This thesis has been approved by

The Honors Tutorial College and the Department of English

______

Dr. Josephine Bloomfield Associate Professor, English Thesis Advisor

______

Dr. Carey Snyder Honors Tutorial College, Director of Studies English

______

Dr. Jeremy Webster Dean, Honors Tutorial College

WITHDRAWN FROM CURRICULM: FEMINISM AND YOUNG ADULT LITERATURE

______

A Thesis

Presented to

The Honors Tutorial College

Ohio University

______

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for Graduation

from the Honors Tutorial College

with the degree of

Bachelor of Arts in English

______

by

Kathryn M. Young

June 2011

To

JLY

and

JHB with love and thanks

Table of Contents

“Withdrawn from Curriculum”...... 5 Introduction ...... 6 Young Adult Literary Terminology ...... 6x Common Tropes of Young Adult Literature ...... 8x Feminist Theory: The Waves ...... 11x Chapter 1 ...... 20x Louisa May Alcott‟s Radical Little Women ...... 22x Career Stories for Early 20th Century Girls ...... 28x Nancy Drew‟s Enduring Image ...... 46x Chapter 2 ...... 61x Judy Blume: Knowing the Female Body ...... 62x Teen Pregnancy Novels Before and After Roe v. Wade ...... 79x Chapter 3 ...... 93x Harry Potter and Third Wave Progress...... 94x Twilight and Third Wave Backlash ...... 109x But Why Young Adult Literature? ...... 126x Works Cited ...... 128x

Front page of Too Bad About the Haines Girl by Zoa Sherburne; removed from the library of Reed Junior High School in Loveland, Colorado. 6

Introduction

From their first consciousness, individuals are influenced by the media they experience. While few young adult novels enjoy the “classic” status of other works of literature, many have the potential to influence large numbers of readers. What these novels may lack in literary merit, they overcome in their sheer popularity. Such popularity ensures that their themes and gender representations reach many adolescents. Though h young readers may not seek the ideas that they glean, as

Elizabeth Heilman explains, they cannot ignore them: “When I read as a young person, I looked for ideas about how and who to be. Even if young readers are not actively seeking lessons in gender identity, they can be learned” (237). Furthermore, because young adults have chosen to read these novels, they are far more willing to accept the gender cues that they read. Through the application of feminist and young adult literary theories, I have sought to identify the pro- and anti-feminist lessons to be found in popular young adult literature. When examined alongside the history of the feminist movement, it becomes evident that the development of feminist themes in young adult literature has crested and ebbed according to the political climate of the day. Thus, despite eras of backlash against feminism, young adult literature has ultimately grown more progressive since its nineteenth century introduction.

Young Adult Literary Terminology

In order to understand the scope of this argument constructed about “young adult literature,” one must first confront and clarify the nebulous definition of the term. In common usage, young adult literature is a term applied to the broad spectrum 7

of books written for adolescents throughout history. Within circles of literary criticism, however, young adult literature refers to books written far more recently;

S.E. Hinton‟s 1967 novel The Outsiders is considered the first official young adult book (Rice). Before The Outsiders, books for adolescents were grouped under a variety of ambiguous labels and indeed come from many disparate sources. Many of the first books for children were written in the wake of the American Sunday School

Union‟s movement. Beginning in 1817, the movement, which promoted morality and vocational skills, brought literacy to children throughout America, and. Iin the following years of the nineteenth century, psychological theorists began to recognize a transitory period between childhood and adulthood that would call for a reconsideration of reading materials for young people. Sarah Bilston writes, “„the awkward age‟ was tentatively used to describe the „interval‟ between childhood and womanhood” (1). Children‟s literature— particularly girls‟ literature— adapted to reflect the changing understanding of adolescence. Authors and critics of the 1930s early twentieth century began to differentiate between books for children and adolescents: “Although for years countless books had been published and widely read by young adults the term junior and juvenile was first applied to young adult literature during the early 1930s” (Donelson and Nilsen 67). Stylistically and thematically, however, junior literature stagnated until 1967 when Hinton published The Outsiders.

Authors and critics of the mid-1960s noted that books for adolescents were becoming less and less successful, and many, including Hinton, blamed the stalled development of the genre: “„The world is changing,‟ [Hinton] wrote in an impassioned New York 8

Times article, „yet the authors of books for teen-agers are still 15 years behind the times‟” (Cart From Romance to Realism 45). In The Outsiders, Hinton sought to realistically capture realistically the people and problems she had encountered as teen.

Her novel was an overnight success, as well as a catalyst in the young adult literary revolution. The Outsiders represents such a departure from juvenile literature that critics cite it as the official beginning of modern young adult literature: “Because of her own youth, Hinton came to symbolize that rejection [of juvenile literature] and its replacement by a new kind of literature. Richard Peck…whose writing would follow hers, has said she „may be the mother of us all‟” (Cart Romance to Realism 48).

Critics today understand “young adult literature” as material which readers aged twelve to eighteen choose to read (Donelson and Nilsen 1). This element of choice binds the novels of the post-Outsiders era to earlier works. Regardless of terminology or classification, the overarching purpose of these books was simple pleasure and entertainment. These books were rarely, if ever, a part of the classroom canon, and were most often read because adolescents chose to do so. Thus, for the purposes of this research, the term “young adult literature” is applied retroactively to books of the “awkward age” through junior or juvenile fiction. For the sake of consistency, this term will embody all previous descriptions of literature written for adolescents.

Common Tropes of Young Adult Literature

As with any literary subgenre, young adult literature has a set of distinct characteristics and tropes. To those unfamiliar with the genre, some of these tropes can 9

potentially muddy the understanding of the work as a whole. First, young adult literature almost always employs an adolescent narrator. Though most clearly observed through the first-person, third-person narrators can be just as effective, provided that they focus upon the adolescent perspective for the majority of the work.

Also, books for young adults tend to be quite short; most popular young adult novels are under 250 pages. Gary Paulsen‟s Hatchet (1987) spans 192 pages, while Natalie

Babbitt‟s Tuck Everlasting is a mere 139. Even Hinton‟s The Outsiders is only 208 pages in its current edition. In recent years, authors including J.K. Rowling and

Stephanie Meyer have released longer novels with great success, but the short young adult novel remains the norm:; Jerry Spinelli‟s bestselling Stargirl (2004) is 208 pages. The authors of these shorter novels opt for quality over quantity of characters and narrative events. Often, such novels have a few well-defined characters and a shorter series of powerful events. This narrow focus allows young adult authors to maintain the swift, steady pace preferred by many young adult readers: “If a book is to be meaningful to them, it must be clearly focused. When it is based on complex ideas…the discussion of those ideas must be to some extent oversimplified” (Engdahl

46). Furthermore, young adult literature is inherently optimistic. To appeal to young adults, authors tend to include more “happy endings,” wherein protagonists succeed and villains are redeemed. Even in the 1970s, when young adult literature developed a more honest, brutal perspective about young adults and their problems, such novels promoted an optimistic view. Despite the problem protagonists faced, they remained admirable in the face of adversity. The few exceptions, such as Robert Cormier‟s The 10

Chocolate War (1974), are often censored or banned because they seem to lack a moral or lesson for readers (Donelson and Nilsen 28-38).

For adult readers, among the more jarring characteristics of young adult literature is the depiction of adolescent thoughts and emotions. Young adult literature focuses upon issues that are important to adolescents and reflects perspective a youthful understanding of such issues. Adult readers may sometimes consider such attitudes immature or find that characters are diminished by their adolescent characterization. To the target demographic, however, these issues are authentic and compelling. Indeed, a character‟s development from an adolescent perspective to a more adult view propels the action of many a young adult novel (Donelson and Nilsen

35-8). A final observation adult readers often make about young adult literature is,

“but where are the parents?” Such a question is warranted, for in young adult literature, parents and adult authority figures are noticeably absent. In general, the absence of adults is a device to increase the perceived independence of the adolescent protagonists: “With formula fiction for young readers, one of the first things an author does is to figure out how to get rid of the parents so that the young person is free to take credit for his or her own accomplishments” (Donelson and Nilsen 29). While not all are formulaic, each of the novels examined in this thesis utilizes this trope to some extent. Throughout this analysis, these elements will be discussed only when they become relevant to the feminist lens. 11

Feminist Theory: The Waves

Since the 1970s, many have used the metaphor of the wave to describe the development of feminism in the United States. Like an ocean wave, feminist activism would, at times, crest around major events. Following such events, feminist activism would fade from the public eye and then begin to swell grow once more, building toward a new wave. Modern feminism began in the swell toward the first wave with the English writer Mary Wollstonecraft: “Wollstonecraft‟s great manifesto A

Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) anticipates virtually every idea of modern feminism” (Showalter 21). In the United States, women like Margaret Fuller and

Sarah and Angelina Grimké built momentum toward an American woman‟s movement. Outraged by the sexism present in anti-slavery groups, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton organized the Seneca Falls Convention, a gathering of men and women devoted to improving the rights of women; many historians mark the convention as the beginning of the first wave. After the convention, the goals of the woman‟s movement were soon overshadowed by the Civil War. Following the war, abolitionists and women‟s rights activists formed the American Equal Rights

Association to serve both women and African-Americans. In 18861868, however, the woman‟s movement suffered a critical blow in the wording of the Fourteenth

Amendment: “However, when Congress began to discuss the Fourteenth Amendment in 1866, it became clear to women‟s rights activists that it would protect only the rights of men; for the first time in the Constitution, there would be a reference to 12

„male‟ citizens” (Dicker 39). After the amendment passed, many women left the

AERA. Stanton and Anthony created the National Woman Suffrage Association

(NWSA), while Lucy Stone, Henry Blackwell, and Julia Ward Howe helped form the

American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). The NWSA and AWSA worked independently until 1890, when the two combined to form the National American

Woman Suffrage Association. At last, in 1920 all the necessary thirty-six states ratified the Nineteenth Amendment, guaranteeing women‟s suffrage (Dicker 29-54).

Following the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, first wave feminism faded from public discussion. Having won their primary goal, many suffragists devoted themselves to diverse efforts; notably, Alice Paul drafted and introduced the

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) in 1923 (Dicker 60). Still, the movement seemed to have lost momentum without one overarching goal: “once suffrage was achieved, the movement had no other unifying goals; its raison d‟être had vanished” (Dicker 59).

The Great Depression of the 1930s slowed feminist activism, while the early 1940s offered women new opportunities to work as American men fought in World War II.

Once the war had ended, however, women were encouraged to return to the home.

During these years, women‟s rights groups tried to distance themselves from the term

“feminist.” Because of a small group of political activists, the word feminist had become linked to Communism. When United States relations with Communist countries developed into the Cold War, a feminist identity became dangerous: “As the

Cold War intensified, female activists may have rejected the term as a way to protect themselves from the anti-Communist paranoia endemic to the nation. To people who 13

knew little about either feminism or Communism, both philosophies challenged traditional social norms and threatened the American way of life” (Dicker 61). As a result, first wave feminism became far less visible, while the majority of American women accepted their prescribed role in society.

Although the Nineteenth Amendment had guaranteed them the right to vote, women‟s experiences during the 1960s and 70s were still limited by American patriarchy and sexism:

The “concrete conditions” of their lives in 1970 can be easily

enumerated: If they worked outside the home, as 44 percent of women

did, they could not rely on childcare centers, since very few of these

existed. They could expect to make much less than their husbands; on

average, women earned 52 cents to the dollar men made. Married

women could not get a credit card without their husband‟s permission;

they didn‟t even have their own credit rating. If a woman needed help

after her husband hit her, she could find little assistance both because

domestic violence was not discussed in public—the term had not been

coined yet—and because almost no shelters existed to house battered

women. Single women had a hard time renting an apartment on their

own, just as they might find it difficult to get served in a restaurant or

bar. Whether they were single or married, women had less opportunity

than they wanted. (Dicker 57-8) 14

Given these conditions, activists responded in a variety of ways. In 1963 Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique which examined the frustrations of middle-class

American women: “Ensconced in homes in the suburbs, these educated white women were bored, unhappy, even hopeless about the future” (Dicker 67). For many,

Friedan‟s observations offered compelling inspiration towards activism. In 1966,

Friedan helped to found the National Organization for Women (NOW), one of the better known among scores of women‟s rights organizations. In the United States legislature, the early 1960s saw the passage of two acts which had the potential to radically alter women‟s experiences at work. The 1963 Equal Pay Act was originally intended to guarantee equal wages for all employees doing comparable work, regardless of sex; when passed, the Act called for equal pay for the same work.

Because men and women so rarely performed identical jobs, employers were able to continue their wage discrimination: “This new phrasing troubled women‟s rights activists, who knew that, because jobs were segregated by sex, the law would mean very little since female workers did „women‟s work‟ and not the „same work‟ specified by the law” (Dicker 68). Similarly, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 criminalized any and all workplace discrimination based upon sex, race, color, religion, or national origin. Congress created the Equal Employment Opportunity

Commission (EEOC) to ensure that the law was upheld throughout the United States.

Unfortunately for female workers, the EEOC placed far more importance on racially- based complaints than on sex-discrimination: “Even though the commission received thousands of complaints about sex discrimination in its first year, the EEOC did not 15

take these cases seriously, concentrating instead on race-based grievances” (Dicker

69).

With so little support from the government, American feminists turned to their own political groups in order to evoke necessary change. NOW continued to advocate for women‟s equal status under the law; but despite the group‟s political successes, such as the outlawing of sex-segregated want ads, NOW experienced internal struggles over its two primary planks, the Equal Rights Amendment and the repeal of abortion laws. In 1967, members of New York Radical Women (NYRW) began to publicize their “consciousness raising,” which they hoped would connect women‟s individual experiences to the larger political movement: “The women spent much of their time together talking about and analyzing their experiences as women, which, they believed would lead to personal transformation and then to political action”

(Dicker 81). In one such consciousness raising event, NYRW members discovered women‟s feelings toward American beauty standards. On September 7, 1968, they gathered in Atlantic City, New Jersey, to protest the 1968 Miss America Pageant.

During this demonstration, which would later be named as an “official” starting date for second wave feminism, protesters discarded what they felt were the trappings of artificial American beauty: “Protesters threw „objects of female torture‟—copies of magazines such as Ladies‟ Home Journal and Cosmopolitan as well as false eyelashes, makeup, hair curlers, high-heeled shoes, girdles, and bras—into what they dubbed a

„Freedom Trash Can‟” (Dicker 84). 16

The goals of second wave feminists were as varied as individual members, but most desired women‟s legal and social equality as well as reproductive freedom. In

1973, many activists saw their work rewarded when the Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade declared that women had the right to an abortion under most circumstances.

During the mid-1970s, women like Susan Brownmiller also worked to change public opinion about rape. In the popular media, journalist Gloria Steinan used her Ms.

