with a number of amendments introduced through Table 5.11 shows the SEBs established to legislative reviews. The most recent and offset the clearance summarised in the significant changes were amendments to condition indicator section. Applicants the Native Vegetation Act 1991 in 2003

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 175 BIODIVERSITY

Table 5.10: Summary of major revegetation activity in South Australia

Type of revegetation 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Indigenous 3,770 4,050 3,910 4,060 4,540 5,130 4,630 3,390 Native (non indigenous) 1,050 380 790 330 100 190 920 230 Native Grasses* 10 20 40 60 20 30 30 50 Farm Forestry 0 630 250 450 440 510 60 170 Saltbush 1,490 1,210 1,300 320 1,090 580 640 170 Tagasaste 570 210 70 10 50 10 10 0 Product Species (eg broombush) 10 50 10 100 30 70 30 10 Industrial Forestry - hardwood 2,940 21,130 6,730 6,010 590 6,640 1,120 1,300 Industrial Forestry - softwood 3,050 2,940 90 890 560 590 4,430 3,800 Total 12,890 30,620 13,190 12,230 7,420 13,750 11,870 9,120

Source: DWLBC Emes et al 2006, with numbers rounded to the nearest 10 hectares.

Table 5.11: Summary of Significant Environmental Benefit to offset clearance applications

Financial Year Clearance Applications (ha) Regulations (ha) Total Benefit Area (ha) Financial off-set $

2001-02 1,120 0 1,120 0

2002-03 739 0 739 0

2003-04 944 36 980 10,100

2004-05 508 4,442.8 4,940 26,300

2005-06 1,500 288 1,790 217,000

2006-07 1,050 1,300 2,350 323,000

and 2004. Those changes introduced the land management, and animal and concept of no clearance of intact stratum plant control legislation. The State Natural of vegetation, in effect precluding the Resources Management Plan contains Native Vegetation Council from granting strategic policy for managing South consent to applicants seeking approval Australia’s natural resources and was for the broadacre clearance of native released in 2006. vegetation. The intent is to better integrate the Clearance, including of intact stratum, management of all our natural resources that is associated with approved activities including native vegetation, through such as infrastructure works, major improved legislation, administration, developments and mining were previously communication and regional involvement. exempt from the provisions of the Native A review of the administration of the Vegetation Act. However following Native Vegetation Act 1991 and the introduction of amendments to the Regulations is being undertaken and it is Native Vegetation Regulations in 2003, hoped a new direction will be developed a significant environmental benefit must for native vegetation management to offset such clearances, in the same way improve the overall relationship between as clearances approved by the Native it, natural resource management and Vegetation Council. Developers, mining development. companies and government instrumentali- ties are now bound by the same rules as South Australia’s first statewide nature other landholders. conservation strategy No Species Loss – A nature conservation strategy for Penalties (fines) handed down for South Australia 2007-2017 presents policy breaches of the Native Vegetation directions and targets that will guide the Act 1991 are paid into the Native protection, conservation and sustainable Vegetation Fund and must be used by use of South Australia’s biodiversity the Native Vegetation Council to achieve over the next 10 years. No Species Loss environmental benefits. is a direct response to the target of Natural Resources Management (NRM) ‘lose no species’ (T3.1) within the SASP, legislation was introduced in 2004 The State Government will lead the providing for new regional NRM boards, a implementation, but will be successful only State NRM Council and the amalgamation with a committed and coordinated effort of previously separate water, soil and involving government, community and industry.

176 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Native Vegetation

While there is now a high degree of complementary floristic vegetation maps protection for native vegetation, many for the state. The quality and coverage of areas are isolated and in danger of the information collected as part of the further fragmentation and degradation Biological Survey will give South Australia through pressures such as pests and one of the most complete inventories of wildfire. In the past there has been native flora and fauna in Australia. insufficient emphasis on managing the Regional Biodiversity Strategies are state’s remaining native vegetation as being developed as part of the a whole. implementation the State Natural The Government continues to move Resources Management Plan and towards a landscape scale approach No Species Loss. These plans prioritise to protection of biodiversity with the conservation activity and provide a establishment of five biodiversity corridors regional approach to the implementation across public and private land through of No Species Loss for the conservation the NatureLinks program (T3.2, South and management of biodiversity. Australia’s Strategic Plan). The corridors In 2004 the National Parks and Wildlife support the delivery of No Species Loss Act 1972 was amended to create a by bringing together landscape scale legislative framework for cooperative biodiversity management, regional management of national and development and natural resource conservation parks over both Crown management. and Aboriginal freehold land. This The five biodiversity corridors build on innovative initiative leads development existing major initiatives including the in this area in Australia. The amendments state’s network of parks and reserves, effectively enable greater application of large scale ecological restoration projects the Act to protect conservation values such as Bounceback, revegetation of land without that land coming under initiatives and programs for marine government ownership. planning and Marine Protected Areas. Nationally, programs aimed at Draft corridor plans are being prepared production outcomes of vegetation and for community consultation with the draft biodiversity have utilised market–based NatureLinks East meets West corridor plan instruments to provide or increase being released in 2006. financial rewards for changes that result As well as increasing our understanding in environmental outcomes (DEH 2007). of the implications of climate change In general these instruments put an and addressing the underlying causes economic value on native vegetation at an international and national level it and provide a tool for trading for its is important that action is taken on the protection. Tulya Wodli Riparian Restoration project. ground to address this issue, as well as Photos: Adelaide City Council. In the long term these incentives might the many other threats to biodiversity. It improve sustainability of natural assets is believed that large-scale ecological through expanding the responsibility from restoration programs, such as those government and interested parties to the envisaged under the NatureLinks wider community. They can also play a initiative, can have a valuable role in role in measuring ecosystem services for ameliorating the impact of climate guiding directions in policy (Maher and change and improving ecosystem Thackway, 2007). Several programs exist resilience by increasing the availability in South Australia that enable individuals and connectivity of habitats. to become involved. To date there have To assist with the re-establishment been the Biodiversity Hotspots program of native vegetation, pre-European in the South Australian Murray Darling vegetation mapping has been Basin NRM region, the River Murray Forests completed for the South East, along the River Murray and Sustainable Murraylands, , Landscapes being trialled in the Adelaide Mid–North and and and Mount Lofty Ranges NRM region. work has begun on creating a River There is also a Hotspots Program in the Murray Forest. Southern Flinders that is being run by Greening Australia. The Biological Survey Program of South Australia commenced in 1971 with the intention of providing a systematic survey of South Australia’s remaining flora and fauna. The program’s goal is to achieve a complete survey of the state by 2015. The flora information is used to create

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 177 BIODIVERSITY

What more should we be doing?

The Environment Protection Authority recommends the following:

R5.1 Improve revegetation and restoration through detailed information on techniques and selection of species. R5.2 Incorporate the protection of important ecosystems into land use planning.

Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan targets

R5.1 R5.2 Growing Prosperity T1.1, T1.14 Improving Wellbeing Attaining Sustainability T3.1, T3.2 T3.1, T3.2, T3.3, T3.5,1 T3.7, T3.9, T3.1 Fostering Creativity and Innovation Acacia cyperophylla (Minnie Ritchie). Photo: Building Communities Wetlands International. Expanding Opportunities

For further detail on South Australia’s Strategic Plan visit www.stateplan.sa.gov.au

CSIRO (2001) Climate Change Impacts References for Australia. CSIRO, Brisbane. Department for Environment and Australian Greenhouse Office (2006) Heritage (2006) NatureLinks: East meets Investing in trees as greenhouse sinks – an West Corridor Plan Draft. Government of overview for industry. Department of the South Australia, Adelaide. Environment and Heritage, Canberra. Department for Environment and Benyon, R. G. and Doody, T. M. (2004) Heritage (2007) No Species Loss Water use by tree plantations in southeast – A Nature Conservation Strategy. South Australia, Technical Report no. 148. Government of South Australia, Adelaide. 26 p.Keywords: Water use/ Transpiration/ Department of Conservation and Land Forest plantations Eucalyptus. CSIRO Management (1998) Establishment Forestry and Forest Products, Mt. Gambier, of a Comprehensive, Adequate and South Australia Representative Terrestrial Conservation Binning C, Cork SJ, Parry R, Shelton D (2001) Reserve System in Western Australia, Natural Assets: An Inventory of Ecosystem Government of Western Australian, Perth Goods and Services in the Goulburn Department of Premier and Cabinet Broken Catchment. CSIRO Land and (2007) South Australian Strategic Plan Water, Canberra, ACT. 2007. Government of South Australia, Carruthers S. (2005). A landscape Adelaide approach to determine the ecological Department of Premier and Cabinet value of paddock trees. Department for (2007) Tackling Climate Change: South Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Australia’s Greenhouse Strategy 2007- Government of South Australia, Adelaide 2020. Government of South Australia, www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/assets/files/NVland- Adelaide scapeapproachpaddocktrees_2005.pdf Department of Prime Minister and Environment Australia (1999) Australian Cabinet (2007) Report of the Task Group Guidelines for Establishing the National on Emissions Trading. Government Reserve System. Government of of Australia, ACT www.pmc.gov.au/ Australia, ACT. publications/emissions/docs/emissions_ trading_report.rtf

178 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Native Vegetation

Department of Environment and Maher, C. and Thackway R. (2007), Heritage (2001) National Framework Approaches for Measuring and Accounting for the management and monitoring for Ecosystems Services Provided by of Australia’s Native Vegetation. Natural Vegetation in Australian. Department Resource Management Ministerial Council, for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Government of Australia, ACT. Government of Australia, ACT. Department for Water, Land and Thackway, R. and Cresswell I (1995), An Biodiversity Conservation (2006). State Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Natural Resources Management Plan 2006. Australia: a framework for setting priorities in Government of South Australia, Adelaide. the National Reserves System Cooperative Program Version 4. Australian Nature Emes, J., Holman, E. & Tiller, J. (2006) Conservation Agency, Government of Re-establishment of Vegetation in South Australia, ACT. R5.1 R5.2 Australia 2005. Department of Water, Land Growing Prosperity T1.1, T1.14 and Biodiversity Conservation. 2006/11. National Land and Water Resource Audit Government of South Australia, Adelaide (2001) Australian Native Vegetation Improving Wellbeing ISBN 0-9752098-8-4 Assessment 2001. NLWRA, Government of Attaining Sustainability T3.1, T3.2 T3.1, T3.2, T3.3, T3.5,1 Australia, ACT. T3.7, T3.9, T3.1 Gibbon, P., Zegre A., Jones, S. and Fostering Creativity Ryan P. (2005) Mapping vegetation Natural Resource Management Ministerial and Innovation condition in the context of biodiversity Council (2005), Directions for the National Building Communities conservation. Ecological Management Reserve System A Partnership Approach, and Restoration, 1-2. Government of Australia, ACT Acacia cyperophylla (Minnie Ritchie). Photo: Expanding Opportunities www.environment.gov.au/parks/ Wetlands International. Howden M, Hughes L, Dunlop M , publications/nrs/directions/index.html Zethoven I, Hilbert D and Chilcott C (2003), Climate Change Impacts On Parkes, D. and Lyon, P. (2005), Towards a Biodiversity In Australia, Outcomes of a national approach to vegetation condition workshop sponsored by the Biological assessment that meets government investor’s Diversity Advisory Committee, needs: A policy perspective. Ecological 1–2 October 2002, Government of Management and Restoration 7 (S1), 3-5. Australia, ACT. Williams, J. (2005), Native Vegetation and Keith, D. and Gorrod, E. (2005), The meanings Regional Management: A guide to research of vegetation condition. Ecological and resources. Greening Australia, ACT. Management and Restoration, 7-9 Krockenburger AK, Kitching RL and Turton SM (2003), Environmental Crisis: Climate Change and Terrestrial Biodiversity in Further information Queensland, Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Rainforest Ecology and Management, Rainforest CRC, Cairns, South Australia’s Strategic Plan Queensland www.saplan.org.au/