Magazine as well as her own activism to promote feminist goals. With this energy behind the movement, the ERA was introduced to the United States Congress once again where, at last, it passed. Unfortunately, the amendment would never be ratified:

By the end of 1972, twenty-two of the needed thirty-eight states had

ratified the amendment. By 1975, however, the ratification process

began to slow, and sixteen states had defeated the amendment. And in

1977, nine more states rejected or tabled the amendment. Perhaps even

worse, several states rescinded their earlier passage of the

amendment…ultimately the ERA was defeated when, in June 1982,

North Carolina tabled the amendment and Florida and Illinois rejected

it. (Dicker 100)

The 1980s then brought a resurgence of cultural conservatism and, with it, a certain backlash against feminism. In 1976, the Hyde Amendment had greatly reduced women‟s access to abortion by cutting Medicaid funding to the procedure:

“Antiabortion groups claimed a victory with the passage of the Hyde Amendment, which prohibited the use of Medicaid funding for abortion services, except in cases of 17

rape or incest or if the mother‟s life was threatened by the continuation of the pregnancy. As a result of the Hyde Amendment, poor women no longer could afford abortions” (Dicker 105). As the ERA struggled for ratification in 1980, the Republican

Party officially withdrew its support from the amendment. Once elected president,

Ronald Reagan drastically cut funding to various liberal and pro-feminist programs and organizations (Dicker 104-5). At the same time, the popular media began to claim that America had reached a stage of “postfeminism,” and young women began to reject the term feminism: “According to [journalist Susan] Bolotin‟s article and subsequent pieces on postfeminism, younger women felt alienated by what they perceived as the stridency of angry feminists….Believing feminism was passé and many of its goals accomplished, young women did not want to be labeled feminists because of the negative connotations associated with the word” (Dicker 108).

Although the feminist movement did not completely vanish during the 1980s, its influence had certainly ebbed in political and popular culture.

When, in 1991, University of Oklahoma law professor Anita Hill accused

Supreme Court appointee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment, feminist activists found an opportunity to reinvigorate the women‟s movement. Many individuals were incensed by Hill‟s treatment by the Senate Judiciary Committee: “During the televised hearings of the all-male Judiciary Committee, members, incredulous about this „sexual harassment crap,‟ questioned Hill aggressively and harshly, asking her for details about Thomas‟s behavior” (Dicker 117). Appalled by this sexist treatment of a woman during the so-called postfeminist era, women responded by seeking power in their 18

private and political lives. Older women began running for public office at all government levels: “In the 1992 general election, eleven women ran for the Senate, and five, all Democrats, emerged victorious….in the House of Representatives twenty- four women won new seats” (Dicker 118). Enraged by the Thomas hearings, younger women also sought an outlet for their frustration. In 1992, Rebecca Walker claimed the beginning of a third wave of feminism:

Rebecca Walker…published „Becoming the Third Wave‟ in Ms.

Magazine. In this essay, she explains that the hearings sent a “clear

message” to women: “Shut up! Even if you speak, we will not listen.”

…Walker ends her short article with a “plea” to the women of her

generation, asking them to remember that “the fight is far from over:

and that they should not associate with men—as lovers, friends, or

elected officials—“if they don‟t prioritize our freedom to control our

bodies and our lives.” Walker‟s final sentences boldly declare: “I am

not a postfeminism feminist. I am the Third Wave.” (Dicker 118)

Feminism‟s third wave is ongoing and, thus, still evolving in terms of its goals, accomplishments, and leadership. So far, one of the third wave‟s primary aims is to unite women‟s rights groups previously marginalized by the feminist movement. First and second wave feminism tended to emphasize the needs and experiences of white, middle-class, straight, cis-sexual (as opposed to transgender) women. Women of other races and sexual orientations worked outside the larger feminist movement to improve their own unique conditions. In contrast, the third wave has expanded to include 19

women of all races, sexual orientations, and gender identities (Dicker 119-135). As the movement continues to develop, we will see how successful its newer, more inclusive model will ultimately become.

In relation to the wave model of feminism, this work is loosely arranged around the major events of each wave. Chapter 1 includes novels published between

1868 and 1943, which encompasses the build up to and first decades of the first wave.

These works demonstrate that, despite the resurgence of patriarchal values during the early twentieth century, popular young adult literature incorporated feminist themes in its characters, plots, and themes. In Chapter 2 novels published between 1967 and

1975 place the discussion in the second wave; Chapter 2 also includes2003‟s The First

Part Last to demonstrate trends in the depiction of abortion after the landmark Roe v.

Wade decision., a landmark moment for the second wave. Because the casedecision so polarized popular opinions of abortion and feminism, the later novel is far less progressive than the works of the 1960s and '70s. Chapter 3 includes two popular fantasy series written in the 1990s and 2000s which coincides with the third wave. The

Harry Potter series demonstrates the success of second and third wave feminism by seamlessly weaving pro-feminist elements into its novels. The later Twilight series, however, reflects the conservative backlash against feminist ideals. With the exception of Twilight, these novels represent a steady feminist progression in young adult literature. As the most recently published works, the Twilight series poses a challenge to both third wave feminism and its depiction in young adult literature.

20

21

Chapter One

During the nineteenth century, changes within the both the Woman‟s

Movement and children‟s literature propelled the two toward their first intersection.

As young adult literature developed as a genre, proponents of women‟s rights were preparing to take action. With Mary Wollstonecraft‟s A Vindication of the Rights of

Women (1792), women began to openly challenge patriarchy, albeit in small ways.

Wollstonecraft and her supporters called upon middle- to upper-class men and women to better educate their girls and thereby improve their social status: “Wollstonecraft blamed women‟s lack of social status on their inferior schooling; instead of being educated to be the equals of men, women were taught to use their beauty and feminine charms to entrap men in marriage. In contrast, Wollstonecraft believed that women should learn how to support themselves” (Dicker 24-5). Slowly, small gains were made in favor of women‟s education, such as Oberlin College‟s admittance of women in 1837. By 1848, however, the response was no longer small, and in that year,

Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton hosted the Seneca Falls Convention, traditionally regarded as the beginning of an “official” American Woman‟s Movement

(Dicker 29). For the convention, Stanton attempted to identify the basic needs of

American women in the Declaration of Sentiments: “To give the meeting focus,

Stanton drafted a Declaration of Sentiments….Using the Declaration of Independence as a rhetorical model, Stanton‟s document announced women‟s equality with men and outlined the grievances women had with their treatment in American society” (Dicker

29-30). Stanton placed men in the tyrannical role of George III, and like the signers of 22

the Declaration of Independence, the signers of Stanton‟s declaration believed their rights to be inalienable: “Such has been the patient sufferance of women under this government, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to demand the equal station to which they are entitled” (Stanton 68). Their message was clear—these women would fight for these rights.

Also in 1848, Stanton, Ernestine Rose, and Paulina Wright Davis saw the passage of the Married Women‟s Property Act. This law, which the trio had spent nearly eight years lobbying for, allowed women complete ownership of property obtained before marriage. In 1860, a revised version allowed women custody of their children and ownership of wages earned during marriage (Dicker 38). The 1850s were some of the most productive years for the Woman‟s Movement; women‟s rights conventions were held nearly every year (Dicker 30). Despite this success, the movement lacked focus: “Although Stanton, [Susan B.] Anthony, [Lucy] Stone, and a host of other committed women worked diligently for women‟s rights in the twenty years after the Seneca Falls convention, the movement remained decentralized”

(Dicker 38). In addition to the unstructured leadership, the movement suffered from a lack of common belief; members of the Woman‟s Movement had highly individualized beliefs and agendas, “namely, women‟s suffrage, the repeal of the

Contagious Diseases Act, legal rights for married women, birth control, the women‟s trade movement, and family allowances” (Banks 46). During the late nineteenth century, the lack of a unifying goal weakened the movement as a whole, but the greatest blow to the Woman‟s Movement was the outbreak of the Civil War: “the 23

onset of the Civil War interrupted this work. Women committed themselves to war work …and abandoned their crusade for women‟s rights, believing that the time was not right for such activism” (Dicker 38). As the Civil War raged across the United

States, Woman‟s Movement supporters seemed to bide their time, waiting for an opportunity for sweeping social change.

Louisa May Alcott’s Radical Little Women

While the Woman‟s Movement grew and developed, young adult literature, too, established itself in America. Until the 1800s, books for children were largely religious tales, and the young adults portrayed were but miniature adults (Donelson and Nilsen 48). In 1830, the American Sunday School Union began offering religious, academic, and vocational classes to young adults throughout the country. To augment the academic component of their program, the Union began writing and publishing its own books. Some were nonfiction, informative texts, but the majority of surviving texts are the morality tales. These novels relied upon two basic formulas: “First, a young child near death would remind readers of all his virtues, all that they must remember and practice….Another formula portrayed good children who had temporarily forgotten duties to parents and siblings and who would soon get their come-uppance” (Donelson and Nilsen 48).

One of the earliest and best loved young adult authors, Louisa May Alcott, found fame and popularity during this period. Born the daughter of an abolitionist and activist in 1832, Alcott spent her life surrounded by revolutionaries. Though she was firm in her convictions, as a writer supporting her family, Alcott wrote according to 24

her publishers‟ tastes. In May of 1868, one such publisher asked for a “girls‟ book.”

By the late 1860s, the moralist tales of the American Sunday School Union had been supplanted by a new, gendered trend in young adult literature. Books for young adults in general focused upon their development from child to adult, but while books for boys featured young men learning to work for themselves, books for girls were invariably set in the home. Alcott, who herself defied these gender roles, was wary of the genre: “Mr. N. wants a girls‟ story, and I begin „Little Women.‟ Marmee, Anna, and May all approve my plan. So I plod away, though I don‟t enjoy this sort of thing.

Never liked girls or knew many, except my sisters, but our queer plays and experiences may prove interesting, though I doubt it” (Myerson and Shealy Journals

165). Alcott did soften toward her “Little Women” (now Part I of the novel), and it proved to be an instant success. Published in October 1868, the novel sold out its first edition by the end of the month: “Saw Mr N[iles] of Roberts Brothers, and he gave me good news of the book. An order from London for an edition came in. First edition gone and more called for. Expects to sell three or four thousand by New Year. Mr. N. wants a second volume for spring” (Myerson and Shealy Journals 167). Alcott began the second volume on the first of November, and as she wrote, she grew irritated by her readers‟ interest in the March girls‟ marriages: “Girls write to ask who the little women marry, as if that was the only end and aim of a woman‟s life. I won‟t marry Jo to Laurie to please any one” (Myserson and Shealy Journals 167). Her letters from early 1869 underscore her frustration. When trying to title the second volume, Alcott wrote to her publisher, “I can only think of the following titles. „Little Women Act 25

Second‟. „Leaving the Nest: Sequel to Little Women‟. Either you like. A jocose friend suggests „Wedding Marches‟ as there is so much pairing off, but I don‟t approve”

(Myerson and Shealy Letters 118-9). From behind the scenes, Alcott worked diligently to ensure that her characters were seen as more than marriageable young women, despite the assumptions and opinions of her friends, publishers, and fans.

Under the literary lens, Little Women, on the whole, often flounders under the weight of its morality. Throughout the novel, the March girls at times appear too pious to resonate with modern readers. Marmee herself spends the majority of her scenes delivering sermons to her daughters (and to readers): “Don‟t cry so bitterly, but remember this day, and resolve with all your soul that you will never know another like it. Jo, we all have our temptations, some far greater than yours, and it often takes us all our lives to conquer them” (Alcott 75). Beyond these elements, however, Little

Women celebrates women and sisterhood, foundational blocks of the feminist movement: “Above all, sisterhood elevates the importance of the collective over that of the individual. In small groups and large organizations, feminists throughout history have been similarly motivated: Improving the lives of their „sisters,‟ whether these were women exactly like them or not, was their highest priority” (Dicker 16). With their literal sisterhood, the March girls forward Alcott‟s ideas on how to improve the female experience. Throughout Part I the four March girls, though individually developed, are more often treated in pairs: “Meg was Amy‟s confidante and monitor, and by some strange attraction of opposites, Jo was gentle Beth‟s” (Alcott 39). The 26

majority of the conflict in Part I originates along this division, and the resolution is found when the pairs become a quartet once more.

Within the March household, it also becomes clear that men are a chosen luxury, rather than a necessity. As the novel begins, Mr. March is a chaplain in the

Union Army and the family seems to be living on savings or his modest income. Mrs.

March volunteers at a hospital, while Meg and Jo earn their own wages:

When Mr. March lost his property trying to help an unfortunate friend,

the two oldest girls begged to be allowed to do something toward their

own support, at least. Believing that they could not begin too early to

cultivate energy, industry, and independence, their parents consented,

and both fell to work ….Margaret found a place as nursery governess

and felt rich with her small salary. … Jo happened to suit Aunt March,

who was lame and needed an active person to wait upon her. (Alcott

35-6)

Even after Mr. March‟s return, his ill health and kind nature prevent him from fully providing for his family. Instead, Jo becomes the primary breadwinner: “[Jo] did earn several that year, and began to feel herself a power in the house, for by the magic of a pen, her „rubbish‟ turned into comforts for them all. The Duke‟s Daughter paid the butcher‟s bill, A Phantom Hand put down a new carpet, and the Curse of the

Coventrys proved the blessing of the Marches in the way of groceries and gowns”

(Alcott 249). With Mrs. March, Beth, and Hannah to run the household and Jo to earn their living, Mr. March appears quite impotent as head of house. His wife and 27

daughters treat him as such in emotional matters only: “To outsiders the five energetic women seemed to rule the house, and so they did in many things; but the quiet scholar, sitting among his books, was still the head of the family…for to him the busy, anxious women always turned in troublous times, finding him, in the truest sense of those sacred words, husband and father” (Alcott 221). Even Laurie, the omnipresent male figure, is treated as little more than a boy and becomes a part of the March‟s lives only by Jo‟s choice: “We are not strangers, we are neighbors, and you needn‟t think you‟d be a bother. We want to know you, and I‟ve been trying to do it this ever so long”

(Alcott 48).

Despite this celebration of girlhood, Alcott, through Jo, reveals her ambivalence toward the ultimate aim of a nineteenth-century girl‟s life: wifehood. Jo, in fact, is horrified by romance in all its stages: “I knew there was mischief brewing, I felt it, and now it‟s worse than I imagined. I just wish I could marry Meg myself and keep her safe in the family” (Alcott 187). With her outburst, Jo reveals her true reason for mistrusting romance: the destruction of the female family unit. Once husbands are introduced, the March women—including Marmee—fade from the plot to some extent. Meg, whose adventures as a teenager fill several chapters, becomes very much an afterthought following her marriage. Her pregnancy and the birth of her twins are described in brief: “So the year rolled round, and at midsummer there came to Meg a new experience—the deepest and tenderest of a woman‟s life” (Alcott 263). Here,

Alcott betrays a distaste for marriage and motherhood, as all of Meg‟s experiences except pregnancy and birth are handled with far more depth and tenderness. 28

In spite of the distance Alcott places between herself and the marriages of her characters, she does express one proto-feminist view of marriage, that women be able to choose their husbands for love. When Aunt March threatens to disinherit Meg for considering John‟s proposal, Meg defends her feelings with a previously unknown ferocity: “My John wouldn‟t marry for money, any more than I would. We are willing to work, and we mean to wait. I‟m not afraid of being poor, for I‟ve been happy so far, and I know I shall be with him because he loves me” (Alcott 213). While marrying poor would not benefit her family, Alcott and Mr. March recognize Meg‟s autonomy and support her choice. For her part, Amy demonstrates her autonomy in how she handles Fred and Laurie. Though she realizes that she would not be marrying for love,

Amy at first decides that she would willingly marry Fred. After Beth‟s death, Amy declines Fred‟s proposal, but then finds herself a similar situation with Laurie.