Native Vegetation Council (2003), Annual Native Vegetation www.dwlbc.sa.gov. Report of the Native Vegetation Council au/native/overview/index.html 2002/2003. Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Government of Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity South Australia Adelaide. Conservation (2006) State Natural Native Vegetation Council (2004) Annual Resources Management Plan Report of the Native Vegetation Council www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/nrm/state_nrm_ 2003-04. Department of Water, Land and plan/index.html Biodiversity Conservation, Government of South Australia, Adelaide. Department for Environment and Heritage (2007) No Species Loss – A Nature Native Vegetation Council (2005) Annual Conservation Strategy for South Australia Report of the Native Vegetation Council 2007-2017 www.environment.sa.gov.au/ 2004-05. Department of Water, Land and biodiversity/pdfs/nsl_strategy.pdf Biodiversity Conservation, Government of South Australia, Adelaide. NatureLinks Native Vegetation Council (2006) Annual www.environment.sa.gov.au/naturelinks Report of the Native Vegetation Council 2005-06. Department of Water, Land and Biological Survey Program Biodiversity Conservation, Government of www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/ South Australia, Adelaide. biosurveys.html

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 179 BIODIVERSITY

the population such as that seen by the Threatened so-called sea change and green change phenomena will place greater pressure on all environments and need to be Species alleviated as a matter of urgency. Healthy ecosystems are the foundation Trends of South Australia’s development. Examples of this can be seen along • The number of plants and animals the River Murray and in the South and ecological communities at risk is Australian Arid Lands region where the INCREASING viability of many industries including agriculture, horticulture and tourism, • Recovery efforts have INCREASED and the wealth that they generate is significantly across the state, but underpinned by natural environments. remain less than are required to Ecosystem services provided by a minimise the potential for species loss. healthy environment include cleansing of water, soil management and improvement processes and plant and animal interactions. The health of all our Goal ecosystems and the species within them are vital to maintaining South Australia’s T3.1 Lose no species – lose no known current population, ongoing prosperity native species as a result of human and sustainable development. impacts. Loss of native species can also contribute South Australia’s Strategic Plan 2007 to loss of future benefits. The genetic material in plants and animals can deliver social, economic and environmental benefits via the biotechnology industry. Threatened Species This includes the development of disease- resistant crops and medicinal treatments Yellow Footed Rock Wallaby. and a sustainable for diseases. Photo: Tim Lubcke South Australia In addition to providing the resource base for our water, food and fibre, South Australia faces particular indigenous species and ecosystems have challenges and opportunities in their own intrinsic value. Many Australians managing our natural biodiversity into place a high value on native plants and the future. Past vegetation clearance, animals, which contribute to recreation leaving inadequate amounts of habitat activities as well as a sense of cultural for populations to survive, has left many identity and spiritual enrichment. Many South Australian native plants and native plants and animals are central animals highly vulnerable. This has to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander left many of our natural systems and cultures. It could be argued on an ethical the species that inhabit those areas and moral basis that we do not have the degraded and at risk of further decline right to exploit or cause the extinction of from existing threats such as pest species, any species we share this planet with. fragmentation and loss of ecological Australia is also party to a number connectivity. of international conventions and Under current conditions, based on the agreements such as the Convention amount, distribution and condition of on Biological Diversity, which covers remaining habitat in the Mount Lofty all ecosystems, species and genetic Ranges, ecologists predict that as much resources, and requires countries to as 50% of the bird species that once develop and implement strategies for inhabited the area will be become locally the sustainable use and protection of extinct. biodiversity. Climate change will greatly increase Although much has been happening pressure on our natural systems and as at all levels to halt the decline of temperatures increase and climatic biodiversity, the decline continues. At a events become more extreme the state level, more species and ecological economics of using the land and marine communities are threatened with environments will alter. Increases in the extinction than are being managed for human population and regionalisation of recovery leaving us with an extinction risk

180 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Threatened Species

that is expected to increase with climate change. Indicators Key Facts Climate change will increasingly affect public infrastructure, water supplies and CONDITION INDICATOR primary production, but the rate and • Number of extinct, endangered and nature of these changes is currently vulnerable species and ecological unclear. The impact of climate change communities. on primary industries and social factors The number of species considered extinct, will contribute to a worsening of endangered or vulnerable over time is problems faced by threatened species the best available measure of the rate of and ecosystems, as human capacity decline of species, but is not ideal. Care to manage the scale and relative must be taken with its interpretation as suddenness of change across our vast a number of species that may meet the landscapes will diminish in relative terms. criteria for these categories are not listed A new approach is needed to deal as such. with the range of existing threats and In South Australia the term threatened additional risks of climate change. The species refers to those that are classified government continues to move towards as rare, vulnerable or endangered a landscape-scale approach to the (including extinct) on Schedules 7, 8 and management of natural resources and 9 respectively of the National Parks and the protection of native species. A long- Wildlife (NPW) Act 1972. term landscape approach will help the development of strategies of sufficiently large scale to improve ecosystem RESPONSE INDICATOR resilience and enhance the ability of species to cope with stresses, both existing • The number of recovery plans Sea Lion. Photo: David Mudge and those exacerbated by climate prepared and being effectively change. Additionally, specific recovery implemented • Loss of South Australia’s native actions, particularly those that focus on The number of recovery plans prepared plant and animal species since the species recovery level, will also be and more importantly being implemented the arrival of European settlers required to aid the survival of individual provides an indication of the extent of our has been significant with at least threatened species. response to help reverse the declines in 26 plants, 28 mammals, seven birds and two amphibians having This approach will be most effective when our threatened species and ecological already become extinct. it is integrated with the land use planning communities. It doesn’t however system, NRM infrastructure, regional determine the success of these actions • South Australia has two of the infrastructure and industry development, in bringing about change which is a nation’s 15 biodiversity hotspots, while engaging with the community and shortcoming of the existing indicator. the South-East and the Mount Lofty building capacity. Ranges/Kangaroo Island. These unique areas are rich in plant Future biodiversity programs need and animal species particularly to consider whole of life impacts on What is the current endemic ones, i.e. those restricted biodiversity and integrate and make to a specific region or site. decisions on the long-term good and not situation? on the short-term scales that currently • The conservation status of South detract from any long-term strategy to CONDITION INDICATOR: The number of Australia’s marine species and deal with biodiversity. The instruments and extinct, endangered and vulnerable communities is largely unknown. infrastructures have adjusted the spatial species and ecological communities scale to the right level, however intergen- erational considerations have yet to be Threatened species fully incorporated into decision making in The number of species considered extinct, this area. endangered or vulnerable is the best The community is also playing an active available surrogate for the rate of decline role in this area, particularly in on-ground and, ultimately, loss of species. This is not an activities. This engagement highlights the ideal measure and care must be taken with importance of protecting our threatened its interpretation. In many cases changes species from further decline and the in status can be the result of changes in value that the community places on our knowledge and community concerns. this issue. These many groups include Some recent changes in conservation status the Threatened Plant Action Group, the can largely be attributed to these factors. many Friends of Parks groups, Native Fish It may also be likely that changes to status Australia and the Threatened Species in the future will be as a result of effective Network. recovery actions. It does however provide some insight into which particular species

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 181 BIODIVERSITY

are believed to be threatened, and the 1999). These plants and animals tend to status review assessment process provides receive priority for conservation activities useful indications of management and because they are threatened at both the research needs and options, and allows national and state levels. us to focus on monitoring trends in those This increase in numbers does not species. necessarily mean that we now have 95 In South Australia 1,136 of the 6,773 plant, more threatened plants and animals, mammal, bird, reptile and amphibian although some new ones have been species recorded (that is 16.8%) are listed added to the list. Other factors that have as threatened at the state level: 814 plant, influenced the number include taxonomic 98 mammal, 163 bird, 53 reptile and eight revisions (which may result in one species amphibian species (Table 5.12). There are being split into many) and records of new 26 plant, 28 mammal, seven bird and three plants and animals previously unrecorded freshwater fish taxa that are presumed to in South Australia. For example, in the last have become extinct in South Australia four years eight new species of reptile have since European settlement. been recorded in South Australia. Specifically, threatened flora statistics have With improved information and changed from 785 species listed in 2000 knowledge, a number of extra species to 814 in 2008. That’s an increase of 29 have now been identified as of Tawny Frogmouth. Photo: David Mudge. species or 4% on the lists of endangered, conservation concern. vulnerable and rare species. No species were removed from the 2000 list Threatened fauna statistics have changed of threatened species due to population from 256 species listed in 2000 to 323 in recovery. However, the Southern Marsupial 2008, an increase of 67 species (26%). A Mole (Itjari-itjari) as an example has had total of 142 flora species and 93 fauna its conservation status downgraded (that species have been added to the lists for is from endangered to vulnerable) as a the first time in 2008. A further 11 flora and consequence of new information. 25 fauna species that were previously A recent assessment of the status of listed have been assigned to a worse freshwater fish highlighted several status category. Six previously-listed flora threatened species. An action plan species and 18 previously-listed fauna to guide recovery efforts has been species have been placed in a better developed from this assessment and is status category. 143 species have been available online at the Department for removed from the threatened species Environment and Heritage website schedules altogether: 123 because they (www.environment.sa.gov.au). did not meet the criteria for listing due either to a better status than previously Assessment of the conservation status of assessed or a better status for different marine species has begun and information taxonomic entities, and 20 for taxonomic on the status of South Australian marine (recent name change), reasons alone. fish, sharks and rays is expected to be available in late 2008. Endangered species are under the most threat and likely to become extinct in the near future unless the underlying Nationally threatened species circumstances and factors threatening their survival cease to exist. Species that A total of 183 species that occur in South are considered to be extinct from the Australia are threatened at the national state are also included in this category level, this is around 10.8% of all nationally under the NPW Act, in case a living threatened species (EPBC Act 1999). population happens to be discovered. Vulnerable species are those likely to Nationally threatened ecological move into the endangered category in communities the near future unless the circumstances and factors threatening their survival An ecological community is a group cease to exist. Rare species are those that of interacting species that have are under less threat, but due to their low adapted to particular conditions of soil, numbers, restricted distribution, observed topography, water regimes and climate. decline or because they are naturally A number of ecological communities are uncommon, are at some risk. considered threatened with extinction. The Commonwealth Government has Some species are also listed as recognised the need to protect and threatened at the national level under the recover these communities through Environment Protection and Biodiversity enabling their listing as threatened under Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999 (EPBC Act the EPBC Act 1999.