Eventually, however, Amy learns after their wedding to love Laurie in her own way:

“It is so beautiful to be loved as Laurie loves me; he isn‟t sentimental, doesn‟t say much about it, but I see and feel it in all he says and does, and it makes me so happy and so humble that I don‟t seem the girl I was” (Alcott 400). For Alcott, it seems that even within the rigid patriarchy of nineteenth century America, women could exercise some control of their own futures.

Last to be examined is Jo, the quintessential tomboy of young adult literature.

In Jo, Alcott presents a young woman largely unfettered by social convention:

“You are old enough to leave off boyish tricks, and to behave better,

Josephine. It didn‟t matter so much when you were a little girl; but now 29

you are so tall, and turn up your hair, you must remember that you are a

young lady.” “I‟m not! And if turning up my hair makes me one, I‟ll

wear it in two tails till I‟m twenty,” cried Jo, pulling off her net, and

shaking down a chestnut mane. (5)

Long regarded as an independent role model for young women, Jo and her spirit have arguably been the strongest reason behind Little Women‟s enduring popularity. Despite Jo‟s popularity, however, she remains flawed as a feminist figure.

Especially in Part I, Jo is described as boyish, as though such an independent spirit could not spring from a female source: “It‟s bad enough to be a girl, anyway, when I like boys‟ games and work and manners! I can‟t get over my disappointment in not being a boy; and it‟s worse than ever now, for I‟m dying to go and fight with Papa, and I can only stay at home and knit, like a poky old woman!” As Jo matures, she grows more feminine: “In spite of the curly crop, I don‟t see the „son Jo‟ whom I left a year ago. … I see a young lady who pins her collar straight, laces her boots neatly, and neither whistles, talks slang, nor lies on the rug as she used to” (205). With this feminine maturity, Jo is physically subdued, subverting her patriarchal culture instead through her writing and decision to marry Mr. Bhaer. From a historical standpoint, Jo is perhaps as prototypically feminist as she can be. Modern readers of Little Women are able to recognize that Jo‟s behavior is not boyish, but independent.

Career Stories for 20th Century Girls

Beginning in the late 1800s and gaining popularity until the 1950s, career novels, perhaps inspired by the model of Jo March in Little Women, were a staple of 30

young adult literature. As a group, these novels encouraged their readers to enter specific occupations. The mere fact that career books for girls encouraged girls to work outside the home supported the feminist desire for workplace equality.

Individually, however, these novels varied in their alignment with feminist ideals.

Surprisingly, career books of the 1930s actually tended to be relatively more radical than their later counterparts. These earlier novels were published soon after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment and during the Great Depression, during which the American public seems to have been more open to women who both wanted and needed to work. After World War II, when women wanted to remain in the positions left by enlisted men, the public felt as though these women should surrender these jobs to the returning soldiers who deserved them. If a woman were to work at all, it should be because of dire financial need.

Emma Bugbee‟s 1936 novel Peggy Covers the News embodies the pre-WWII openness to women working, as it follows the life of Margaret “Peggy” Foster, a college student trying to break into the male-dominated world of journalism. Her experiences demonstrate that while Peggy is not portrayed as the first woman to report for the major paper where she works, she still must contend with sexism in the workplace and on her beat. Nonetheless, Bugbee‟s novel presents journalism as a rewarding and desirable career for young women. At least partially based in reality,

Peggy Covers the News contains several autobiographical elements: Bugbee herself was a reporter for the New York City Herald Tribune, specializing in coverage of the

American Suffrage Movement and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt‟s career. Throughout 31

her time at the Herald Tribune, Bugbee “worked to improve the status of women journalists” (Ware 89-90). Peggy Covers the News and its sequels offered Bugbee a creative opportunity to work toward that betterment. Like Bugbee, Peggy begins her career as a college correspondent. Her first story about the rescue of a dog during a swimming tournament causes Peggy much anxiety. From this first episode, Bugbee depicts Peggy as a capable journalist, making it clear that Peggy‟s anxiety does not stem from being a woman in a man‟s profession, but from being inexperienced: “She had been at her desk more than half an hour, and nothing had been written. Half sick with shame, she put her fingers to the typewriter keys. What were those ancient rules of journalism she had learned last week at college?” (Bugbee 16). Over the course of the novel, Peggy gains confidence and her stories are frequently complimented.

Finally, Peggy‟s story about a plane crash earns her a front page story, a by-line, and a permanent job with the Star.

Throughout Peggy Covers the News, Bugbee does not shy away from discussions of sexism in the workplace. The older, more experienced reporter Kate

Morrison frequently delivers news of gender discrimination to Peggy and the reader.

When an accomplished female journalist returns to the Star seeking a job, Kate‟s reaction is pessimistic: “„There seems to be a bad fairy around this place that inspires

[the editor] to think he wants only one woman [on staff].‟ „And that one is you?‟

„Well, you don‟t expect me to resign in your favor, do you?‟ said Kate imperturbably”

(Bugbee 73). Later, Kate speaks to a group of female students at Peggy‟s college;

Peggy hopes that Kate will encourage her peers to join the occupation, but Kate 32

repeats her message of newsroom sexism: “Even the most prosperous papers, and those most generous to women, employ only a handful of women in proportion to the number of men” (Bugbee 106). At the novel‟s close, Kate serves as an example of these hiring practices. While congratulating Peggy on her permanent position with the

Star, Kate reveals that the paper is “…offering you my place. Yes, my place. I‟m leaving the old Star, Peggy [….] I‟m going with Hugo. The doctor ordered him to

Arizona. I always knew I‟d go if he needed me” (Bugbee 243).

While Kate exits the novel giving up her career to follow a man to Arizona,

Peggy Covers the News offers a largely positive example of gender equality within heterosexual relationships through Peggy‟s own experiences. For instance, Peggy grows close to fellow reporter Peter McPherson, but this development dominates only a few pages, allowing Peggy‟s growth as a career woman to remain the novel‟s priority. Though their romance is important, the two spend a great deal of the novel apart as their careers take them to different parts of the country. When, at last, they are engaged and working for the same paper, Peggy expresses her concern: “Think I could successfully combine matrimony and a career?” (Bugbee 251). Peter replies that he looks forward to her trying to, but Peggy presses him, saying that many men think women should stop working after marriage. Peter is adamant:

“Stuff and nonsense! …You love your job. Why should you give it up?

I‟d feel like a dog. I can‟t imagine you sitting around all day doing

nothing but waiting to scramble a couple of eggs when I get home. 33

That‟s no life for a girl who likes to climb stairs and jump creeks, and

write a story no copy reader can pick a flaw in.” (Bugbee 251-252)

In this speech, Peter reaffirms the fact that Peggy is an exceptional reporter; before this point, however, he recognizes that she loves her work. Here, Peter implies that it is not as important that Peggy be exceptional at her job as it is that she finds her work fulfilling. In the novel‟s denouement, Bugbee demonstrates the careful balancing act performed by all working wives and mothers. While she would much rather stay in on her day off and celebrate Peter‟s birthday, Peggy leaves to cover a last-minute story.

Once she returns home, Peggy and Peter ignore the overcooked dinner and the disappointing article. Instead, they enjoy the fact that both of them have an equal place at home and in the newsroom.

As a feminist young adult novel, Peggy Covers the News is promising, but not without its flaws. Though Peggy appears successful and competent in the newsroom, her male colleagues never see her as a professional rival. Because the Star‟s policy is to keep only one woman on staff at a time, Peggy cannot be a threat to anyone but

Kate. Knowing that she will never be able to endanger their careers, the men at the

Star see little need to compete with Peggy for stories or recognition. From their privileged positions, they can afford to offer Peggy guidance and advice, for it will never jeopardize their own standings on staff. Furthermore, Peggy‟s mild appearance evokes little fear from the men; quiet and delicate, Peggy seems to blend into the background of the newsroom: 34

The city editor studied her as she talked, a slim, blue-eyed girl, with

coppery curls and clear white skin that flooded swiftly with color when

she was excited. She was just pretty enough, he decided, to be pleasant

to have around, without being so beautiful as to be a disturbing factor

in the office. … This one was very young looking, he thought. Her

clothes were those of a schoolgirl, dark blue wool coat and a white

beret pulled down over the short curls. She looked incongruously

innocent, unaware of the complexities of the newspaper world upon

whose threshold she stood. (Bugbee 6-7)

The other women Peggy encounters at the Star are similarly unthreatening. Kate is described as “a stout, gray-haired woman in a blue tweed suit” covered in smudges from her carbon paper—hardly beautiful enough to distract the men in the office

(Bugbee 8). While Valentine Murphy is “a very blonde, very dashing young woman in a smart fur coat,” her exploits render her socially undesirable to the more conservative men on staff: “She had hunted lions in India, and had ridden into Ethiopia on a camel train six weeks before the hostilities with Italy began. …She had been married twice— once to a celebrated explorer—once to a sports writer—both now dead” (Bugbee 71-

73). Beyond their appearances and personalities, both women also set a submissive professional example for Peggy. When it becomes clear that all three women must compete for the sole permanent position with the Star, Kate accepts the predicament without question: “Valentine Murphy was one of the best reporters New York ever 35

knew. …I don‟t know whether Mr. Jefferson will take her back or not. Of course, if he does, that just about finishes your chance of getting on the staff” (Bugbee 74).

In its attempts to encourage girls to enter journalism, Peggy Covers the News demonstrates some success. Some contemporary critics dismissed the novel, believing that it painted too rosy a picture of the career world girls would face:

In the inferior novel, nothing is impossible for the adolescent. He sets

his own goal and, armed with great determination, always reaches it.

This is especially true in the so-called career stories which too

frequently glamorize and misrepresent a vocation, instead of giving the

young reader some real understanding of a worker on a job. For

example …young Peggy Foster prizes a job on a metropolitan daily

and, despite million-to-one odds, wins one. Furthermore, though Kate

Morrison, an older woman on the staff, repeatedly underscores the

drudgery of a reporter‟s life, Peggy herself always rides on a crest of

excitement. (Alm 316)

Such critics feared that too many readers would enter the workplace with unrealistic expectations, only to flounder and fail. While Peggy does find near miraculous success, however, she does work very hard to secure her position. Despite the fact that the circumstances surrounding her hiring are serendipitous, few could argue that

Peggy is undeserving. What‟s more, the realistic Kate might actually give young women readers the impression that the workforce does not want them. Her comments are meant simply to sober young idealists, but they seem so negative that they become 36

dismissive: “Why is it…that you are all so interested in newspaper work? You surely don‟t swallow that old-fashioned bunk about a thrill a day?” (Bugbee 106). As dismissive as Kate‟s warnings may have been, Peggy herself demonstrates that young girls can hope to find success in journalism. Despite its shortcomings, Peggy Covers the News possesses a far more feminist message than later career stories.

Written eleven years after Peggy Covers the News, Helen Wells‟s Silver Wings for Vicki presents an alternative view of women in the workplace. In becoming an air stewardess, Vicki Barr enters a career that values traditional feminine traits. Vicki and her coworkers are expected to be attractive, attentive, and servile. Unlike Peggy‟s position at the Star which emphasized intellect and demonstrable talent, Vicki‟s occupation as an air stewardess favors appearance and ambiguous “feminine” qualities. In the advertisement for the position, Federal Airlines explicitly states its need for small, slender young women: “If you are twenty-one to twenty-eight, and single…then here‟s the most appealing job in the world! … Must weigh…from 100 to

125 pounds, and be between 5 feet and 5 feet 6 inches tall” (Wells Silver Wings 2-3).

Although the ad recommends that applicants have two years‟ college or business experience, as well as training as a nurse, it reveals that the most important qualification is an ill-defined personality trait: “Above all…do you get along well with people? Do you sparkle?” Indeed, when Vicki interviews for the job, her “sparkle” compensates for the fact that she is too young and unequivocally under experienced:

“No, my dear. No. You‟re definitely not qualified. You‟re too young.

We don‟t take anyone under twenty-one. …Very charming; pretty,” 37

Ruth Benson muttered. “Really interested in the business of air travel.

Just a moment, Miss Barr.” “Yes,” said Vicki numbly. “I can‟t promise

you anything. But once in a great while we make exceptions on one

qualification or another.” (Wells Silver Wings 22-3)

Naturally, Federal Airlines hires Vicki. Physically, she is their ideal candidate: “She was small, with a delicate, almost shy face, and soft, ash-blonde hair. She seemed very fragile” (Wells Silver Wings 1). In light of her obvious charm, Miss Benson declares that, despite her lack of college, business, or nursing experience, Vicki is prepared for the job.

The qualifications for Federal Airlines stewardesses are simply superficial: they celebrate patriarchal concepts of womanhood. While women in other occupations might prove their worth by demonstrating talent in their field or acquiring necessary skills, being a successful air stewardess requires women to prove that they have certain “inherently feminine” and loosely defined personality traits such as charm and

“sparkle:” “Sympathetic interest in people is the first qualification of a good flight stewardess. Or…of any charming woman” (Wells Silver Wings 21). During the stewardesses‟ training, one of the girls is reprimanded for favoring intelligence over tact and charm: “„I don‟t see why someone couldn‟t get one hundred per cent [on a quiz]. Someone who‟s flown and traveled a lot, and has a high I.Q., and plenty of executive ability and self-confidence—‟… „That‟s a good question, Miss Crowley.

You mentioned executive ability and self-confidence. Those are fine traits, in the right place. But what you need for this job is tact. Above everything else, you must be able 38

to get along well with people” (Wells Silver Wings 64). Throughout the novel, people in power intimate that these most important traits cannot be learned; from the novel‟s perspective, women should take jobs suited to their “natural” femininity. Several times during the training, the skills that the stewardesses need to demonstrate are explicitly linked to more traditionally feminine tasks: “„A stewardess with passengers on her plane,‟ Miss Connor explained, „is like a hostess entertaining guests in her own home‟” (Wells Silver Wings 61-62). As Vicki lists some of the new skills she is learning, it does seem as though she‟s preparing for a career in ambulatory homemaking: “Classes continued. There were fascinating lessons in how to heat and serve precooked meals aloft, how to handle any small fry or animals on the plane, and should the plane have to make an overnight, unscheduled landing, how to put passengers on trains or into a hotel and keep them comfortable and happy” (Wells

Silver Wings 74).

Perhaps because of Vicki‟s delicate appearance and femininity, the men in her life consistently try to control and protect her. Early in the novel, Vicki applies and interviews for the stewardess position in secret because she fears that her father would forbid such a dangerous occupation: “„But what would Dad say? He‟s never let you leave home,” [Vicki‟s sister] Ginny said wickedly, to her mother and aiming at Vicki”

(Wells Silver Wings 11). Indeed, when Vicki is offered the job, her father is especially reluctant to give her permission to accept: “If this is your great opportunity—I‟m disappointed, Victoria, but I wouldn‟t stand in your way. …I suppose while this is risky, you could fall out of a tree right here at home” (Wells Silver Wings 28). Once 39

Vicki begins working, the pilots and copilots she serves soon become surrogate fathers. After an altercation with a criminal on a flight, a copilot comes to her rescue:

“Neff‟s face flushed with rage. Vicki was alarmed. But the copilot did not care whether or not Neff knew that the pilot was radioing ahead for police to meet the plane. „Go to your seat,‟ he ordered Neff. … The copilot put his hand on Vicki‟s shoulder. „You all right? Had a nasty scare, didn‟t you? Don‟t worry, I‟m looking out for you‟” (Wells Silver Wings 175-176). After hearing about this incident, Vicki‟s romantic interest, Dean, expresses his desire to have protected Vicki from the criminal: “„Yes. I felt bad. I thought, „If little Vicki should—‟ Never mind.‟ He looked embarrassed. „We‟ll skip that one too‟” (Wells Silver Wings 185). Though his sentiment stems from his affection for Vicki, in calling her “little Vicki,” he is unavoidably condescending and patronizing; with this attitude, Dean appears less the love interest and more the father figure sent to protect Vicki.

While the staff of the Star in Peggy Covers the News neither encourages nor impedes relationships, Federal Airlines outright forbids marriage: “The brunette gasped. „Air stewardesses can‟t marry? What is the airline thinking of?‟ „Of business,‟ snapped a reddish-haired girl. There was an abrupt silence” (Wells Silver Wings 53-

54). Just as Vicki‟s red-headed colleague claimed, airlines throughout the mid twentieth century utilized a marriage band to protect their business interests. Beyond the patriarchal implications of forced resignations of married stewardesses, the practice decreased airlines‟ overhead costs. Executives assumed that stewardesses would be short-term workers, leaving the airline in order to marry. Because most 40

stewardesses would work for less than three years, many would not qualify for costly benefits. In addition, the high rate of turnover among stewardesses weakened their union, the Air Line Stewardesses Association (ALSA). Until 1968, the marriage ban was an airline‟s primary defense against stewardesses seeking their rights as employees:

Negotiating with stewardesses who were employed on a long-term

basis would mean contracts that included provisions for retirement,

health insurance, and other costly items; and some managers may have

been able to perceive that a union of highly educated and skilled

married women, who had the advantage of a second income, could

survive a long strike. …A group of married stewardesses could

represent an unusually powerful force compared to other unions whose

members were predominantly male breadwinners. (Nielson 83-4)

Quite possibly because Silver Wings for Vicki was written during the first years of

ALSA‟s existence, the book makes no mention of the stewardesses‟ union. As Vicki and her friends progress through the training program, they question Federal Airlines‟ anti-marriage policy, but they ultimately accept it. Awaiting their final exam scores, some students see the outcome as a choice between career and family: “Celia wanted to know: If they passed, would that mean they couldn‟t get married?” (Wells Silver

Wings 85). While off-duty, Vicki‟s friends often discuss relationships, marriage, and the choice between family and career: “Dot teased: „Why don‟t you give up your career and get married and raise your own [children]?‟ „I would if somebody nice 41

would ask me,‟ Celia said candidly. „Our Big Executive doesn‟t understand marriage,‟

Tessa remarked. „She never heard of love. She‟d rather have a desk with three telephones than a husband” (Wells Silver Wings 156). Judging by their conversation,

Vicki‟s friends value traditional family structures over their own careers. It seems that, for most of these women, working for Federal Airlines is merely an exotic distraction while they look for husbands. Their open derision of Ruth Benson reveals that they have little respect for women who have chosen a career over marriage; here Wells also forwards the patriarchal notion that “true” romantic love cannot exist outside the confines of a traditional marriage.

To the novel‟s credit, Vicki herself is less concerned with marriage or even a serious relationship than with her work; rather, she flirts with two men, photographer

Peter Carmody and copilot Dean Fletcher. When introduced to each of these men,

Vicki easily admits to her attraction: “Vicki started to be annoyed at his expert line, but could not help smiling. Peter‟s grin was infectious, and behind his lighthearted banter had as much friendliness as Vicki‟s own” (Wells Silver Wings 92). In her early interactions with Dean, Vicki feels nervous, but speaks with him frankly, avoiding flirtation: “Vicki blushed to her ears. „I can‟t say it.‟ „Can‟t be anything so terrible,‟

Dean encouraged her. Vicki looked into his honest, sympathetic eyes, and suddenly blurted out the truth. „It‟s those awful girls—just because I‟m the youngest, they said I have to—get you to—send me some flowers” (Wells Silver Wings 87-88). Later, when they work on the same flights, Vicki tries to encourage some romance between them, but again eschews stereotypical feminine wiles: “Then Dean came back and talked to 42

Vicki and two men passengers about experimental uses of radar in aeronautics. Vicki wished he had chosen a slightly more romantic subject. But when she saw how his eyes shone and heard the ardor in the young flier‟s voice, she realized that this was his romance. And, liking Dean, liking flying, she made a real effort to understand his discussion” (Wells Silver Wings 112). In the time Vicki spends working with Dean, she appears far more mature about relationships than her older, coyer roommates.

Ultimately, however, Vicki finds that she is simply too busy with her career to start a serious relationship with Dean:

She supposed it was because of working together: there simply was not

time, nor the right mood, to be romantic on a demanding job. Still, on

the two- and three-day rests in New York, when they had time and

freedom for dates, her heart had thumped satisfactorily in his presence.

That pulse of excitement did beat on: only work held it in restraint. …

“No, I haven‟t got over Dean,” she thought. “Perhaps that certain

feeling has even been growing when I wasn‟t looking. But what a time

for me to be thinking these things!” (Wells Silver Wings 166-167)

Despite her roommates‟ assumptions about Ruth Benson, the executive with three telephones and no husband, Vicki finds that career and romance are not mutually exclusive. Still, Vicki focuses on her career, seemingly content to wait on a serious relationship.

Throughout Silver Wings for Vicki, one of Vicki‟s most redeeming feminist qualities is her willingness to develop her intellect and manual skills. Unlike most of 43

the girls and women Vicki knows, she is quite adept at simple mechanics: “[Ginny] watched in respectful silence as Vicki expertly slung the bicycle around, hunting for the trouble. „You‟ve jammed the brake, that‟s all,‟ Vicki reassured her, „and bent these two teeth in the gear a bit. Hand me the pliers—no, the Number Two pliers” (Wells

Silver Wings 7). During their training, Federal Airlines stewardesses must learn about the science of flight. Unlike her peers, Vicki understands and is fascinated by these lectures: “However, Vicki saw nothing particularly difficult about these plain-as-day principles [of flight]. And she had never been fooled by the old prejudice that if you happened to be a girl, you did not quite have good sense. Vicki watched, listened, understood—and enjoyed it. „Bet I could work one of those contraptions,‟ she thought.

Her hands itched for machinery” (Wells Silver Wings 78). Dean also sees Vicki‟s potential to learn more than a stewardess‟s skills: “„Can you fly?‟ „No.‟ „Shame on you. You‟d better learn.‟ Vicki gulped. „Maybe I will‟” (Wells Silver Wings 99).

Earlier in the novel, Wells had revealed that it would be possible for Vicki to earn a pilot‟s license; her coworker Jean Cox did so at the age of eight: “„Thought it would be fun. So I went out to the airport and took lessons…when I was about eight,‟ Jean cocked a mischievous eye at Vicki. „My parents didn‟t mind. Matter of fact, they learned right along with me. The crazy, flying Coxes, they call us. We have two little planes in the family‟” (Wells Silver Wings 42-3). By the eighth novel, Peril Over the

Airport (1953), Vicki still remains apprehensive about taking piloting lessons: “I never wanted anything so much in my life. But I don‟t think I can ever do it” (Wells Peril

Over the Airport 1). Both Dean and Jean encourage Vicki; Dean even helps Vicki plan 44

for the lessons and recommends an instructor to her: “You could learn to fly in your time off between runs. About three months would do it. Couldn‟t you work in the required thirty-six hours of flying over the summer? …If you decide you really want a private pilot‟s license, I want you to take instruction from Bill Avery. …I‟ll write Bill about you” (Wells Peril 8). While Vicki initially acts passively and allows Dean to make plans for her, as soon as she decides to pursue her pilot‟s license, she snaps back to control.

In her lessons with Bill, Vicki learns quickly and demonstrates a high degree of competence. From her first flight, she proves that she can easily master her new skills: “„Want to fly it, Vicki?‟ The student‟s duplicate stick was between her knees.

By stretching, Vicki kept her toes on the duplicate rudder pedals. Bill nodded his head.

„Go left!‟ Vicki pressed, simultaneously, on the left pedal and left on the stick as Bill shouted instructions. … „Straighten up! I knew you‟d love it! Turn right!‟” (Wells

Peril 35-6). Although Vicki has some trouble with her landings, Bill never loses faith in her potential: “„You‟re trying too hard. Let‟s go up again, circle around the traffic pattern, and see if you can‟t bring her down this time.‟ But she just couldn‟t do it. „It‟ll come to you,‟ Bill assured her” (Wells Peril 80). Once Vicki masters her landings, she proves that she is a natural pilot. In her first solo flight, she shows off to Bill and

Ginny: “In her delight, Vicki managed to remember that she must make her best landing ever. She was soloing! Three take-offs and landings were required to solo, so

Vicki came down, landed, took off, circled Bill‟s field, and repeated, smoothly and with only one small prayer. Then—just to show Bill she could do it—Vicki executed a 45

steep climbing turn and flew the plane on its side, recovering neatly” (Wells Peril

124). Later, when a masked pilot damages her plane mid-flight, Vicki is still able to carefully land: “Easing the throttle back, she maneuvered and prayed and nosed the crippled plane down still further to maintain her glide. The damaged wing buckled back several inches. She held the stick tightly to keep the plane as level as possible.

The ground rose up ominously to meet her. She maneuvered. The wheels jarred as they touched. Then everything was unbelievably motionless” (Wells Peril 183).

Unlike Silver Wings for Vicki, Peril Over the Airport addresses the sexism which existed in the aviation industry. This discrimination began as soon as stewardesses were introduced on private flights: “Still, the employment of women to fly the nation‟s air routes was a radical concept to some people, and hostilities to the idea emerged. Toleration of the stewardess concept came very slowly. The men who retained strong identification with the pilot mystique displayed antagonism toward the invading females” (Nielson 11-2). In Silver Wings for Vicki, Dean and the other copilots show affection and some respect for the stewardesses, but this is not the opinion of other men with whom Vicki works. Bill Avery and his mechanic, Spin

Voight, display varying degrees of contempt toward Vicki: “„I‟m in aviation right now,‟ Vicki insisted. „Didn‟t Dean Fletcher write you I‟m a stewardess?‟ „Aw, that‟s not real aviation. That‟s just the plus trimmings. Servin‟ dinner, holdin‟ the passenger‟s hand—” (Wells Peril 33). Because they work together so closely, Bill eventually changes his opinion of Vicki, but he still sees the stewardess role as a non- technical, support position. Spin demonstrates open contempt for any female who 46

dares set foot on an airstrip: “Number forty-seven on the list of things I‟d like to see before I die. That‟s a stewardess who doesn‟t think she‟s a gift of nature because she‟s a female. …Why so many questions? Women! Just what we don‟t need around an airfield!” (Wells Peril 55-6). Even after Vicki proves herself a competent flier, Spin complains about her presence at Bill‟s airport: “Okay, okay. So the stewardess number can fly. I even say, all right, women can fly as good as men. I mean, in these light planes. Men can learn to knit, too, but they don‟t declare a legal holiday when they do!

…Listen…I used to enjoy bein‟ around an airport. But not since the women invaded

„em! A man ain‟t got a place to call his own any more” (Wells Peril 125-6).

Like Peggy Covers the News, Peril Over the Airport exposes young readers to the sexism they will likely face in the work place. Still, the novel offers hope for future stewardesses—or female pilots: “„Besides, airlines‟ pilot jobs aren‟t open to women.‟

Jean Cox half rose in her chair. „They will be some day! You wait and see, smarty!‟”

(Wells Peril 2).

As a feminist figure, Vicki improves drastically between Silver Wings for Vicki and Peril Over the Airport. In Vicki‟s debut, Wells characterized her as small, demure, and feminine. Only her lack of interest in romantic relationships and her mechanical abilities whisper of a deeper potential for a feminist stewardess. By Peril Over the

Airport, however, Vicki is transformed into a self-possessed, confident young woman.

At the same time, the texture and plots of the Vicki Barr novels, like those of most other career novels, were also changing. Unlike earlier career novels, series of the

1940s and later had to contend with a powerful young adult literary figure, Nancy 47

Drew. Because of Nancy Drew‟s huge success, career novels like the Vicki Barr books began to integrate mystery-solving sub-plots into their stories. By the 1950s, when

Peril Over the Airport was published, mystery-solving became the primary plot of these formerly career-focused stories. Even with the added mystery elements, however, girls‟ career stories could never compete with the iconic Nancy Drew.

Fortunately for young readers, Nancy Drew would clarify the feminist image of womanhood proposed in these earlier career stories.

Nancy Drew ’s Enduring Image

At least anecdotally, teen sleuth Nancy Drew remains one of the most beloved and enduring feminist figures in young adult literature. Since her debut in 1930‟s The

Secret in the Old Clock, women have named Nancy as a source of inspiration and pride: “„I was such a Nancy Drew fan …and I‟d love to know how many of us who are feminists right now in our 30s read those books‟ [Karen DeCrow,] the president for the National Organization for Women (NOW) told a newspaper in 1976” (Rehak xii). However, this feminist legacy seems to have been almost entirely accidental.

Nancy‟s creator, Edward Stratemeyer, was well-known for his young adult book series; two of his Syndicate‟s most popular series, featuring the Bobbsey Twins and the Hardy Boys, are still read today. Critics considered Stratemeyer a talented writer and publisher, but his stories were meant only to entertain. When he originally proposed the Nancy Drew series, Stratemeyer was not concerned about women‟s rights or feminism. Stratemeyer merely hoped that Nancy (or Stella Strong, as he first imagined) would embody the traits of a successful girl of the late 1920s: 48

These suggestions are for a new series for girls verging on novels. 224

pages, to retail at fifty cents. …Stella Strong, a girl of sixteen, is the

daughter of a District Attorney of many years standing. He is a

widower and often talks over his affairs with Stella…then, quite

unexpectedly, Stella plunged into some mysteries of her own and found

herself wound up in a series of exciting situations. An up-to-date

American girl at her best, bright, clever, resourceful and full of energy.

(Rehak 1)

While not expressly feminist, the details Stratemeyer envisioned still represented a positive outlook for young women. Rather than be expected to help keep house,

Stella/Nancy would be able to have adventures outside the home. Instead of looking down upon her for being a young woman, her father would treat her as a confidante.

Intelligence, cleverness, and energy—sometimes considered unbecoming for a young woman—were to be celebrated.