182 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Threatened Species

Table 5.12: Species listed as threatened in South Australia, 2007

NPWSA Status Plants (as a % Mammals (as a % Birds (as a % Reptiles (as a % Amphibians (as a % of the total number of the total number of the total number of the total number of the total number recorded in SA - 5858*) recorded in SA - 180#) recorded in SA - 473#) recorded in SA - 235#) recorded in SA -27#)

Endangered** 187 47 42 9 0

% (3) (26) (9) (4) (0)

Vulnerable 196 20 32 9 4

% (3) (12) (7) (4) (15)

Rare 431 32 89 35 4

% (7) (18) (19) (15) (15)

Total 814 98 163 53 8

% (14) (56) (34) (23) (30)

Source: DEH Notes: # Total numbers of fauna species from BDBSA Fauna Taxonomic system (includes all current species accepted to occur officially in SA) * Total numbers of flora species from BDBSA Flora Taxonomic system (includes all current species accepted to occur officially in SA) ** Includes species considered to be extinct in South Australia. Note: Fish are not currently listed in South Australia but the 32 fish are identified as threatened (17 Endangered, 11 Vulnerable and 4 Rare) in the Draft Action Plan for South Australian Freshwater Fishes

Table 5.13: Number of nationally threatened species occurring in South Australia

Status Plants Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians

Extinct 0 16 1 0 0

Critically Endangered 1 0 2 0 0

Endangered 34 11 8 2 0

Vulnerable 59 21 18 8 1

Conservation Dependant 0 1 0 0 0 Bore Drains, Waterhole. Total 94 49 29 10 1 Photo: Travis Gotch Source: DEH Legislation There are currently five ecological communities occurring in South Australia What are the pressures? South Australia’s environmental that are listed as endangered or critically legislative and policy framework endangered under the Act: provides an important foundation Since European settlement South for the conservation and - Buloke Woodlands of the Australia’s landscape has been sustainable use of biodiversity. and Murray Darling Depression significantly reshaped and our native However legislation with stronger Bioregions; species seriously impacted as a result. provisions for protection and Species decline has been observed - The community of native species conservation would assist in across all regions of the state, particularly dependent on natural discharge of planning and decision-making in the agricultural areas where habitat groundwater from the Great Artesian relating to resources and land destruction or modification has disrupted Basin; use, and with the integration of ecosystems and created a landscape biodiversity considerations into - Swamps of the ; of remnant islands or fragmented other policies and legislation. The - Peppermint Box (Eucalyptus odorata) patches of degraded native vegetation. conservation of biodiversity as Grassy Woodland of South Australia; Vegetation clearance was disproportion- a central consideration for the ately higher on the better quality land. various development Acts would - Iron-grass Natural Temperate greatly assist in the determination Grassland of South Australia. Key threats to species identified in previous SoE reports still persist. of outcomes under various pieces A nomination for the listing of Inland These threatening processes include of biodiversity legislation. Grey Box Woodland under the EPBC Act competition and land degradation Work has commenced on 1999 is currently being assessed. by rabbits, feral goats and camels, consultation and preparation of inappropriate livestock grazing regimes, a discussion paper that looks at predation by feral cats and foxes, rationalising existing policy, reduces over-abundant native species, dieback administration and compliance caused by plant diseases such as the costs for business and improves root rot fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi, the protection and conservation invasion by weeds, degradation of water of terrestrial, aquatic and marine bodies, continued loss of habitat, loss of biodiversity. drought refuges and altered fire regimes. Many of these threats are statewide

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 183 BIODIVERSITY

while others affect particular regions such as the pastoral or agricultural zones. What are we doing Ongoing vegetation clearance and the expansion of mining operations across about it? the state are also significant threats at a scale that impacts on threatened RESPONSE INDICATOR: The number species. of recovery plans prepared and In addition to these significant pressures, implemented South Australia’s species are now A recovery plan is a document that challenged by human induced climate outlines the management actions change. Predictions suggest that South required for the recovery of a particular Australia will experience a 1-6% increase threatened entity (population, species, in mean temperature by 2070, warming group of species or ecological more inland than near the coast. community). The plan provides details Expected higher rainfall in the north will on how to minimise or eradicate the likely be accompanied by a 25-30% threats and risks to these threatened decline in rainfall in the agricultural entities. It also identifies knowledge regions by 2070, mainly affecting winter gaps and research needs. At present, and spring falls. Weather patterns are because recovery plans are required likely to be more extreme. Environmental under national legislation and because water flows are expected to decrease the funds while drought and storm frequency will recovery plan development and implementation, most recovery plans Fish Passage, Torrens Outlet. possibly increase together with the risk of are written for nationally threatened Photo: Steven Mudge. flood and bushfire, rising sea levels and storm surges in some coastal areas. species. A more suitable indicator for this section would focus on outcomes The projected increase in water of recovery rather than being based temperature in marine and coastal on outputs however current data is environments, increased storm surges, insufficiently comprehensive to do this. and rising sea level, will drown some coastal habitats such as mangroves Table 5.14 summarises the current status and coastal samphires. They will also of recovery plans and other recovery impact other coastal vegetation, change actions. This indicates that 82 species feeding patterns for marine species, have formal recovery plans approved change water current patterns and under Commonwealth legislation, possibly alter nutrient upwellings – all of the majority of which are being which threaten existing patterns in the implemented to some degree. distribution and extent of many marine A further 185 species have recovery communities and habitats. plans in preparation and 120 species How South Australia’s species and have no formal recovery plans, but are ecosystems will respond to these climatic subject to a range of recovery actions changes is uncertain. Species may simply including research and monitoring, become extinct in a short timeframe. or on-ground actions such as habitat Others may change in distribution and protection. abundance, population dynamics, life The number of threatened species history patterns and reproductive cycles. with completed recovery plans has Threatened species, including some increased to 82 from the 21 reported that are not currently listed, may be at in the State of the Environment Report increased risk of extinction, while invasive 2003. Due to the large number of and over-abundant native species may recovery actions identified, funding gain opportunities to establish themselves shortfalls often mean that action cannot in wider areas. Ecological processes be implemented to the extent required could well change. for most species’ recovery. An “Action Plan for the Conservation of Threatened Freshwater Fish in South Australia” has recently been prepared. This plan provides significant guidance for conservation efforts for several threatened small-bodied freshwater fish species at risk from wetland habitat drying due to worsening drought conditions.

184 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Threatened Species

Climate change impact on Native Species

Temperature and rainfall play major roles in determining where individual species of plants and animals can live, grow and reproduce. Some animal and plant species are likely to come under increasing stress from climate change, causing long-term changes that could result in loss of species or an increase in threatened species. • Reductions in the condition and reproductive performance of species

Species could become restricted to small areas or disappear altogether, for Southern Marsupial Mole (Itjari-itjari). example Mallee Box (Eucalyptus porosa) communities currently occur in heavy Photo: Joe Benshemesh soils over limestone in large shallow depressions eastwards of Streaky Bay on . Should average rainfall and water table levels be reduced through climate change, it is likely this species will become restricted to drainage lines, as it has already in the northern agricultural districts of South Australia. • Changes to the timing of species lifecycles Species may breed earlier or later in the season than previously. Cape barren Geese are a species that is dependent on the flush of new green grasses at the break of the season to begin breeding. Should climatic conditions change, the breeding pattern of Cape Barren Geese may be altered. • Changes in the location of species habitats Species may need to move southwards or into ranges in order to keep pace with shifting climate zones. This has previously happened in the Flinders Ranges, which provide habitat for many species that would otherwise not survive the Behr’s cowslip orchid. Photo: Peter Lang. arid climate. The presence in the Flinders Ranges of at least 23 plant, four bird, three reptile and one frog species having southern affinities have been recorded. These populations are viewed as population isolates or relicts, from a much wetter period and contribute to the significance of the Flinders Ranges. They are likely to be severely affected by predicted temperature increases and lower effective rainfall associated with climate change. • Increases in the risk of extinction for species that are already vulnerable Species with limited climatic ranges, dispersal ability, specialised habitat requirements, small populations and/or low genetic diversity, are the most vulnerable to extinction. Examples include the Nodding Grass-lily (Stypandra glauca), a small blue flowered lily that is restricted to cracks in granite outcrops, and the (Isoodon obesulus obesulus) now only found in the Mount Lofty Ranges, the South East and on Kangaroo Island.

Implementation of recovery plan biological assets and systems. The actions, underpinned by strong, enabling Coongie Lakes area provides habitat for legislation is not the only way to protect a total of 205 bird species of which 24 individual threatened species. Of South are rare, vulnerable or endangered in Australia’s threatened plant species, South Australia. 31% have been collected and are Bounceback is a successful ecological being conserved ex situ as a result of restoration program that has been a partnership with the Royal Botanic operating in the Flinders Ranges and Gardens, Kew, Millennium Seed Bank Vulkathunha Gammon Ranges National (UK). While individual species can be Parks and on surrounding properties since protected in this manner ecological 1992. The program has considerable relationships are unlikely to be re- community support which has been a established. significant contributor to its success. A In 2005 the Coongie Lakes were dramatic reduction in grazing pressure declared a National Park. This has been achieved through the control declaration provides protection and of rabbits, feral goats and kangaroos. enables greater management of its Combined with the virtual elimination

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 185 BIODIVERSITY

Table 5.14: Status of species recovery in South Australia, 2007

Threatened species Completed recovery Recovery plan Recovery plan Other recovery in South Australia plan# being implemented in preparation actions underway