Almost as soon as Stratemeyer conceived of his girls‟ series, he knew who he would like to hire to write it. In 1926, a University of Iowa student named Mildred

Wirt had responded to an advertisement placed by the Stratemeyer Syndicate; the

Syndicate was seeking writers for their young adult books and Wirt, already a published author, felt she was well-qualified. Stratemeyer hired Wirt to write for the latest book in the Syndicate‟s Ruth Fielding series. Though Wirt struggled to write within the Syndicate‟s expectations, Stratemeyer was impressed. Even before the

Nancy Drew series was approved, Stratemeyer had named Wirt as its author: “For this 49

series, I have in mind one of our younger writers, a woman who has just graduated from college and who has written one book already for my Syndicate. … She writes particularly well of college girls and their doings, both in college and out, and I feel that she could make a real success of this new line” (Rehak 109). Under the pseudonym Carolyn Keene, Wirt wrote the first edition of The Secret of the Old Clock, a landmark in feminist young adult literature.

From the first pages of the 1930 edition of The Secret of the Old Clock, Nancy surpasses the traits Stratemeyer imagined for her. She is not only bright and clever, but in some cases, an equal in her father‟s eyes: “Nancy nodded thoughtfully and relapsed into silence while she digested the facts of the case. From her father, she had acquired the habit of thinking things through to their logical conclusion. Frequently, Carson

Drew had assured her that she went at a thing „like a detective.‟…„You‟re a regular lawyer, the way you cross-examine me,‟ Carson Drew protested, but with evident enjoyment‟” (Keene The Secret of the Old Clock, 6-7).

Carson Drew‟s statements are not merely a reflection of parental indulgence.

Rather, he derives a sense of accomplishment from Nancy‟s intelligence: “it was his secret boast that he had taught her to think for herself and to think logically” (Keene

Old Clock 7). When Nancy wants to investigate the legality of a local man‟s puzzling will, Carson reflects that this could be a dangerous undertaking for any teenager, let alone a girl. Still, he allows Nancy to make her own decision: “It wouldn‟t surprise me that Nancy has stumbled upon a real mystery. …Perhaps I shouldn‟t encourage her to dig into it, but after all, it‟s in a good cause!” (Keene Old Clock, 10). Carson‟s pride 50

and faith in Nancy‟s intelligence provides female readers with the message that smart, capable women are respected. Such readers will realize that they do not need to depend upon an adult or a man to make decisions for them.

Throughout The Secret of the Old Clock, Nancy demonstrates that she is as capable as, if not more than, the adult males in her life. While driving through the countryside, Nancy notices that her roadster is handling strangely: “„A puncture!‟

Nancy murmured in disgust. „If that isn‟t just my luck! Oh, well, I suppose I must fix it myself, because there won‟t be another car along for an hour on this road.‟ It was not the first time Nancy Drew had changed a tire, but she never relished the task”

(Keene Old Clock, 107). Not only does this passage give female readers the notion that they should know how to care for a car (a task that, to this day, is perceived as a male responsibility), it provides details revealing how they can change a tire. Nancy‟s proficiency with her car demonstrates to readers just one small-scale way to become self-sufficient. In a far more dangerous situation, Nancy uses her intelligence to save herself. After encountering robbers at a home she is investigating, Nancy finds herself locked in a closet with no hope of rescue. Like most people in a desperate situation,

Nancy first berates herself, then shouts for help. Once she realizes that neither tactic will save her, she calms herself and examines the closet:

Then, unexpectedly, Nancy‟s head struck something hard. Quickly

investigating, she discovered a narrow wooden rod suspended

overhead… “If I could get that rod down, I might be able to use it to

break out a panel of the door.” Nancy though hopefully. “It feels strong 51

and it‟s about the right size.” She tugged at the rod with all her might.

To her satisfaction, one side gave. Another hard jerk brought the rod

down on her head. To her bitter disappointment, Nancy found as she

examined the rod that it was too long to use as a ram. But after a little

experimentation, she discovered that she could press it into service as a

wedge. (Keene Old Clock, 136)

Although Nancy is ultimately saved, her methodical deliberation shows young women that if they, too, develop their intellects, they can rely upon themselves in difficult situations. Again, Carson Drew reinforces this idea with his approval of Nancy‟s actions: “No, I‟m proud of what you‟ve done, Nancy. I couldn‟t have done better myself—perhaps not so well. You took a real risk when you encountered those robbers, but so long as you are back home safe and sound, it doesn‟t matter” (Keene

Old Clock, 180-181).

Beyond Nancy‟s own characteristics, her attitudes toward feminist issues such as women in the workforce distinguish The Secret of the Old Clock as a feminist young adult novel. Although Stratemeyer books tended to avoid poverty and the working class, Nancy herself encourages two extremely poor young women, Grace and Allie Horner, to continue working: “„We can get along without the money,‟ Grace said quietly. „We manage very well when I have plenty of work. We‟re a little discouraged right now because dressmaking has fallen off. It‟s a slack season. I guess people would rather go to the store and buy a dress readymade.‟ „I wouldn‟t‟ Nancy declared impulsively. „Grace, I‟d like to engage you to make me a dress. Will you do 52

it? I‟ll pay you well‟” (Keene Old Clock, 69). Both Nancy and the novel itself demonstrate a positive attitude toward women working to support themselves. After

Grace and Allie inherit one-hundred-fifty thousand dollars from a relative, they use the money to build a for-profit chicken farm so that they can continue to support themselves: “As she came within sight of the farmhouse, Nancy was astonished at the transformation which had taken place. …Nancy was piloted from one place to another.

She saw the new chicken houses which were being built and the incubators. But the thing which pleased her the most was the realization that Allie and Grace were happy in their work” (Keene Old Clock, 206-207). Through Grace and Allie Horner, Keene demonstrates that women‟s working is acceptable, not only when financially necessary, but when the work itself is simply enjoyable.

After the success of the first four Nancy Drew mysteries in 1930, the novels began to expand Nancy‟s circle of friends to include two new girls, George Fayne and

Elizabeth “Bess” Marvin. From their introduction in 1931‟s The Secret of Shadow

Ranch, Bess and George represent two interpretations of girlhood in the 1930s. Ultra- feminine Bess represents the more traditional ideal: “Bess was pretty and lady-like and sedate. She took pride in her person and gave particular care to her luxurious hair”

(Keene The Clue in the Diary 2). Of the three girls, she is also the most concerned with weight and body image: “„I‟m getting fatter every day of my life,‟ Bess complained as she munched a sandwich. „This is my third‟” (Keene The Secret of

Shadow Ranch 78). Whenever the trio must undertake a physical or dangerous activity, Keene portrays Bess as the least competent. For instance, when the girls must 53

cross a flooding stream on horseback, Bess is the only one who cannot do so by herself:

Bess gave her pony a slap on the flank and steeled herself for the

plunge. Nancy, watching her anxiously, saw her reach the middle of the

stream in safety. Then, as the waters crept higher and higher about the

frightened girl, she instinctively tightened her hold upon the reins. The

pony stopped short and would not go on. To the horror stricken-

spectators on either side of the shore, it appeared that both horse and

rider were doomed, for Bess, in her terror, made no effort to control her

mount. …Then Nancy reached her and clutched the bridle….Nancy‟s

pony was sure of foot and was now under perfect control and faltered

for the instant only. (Keene Shadow Ranch 43-5)

Later, when the horses bolt during a picnic and the girls must hike back to the ranch, it is Bess, not the injured George, who complains: “„Oh dear, I‟m about ready to drop!

How far do you suppose we are from the ranch now!‟ Bess Marvin asked the question as with a weary sigh she sank down upon a flat stone to rest” (Keene Shadow Ranch

84). Despite these shortcomings, Nancy treats Bess kindly and never excludes her from her adventures.

George Fayne, by contrast, is the quintessential tomboy: “She gloried in her athletic prowess, scoffed at anything feminine, and went to great lengths to explain to strangers that George really was her name and not a nickname” (Keene Clue in the

Diary 2). Rather than bemoan her masculine attributes, George revels in them: “„Well, 54

you sort of pride yourself on being boyish, don‟t you? Your personality fits with your name, you will admit‟” (Keene Shadow Ranch 3-4). In appearance, she is the most androgynous of the trio: “George had cropped her straight, dark hair as short as the style would permit, and combed and brushed it as infrequently as possible” (Keene

Clue in the Diary 2). Like Bess, George sometimes complains about her looks, but her comments always take the form of self-deprecating humor: “„Alice is as pretty as a picture,‟ George supplied. „Not homely like me.‟ „Why, you‟re not a bit homely,‟

Nancy assured her promptly. „I think you‟re quite distinctive looking myself.‟ „You base flatterer!‟” (Keene Shadow Ranch 3). Unlike her cousin, George demonstrates confidence in her physical abilities: “George, though somewhat lacking in grace, managed to vault into the saddle without assistance. …Mr. Miller made the girls trot their ponies around the corral until they felt all of their bones had been jolted from their bodies. Yet, by the end of the lesson, George had caught the knack of posting”

(Keene Shadow Ranch 35). Furthermore, while Bess complains throughout their eight- mile hike back to the ranch, George tries to ignore her sprained ankle: “George got to her feet, but the first step caused her to cringe with pain. „It just about kills you, doesn‟t it?‟ Nancy asked. George shook her head stubbornly. „I can walk‟” (Keene

Shadow Ranch 87).

Despite their differences, Nancy favors neither Bess nor George. When the cousins join Nancy on an adventure, they always do so together. While George may lack certain social graces and Bess may not possess much physical strength, both girls are valuable assets to Nancy‟s investigations. By extension, Nancy‟s relationship with 55

Bess and George demonstrates to readers that, no matter their personality, they are worthy of Nancy‟s friendship. Throughout the novels, Nancy‟s devotion to each girl validates both views of American girlhood. Still, Nancy herself demonstrates that she, the ideal American girl, is far greater than the sum of Bess and George‟s parts. In appearance, Nancy is clearly the most attractive of the trio: “Yet, had a stranger entered the room, he undoubtedly would have looked first at Nancy Drew, for though she could not be termed beautiful, her face was more interesting than that of either of her companions” (Keene Shadow Ranch 4). Bess and George themselves acknowledge that Nancy possesses the greatest charisma:

Of Nancy Drew a great deal could be said, and yet her friends found it

difficult to describe her. Bess had once summed it up by saying, “She

has that intangible something that makes one never forget her face.”

Nancy was pretty in a distinctive way. Her eyes were blue, her hair

golden. She spoke forcefully but never thought of thrusting her

opinions upon others. In any crowd she unconsciously assumed

leadership. (Keene Clue in the Diary 3)

Not only is Nancy more beautiful than the traditionally feminine Bess, she is also more physically capable than the tomboyish George. After only a few weeks of riding lessons, the hands of Shadow Ranch invite Nancy to actively participate in a cattle round-up: “In this, Nancy was permitted to help, but Alice and George were content to watch from the sidelines. With the others, Nancy rode fearlessly into the herd. … If she was uneasy, she did not show it, working deliberately and with cool calculation” 56

(Keene Shadow Ranch 65). Through Nancy‟s beauty, physical capabilities, and charisma, Keene demonstrates that while all female personalities are valuable, the ideal woman must blend her masculine and feminine traits in order to be successful.

Like many sixteen-year-old girls, Nancy, Bess, and George are preoccupied with members of the opposite sex: “„What a grand idea!‟ Nancy declared. „I‟ve been wanting to get to town for a week!‟ „I hope we meet some nice men,‟ Bess put in. „So do I, for your sake,‟ George teased. „Your trip will be a failure if you don‟t capture the heart of at least one handsome cowboy‟” (Keene Shadow Ranch 108). In 1932‟s The

Clue in the Diary, Keene introduced readers to Nancy‟s first long-term love interest,

Ned Nickerson. While at the scene of a house fire, Nancy watches in surprise as an unknown young man enters her car: “„Time to get my roadster out of there, unless I want to go home minus a top,‟ Nancy told herself. Before she could translate the thought into action she was astonished to see a young man deliberately climb into the car and start the motor. Did he intend to move it to a safer place, or was he trying to steal it?” (Keene Clue in the Diary 16-7). Despite Ned‟s reassurances that he was merely trying to be helpful, Nancy seems immune to his “disarming smile”: “Nancy knew better than to judge entirely by appearances and accordingly was not overly friendly. … „I don‟t know what to make of him,‟ Nancy thought in bewilderment. „He looked like a nice boy—and yet these days one can‟t be sure of anything‟” (Keene

Clue in the Diary 17-8). Eventually, Ned convinces Nancy that he is, in fact, a nice boy, but his development as a character proves temporarily detrimental to Nancy‟s own characterization. As Ned and Nancy spend more time together investigating Joe 57

Swenson‟s likely role in the fire, the other characters comment upon Ned‟s possible intentions. When Nancy reports that Ned is bringing over a potential clue, a ring, her father‟s first reaction is to tease her about an engagement: “„He‟s bringing a ring that may interest you.‟ „Not a diamond, I hope!‟ „Dad!‟ Nancy cried in exasperation”

(Keene Clue in the Diary 41).

In the greatest blow to her character, as Nancy prepares to close her case, she overestimates her own abilities and must be rescued by her father and Ned:

Nancy did not wait to recover the electric torch, but darted after him in

the darkness. She realized she could not hold this man even if she

overtook him. Her only chance to capture him lay in the possibility of

his turning toward the place where she had left her chums. … “Help!

Help!” she screamed. … “Help! Help!” came Nancy‟s scream again,

but this time it was nearer. “Oh! Help me!” … “Hold on there,”

commanded Mr. Drew sharply. “Dad!” Nancy cried, and an instant

later, she recognized the second figure. “Ned Nickerson!” (Keene Clue

in the Diary 181-2)

Once the criminal is apprehended, Nancy faces worried lectures from both her father and Ned; the entire episode undermines Nancy‟s formerly untarnished competency.

She allowed her own logic to lapse, and in doing so, became Carson and Ned‟s damsel in distress. Despite this setback in her characterization, Nancy soon returns to her capable self. It appears that this deviation served only to develop Ned in this particular novel. Wirt and the Syndicate did not intend for Ned to continue to have such a 58

prominent role in Nancy‟s investigations: “Ned, on the other hand, was doggedly useful, but only up to a point. He was designed that way, a plan made abundantly clear in the letter Edna [Stratemeyer] sent to Mildred [Wirt] along with the outline for

1943‟s The Clue of the Broken Locket. … „He does not appear…in the new Nancy

Drew,‟ she informed Mildred, „unless you should choose to use him as filler‟” (Rehak

169). Indeed, during 1943‟s The Clue in the Jewel Box, Ned‟s primary tasks are to drive Nancy‟s roadster and physically restrain suspects: “The pickpocket whirled around, but Ned leaped on him, and the two went down together. Nancy and Katherine ran to assist. The pickpocket did not give up without a violent struggle, but the young people quickly subdued him. „You hold him while I look inside the boathouse,‟ Nancy urged Ned” (Keene The Clue in the Jewel Box 206-7). By this time, Nancy is again the investigation‟s competent leader.

As early as the late 1940s, parents and critics began to write to the Stratemeyer

Syndicate‟s publishers with concerns about the portrayal of minorities in the Nancy

Drew books: “As far back as 1948, concerned mothers and fathers had been writing in to Grosset & Dunlap about the prejudice and racism they saw scattered throughout the

Syndicate‟s books, in the form of uneducated dialect for all the foreign or non-

Caucasian characters and villains who were invariably drawn from these same two groups” (Rehak 243). In response to parental concerns, as well as changing opinions regarding race in America, Grosset & Dunlap began a program in 1958 to revise and rewrite the first thirty-four Nancy Drew novels (Rehak 246). Rather than adapt some of the more problematic language, the editors chose instead to simply excise these 59

passages, effectively white-washing the series. For instance, while in the original edition of The Secret of the Old Clock, Nancy is rescued from a closet by “Jeff Tucker, the colored caretaker employed by the Tophams” (Keene Old Clock 139), in the revised edition she is saved by Old Jeff Tucker, “a very tall, thin elderly man in blue shirt and overalls” (Keene Old Clock, 2nd Ed. 116). In the 1930 edition, when Nancy asks Tucker about the mantel clock, he replies, “I recollects dat clock just as plain as day. I wouldn‟t fohget dat clock. No, mom, never!” (Keene 144-5), but in the revised edition, Old Tucker recalls, “Mantel clock? Hm. Why, sure enough! …Sat right up there. Got so used to seein‟ it, I couldn‟t remember for a minute” (Keene 117-8).

Although the deletion of non-Caucasian characters became the most noticeable difference between the two editions, the primary intent of these revisions was allegedly to make Nancy herself more relatable to girls of the late 1950s. To do so, the books were shortened, the language simplified, and Nancy herself underwent several changes: “In the revision of The Secret of the Old Clock, the first title in the series, she was established as eighteen instead of sixteen because the driving age had gone up. As a girl as reliant on her car as Nancy—who now drove a snazzy blue convertible in place of her trusty roadster—had to be able to get behind the wheel at a moment‟s notice without worrying about her license. In fact, her whole attitude toward driving seemed to have changed along with her more mature age” (Rehak 248). Notably, in these revisions, the older, more mature Nancy appears less the capable role model and more the child prodigy. In shortening the novels, Syndicate editors deleted large sections of Nancy‟s internal monologues as well as descriptions of her learned skill 60

set. In the 1930 edition, Keene carefully describes each step Nancy takes to change her tire:

Rummaging under the seat, she pulled out the tools and quickly jacked

up the rear axle. She loosened the lugs which held the tire in place, and

tugged at it. Again and again she pulled, but the huge balloon tire could

not be budged. Then, as she gave one mighty tug, it came off and

Nancy Drew fell backwards into a sitting posture in the road. …It

required but a few minutes to put on the spare tire and fasten the old

one to the rear of the car. (Keene Old Clock 107)

Conversely, in the second edition, little time is spent describing Nancy‟s process:

“Quickly, she took out the spare tire from the rear compartment, found the jack and lug wrench, and went to work. By the time her job was completed, she was hot and a little breathless” (Keene Old Clock, 2nd Edition 91-2). In the original edition, Nancy‟s experience with the tire demonstrates to readers that she has learned this particular capability; armed with Keene‟s description, readers themselves would be able to apply this particular skill. Here, Nancy appears talented and intelligent, but her skills are within the readers‟ reach. Furthermore, her struggle to remove the tire reveals that

Nancy is not perfect. Rather, she too, must work through trial and error in order to be successful. The later Nancy is herself more of a mystery to readers. She possesses the knowledge and skill necessary to change her tire, but the process is never revealed. As far as readers know, this is simply one more way in which Nancy is inherently better 61

than they are. In the revision, Nancy is indeed a role model, but the text provides young girls with no instruction toward reaching her heights.

Side by side, the original Nancy appears to be the stronger feminist figure.

While her revised counterpart is just as smart and capable, the origin of her skills is a mystery. Later readers may find that Nancy is intelligent and successful simply because she is Nancy Drew—white, rich, and pretty. The original Nancy is just as white, rich, and pretty, but her novels reveal the processes by which she finds success.

Reading the first editions, girls of any race or socioeconomic class can learn that intelligence and risk-taking allow young women to learn the skills that will ensure their success. Still, the revised Nancy remains the better known role model. Despite her shortcomings compared to the original, it is the second Nancy who inspired Karen

DeCrow and countless other young feminists; in either edition, Nancy‟s legacy as a feminist figure endures. 62

Chapter Two

In the years following World War II and the adjustment period of the 1950s,

American women‟s rights activists began to gather momentum once again. Feminists of the era approached many areas of gender-based inequality. Some revived the Equal

Rights Amendment, which stated that “Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex” (Dicker 60); others focused on “consciousness raising” events that helped women acknowledge inequalities that they experienced. During this period, women‟s health developed as one of the many issues forwarded by the feminist movement. At the 1969 women‟s liberation conference in Boston, women gathered at one session to discuss the iniquities they faced in doctor‟s offices and hospitals: “women shared stories about the patronizing medical establishment as well as information about pregnancy and birth, contraception, abortion, and orgasm. …Attendees felt a rush of freedom as they found a space to open up about issues that had always seemed private, even humiliating”

(Dicker 80). After the conference, some of the women were moved to form the Boston

Women‟s Health Book Collective; from their meetings, they developed and wrote Our

Bodies, Ourselves in 1970. Our Bodies, Ourselves, now in its second edition, remains an excellent source of information about women‟s health issues.

Published in 1967, S.E. Hinton‟s The Outsiders marked a new era in young adult literature. Until that time, books for young adults tended to be more upbeat with positive morals and happy endings for readers. With The Outsiders, young adult literature began the trend of the “problem novel,” or a grittier, more realistic 63

representation of the real-life problems teenagers experienced. Young women‟s health and reproductive issues offered a rich source of “problems” for young adult novels.

Books like My Darling, My Hamburger and Too Bad About the Haines Girl addressed teen sex and pregnancy, as well as a teenager‟s right to an abortion. Such novels discussed these feminist issues openly, thus encouraging their readers to consider the second wave position.

Judy Blume, author of twenty-six books for children, teens, and adults, unites the earlier, more upbeat style with the popular “problem novel” in her own work.

Many of her novels have a particularly second wave feminist tone, though Blume never considered herself much of an activist: “I am a feminist in some ways; my own struggle, my own need for meaningful work outside the family, before I had ever heard of the women‟s movement, was a real problem….I saw my first marriage go under and I know my first husband blames it on my work….For my daughter, I know what I want, but she has to make her own choices, and I want those choices to be available to her” (Weidt 29). While her novels invariably have happy endings and positive attitudes, she embraces real-life issues like self-esteem, maturation, sexuality, relationships, divorce, and religion.

Judy Blume: Knowing the Female Body

Born Judy Sussman in 1938, Blume married in 1959 and began writing to entertain her young children. She published her first book for children, The One in the

Middle Is the Green Kangaroo, in 1969 and began publishing at least one novel every year for nine years; since 1980, Blume has written thirteen novels. While Blume‟s 64

books for elementary-aged children feature both boys and girls as protagonists, her novels for teens and adults focus almost exclusively upon a female perspective. After the success of The One in the Middle Is the Green Kangaroo and her first young adult novel, Iggie‟s House, Blume wrote her first book to deal with issues of growing up female, Are You There God? It‟s Me, Margaret. Just before starting the sixth grade,

Margaret Simon moves from New York City to suburban New Jersey. Almost immediately, a group of girls in Margaret‟s neighborhood adopt her into their “club,” the Pre-Teen Sensations or PTS. As Margaret discovers, the main aims of this club are to discuss boys and their own developing bodies:

Nancy‟s rule was, we all had to wear bras. I felt my cheeks turn red. I

wondered if the others wore them already. I didn‟t think Janie did

because she looked down at the floor after Nancy said it. Gretchen‟s

rule was, the first one to get her period had to tell the others all about it.

Especially how it feels. Janie‟s rule was, we all had to keep a Boy

Book, which was a notebook with a list of boys‟ names in order of how

we liked them. Each week we had to change our lists and pass the Boy

Book around. (Blume Are You There God? It‟s Me, Margaret 33-4)

In the earlier chapters of the book, the girls focus upon their bras and exercises to increase their bust size. When Janie, Gretchen, and Margaret all reveal that they bought a “Gro-Bra,” which is sized for girls not yet ready for a Double A, Nancy explains how she was able to fit a larger bra: “„If you ever want to get out of those baby bras you have to exercise‟….She made fists, bent her arms at the elbow and 65

moved back and forth, sticking her chest way out. She said, „I must—I must— I must increase my bust…Do it thirty-five times a day and I promise you‟ll see the results‟”

(Blume Margaret 46). At first it is unclear for whom the girls are increasing their busts, but eventually, they reveal that they are trying to fit society‟s adult feminine ideal:

Nancy opened [the Playboy] right up to the naked girl in the middle.

On the page before there was a story about her. It said Hillary Brite is

eighteen years old. “Eighteen! That‟s only six more years!” Nancy

squealed. “But look at the size of her. They‟re huge!” Janie said. “Do

you suppose we‟ll look like that at eighteen?” Gretchen asked. …Our

meeting ended with fifty rounds of “We must— we must— we must

increase our bust!” (Blume Margaret 71-2)

While the girls‟ breasts do not dramatically change during the novel, three of them do experience their first period. The girls know the physical facts of menstruation, but each is anxious to know what the experience feels like: “The film told us about the ovaries and explained why girls menstroo-ate. But it didn‟t tell us how it feels, except to say that it is not painful, which we knew anyway. Also, it didn‟t really show a girl getting it. It just said how wonderful nature was and how we would soon become women and all that” (Blume Margaret 96-7). When Gretchen has her first period, the others are desperate for information: “„My mother showed me how to attach the pad to my underpants. Oh…you know…‟ Nancy was mad. „Look Gretchen, did we or did we not make a deal to tell each other absolutely everything about getting 66

it?‟ „I‟m telling you, aren‟t I?‟ Gretchen asked. „Not enough,‟ Nancy said. „What‟s it feel like?‟ „Mostly I don‟t feel anything. Sometimes it feels like it‟s dripping. It doesn‟t hurt coming out‟ (Blume Margaret 98-9). After Gretchen‟s menarche, Nancy tries to turn getting her period into a competition, while Margaret just prays that she‟ll be “normal”:

“How old were you Mom—when you got it?” “Uh…I think I was

fourteen.” “Fourteen! That‟s crazy. I‟m not waiting until I‟m fourteen.”

“I‟m afraid there‟s not much you can do about it, Margaret. Some girls

menstruate earlier than others. I had a cousin who was sixteen before

she started.” “Do you suppose that could happen to me? I‟ll die if it

does!” “If you don‟t start by the time you‟re fourteen I‟ll take you to

the doctor. Now stop worrying!” “How can I stop worrying when I

don‟t know if I‟m going to turn out normal?” (Blume Margaret 100).

By the end of the novel, both Nancy and Margaret have their first period. Margaret feels empowered by the experience: “I started to laugh and cry at the same time….I had to call Nancy and Gretchen and Janie right away. Poor Janie! She‟d be the last of the PTS‟s to get it. And I‟d been so sure it would be me! How about that! Now I am growing for sure. Now I am almost a woman!” (Blume Margaret 147-9).

With Margaret, Blume had her first experiences with censorship. Despite the book‟s near-immediate popularity some school and public librarians were uncomfortable lending the book because of its descriptions of menstruation: “[Blume] explains: „When Margaret was published, I gave three copies in hardcover to the 67

library at my children‟s elementary school. They never appeared on the shelf. The male principal wouldn‟t allow them because the book dealt with menstruation” (Weidt

24-5). Other critics felt that the combination of the maturation themes and Margaret‟s spiritual subplot was offensive: “Agnes Perkins complains, „Either of her problems— religious ambiguity or fear that she will not develop normally—could be major concerns for a girl of her age, but their connection for the sake of humor is condescending and trivializes both of them‟” (Weidt 57). However, as Maryann N.

Weidt argues, Margaret‟s prayers are not meant to be humorous. Rather, including the two issues demonstrates how important each is in Margaret‟s life: “Juxtaposing two ideas—when will I have my period? What religion will I adopt?—strengthens the overall theme—I just want to be normal” (57-8). Behind this theme, with which nearly all readers can relate, Blume delivers a story that demystifies girls‟ development so that they, like Margaret, can experience it with joy.

Published in 1973, Blume‟s novel Deenie addresses issues of beauty and self- esteem among teenagers. Thirteen-year-old Deenie Fenner has been raised to understand that between her and her sister, she is the beautiful daughter, while the older Helen is the intelligent one. Their mother does not believe either girl should take the time to cultivate the other‟s traits: “She‟s really fussy about what I eat. She leaves

Helen alone but watches me like a hawk. She thinks if she‟s in charge of my diet, I‟ll never get pimples or oily hair. I hope she‟s right. Helen has a little of both” (Blume

Deenie 12). Throughout the novel, Blume utilizes Mrs. Fenner and her relationship with her daughters as an embodiment of beauty expectations in the United States. 68

Since Deenie won a contest as an infant and was featured in an advertising campaign for baby food, Mrs. Fenner remains convinced that Deenie must become a model. Her mother‟s zealous pursuit of a modeling contract places Deenie under enormous pressure: “A teenage model has to make it by the time she‟s seventeen if she‟s ever going to make it big. So the next four years will be very important to me. The thing that really scares me is I‟m not sure I want to be a model” (Blume Deenie 3). At audition after audition, Deenie is turned down because of her awkward walk; her mother believes that Deenie moves clumsily on purpose: “„It looked like you slouched on purpose, Deenie.‟ „I didn‟t, Ma. Honest. Why would I do that? I tried as hard as I could.‟ Tears came to my eyes. „Don‟t give me that, Deenie. You heard Mrs. Allison say there‟s something funny about the way you move‟” (Blume Deenie 8). In school,

Deenie‟s gym teacher also notices her strange posture and movement and encourages the Fenners to take Deenie to see her doctor and subsequently a specialist. Ultimately, the doctors diagnose Deenie with scoliosis. Because her condition is quite severe,

Deenie must wear a Milwaukee Brace until she is seventeen. As Mrs. Fenner is quick to point out, wearing the brace will destroy Deenie‟s chances for a modeling career:

“„But she can‟t,‟ Ma said. „You don‟t understand, Dr. Kliner. Deenie‟s going to be a model. She can‟t wear a brace for four years‟” (Blume Deenie 67). As Deenie is fitted for her brace and tries it on, Mrs. Fenner appears to mourn the loss of her “beautiful” daughter: “Just when I thought I was going to be okay, Ma started. „Oh my God!‟ she cried. „What did we ever do to deserve this?‟ She buried her face in a tissue and made 69

sobbing noises that really got me sore. …Ma opened the door and ran out of Dr.

Kliner‟s office” (Blume Deenie 85).