Mammals 98 20 (20%) 14 (14%) 21 (21%) 17

Birds 163 21 (13%) 7 (4%) 29 (18%) 21

Reptiles 53 6 (11%) 3 (6%) 7 (13%) 6

Fish 32* 1 (3%) 0 (0%) 17 (53%) 17

Amphibians 8 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (13%) 8

Plants 814 34 (4%) 34 (4%) 110 (14%) 51

Total 1168* 82 (7%) 58 (5%) 185 (16%) 120

Source: DEH Notes: # Includes recovery plans that are complete but not current. * Please note while fish are not listed under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 there are 32 threatened fish species in South Australia listed in the Draft Action Plan for South Australian Freshwater Fishes

of foxes and the suppression of feral cat Regent Parrot, Bush-stone Curlew, populations in key areas, this has enabled Carpet Python, Golden Bell Frog, Broad- the recovery of local native species. shelled Tortoise, Yarra Pygmy Perch and Southern Purple-Spotted Gudgeon. Golden Bell Frog. Photo: Tony Robinson. The government continues to move Many of these species have suffered towards a landscape-scale approach from habitat loss and fragmentation, to protection of native species by drought, river regulation and extraction the establishment of five biodiversity of water, and habitat degradation. corridors across public and private land through the NatureLinks program (T3.2, Information is also being collected South Australia’s Strategic Plan). These on threatened species in the Murray corridors build on existing major initiatives Mallee. The Threatened Mallee Birds including the state’s network of parks project is assessing the distribution, status and reserves, large scale ecological and habitat requirements (at both a site restoration projects such as Bounceback, and landscape scale) of threatened revegetation initiatives and programs for mallee bird species in the region and a marine planning and Marine Protected better understanding of management Areas. Draft corridor plans are being issues, such as grazing impacts and prepared for community consultation habitat restoration, is developing. The with the draft NatureLinks East meets main threats facing mallee birds are fire, West corridor plan having been released degradation of habitat and isolation in 2006. of subpopulations, combined with the potentially exacerbating effects The corridors support the delivery of No of climate change, particularly more Species Loss – A Nature Conservation frequent and prolonged droughts. Strategy for South Australia 2007- 2017, which was released in 2007. No There is also a SA Murray Darling Basin Species Loss, the first statewide nature Threatened Flora Recovery Project, conservation strategy in South Australia is which has been gathering information a whole-of-government partnership with and implementing recovery actions for the community. It is a response to South several threatened flora species. Australia’s Strategic Plan target of ‘lose The River Murray Forest project is a no species’ and provides a framework large-scale habitat establishment and to achieve that aim. Implementation will biosequestration initiative, which aims only be successful with a committed and to establish an additional 2.5 million coordinated effort from government, trees in the River Murray corridor and community and industry. northern Murray Mallee environments. This project has included an assessment of biodiversity ‘assets’ (including River Murray threatened species) which are likely to There are a number of threatened benefit from revegetation in the Murray species projects along the River Murray Mallee. Corridor that have provided greatly improved information on the regional status and ecology of their target species, and have helped to determine and implement appropriate action for their recovery. The species include the

186 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Threatened Species

Arid Recovery Project

Arid Recovery has developed into Australia’s premier arid zone conservation partnership. The program is a joint conservation initiative between BHP Billiton, the local community through the Friends of Arid Recovery, the SA Department for Environment and Heritage and the University of Adelaide. This is a unique demonstration of how mining, tourism, pastoralism and conservation can provide mutually beneficial conservation outcomes. The development of a world class conservation project adjacent to the huge copper, uranium, gold and silver Olympic Dam mine and processing plant shows that contemporary mining operations can benefit regional environmental values. Begun in 1997, Arid Recovery has now secured 86 square kilometres with rabbit, fox and cat proof fences, and removed these feral pests. The reserve has provided an area of complete protection enabling the regeneration of native vegetation and the reintroduction of four locally extinct mammals. To date, breeding populations have been established for the Greater Bilby, Burrowing Bettong, Western Barred Bandicoot and Greater Stick-nest Rat. Small Monkey-flower. Photo: DEH More recently, releases of Numbats and Woma Pythons have been trialled. The pythons are native predators that Arid Recovery hopes will restore a natural ecological balance required for the populations inside the reserve to become self-sustaining. One of the long-term goals of Arid Recovery is to work towards feral species management and ecosystem regeneration beyond the fence. Ongoing cat, rabbit and fox control has been undertaken outside the reserve since the project commenced and Arid Recovery is now leading a major national research project into broad-scale cat and fox management. Arid Recovery has recently undertaken releases of the Greater Bilby outside the fence. Hopefully, continued feral predator control outside the reserve will enable the Bilbys to expand their range to encompass more of their original habitat. Not only have the reintroduced species benefited from the removal of feral animals, but many other species including the Spinifex Hopping Mouse are now thriving. Arid Recovery’s research has shown there are now five times as many naturally occurring small mammals inside the reserve compared to outside the fence. The vegetation is also making noticeable recovery through the successful recruitment of new mulgas, wattles, hopbush and bullock bush.

Bilby awaiting release. Photo: Hugh McGregor

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 187 BIODIVERSITY

What more should we be doing?

The Environment Protection Authority recommends the following: R5.3 Develop conservation legislation to protect and restore threatened species and communities. R5.4 Increase investment in landscape-scale habitat reconstruction to achieve South Australia’s Strategic Plan target T3.1 (Lose no species) and to facilitate adaptation of ecosystems and species to climate change.

Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan targets

R5.3 R5.4 Growing Prosperity T1.22 Improving Wellbeing Attaining Sustainability T3.1 T3.1 Fostering Creativity and Innovation Building Communities T5.9 Expanding Opportunities

For further detail on South Australia’s Strategic Plan visit www.stateplan.sa.gov.au

References Further information

NatureLinks East meets West Corridor Plan South Australia’s Strategic Plan Draft, (2006). Department for Environment http://www.saplan.org.au/ and Heritage, South Australian Government Department for Environment and Heritage No Species Loss – A Nature Conservation http://www.environment.sa.gov.au Strategy for South Australia, (2007). Department for Environment and Department of Water, Land and Heritage, South Australian Government Biodiversity http://www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au State Natural Resources Plan 2006, (2007). Department for Water, Land and State Natural Resources Management Biodiversity Conservation, South Australian Plan Government www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/nrm/state_nrm_ South Australian Arid Lands Draft plan/index.html Biodiversity Strategy Flinders and Olary Ranges Conservation Priorities, (2007 Department for Environment and in preparation). Department for Water, Heritage (2007) No Species Loss – A Land and Biodiversity Conservation, South Nature Conservation Strategy for South Australian Government Australia 2007-2017 www.environment.sa.gov.au/ South Australian Arid Lands Draft biodiversity/pdfs/nsl_strategy.pdf Biodiversity Strategy Stony Plains Conservation Priorities, (2007 in Threatened Species in South Australia preparation). Department for Water, http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/ Land and Biodiversity Conservation, South biodiversity/threatened.html Australian Government South Australia’s Strategic Plan 2007, (2007). Department of Premier and Cabinet, South Australian Government

188 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Introduced Species

Introduced Goals Species T3.1 Lose no species: lose no known native species as a result of human impacts. Trends South Australia’s Strategic Plan 2007 Integrated management of biological • Abundance of rabbits: INCREASING threats to minimise risks to natural systems, due to reduced frequency and communities and industry. sporadic nature of outbreaks of Rabbit South Australian Natural Resources Haemorrhagic Disease. Management (NRM) Plan 2006 – Goal 4 Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan targets • Abundance of feral cats: INCREASING

R5.3 R5.4 in the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges region and Arid Lands. Growing Prosperity T1.22 Improving Wellbeing • Abundance of feral camels: Introduced Species Attaining Sustainability T3.1 T3.1 INCREASING and a sustainable Fostering Creativity • Abundance of feral goats: and Innovation INCREASING in the Arid Zone; South Australia Building Communities T5.9 DECLINING on Kangaroo Island due to Expanding Opportunities effective eradication. Biological invasions by non-native species are a leading threat to natural • Abundance of foxes: DECLINING in ecosystems and biodiversity (Walker and high priority conservation areas and Stefan, 1997). In South Australia, invasive where livestock protection is required. animal species have caused the loss of STABLE in other parts of the state. abundance of native plant and animal • Abundance of feral pigs: STABLE in the species, which often leads to ecosystem and far northeast Arid Lands; change. Key facts SLOWLY DECLINING on Kangaroo Since European settlement in South Island due to eradication. • Around 65% of South Australia’s Australia 24 terrestrial mammal weeds were originally • Distribution of bridal creeper: species have become extinct with the introduced as garden plants. INCREASING; abundance STABLE or introduced fox and rabbit implicated in DECLINING in most affected regions most of those losses. The vascular land • Seven species of feral deer due to biological control. flora of the state now consists of 3378 have been detected in South • Distribution of feral olives and silverleaf native species and 1288 introduced Australia. nightshade: INCREASING in all species (Barker et al., 2005). • Eight vegetables, 12 pulse and affected regions. Invasive species impose enormous oilseed crops, and 12 native • Distribution of blackberry: STABLE economic costs on agriculture, forestry, plants have been confirmed as in most regions; DECLINING in the fisheries and other human enterprises. A potential hosts of the parasitic Adelaide and Mount Lofty region and recent national survey by the Australian plant branched broomrape on Eyre Peninsula. Bureau of Statistics (ABS) found that (Introduced species) weeds and pests ranked as the highest • Genetic resistance to rabbit • Distribution of boneseed: STABLE from NRM issue amongst farmers, having the Arid Lands to South East regions; haemorrhagic disease (RHD) significant financial impact in terms of has been confirmed in DECLINING in the Adelaide and Mount losses in crops and livestock production, Lofty Ranges region. South Australian rabbits, with and the costs of control. Of the various populations recovering to high • Distribution of gorse: DECLINING due invasive species, weeds cause the densities. to intensive control programs across all greatest financial losses, more than regions. $600m per annum in South Australia. • The Natural Resources Management Act 2004 provides • Number of identified marine pests: While the efforts to control established the framework for management STABLE weeds continue, it is also necessary of key pest plants and terrestrial to minimise the chances of new ones pest animals in South Australia. becoming established. There is significant effort applied in agricultural areas due to the extent of the problem however, the pastoral area also has risk that require management. A number of new and small incursions that could be eradicated have occurred in pastoral areas, but are receiving minimal attention. It is important

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 189 BIODIVERSITY

to recognise in the pastoral landscape networks within Australia, has enabled that introduced species pose the most both deliberate and inadvertent “Exotic” V “Alien” significant threat to landscape condition movement of introduced species, often and there is a strong need for large scale, delivering unexpected and sometimes Exotic species are those introduced cross boundary programs. disastrous consequences. from overseas. They include the Invasive species can also have social As a society we need to manage classic weedy and pest animals impacts, such as threats to the state’s existing pests to reduce their impact found worldwide and a range of less recreational fishing fromCaulerpa and prevent further spread, while being invasive animals and plants that are taxifolia, impacts on human health due prepared to respond to new threats human companions, but without a to starlings and feral pigeons fouling from exotic incursions. savage environmental impact rainwater supplies and increased fire risk (eg sparrows) The impact of adverse climate change from invasive grasses such as Coolatai on the distribution of introduced species Alien species are Australian natives grass in peri-urban areas. The threat could be significant. Species that that are found in areas other of stinging attacks from imported red are currently restricted in range due than their original locations. These fire ants highlights the importance of to climatic unsuitability may spread species may have been introduced attempting to eradicate pests shortly with climate change. It is possible accidentally or deliberately by after arrival to avoid great expansion that predicted climate scenarios may humans, or may have introduced of their range. These ants are currently better suit Mediterranean pest species themselves to new areas due to of present only in Queensland, and South such as feral olives and also in a drier climate change or anthropocentric Australia is contributing to a major climate, enable the spread of arid changes to land use. They may be eradication program to prevent them land species such as camels. A further very significant pests. spreading elsewhere in Australia. impact of climate change will be that Many invasive species were originally of increased fire risk with its potential What defines a pest species? imported for use as pets, garden plants impact on the establishment and or food, and have since become distribution of pest plants and animals. A pest species is one that has a serious pests through deliberate significant environmental, economic, release or escape from properties. social and/or health impact over Common (Indian) Mynas were released a large area, for a significant deliberately in Canberra in the late 1960s Indicators proportion of the human population as a songbird, but are now an established and/or threatens natural or pest in the city, pushing out native birds. agricultural environments. PRESSURE INDICATORS Mynas are a potential pest for South Australia and reports of incursions are • Distribution and abundance of key dealt with promptly. terrestrial, marine and freshwater pest animals and plants Weeds such as bridal creeper, English broom, boneseed and fountain grass are The distribution of pest plant and escaped garden plants, while the state’s animal species that are known to cause Caulerpa taxifolia infestation probably significant threats to biodiversity, primary originated from a household aquarium. industries and communities provides an There are strict controls over the keeping indication of the extent of their current of exotic animals due to concerns for impact. public safety and potential risks to the environment and primary industries. • Number of new incursions of pest Invasive species pose current and plants and animals and responses potential threats in terrestrial, riparian and marine environments statewide. Life Newly emerging pest plants and forms include vertebrates, invertebrates, animals are additional threats to plants, algae and pathogens (including biodiversity, primary industries and fungal, bacterial and viral). There communities. are numerous ways in which invasive introduced species affect native species, ecosystems, primary industries and communities, including competition, predation, disease, physical barriers and injuries. Some invasive species can irreversibly transform ecosystems by changing water, nutrient, soil and/or fire cycles. The acceleration of international trade and travel over the past century and the development of complex transport

190 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Introduced Species

Table 5.15 Percentage area of State infested by abundance class for key terrestrial pest animals

Density Category Rabbits Foxes Feral Feral Feral Wild Dogs Feral Cats Feral Pigs Starlings Deer Camals Goats

Absent 0.5 0.5 94.6 40.2 72.5 17.1 0.0 92.7 71.0

Abundant & Localised 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Abundant & Widespread 0.0 43.4 0.0 3.4 0.0 0.0 40.7 0.1 4.9

Common & Localised 14.0 0.0 0.5 1.7 1.3 0.0 0.0 4.1 0.6

Common & Widespread 85.5 56.4 1.1 35.2 11.1 47.9 59.5 0.0 10.6

Occasional & Localised 0.3 0.0 3.6 4.2 12.7 19.6 0.0 3.3 12.6

Occasional & Widespread 0.0 0.0 0.1 15.5 2.6 15.6 0.0 0.0 0.5

Present but Density Unknown 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Unknown occurrence 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Source: created from NLWRA Draft Distribution Maps for Invasive Animals – SA 2006 www.nlwra.gov.au/Natural_Resource_Topics/Invasive_Species/index.aspx Note: figures are rounded up to nearest 0.1%, and therefore may total over 100%

genetic changes in rabbits or the virus, or What are the pressures? if it is related only to seasonal conditions. The decrease in outbreaks has resulted in higher rabbit numbers since 2005. Pressure Indicator: Distribution and Coordinated rabbit baiting and abundance of key terrestrial pest warren destruction programs by NRM animals Boards remain an important activity to Table 5.15 shows the current percentage complement biological controls. In the area of key terrestrial animals in South Arid Lands region, incentive payments Feral Cat. Australia, based on nationally agreed for warren ripping and the ‘Bounceback’ indicators of the National Land and program operate on reserves and Water Resources Audit (NLWRA). The pastoral properties. Several local action greater the figure then the greater the groups are supported in this way. On the extent of current impacts. Coordinated Eyre Peninsula and in the upper South control programs seek to reduce the East and Murray Mallee, broadscale area and density of pests and maintain baiting with 1080 oats and warren ripping these at low levels. occur in collaboration with landholders. More incentive programs are needed to increase rabbit harbour destruction European rabbit by landholders. Regular monitoring is (Oryctolagus cuniculus) required on Kangaroo Island to maintain Rabbits are still Australia’s most its rabbit free status. widespread and destructive vertebrate pest despite the introduction of myxomatosis and Rabbit Haemorrhagic European red fox (Vulpes vulpes) Disease (RHD). Rabbits are common The European red fox is common or and widespread through 85.5% of South abundant in most regions of the state Australia. with the notable exception of Kangaroo Island. Its distribution tends to correlate RHD is now common throughout the with that of rabbits, which form a major state following its introduction in 1995. part of its diet. Foxes are well recognised Outbreaks occur regularly each year as a key threat to native fauna. throughout the arid zone, but less predictably in high rainfall areas. At sites Fox control is costly, labour intensive monitored by the Department of Water and must be maintained indefinitely. Land and Biodiversity Conservation Eradication is not feasible because of the (DWLBC) Animal and Plant Control high reproductive and dispersal rate of Group RHD has dropped total rabbit the species. numbers by more than 70% since its Priority is given to managing fox numbers introduction. in selected, high conservation areas Outbreaks of RHD were less common around the state. Large scale baiting during the drought years of 2005-2007 programs, such as those carried out as and current research by DWLBC and part of Operation Bounceback (see Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Threatened Species chapter), have Centre is endeavouring to determine reduced fox numbers over the past 10 whether this is a result of underlying years in the Flinders and Gammon Ranges

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 191 BIODIVERSITY

and on parts of the Eyre Peninsula, and Island and Mount Lofty Ranges. There stabilised them in the Arid Lands region. has however, been an increase in their Elsewhere in the state, foxes remain abundance and distribution throughout a problem, despite significant baiting the state in the past five to 10 years. programs. The South East NRM Board has This has been due to accidental and a large coordinated fox control program deliberate liberation of farmed deer to reduce predation on lambs. as well as natural increases in the feral population. Development of biological control for foxes is required for areas such as the Arid The size of this increase and the absolute Lands region where foxes have invaded number of feral deer are unknown. In extensive areas and labour is scarce. A the South East region, accidental or number of NRM Boards are researching deliberate liberation from deer farms best practice design for baiting and by hunters is causing the feral Feral goats. programs. In areas of South Australia population to increase well above its with diverse land uses, such as the South expected recruitment rate. The South Repel the East region, baiting is patchy and control East NRM Board implements on ground is less efficient. In these regions varying deer control programs with shooting from Invaders landholder attitudes to poisons also helicopters being the most effective. impact on baiting efforts. Recent small liberations of deer were reported in the Eyre Peninsula region and Program coordinated landholder and NRM Board shooting programs are being considered. Kangaroo Island and many other Feral goats (Capra hircus) offshore islands have escaped Feral goats occur in the southern and On Kangaroo Island feral deer numbers invasion by some introduced pests central areas of the state, particularly the were increasing until 2005 when intensive including rabbits and foxes, two of Gawler and Flinders Ranges and eastern management of feral populations Australia’s most devastating invasive pastoral areas south of the dog fence. began to reduce the trend. Fallow species. Aerial survey data indicate a recent deer have been wild on the island since 1999. A management plan is in The Kangaroo Island NRM Board’s reversal in the downward trend in goat place and eradication actions are Repel the Invaders Program is numbers that had been apparent in the being undertaken for this species. New designed to keep these pest out Arid Lands zone since 1990, with numbers methods of feral deer detection and and to eradicate and control those increasing for each of the last three control are being trialled on the island, already present. The Kangaroo Island annual surveys (see Figure 5.1). Goats stronger biosecurity measures are being Weeds Group assists the board. tended to concentrate around watering investigated and deer farm fences are Species targeted include feral goats, points during the drought of 2007, leading inspected annually. deer, pigs and cats, and weeds such to severe local damage. as bridal creeper, bridal veil and other Elsewhere, numbers are believed to be Feral deer compete with native species that are declared under the declining, although there is a lack of wildlife, graze on and damage native NRM Act. accurate data. vegetation, pastures and crops, destroy the nests of ground laying birds and can In the Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges NRM For more information on Kangaroo pose a traffic hazard on regional roads. region numbers are probably declining Island’s Repel the Invaders Program, as a result of control programs in several see: large areas infested with feral goats. Feral camels (Camelus dromedarius) www.kinrm.sa.gov.au/TakingAction/ There is an increasing problem with Controllingpests.aspx escaping domestic goats. Common and widespread over 35.2% of the state, feral camels occur in the far On Kangaroo Island the 2008 bushfires north, where they compete with native provided an opportunity to aim for island- herbivores and damage waterholes. wide eradication. Radio-collared Judas goats are being used to locate and It is estimated that numbers have destroy feral goats in a major project being doubled over the past eight years and undertaken by the Kangaroo Island NRM are growing at a rate of 10% per annum. Board, the Invasive Animals CRC, and An aerial survey conducted in a study 2 South Australian government agencies. area of 62,863 km in the far north west Parts of Flinders Chase National Park that of South Australia in June 2007 estimated were previously infested with goats are now an average density of camels ranging believed to be free of this pest. between 0.62-0.65 camels per square- kilometre (Lethbridge, 2007). South Australia is thought to support about 18% Feral deer (Cervidae) of the estimated 750,000 feral camels that occur nationally. Present in 5.4% of the state, feral deer still occur in relatively localised populations Feral camel control is a major project in the South East, , Kangaroo for the Arid Lands NRM Board. Currently,