Over the course of the novel, Deenie learns to accept both her brace and her own definition of beauty. Initially, Deenie struggles with the brace, seeing it as a cage and a deformation of her perfect body. Devastated, Deenie begins to make her other features seem as ugly as she feels:

As soon as we got home I went up to my room and pulled off my

clothes. I stood in front of my long mirror, inspecting the brace

carefully from every angle. I was a disaster. I was as ugly as anything

I‟d ever seen. “Damn you!” I shouted at my reflection. “Damn you,

crooked spine!” I went to my desk and took out my scissors. Then I

stood in front of the mirror again and hacked off one whole side of my

hair. …I cut and cut and cut until there was a big pile of hair on the

floor and just a few loose strands hanging from my head. If I was going

to be ugly I was going to be ugly all the way…as ugly as anybody‟d

ever been before…maybe even uglier. (Blume Deenie 91)

Slowly, Deenie begins to realize that her life with the brace will be different and uncomfortable, but she cans still be happy. On her first day of school with the brace, her crush, Buddy, helps Deenie normalize her situation: “Then he looked at me and said, „I heard all about your spine. …Now I know what you meant when you said you had a lot on your mind. Does it hurt?‟ „No, it‟s just a little uncomfortable‟” (Blume

106). At the end of their conversation, Buddy invites Deenie to a party—brace and all. 70

The first time they dance and kiss, Deenie again becomes extremely self-conscious of her brace: “I knew he was trying to feel me, same as Steve tried to feel Janet that day in the movies. I also knew that Buddy wasn‟t feeling anything but my brace, which only made everything worse, so I broke away from him and ran to the door” (Blume

Deenie 126). However, the second time they are alone together, Deenie reveals that she is at peace with the brace between them: “Later Buddy grabbed my hand and led me into the part of the basement where Janet‟s mother does the laundry. …Buddy said, „Couldn‟t you take off your brace for a little while?‟ … „No,‟ I told Buddy. „I have to wear it all the time.‟ „Oh, well..‟ Buddy said. This time when he kissed me I concentrated on kissing him back” (Blume Deenie 140).

As Deenie learns to accept her scoliosis and brace, she also develops the courage to defy her mother‟s expectations. During Deenie‟s first weeks with the brace,

Mrs. Fenner works with her sister to guarantee another audition for Deenie once she was done with the brace:

“I told you I‟d fix everything,” Aunt Rae said. “I talked to the head of

the agency himself, Deenie…and he told me that seventeen isn‟t too

late to start out at all. So we can stop worrying. He‟ll be happy to see

you when you‟re out of the brace.” “But I don‟t even know if I want to

be a model!” “Of course you do!” Aunt Rae said. “Isn‟t that what

we‟ve always planned?” She turned to Ma. “Thelma…what‟s wrong

with her?” (Blume Deenie 117). 71

Already, Deenie‟s brace has compelled her to reject her belief that her value stems from her beauty; in cutting her hair, she physically distanced herself from the modeling career that she wasn‟t even sure she wanted to pursue. Now, emboldened,

Deenie challenges her mother‟s plans: “„You wouldn‟t let her waste that face, would you?‟ Aunt Rae asked Ma. „I‟m not just a face!‟ I shouted. „I‟m a person too! Did either one of you ever think of that? …I‟ll bet you‟d both like to trade me for some girl with a straight spine! …Then you wouldn‟t have to wait four years!‟” (Blume

Deenie 118). Following her younger sister‟s example, Helen also begins to challenge the future Mrs. Fenner has decided upon for her:

“God gave you a special brain,” Ma told her. “And he wouldn‟t have

done that if he hadn‟t intended for you to put it to good use.” She‟s

telling Helen the same thing she told me about my face! “Oh,

Ma…you‟re impossible! God didn‟t give me a special brain. You made

that up. And you almost convinced me, Ma…you almost did.” Helen

was really crying now. Tears ran down her face and everything but she

didn‟t stop. She said, “I used to tell myself it didn‟t matter if I wasn‟t

pretty like Deenie because I have a special brain and Deenie‟s is just

ordinary…but that didn‟t help, Ma…it didn‟t help at all…because it‟s

not true! None of it‟s true…don‟t you see…you can‟t make us be what

you want.” (Blume Deenie 132)

By the end of the novel, both Fenner girls have begun to assert their independence as women. Despite their mother‟s fervent belief that either girl could be only pretty or 72

intelligent, both Helen and Deenie have begun to redefine the ways in which they understand beauty and intellect.

Although Deenie is a fairly simple story that encourages young girls to accept themselves as individuals, its message has become obscured by the controversy surrounding one detail within the novel: Deenie masturbates. As Deenie is dragged from doctor to doctor and is forced to listen to her parents argue about her scoliosis,

Deenie uses masturbation to relax and fall asleep: “I turned away from the kitchen door and ran back to my room. As soon as I got into bed I started touching myself. I have a special place and when I rub it I get a very nice feeling. I don‟t know what it‟s called or if anyone else has it but when I have trouble falling asleep, touching my special place helps a lot” (Blume Deenie 52). Later, Deenie masturbates again to escape some of the stress her brace has caused: “I got out of my brace and into the tub.

At first I was bored just lying there. Usually I take showers and get in and out as fast as possible. But the hot water was very relaxing and soon I began to enjoy it. I reached down and touched my special place with the washcloth. I rubbed and rubbed until I got that good feeling” (Blume Deenie 129). Although Blume‟s descriptions of the act are quite tame, she also includes a scene which explains exactly what Deenie is doing for the reader. In a sex education program, Deenie‟s gym teacher asks each student to put an anonymous question into a box. Deenie asks about her “special place,” and

Blume, through Mrs. Rappoport explains that masturbation is natural and normal for boys and girls: 73

“Now that you‟ve said [masturbate] let me try to explain. First of all, it‟s

normal and harmless to masturbate.” “You mean for boys…” Susan

Minton said. “No, I mean for anyone…male or female,” Mrs. Rappoport

told us. “The myths that some of you have heard aren‟t true. Masturbation

can‟t make you insane or deformed or even give you acne.” (Blume Deenie

81).

In Deenie, Blume‟s attitudes toward female sexuality are refreshingly progressive;

Blume both acknowledges that adolescent girls have sexual feelings and encourages them to explore such feelings without shame. Unfortunately for Blume, these three passages, spurred another round of censorship from parents and teachers:

In the 1983 Cotati-Rohnert Park School District case, Joan and Peter

Podchernikoff asked the school board to remove Deenie from school

libraries. According to Joan Podchernikoff, Blume‟s writing “titillates”

and “stimulates” children “to the point they could be prematurely

awakened sexually.” The Podchernikoffs objected specifically to the

passages in Deenie describing masturbation. …Joan Podchernikoff

said, “These are things she [her daughter] doesn‟t really understand.

These are things we want to tell her, not Judy Blume.” (Weidt 30-1)

Ultimately, in the Cotati-Rohnert Park School District, Deenie remained on the high school and junior high school library shelves, but elementary students needed a parent‟s note to check it out (Weidt 34). Since its publication, Deenie continues to be challenged and banned in school and public libraries around the country. Doing so 74

continues to deprive young female readers of frank representations of their budding sexuality. Furthermore, because Deenie has been labeled as Judy Blume‟s

“masturbation book,” its positive messages about beauty and self-esteem have been lost in the controversy.

After Deenie, Blume‟s next book to address issues of teenage sexuality was

1975‟s Forever. During the early 1970s, Blume‟s own daughter was reading many of the era‟s popular pregnancy novels; upon reading them for herself, Blume felt that the genre lacked a realistic representation of sex:

“In these books, the boys had absolutely no feelings, and the girl „did

it‟ not because she was excited sexually, but because she was mad at

her parents. And she was always punished for it.” …Blume‟s intent was

to write a story about a girl of average intelligence who makes a

rational decision to have sex with her boyfriend and who does not have

to suffer dire consequences or punishment. As is true of many of her

other books, Blume also wrote Forever to satisfy a need for a book she

wished she had had as a young woman growing up. She says, “I wish

someone had told me, „This is what sex might be like.‟” (Weidt 37-8)

In Forever, Blume follows the relationship of Katherine Danziger and Michael

Wagner from their first meeting to their eventual break-up. As her relationship with

Michael gradually grows more physical, Michael tries to be open and honest with

Katherine about his sexual expectations. In turn, Michael‟s honesty encourages her own sexual feelings: 75

He didn‟t pressure me. He kissed my cheek, then my ear, and

whispered, “Are you a virgin?” No boy had ever come right out and

asked me that—not even [my ex-boyfriend]. I told Michael, “Yes, I

am…does it matter?” “No….I like you just the same. I like being with

you.” “I like being with you too.” It occurred to me in the middle of the

night that Michael asked if I was a virgin to find out what I expected

from him. If I hadn‟t been one then he probably would have made love

to me. What scares me is I‟m not sure how I feel about that. (Blume

Forever 22-3)

As Katherine continues to wrestle with her sexual desires, she and Michael model excellent communication for young readers, even as they disagree about the level of physicality in their relationship: “We lay down on our rug and after awhile, when

Michael reached under my skirt I didn‟t stop him, not then and not when his hand was inside my underpants. „I want you so much,‟ he said. „I want you too,‟ I told him, „but

I can‟t…I‟m not ready, Michael…‟ „Yes, you are…you are…I can feel how ready you are.‟ „No…‟ I pushed his hand away and sat up. „I‟m talking about mentally ready‟”

(Blume Forever 51). Although Michael feels frustrated, he respects Katherine‟s wishes and does his best not to force the idea of sex onto her.

When Katherine and Michael finally do have sex, Blume chooses to depict the act as realistically as she can. With Katherine‟s decision, Blume balances logical consideration in the form of Katherine‟s internal monologues with the overwhelming desires of two people in love: “The next night Michael picked me up at 7:30 and we 76

headed straight for the apartment. I knew we would. Neither one of us could wait to be alone together. And when we were naked, in each other‟s arms, I wanted to do everything—I wanted to feel him inside me” (Blume Forever 106). Additionally,

Blume describes their first encounter as emotionally—though not physically— satisfying:

I felt a big thrust, followed by a quick, sharp pain that made me suck in

my breath. “Oh…oh,” Michael cried, but I didn‟t come. I wasn‟t even

close. …On the way home I thought, I am no longer a virgin. I‟ll never

have to go through that first-time business again and I‟m glad—I‟m so

glad it‟s over! Still, I can‟t help feeling let down. Everybody makes

such a big thing out of actually doing it. But Michael is probably

right—this takes practice. I can‟t imagine what the first time would be

like with someone you didn‟t love. (Blume Forever 110-11)

In these early sexual experiences, Blume demonstrates to her readers that while having sex is not immoral or wrong, the act often isn‟t always romantic or physically satisfying. Through Katherine, readers learn that not having an orgasm is not a failure, but an opportunity for two partners to better learn each other‟s needs and desires.

Here, Michael is an example of an ideal romantic partner; he is disappointed when

Katherine doesn‟t climax and so learns how to better please his girlfriend. When

Katherine does have an orgasm, Blume presents it as an attainable, enjoyable, and natural part of sexuality: “While he was still on top of me, catching his breath, I started laughing. „I came…‟ I told him. „I actually came.‟ „I know,‟ he said, „I felt 77

it…is that what‟s so funny?‟ „I don‟t know why I‟m laughing.‟ „Did you like it Kath?‟

„What a question…I felt so close to you…I‟ve never felt so close to you before‟”

(Blume Forever 146).

Besides Katherine‟s own feelings about and experiences with sex, Blume surrounds her protagonist with strong, proto-feminist women. Katherine‟s mother tries to provide Katherine with all the necessary and relevant information surrounding

Katherine‟s decision, but never asks to know the outcome: “„What did you think?‟

Mom asked over breakfast. „About what?‟ „That article [about adolescents and sexuality]?‟ „Oh…well, it was pretty good. „Did you agree?‟ „With some of it…like a person shouldn‟t ever feel pushed into sex…or that she has to do it to please someone else…‟ „I‟m glad you feel that way,‟ Mom said. „I‟m answering you hypothetically,‟ I told her, „not personally.‟ „Yes, of course‟” (Blume Forever 116). Additionally, Mrs.

Danziger tries to be a honest as possible when Katherine has questions relating to sex and relationships: “On the way to school I said, „Mom…were you a virgin when you got married?‟ …We stopped at a red light. Mom turned to me. „I was a virgin until we were engaged…not married. …you have to be sure you can handle the situation before you jump into it…sex is a commitment …once you‟re there you can‟t go back to holding hands‟” (Blume Forever 85-6). Outside her immediate family, Katherine‟s grandmother provides her with more detailed information and support: “I pulled out a whole bunch of pamphlets from Planned Parenthood on birth control, abortion and venereal disease. At first I was angry. Grandma is jumping to conclusions again, I thought. But then I sat down and started to read. It turned out she had sent me a lot of 78

valuable information” (Blume Forever 122). Because her mother and grandmother have been forthcoming with advice about sex, Katherine is able to make rational, informed choices about her physical relationship with Michael. Every time the two of them are intimate, Katherine insists that Michael wear a condom: “He looked around for his pants, found them on the floor next to the bed, then had to put on the light to find the rubber. When he did he held it up. „Satisfied?‟ he asked, turning the light off again. „I will be when you put it on‟ (Blume Forever 107-8). While visiting her grandmother in New York, Katherine also visits a Planned Parenthood for counseling and birth control. In this episode, Blume seems to use Katherine‟s experience to educate her readers about their bodies, as well as their responsibilities as sexually active young women:

My physical consisted of weight and blood pressure, a routine breast

exam, with the doctor explaining how I should check my breasts each

month, then my first pelvic exam. I tried to act as if I was used to it, but

I didn‟t fool the doctor, who said, “Try to relax Katherine. This isn‟t

going to hurt. And it didn‟t either, but it was uncomfortable for a

minute, like when he pushed with one hand from the inside and with

the other from the outside. Then he slipped this cold thing in my vagina

and explained, “This is a vaginal speculum. It holds the walls of your

vagina open so that the inside is easily seen. Would you like to see your

cervix?” “I don‟t know…” “I think it‟s a good idea to become familiar

with your body.” (Blume Forever 134). 79

In this short passage, Blume is able to prepare her readers for a taboo and potentially frightening event in their lives, their first gynecological examination.

Given Blume‟s frank and occasionally explicit descriptions of sex, as well as

Katherine‟s pelvic exam, Forever remains among Blume‟s most challenged and banned novels. From the novel‟s first sentence, it polarizes adult readers with its content: “Sybil Davidson has a genius I.Q. and has been laid by at least six different guys” (Blume Forever 1). Blume admits that she wrote this sentence to shock readers and pique their interest, but despite the claims of protestors, it does not dictate the novel‟s tone and theme: “What I was trying to say in Forever was that a girl like Sybil might have a genius IQ but she has no common sense” (Weidt 37). Some who call for the book‟s banning cannot read past this sentence; others have finished the novel but still decry it as inappropriate: “When in 1985 Timothy Stafford asked the Cedar

Rapids, Iowa, public library board to remove Forever from the shelves, he called the book „pornography‟ with „no literary value‟ and charged that it „explores areas God didn‟t intend to explore outside of marriage‟” (Weidt 30). While some have found the sexuality described in Forever offensive and inappropriate, many others celebrate these same qualities. That sexuality is a taboo topic in America has meant, historically, that adolescents seldom find the information they need to make informed decisions about their own sexuality. In this case, Forever can provide young women with knowledge that they need about their bodies: “Potentially, children‟s fiction dealing with sexual themes can answer the same questions as nonfiction on the topic, and do so in a more immediate and involving way. Thus it presents a great opportunity not 80

only to provide young people with scientific facts about sex, but also to deal with the emotional and attitudinal concerns that young people have about their own sexuality”

(Weidt 40-1). Just as Are You There God? It‟s Me, Margaret broached the subject of menstruation and Deenie introduced issues of self-esteem and—to a far lesser extent— masturbation, so too does Forever offer a factually-sound, emotionally-appealing example for young female readers as they discover their own sexuality. In these novels, Blume promoted the second wave feminist belief that women of every age needed to understand their bodies and embrace their sexuality.