192 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Introduced Species

cross border management of feral from Renmark to the South Australian Figure 5.1: Number of Goat Groups and Individual Goats, camels involves aerial shooting and border. They are also present at the 1977 - 2007 research into re-invasion rates. western end of Kangaroo Island, where they are now being targeted for control 24000 400000

following the 2007 fires. Feral pig control Feral cats (Felis cattus) on Kangaroo Island involves trapping 20000 Goat Groups Feral cats are common or abundant and shooting as well as baiting trials in all regions of the state. Numbers undertaken as a collaborative between 300000 have fallen to some extent following the Kangaroo Island NRM Board and 16000 introduction of the RHD, as rabbits are a the Invasive Animals Cooperative key source of prey. Research Centre. 12000 200000 Kangaroo Island data shows numbers In the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Goat Groups Goat of feral cats to be stable. Cat control Ranges feral pigs are also targeted for eradication. Feral pig distribution in inland on the island involves localised trapping 8000 and strong domestic cat control or seasonally dry areas of Australia is 100000 including sterilisation, confinement, restricted to the vicinity of watercourses micro-chipping and registration. Non- and their associated floodplains. 4000 Goat toxic baits will be trialled in the next 12 There is a risk of further feral pig months to determine any effects on invasion through invasion corridors from 0 0 non-target species, potentially followed Queensland and New South Wales. by trials to determine impacts of cats on 1977197919811983198519871989199119931995199719992001200320052007 the island’s biodiversity. Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) Source: DWLBC Effective control of feral cats is difficult to achieve as domestic cats are continually Starlings are distributed across the state’s recruited into the feral population. agricultural areas and are widespread Priority is currently given to high in built environments. They are a pest conservation areas, which has resulted for horticulture and viticulture, and the in reduced numbers in the Flinders and environment. They affect amenity and Gammon Ranges and parts of Eyre create social and health problems in Peninsula. urban and peri-urban communities. Feral cat numbers are increasing Anecdotal evidence suggests that the in the Arid Lands due to increasing abundance of starlings is increasing in human population, although the feral the western areas of the state. population levels are also dependent A research project on starling on the prevalence of both rabbits and management is currently underway at foxes in this region. Increased public Ceduna on the Eyre Peninsula. Starlings awareness of the problems feral cats require management in the Adelaide cause would be an effective future and Mount Lofty Ranges region to management strategy in all regions of protect cropping, grazing, perennial South Australia. horticulture, native vegetation and In the Adelaide and Mount Lofty urban land uses. Ranges region numbers of feral cats are increasing and are actively managed. Feral horses and donkeys (Equus spp) Feral cats remain a significant problem statewide. Feral donkeys are a considerable problem in the north of South Australia as to a lesser extent, are horses. Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) Donkeys are abundant in the north Feral pigs are found in more than 7.5% of westerly areas, in the Alinytjara Wilurara the state, distributed across four areas. NRM Region and particularly in the Musgrave Ranges. The abundance In the far northeast they occur along the of feral horses is low in the central watercourses and at the waterholes of desert areas. the Innamincka Regional Reserve and the Warburton Creek, and between These pests are found particularly around Goyder’s Lagoon and Birdsville on the permanent and semi-permanent water Diamantina River. These populations are sources such as springs and rockpools, ephemeral and recede during drought where they damage sensitive vegetation when little permanent water is available. and negatively impact water quality. Their grazing impacts native vegetation In the Riverland feral pigs are present in across their entire range. the upper reaches of the

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 193 BIODIVERSITY

Table 5.16: Percentage area of State infested by abundance class for key terrestrial pest plants

Density Category Blackberry Bridal Branched Feral olive Gorse Mesquite Silverleaf creeper broomrape nightshade

Absent 91.0 77.1 97.6 87.2 94.0 98.8 83.5

Abundant & Localised 0.0 2.8 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0

Abundant & Widespread 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Common & Localised 2.0 1.2 0.9 2.1 0.2 0.0 1.4

Common & Widespread 0.9 6.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 2.3

Occasional & Localised 5.9 9.0 1.6 9.5 4.1 1.2 10.9

Occasional & Widespread 0.7 3.8 0.0 0.7 0.4 0.0 1.9

Present but Density Unknown 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Unknown occurrence 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Source: created from NWLWA Draft Distribution Maps for Invasive Plants – SA 2006 see www.nlwra.gov.au/Natural_Resource_Topics/ Invasive_Species/index.aspx Note: figures are rounded up to nearest 0.1%, and therefore may total over 100%

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Distribution and weeds listed in Table 5.16 are declared abundance of key terrestrial pest plants plants under the Natural Resources Management Act 2004. Only a subset of the naturalised component of South Australian flora is Bridal creepers (Asparagus abundant enough to have significant asparagoides and A. declinatus) impact and of these some such as bromes (Bromus spp.) and rye grasses Bridal creepers are the most significant (Lolium spp.) have spread to their weeds competing strongly with native ecological limits. vegetation in the state. Below ground they form a dense mat of tubers, which Feral horses. Declarations under various sections of the prevents regeneration of other plants. Natural Resources Management Act 2004 Above ground, annual climbing shoots are used to facilitate the containment of occur from autumn to spring and weeds that have not yet reached their smother native groundcovers. Berries limits and the destruction of weeds that are produced enabling seed to be are not yet established: 90 species are spread long distances by birds. declared under this Act. A. asparagoides is common across the Of the 20 Weeds of National Significance southern part of the State. The most (WoNS) that are targets of national common form is susceptible to the rust control strategies, 10 are established in Puccinia myrsiphylli, which has been South Australia. These are alligator weed, distributed as a biological control agent athel pine, blackberry, boneseed, bridal by CSIRO since 2000 and has reduced creeper, Chilean needlegrass, mesquite, the weed’s density at many sites. gorse, parkinsonia and willows. A further 72 plants declared under the Natural Bridal creeper’s distribution is still Resources Management Act 2004 have increasing at the margins of its range, been mapped by DWLBC (data at www. but its abundance is stable or declining dwlbc.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/pests). in many areas due to spread of the rust. Unfortunately a newly detected form of Table 5.16 shows the current area infested the species is not susceptible to the rust by seven WoNS species considered key (see incursions below). pest plants (weeds) in South Australia, based on nationally agreed indicators of Populations of A. asparagoides are the National Land and Water Resources currently stable on the Eyre Peninsula, Audit (NLWRA). Note that the relatively but increasing in isolated areas. The high percentages for “Absent” is largely South East NRM Board is in the final year due to intolerance of the listed weeds of a three year rust fungus distribution (excluding mesquite) to arid land project and the rust is now established conditions, however this may change in most areas. Some chemical under adverse climate change scenarios. treatment to bridal creeper also occurs in this region. There is generally a greater diversity and abundance of weeds in southern areas of The majority of bridal creeper the state, which have higher rainfall and infestations on Kangaroo Island are greater human activity. As with vertebrate infected with the rust fungus. pests, coordinated control programs A. declinatus is scattered on southern seek to reduce the area and density of Eyre Peninsula, Yorke Peninsula, weeds and maintain these at low levels. All Kangaroo Island, Fleurieu Peninsula and

194 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Introduced Species

the South East, and is also unaffected or eliminated many of the smaller by existing strains of the rust. It is being infestations. However, as boneseed targeted for control by NRM Boards and persists for many years as a seed bank the Department for Environment and in the soil, infestations may regenerate Heritage (DEH), as is another emerging unless follow up inspection and control asparagus weed, A. scandens. work is maintained. Its distribution must therefore be regarded as stable even Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus sp. agg.) though it is less visible due to the control programs. Blackberry is found in the high rainfall regions of SA, from the southern Mount Since 1990, a series of insects have Lofty Ranges to the southern Flinders been released in the as Ranges, southern Eyre Peninsula and the potential biological control agents. lower South-East. It is an invader of native These have either failed to survive due bush and pasture, preventing access with to predation by native ants or have had its dense spiny growth. a negligible impact on boneseed. First releases of the boneseed leaf buckle This weed does have habitat value for a mite will be made in 2008. number of native mammals and birds, so it is very important to stage its removal to Gorse (Ulex europaeus) limit any adverse impact. The distribution and density of blackberry is stable; with The spiny shrub, gorse is a problem in accessible infestations contained by high rainfall areas including the Mt Lofty herbicide control. Ranges, and the lower South East. Isolated occurrences on Kangaroo New strains of the rust Phragmidium Island, Eyre Peninsula and other areas of violaceum have been released in South Feral deer. the South East region are the subject of Australia since 2007, but will require eradication programs under the National more time to become widespread and Gorse Strategy. The overall distribution have a significant impact. Importantly, of gorse is declining due to intensive recent genetic and taxonomic work has control programs. shown there are many distinct species of blackberry and only some will be The gorse spider mite is now widely susceptible to the rust strains. distributed as a biological control agent, recently joined by gorse thrips. The Boneseed (Chrysanthemoides monilifera most promising biological control has subsp. monilifera) been the unexpected emergence of the indigenous parasitic plant Cassytha Boneseed was introduced to Australia pubescens attacking gorse infestations, as a garden shrub in the 1840s. It is a novel phenomenon being studied by most abundant among remnant native Adelaide University scientists. vegetation of the Mount Lofty Ranges, with smaller infestations in other settled Mesquite (Prosopis spp.) areas of the state. Birds and foxes disperse the hard round seeds after Mesquites, various species of the genus being attracted by the thin flesh layer Prosopis are thorny shrubs or small of the fruit. trees with the potential to form dense impenetrable thickets. Boneseed populations on the Eyre Peninsula are being targeted for Experience in other states has shown their eradication as they fall outside the potential to spread and form thickets that National Boneseed Containment Line. compete with more desirable rangeland Boneseed has an extremely large vegetation and exclude livestock, and potential distribution in the South East for this reason all Prosopis species have region and external funding and a public been declared. They have persisted at a awareness campaign have contributed few localities in the state’s pastoral zone to the maintenance of stable boneseed where they were planted in the early population levels there. twentieth century. Mesquite’s range has always been small and is declining due to There is a single known patch of intensive control work. boneseed in the Parachilna Gorge in the Arid Lands region and that is being Eradication has been successful at actively controlled. There is currently no Lake Torrens Station, Iron Knob, Marree, boneseed on Kangaroo Island. Maldorkey, and the old saltworks at . It is important for South Intensive programs of boneseed removal Australia to continue support for the by hand-pulling and herbicides, co- national strategy to manage mesquite, as ordinated by NRM Boards, have reduced

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 195 BIODIVERSITY

it is a high risk for distribution in this state. Dodder (Cuscuta spp.) A survey conducted for DWLBC in 2003 Dodders are annual parasitic plants with 04 located the remaining mesquite at thread-like stems that twine around their Woomera, Port Augusta and several hosts, which include a wide range of pastoral stations. Eradication of these legumes and broadleaf crop plants. infestations is continuing. Golden dodder (Cuscuta campestris) is a major pest of lucerne and vegetable crops, Feral olive (Olea europaea) and has been the subject of a state-level Feral olives are the descendants of containment program in the Riverland trees planted for fruit production. They since 1981. Its distribution is now stable are most abundant in the Mt Lofty and contained by intensive inspection of Ranges where they establish themselves properties and riverbanks, with enforced in native vegetation and form dense control as necessary. canopies that permanently replace some The South East NRM Board is implementing native communities, notably blue gum a regional policy to deal with isolated (Eucalyptus leucoxylon) and grey box incursions of golden dodder into the seed- (E. microcarpa). growing areas, and to contain localised Olives are also widespread in the populations of red dodder (C. planiflora) Northern and Yorke region. The cost and and Chilean dodder (C. suaveolens). effort associated with control of olives is Remote detection methods are required prohibitive to most landholders resulting to improve monitoring and surveillance of in many roadside infestations remaining dodders in this region. unmanaged. An externally funded and coordinated control program is required Silverleaf nightshade to address feral olive management across (Solanum elaeagnifolium) the state. Silverleaf nightshade is a deep-rooted Olive seed is spread by birds, especially perennial weed of pasture and cropping, European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), and now present in all regions of the State. foxes that feed on the fruits. Feral olives The largest infestations are in the Mid Silverleaf nightshade (Solanum contribute to the fire risk as they form North, eastern Eyre Peninsula and upper elaeagnifolium). Photo: Steven Mudge. highly flammable thickets and regenerate South East region where regular control densely after a fire. measures are implemented. Feral olive control has concentrated There is one record of silver leaf on their removal from sites of highest nightshade on Kangaroo Island however conservation value, often with volunteer it is suspected that more infestations are labour, and on discouraging the siting of present. Improved public awareness is new olive groves in high risk areas. The required to determine its full distribution. distribution of olives is increasing due to Silver leaf nightshade is drought long-range dispersal by birds, particularly tolerant and forms large infestations with new orchard plantings around through spread of seed and vegetative the state. reproduction. Infestations are very difficult to destroy by herbicides or management Branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa) practices. Control programs concentrate Branched broomrape is a non- on containment by eliminating small photosynthetic, parasitic weed that satellite infestations and minimising the overseas impacts heavily on vegetable spread of ingested seed by livestock crops, legumes and canola. It has dust-like movements. Its distribution continues to seed and remains concealed underground increase due to lack of effective control except for a short flowering season. techniques. Seeds germinate and attach to the roots of broadleaved host plants, including some PRESSURE INDICATOR: native species. Its only South Australian Distribution and abundance of key marine population has been confined to 7,048 Ha pest plants and animals within a 197,052 Ha quarantine zone east of Murray Bridge, monitored annually by a The coastal waters of South Australia are national eradication program. under threat from a range of introduced marine pest species. There are currently The distribution and abundance of 38 marine pest species recorded in South branched broomrape is declining and its Australian waters. There have been no new spread has been contained by intensive species recorded since the 2003 State of inspection and quarantine. the Environment Report.

196 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Introduced Species

Marine pests can have major impacts on European Fan Worm (Sabella spallanzanii) biodiversity and seafood production. This species of marine worm is believed to Pest species can out-compete native form dense populations, out-competing ones for habitat and food, thereby native species for habitat. It is a adversely affecting the ecosystems on fouling organism and may also impact which fishing and aquaculture industries marine infrastructure and aquaculture depend. Once a pest is established developments. eradication is rarely possible and control is a very expensive exercise. Biosecurity The species was first found in South programs are in place to identify, raise Australia in 1985 at Outer Harbour and has awareness, assess and respond to all since established itself. There are significant pests that pose a significant threat to our populations of European Fan Worm in fish stocks and their habitats. upper Gulf St Vincent and although surveying has been limited, it is believed Most marine pest species that have to be fairly widespread. established themselves in South Australian waters have been introduced in ballast water or on the hulls and PRESSURE INDICATOR: anchors of visiting vessels. Any severe Distribution of key freshwater pest animals incursion of marine pest species is potentially disastrous for the state’s There are a number of introduced commercial and recreational fisheries freshwater fish species in South Australia causing significant environmental, that significantly impact our freshwater economic and social impacts. ecosystems. Most pest fish are well established having arrived in the 19th Early detection and monitoring by the century. Newer threats are directly related community are vital tools in controlling to the accidental and intentional release the spread and minimising the impact of of exotic aquarium species. marine pests. Pest fish compete with native species for There are some marine pest species available food and habitat, can predate that, while not currently present in South on native species and can also impact Australian waters, pose a significant water quality with adverse impacts on risk due either to the proximity of pest entire ecosystems. There is very little populations in interstate waters or information available on the distribution the suitability of local conditions for and extent of these species. their colonisation. Species currently of concern to South Australian marine Key pest species include European Carp, scientists include the Japanese Sea Eastern Gambusia, Redfin Perch, Rainbow Star Asterias amurensis and the Asian Trout, Brown Trout and Tench. Release of any of these following capture is illegal date mussel Musculista senhousia (both under the currently in Tasmania and Victoria) and Fisheries Management Act 2007. Japanese Kelp Undaria pinnatifida Species native to other drainage basins of (currently in Tasmania), Australia are increasingly being released into South Australian waterways, with The most significant marine pests that unknown biological repercussions. have established in South Australian waters are the invasive seaweed European Carp Cyprinus carpio Caulerpa taxifolia and the European Fanworm Sabella spallanzanii. European Carp have extended their range to almost the whole of the Murray- Invasive seaweed (Caulerpa taxifolia) Darling Basin and are difficult to control. Caulerpa taxifolia was first discovered Environmental rehabilitation is seen as in West Lakes and the upper a means of improving habitat quality to in 2002. The species is likely to have favour native fish. Biological approaches to been an escaped aquarium specimen carp control are also being explored. or introduced through contaminated Potential molecular approaches include recreational equipment. immunocontraception to reduce carp An eradication program began in June fertility, ‘daughterless technology’ in which 2002 and has effectively eradicated modification of a sex-determination gene the pest from West Lakes however, results in the exclusive production of male eradication of the Port River population offspring, and the introduction of a fatality is accepted to be unlikely. The weed gene to kill individuals at a later date (Koehn was identified at North Haven marina in et al, 2000). early 2008.

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 197 BIODIVERSITY

Eastern Gambusia / Mosquitofish Phytophthora has spread throughout the (Gambusia holbrooki) Mount Lofty Ranges, parts of Kangaroo Island and is suspected to have spread The Eastern Gambusia was introduced to to the lower Eyre Peninsula. There is Australia in the 1920s for mosquito control. no known method of eradicating It had limited effectiveness at that task and Phytophthora and controlling its spread is now a significant pest in freshwater rivers relies on quarantining affected areas and and streams. The species is able to breed adopting strong hygiene procedures. several times a year enabling it to rapidly Further information on Phytophthora can establish populations. be found at www.environment.sa.gov. au/biodiversity/plantsand.html Redfin Perch Perca( fluviatilis) Chytridiomycosis is a potentially fatal The Redfin or European Perch is found epidermal disease of amphibians, in the Murray-Darling Basin, Gulf streams affecting South Australia’s native frogs and the South East of South Australia. It (Berger et al, 2004). Caused by the is popular for recreational fishing and is fungus widely stocked in dams and watercourses Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, for this purpose. Although widely thought the disease emerged in Australia in the to be a native species, it is an introduced 1970s and is believed to be widespread. Research in 2004 demonstrated that predator. mortality rates from the fungus increase in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cooler temperatures. Feral pigs on Kangaroo Island. The Rainbow Trout was introduced from Mundulla Yellows is a slow, progressing Photo: Scott Jennings. New Zealand in the 1890s. Having a yellowing and dieback disease of higher temperature tolerance than Brown eucalypts and other native plants, first Trout, it can easily establish self-sustaining observed near Mundulla in the 1970s. The populations in the Adelaide region. cause is not fully understood however, Rainbow Trout feed on a wide range of there is strong evidence to suggest that aquatic insects, crustaceans, molluscs, the cause is related to soil chemistry terrestrial insects and native fishes and as rather than pathogenic organisms and such pose a serious threat to biodiversity. pests. The lack of availability to plants of trace elements within the soil, restricted Brown Trout (Salmo trutta) by problematic pH and other soil char- acteristics, is likely to be a major factor. The Brown Trout was introduced in the This has been evidenced by the recovery 1860s and has spread with human of affected trees that have had required assistance and by migration. Self-sustaining trace elements implanted. populations require cool, swiftly flowing waters – conditions that are generally restricted to the and PRESSURE INDICATOR: Number of new Tasmania. Populations in the Mount Lofty incursions and responses Ranges are maintained through the There have been incursions of two systematic introduction of hatchery reared vertebrate pest species since 2003. Single stock under state government permit. This cane toads have been inadvertently is a serious threat to local biodiversity. transported to South Australian in produce or goods and a single common Tench (Tinca tinca) myna was detected at Port Augusta as Tench were introduced into the River well as two at Port Adelaide. All the birds Murray in 1876 and have spread rapidly were removed and no further individuals throughout the Murray-Darling System. A have been found at these sites. small population is thought to exist in the There have been five incursions of . Tench do not represent declared pest plants at the state or as serious a threat to native fish as some regional level since mid 2003. The most other species. significant has been the Western Cape ecotype of bridal creeper. Other pest species of concern Poison buttercup (Ranunculus sceleratus) (diseases and pathogens) was found in November 2003 over 6 ha Phytophthora cinnamomii is a fungus-like of floodplain heavily damaged by feral organism that rots the roots of susceptible pigs at Chowilla in the Riverland. The plants causing death. A serious threat to site is a RAMSAR wetland managed by biodiversity it is listed as a key threatening the Department for Environment and process under the Environment Protection Heritage and the infestation is being and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. addressed with a feral pig control

198 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Introduced Species

program. The only poison buttercup Information fact sheets on cane toads previously known in South Australia was have been distributed within these sectors a population near Murray Bridge that to encourage vigilance in checking has been eradicated. One infestation of produce, machinery and packaging Acacia nilotica (prickly acacia, a WoNS) before and after arrival in South Australia has been confirmed at in for any cane toads inadvertently the Arid Lands region in the NRM Board’s transported so that their capture is survey and program on prickle bushes. reported to DWLBC. One additional outbreak of golden dodder was found in 2006 in the South Western Cape form of bridal creeper East NRM region. Officers of regional The Western Cape form of bridal creeper NRM Boards have followed up several (Asparagus asparagoides) was first reports of the illegal sale of the declared identified in 2004 at eight locations in waterweeds Eichornia crassipes (water the south-eastern South Australian and hyacinth) and Salvinia sp. (salvinia). western Victoria border region (Coles et al., 2006). In 2006 a second infestation was Feral fox. Cane toads (Bufo marinus) located in the Adelaide Hills around the Cane toads are now found in the upper Anstey Hill nature reserve. reaches of both the Murray-Darling Basin Field observations and laboratory and Lake Eyre Basin in Queensland and research confirmed that this form is largely are slowly moving downstream towards resistant to the rust biological control South Australia. Without significant agent (Puccinia myrsiphylii), raising human assistance, it will take the cane concerns that it could reinfest areas toads many years to cover the distance where common bridal creeper has been along rivers from Queensland to the controlled. Murray River in South Australia. The distribution of the Western Cape The risk of cane toads reaching the Lake form in the southeast was surveyed in Eyre Basin creeks and waterholes in the 2005, identifying 224 locations with a north-east of the state is a somewhat total infested area of 40 Ha, ranging from greater risk. Current populations are Millicent to just east of the border with around 400 km upstream from South Victoria. Infestations occur within national Australia and the likelihood of a parks, forestry areas and on private land. significant flood event carrying them The Adelaide Hills infestation was mapped down the Cooper Creek is unknown. in 2006, over an area 20 Ha. Both regional Human-aided transport of cane toads infestations are now subject to intensive into South Australia has occurred with control programs, managed through the occasional and random frequency South East and the Adelaide and Mt Lofty over recent years. These incidents are Ranges NRM Boards. It is hoped that long- responded to by DWLBC and to date term annual management will lead to only single animals have been located total eradication in 10 to 15 years. having been inadvertently transported in goods or produce from Queensland and the . Although there is no risk of a permanent population What are we doing establishing when a single cane toad is involved, areas are thoroughly searched about it? and industries and residents in the immediate vicinity are notified to confirm The Natural Resources Management that no other toads are present. NRM Act 2004 provides the framework for Boards and DLWBC receive reports of management of key pest plants and cane toads each year from members terrestrial pest animals in South Australia. of the public. Most turn out to be Former Animal and Plant Control Boards misidentified native frogs. have been consolidated into eight NRM Boards, allowing an integration of The risk pathways for human-aided management responses to water, soil and movement of cane toads are broad pest issues. and spread across many individual businesses and industries that move Under the Act, pest plants and terrestrial goods and produce from northern vertebrate pests are declared, prohibiting Australia. Cooperation has been sought the movement, possession, sale and from major industry sectors such as the release of species and in most cases, road transport, nursery and fresh produce requiring their control by landholders. industries. Declarations are enforced by NRM Boards

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 199 BIODIVERSITY

How do we manage species forced to move by climate change?

Species occur only in areas to which they are suited by factors such as climate, the fire regime, topography, soil type and the other species present. If any one of these factors changes too rapidly or by a significant amount, species need to relocate to survive. Global warming has already caused some species to move higher up mountains in order to escape increasing climatic temperatures. Biological invasions resulting from climate change will create problems for human societies where production and land tenure are based on geographically fixed parcels of land. Many native species will migrate to more suitable habitats when necessary unless they have been confined to an isolated patch of the landscape by human settlement and/ or land clearance. Migrating species (whether native or exotic) may be perceived as pests in their Blackberry. new home ranges. Native species with poor mobility or those living in fragmented habitats may be unable to move quickly enough to keep pace with a changing climate and may suffer range contraction and eventual extinction. Such species will require a range of strategies including translocation programs to ensure their survival. Migration of 1-2 km a year may be necessary to keep pace with the ecological consequences of climate change1. Native species unable to relocate that quickly will need translocation programs to ensure their survival.

Reference Cramer, W., Shugart, H.H., Noble, I.R., Woodward, F.I., Bugmann, H., Bondeau, A., Foley, J.A., Gardner, R.H., Lauenroth, W.K., Pitelka, L.F., and Sutherst, R.W. Ecosystem composition and structure (1999). The terrestrial biosphere and global change: implications for natural and managed ecosystems. Editors B. Walker, B., Steffen, W., Canadell, J., and Ingram, J. Cambridge University Press, pp. 190–228. Cambridge

through coordinated control programs, high risk and high feasibility for control, with technical and policy support from which are priorities for coordinated DWLBC and overseen by the State control programs. This risk management NRM Council. approach is fostering an increased focus NRM Boards, DWLBC, DEH, Department of on prevention and early intervention, Primary Industries and Resources (PIRSA) to avoid a new set of pests becoming and industry and community groups also widespread. collaborate on education and awareness For existing, widely established pests the activities, research, planning and strategic emphasis is on development of improved control programs for particular pests, control techniques, including biological industries or regions. This includes actions control and provision of management for non-declared pests. Goal 4 of the State information. A number of NRM Boards NRM Plan 2004 gives overall direction for have pest management strategies either the management of biological threats, in place or in draft form. Landholders complemented by the inclusion of pest have primary responsibility for pest management actions in the strategic plans management. of each NRM Board. The Natural Resources Management Pest risk assessments for weeds and and Primary Industries Ministerial vertebrates have been undertaken by Councils (NRMMC and PIMC) have NRM Boards using a process developed approved the development of a by DWLBC. This has identified species of national framework titled AusBIOSEC to

200 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Introduced Species

improve preparedness and capacity example with landholders neighbouring to respond to biosecurity issues. the Flinders Ranges National Park getting A state biosecurity strategy is being involved in regional fox baiting. developed in 2008 jointly by DWLBC, The Common Starling is particularly PIRSA and DEH to identify priority areas problematic on Eyre Peninsula with very for preparedness, prevention, incursion large flocks forming over the summer response and ongoing management of months and causing environmental, pests and diseases within South Australia. economic and social impacts. Collaborative research into aspects of starling biology, behaviour and Management of terrestrial management is being conducted on vertebrate pests the West Coast and involves the Eyre At the national level, the Vertebrate Peninsula NRM Board, DWLBC, Pestat Pty Pests Committee sets policy directions to Ltd and the Invasive Animals CRC. Rabbit plague achieve better outcomes for managing pest animals and led the development of the Australian Pest Animal Strategy. Management of pest plants The implementation of this strategy within The Australian Weeds Committee and the South Australia is being led by DWLBC. Australian Weeds Strategy provide policy In 2005 the government adopted the and investment frameworks for national South Australian Deer Strategy with weed management, implemented in this the objective of reducing the impact state through DWLBC. of feral deer. Actions implemented The branched broomrape eradication include inspections of fences on deer program is a nationally funded incursion farms, appointment of the South East response for one of the world’s worst Deer Advisory Committee, landholder agricultural weeds. Collaboration surveys on the distribution and impact of between DWLBC, NRM Boards, PIRSA feral deer for the Mid North and South and the local community has enabled East and an eradication program on effective limitation of the weed’s Kangaroo Island. distribution and containment of its further The South Australian Arid Lands NRM spread. Research has identified control Board is leading a Natural Heritage Trust techniques, which are being applied funded Cross Regional Feral Camel by affected landholders to prevent the Project. A strategic and integrated weed’s emergence. Eradication is long- approach is required to reverse the rapid term due to longevity of soil seedbanks. expansion of the camel problem using a Hosting the WoNS coordinator for combination of management options. bridal creeper has facilitated greater Recovery of rabbit populations from awareness and uptake of best practice the impact of RHD and strategies to management for this and other extend its usefulness as a bio-control WoNS in South Australia. Five regional agent are being addressed by NRM asparagus weeds committees operate Boards. They are testing bait release of here, applying recently developed RHD as a means of initiating outbreaks in management guides to eradicate, areas where the virus has been inactive. contain and suppress priority infestations The boards are also raising community that threaten biodiversity. awareness of the re-emerging threat Four NRM Boards have signed 25 year and need for conventional control Memorandums of Understanding with the activities. National Gorse Task Force to eradicate DWLBC is currently conducting gorse infestations. Mapping of willow collaborative research through species and Athel pine has enabled the Invasive Animals Cooperative strategic prioritization of infestations for Research Centre (CRC) to identify the control programs. factors influencing recovery of rabbit DWLBC collaboration with the CRC populations from RHD. Australian Weed Management and Large regional fox programs focus the CRC Future Farming Industries on key conservation areas where has fostered uptake of weed risk maximum benefits can be derived from management for the nursery and garden reducing the impact of predation on a industries, botanic gardens and new range of at-risk species and providing pasture introductions, reducing future a substantial expansion of available weed problems. habitat. Operation Bounceback is an

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 201 BIODIVERSITY

What more should we be doing?

The Environment Protection Authority recommends the following: R5.5 Improve incentives and support for environmental stewardship on private land, including for the control of invasive plants and feral animals by 2012. R5.6 Promote a national weed labelling scheme that identifies the weed potential of species to plant buyers and sellers. R5.7 Include the regulation of introduced freshwater fish species under natural resource management legislation. R5.8 Improve the early identification of pest incursions to reduce their impacts and the cost of eradication.

Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan targets

R5.5 R5.6 R5.7 R5.8 Growing Prosperity T1.14, T1.9, T1.14 T1.14 T1.14 T1.14

Improving Wellbeing Attaining Sustainability T3.1, T3.2, T3.3, T3.5 T3.1, T3.3 T3.1, T3.3 T3.1, T3.3 T3.9, T3.11 Fostering Creativity and Innovation Building Communities Expanding Opportunities

Feral olive tree For further detail on South Australia’s Strategic Plan visit www.stateplan.sa.gov.au

creeper (Asparagus asparagoides References (L.) Druce) in the South East of South Australia and Western Victoria (2006), Australian Pest Animal Strategy – A Plant Protection Quarterly 21(3), 104-108 national strategy for the management Koehn, J., Brumley, A. and Gehrke, P.. of vertebrate pest animals in Australia, Managing the Impacts of Carp (2000). (2007). Natural Resource Management Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra. Ministerial Council, Commonwealth of Lethbridge, M. R.. Draft Final Report, Australia, Canberra. 2007 Camel survey of South Australia Australian Weeds Strategy – A national and Western Australia (2007), Flinders strategy for weed management in University, Adelaide Australia, (2007). Natural Resources Lonsdale, W.M.. Global patterns of plant Management Ministerial Council, invasions and the concept of invisibility Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. (1999). Ecology 80: 1522-1536 Barker, W. R., Barker, R.M., Jessop, J.P. Lynes, B.C and Campbell S.D.. and H. Vonow, H. (2005). Census of Germination and viability of mesquite South Australian Vascular Plants Edn 5.00. (Prosopis pallida) seed following Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Garden ingestion and excretion by feral pigs Suppl. 1. (Sus scrofa) (2000). Tropical Grasslands Berger, L., Speare, R., Hines, H.B., 34:125-128. Marantelli, G., Hyatt, A.D., Mcdonald, Rejmanek, M. and Richardson, D.M. K.R., Skerratt, L.F., Olsen, V., Clarke, J.M., What attributes make some plant Gillespie, G., Mahony, M., Sheppard, species more invasive? (1996) Ecology N., Williams, C., and Tyler, M.J., Effect of 77:1655-1661. season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis South Australian Deer Strategy, (2005). (2004), Australian Veterinary Journal DWLBC, Government of South Australia, Volume 82, No 7, July 2004, 31-36. Adelaide. Coles, R.B., Willing, K.L., Conran, J.G. State Natural Resources Management and Gannaway, D.. The identification Plan 2006, DWLBC, Government of South and distribution of Western Cape bridal Australia, Adelaide.

202 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 Introduced Species

Wace, N. Assessment of dispersal of plant species – the car borne flora in Canberra (1977). Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 10: 166-186. Walker, B. and Stefan, W. An overview of the implications of global change for natural and managed terrestrial ecosystems (1997). Conservation Ecology 1(2):2

Further information

National feral animal information database www.feral.org.au

National weeds website www.weeds.org.au

Australian government weeds web portal www.weeds.gov.au

Department of Water Land and Biodiversity Conservation www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/pests

National Land and Water Resources Audit www.nlwra.gov.au/Natural_Resource_ Topics/Invasive_Species/index.aspx

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