Teen Pregnancy Novels Before and After Roe v. Wade

While Judy Blume‟s Forever focused primarily upon the decision to have sex, the books that inspired her novel, dealt with some of the more drastic consequence of teen sex. My Darling, My Hamburger by Paul Zindel (1969) and Too Bad About the

Haines Girl by Zoa Sherburne (1967) represent the growing trend of “problem” and pregnancy novels during the 1960s and '70s. Both novels address not only the sexuality of adolescents, but the social consequences of a teen pregnancy in America before the decision of Roe v. Wade in 1973. Each novel addresses dominance in teenage sexual relationships and attitudes towards the then-illegal abortion

In My Darling, My Hamburger and Too Bad About the Haines Girl, sexual dominance is determined by which partner initiated the first sexual act and whether pressure to have sex existed in the relationship. In the case of Melinda and Jeff of Too

Bad About the Haines Girl, neither partner seems to have pressured the other for sex.

Instead, the two have had several conversations about the physicality of their 81

relationship: “We‟d even talked about it when we heard about some of the others. …

We didn‟t want anything shoddy and second-rate. We even discussed it” (Sherburne

36). In terms of the actual sex act, Melinda holds both herself and Jeff responsible; while Jeff ultimately initiates intercourse, Melinda recognizes her role: “It was my fault. I said, „I dare you to go wading Jeff—I double-dare you.‟ … And then…when I leaned over and started to take off my shoes and nylons, he kissed the back of my neck and whispered, „Why do I love you when you‟re such a knucklehead?‟” (Sherburne

36).

Liz and Sean, the sexually active couple of My Darling, My Hamburger, experience a far different scenario. Initially, Sean pressures Liz to have sex. This pressure begins before the start of the novel and reaches its breaking point in the early chapters. It seems that their dates are frequently spoiled by debates about intimacy:

“Now I can tell by looking at you you can‟t wait for the movie or miniature golf game to be finished so we can go park. You think about what‟s going to happen at the end of the evening before it gets started. And you‟ve got me worrying about how I‟m going to stop us from going too far, so no wonder we don‟t have fun anymore. No wonder

I‟m a pain in the ass” (Zindel 58). Finally, frustrated and despondent about her home life, Liz suddenly changes her mind and initiates sex with Sean: “She looked at him.

She knew she had been wrong. She was no longer frightened about building the world in which she wanted to live. The start had already been made. „I‟m not in a hurry to go home anymore,‟ she said. „Not anymore‟” (Zindel 89). 82

After discovering their pregnancies, both Melinda and Liz become preoccupied with what decision to make about the situation. Melinda, a seventeen-year-old high school senior, had planned to marry Jeff after he completed college; her immediate impulse is to move up their imagined wedding and raise the baby together. Jeff‟s reaction is identical: “„This changes everything,‟ Jeff said quietly. „We‟ll get married right away, just as soon as we can get the license‟” (Sherburne 41). The more she considers it, however, the less confident Melinda is of Jeff‟s plan. With some encouragement from another girl at school, Melinda decides to have an abortion. She asks Jeff for the money to pay for it, and though he disagrees with her choice, he provides the money and drives her to the illegal clinic. Once they arrive at the nurse‟s apartment for the abortion, though, Melinda becomes frightened and runs away: “Why she was crying she didn‟t even know, except that she was still shaken from her encounter with D.R. Granger. She had an idea that she would remember the woman‟s cold eyes and the trapped-animal feeling of finding herself in that evil place for as long as she lived” (Sherburne 156).

Liz of My Darling, My Hamburger, conversely, immediately opts to have an abortion. She demands that her best friend Maggie help finance the surprise procedure.

However, once Sean learns of Liz‟s pregnancy, he proposes to her, and Liz briefly decides to marry Sean and raise their baby: “„I told him I was pregnant and was going to get an abortion and didn‟t want to get him involved …I told him I wanted two hundred dollars, and I‟d take care of the rest. …He didn‟t say anything at first.‟ Liz took Maggie‟s arm again and began strolling happily along the sidewalk with her. 83

„Then he looked at me and said “I‟ll marry you”‟” (Zindel 114). Ultimately, Sean decides not to marry Liz, and with the help of an older high school drop-out, she has her abortion. The procedure is successful, but it appears that neither Liz nor Maggie understands how it works. After taking pills and enjoying a dinner out, Liz‟s chemically-induced abortion begins in full-force: “She was leaning forward, her head down. Her hands were pressed against her stomach. Maggie could see she was crying as she reached for her shoulders. She tried to lift her slowly, but Liz stopped her. …

„I‟m bleeding‟ Liz managed to say. „Oh God, I‟m bleeding‟” (Sherburne 142).

In 1973, the United States Supreme Court decision of Roe v. Wade legalized abortion throughout the country; this sweeping decision forever changed American perspectives on abortion, as well as the procedure‟s portrayal in popular culture.

Although novels written after the Roe v. Wade decision had the freedom to depict abortion as legal and safe, young adult novels regarding sex and pregnancy often remove abortion from the decision making process. Written in 2003, Angela Johnson‟s

The First Part Last epitomizes this development. The First Part Last is a prequel to

Johnson‟s 1998 novel Heaven. In Heaven, a young girl learns that her loving parents are actually her aunt and uncle; The First Part Last tells the story of her birth parents,

Bobby and Nia. The novel moves simultaneously through two timelines, meaning that it is as much about Bobby‟s brief parenthood as it is about his preparations during

Nia‟s pregnancy. Despite the pregnancy at the novel‟s core, The First Part Last says very little about Bobby and Nia‟s sexual relationship. The novel does not discuss their 84

intimacy before the pregnancy, though it does include one scene early in Nia‟s first trimester that alludes to past sexual acts:

She‟s everything that I thought I wanted when I take her sweater off

and kiss all the soft places, the warm places, down to her stomach….I

whisper, “Is it okay? I mean, will it hurt the baby if we do it? She sits

up against the couch and smiles. “No. I got all these pamphlets and

things from the doctor. All of them say it‟s okay, just use common

sense.” Figure we hadn‟t used much common sense lately or she

wouldn‟t be pregnant. (Johnson 49-50).

From this scene, it appears that at this point in their relationship there is no pressure to have sex by dominant partner. Nia initiates the kiss, while Bobby initiates sex. This scene also reveals that the sexual element in their relationship is ongoing. In contrast, the sexual element in Liz and Sean and Melinda and Jeff‟s relationships appears to be a one-time “mistake.”

Another factor contributing to the difference in Bobby and Nia‟s sexual relationship is parental attitudes. Both sets of parents seemed not to know if the couple was intimate, but Bobby‟s had tried to instill in him the importance of safe sex: “And didn‟t we go together and get me condoms? What the hell about those pamphlets Mary put beside my bed about STDs and teenage pregnancy? How did this happen? Where was my head? Where was my sense?” (Johnson 12-3). Bobby later reveals that his mother has encouraged safe sex for all her children: “My mom always kept a big basket of rubbers underneath the bathroom sink for my brothers, and when they both 85

left—just me” (Johnson 38). Nia‟s parents are also shocked by the pregnancy, but seem to be more upset that Bobby and Nia didn‟t use any form of birth control.

Within the context of the three novels, the attitudes of Bobby and Nia‟s parents fall between those of Liz and Melinda‟s. Liz‟s mother tries to avoid the subject of dating and sex, opting instead to put a Madonna figurine on Liz‟s dresser as a reminder to be pure; her stepfather seems to believe that a strict curfew will discourage sexual activity: “Get home now….Do you hear me, you little tramp?”

(Zindel 88). Unlike Liz and Bobby‟s parents, Melinda‟s mother discusses sex more directly with her daughter. Although her focus is on abstinence and she seems uncomfortable with the topic, Mrs. Haines doesn‟t withhold information from

Melinda:

“You mean a girl alone with a boy in a parked car on a lonely road is a

lot more apt to get into trouble than a girl, say, sitting on the davenport

in her own living room, with her parents liable to walk in at any

minute. Is that what you mean about the situation protecting her?” Her

mother got a little pink…but she said hurriedly, yes that was exactly

what she meant. …Mrs. Haines was aware that Melinda knew all about

the birds and the bees. She had furnished her with some pretty good

books on the subject, and she certainly knew that the kids discussed

these things among themselves. (Sherburne 9-10)

In addition to discussing sex and abstinence, Mrs. Haines and Melinda have even broached the subject of abortion: “Melinda had talked to her mother about the 86

[anti-abortion] movie, and asked her why it was against the law not to have a baby.

Mrs. Haines had been quite distressed at the question. …She had gone on and on, describing one case of abortion after another, each more dreadful than the last”

(Sherburne 54). Although Mrs. Haines takes a decidedly pro-life stance, she is the only one of the parents to actually discuss the issue with her child. Furthermore, she is the only parent to have any type of “sex talk” within the action of the novel. Mary‟s actions seem similar, but her conversation with Bobby is merely alluded to.

Additionally, Mary seems more concerned with lecturing Bobby about the consequences of unsafe sex, while Mrs. Haines has a true conversation with her daughter; she listens to Melinda‟s thoughts and concerns and addresses them as best she can.

Unlike the girls of My Darling, My Hamburger and Too Bad About the Haines

Girl, Nia does not seem to consider abortion an option. When asked by his friends about a possible abortion, Bobby replies, “I don‟t know. She doesn‟t want to talk about it. She doesn‟t say yes. She doesn‟t say no” (Johnson 40). If Nia had wanted an abortion, the legality of the procedure and the fact that her parents knew about her pregnancy meant that she could have the procedure done in a safe, sterile hospital or clinic. By the time Nia is ready to discuss the issue, she is already well into her second trimester, making an abortion highly unlikely: “„So what are we gonna do, Bobby?‟

„About what?‟ She puts my hand on her stomach and the baby kicks. … „I don‟t want to be anybody‟s mother. I‟m not done with being a kid myself. I‟m way too young and so are you.‟ „No choice now.‟” Nia‟s struggle with the morality of abortion is 87

characteristic of the post-Roe v. Wade society: “Inability to come to terms with the moral dimension of abortion is a peculiarly American and comparatively recent phenomenon” (Ford 135). Many of the characters in My Darling, My Hamburger and

Too Bad About the Haines Girl are uncomfortable with and uninformed about abortion, but are willing to name it, even discuss it. In contrast to Nia, both Melinda and Liz struggle, but are able to reach a decision before their pregnancy has advanced far enough to render the abortion decision moot. Melinda grapples with the issue, but makes her initial decision within days of discovering her pregnancy: “Because if he married her how could he even think about going to college, for years and years? How could they afford it? She couldn‟t even help him, the way some wives helped their husbands through school, because there would be a child to think about and take care of…unless…” (Sherburne 91). Though she changes her mind, this also occurs within the week. Like Melinda, Liz changes her mind as she struggles with the decision, but she has her abortion before the end of her first trimester. Nia‟s first trimester—the time when an abortion decision must be reached—is, however, entirely absent from

The First Part Last. Eventually Nia decides upon an open adoption—an option not available to Liz or Melinda. However, when Nia develops eclampsia and remains comatose after her delivery, Bobby ultimately decides to keep their daughter Feather to raise himself.

Because The First Part Last is narrated by Bobby, the novel raises several questions about the role of the teenage father. In this, as well as My Darling, My

Hamburger and Too Bad About the Haines Girl, the fathers seem to see their primary 88

role as the mother‟s support, which they perform to varying degrees. Sean initially offers to marry Liz, but eventually revokes his proposal and tries to support her by financing her abortion: “He stared forward. „I thought about it, and I don‟t think we should….Get married.‟ …He remembered the money in his jacket pocket. He reached in and took the bills out” (Zindel 130-1). Although legally Melinda had no right to choose whether to keep their baby, Jeff‟s support for her decisions was unconditional:

“If you‟ve made up your mind that this is what you want I‟ll take you [to have the abortion]” (Sherburne 140). Though it was clear that Jeff was prepared to defer his plans for the sake of her child, he found money for the abortion and drove her to the nurse‟s apartment; when Melinda came running out crying, deciding to keep the baby,

Jeff supported that decision as well: “He didn‟t ask what had happened to change her mind about Dr. Granger; Melinda knew he‟d never need to ask” (Sherburne 154).

Throughout The First Part Last, Bobby respects Nia‟s wishes despite his own confusion: “„Bobby, what do you want her to do?‟ My stomach is hurting by the time that question is out of his mouth and into the air. I don‟t say; it‟s not up to me. I don‟t say; whatever I want, I can‟t say. My dad already told me now was the time to shut my mouth. What Nia wants is what it‟s all about. No pressure” (Johnson 40-1).

In 2004, The First Part Last was extremely popular with critics and teachers, winning both the Coretta Scott King and Printz Awards. The Coretta Scott King

Award is given annually to outstanding African American authors and illustrators of young adult and children‟s literature. Regarding Angela Johnson and The First Part

Last, Darwin Henderson reported that the “writing style and emotional depth of 89

Angela Johnson‟s The First Part Last made it stand out” (International Reading

Association 22). Like the Coretta Scott King Award, the Printz values literary merit:

“The Michael L. Printz Award is presented annually by the Young Adult Library

Services Association to the author of the best young adult book of the year, „best‟ being defined solely in terms of literary merit” (Cart “The Printz Award Introductory

Overview” 105). The concept of The First Part Last is indeed unusual and compelling, but Johnson‟s writing is opaque, offering few details that are actually pertinent to the issues of adolescent sexuality, teen pregnancy, abortion, and adoption. When giving her acceptance speech for the Printz Award, Johnson revealed that she had intended to take a stand against “shielding” young adults from these issues: “Trying to write novels in which pain, suffering, sex, accidents, mistakes, joy, love, death don‟t happen is just putting your head into the sand so deeply that you might as well believe—as we did when we were children—that eventually you‟d come out the other side of the earth” (Johnson 132). When properly introduced and developed in young adult literature, these ideas foster an informed, progressive readership.

Johnson does include such elements in The First Part Last; however, they are so glossed over that readers can gain little insight from their inclusion. As previously noted, sex simply does not occur in this novel; readers must infer from Nia‟s pregnancy that she and Bobby were ever sexually active: “„My parents won‟t be home until tonight. We‟ve got a long time.‟ I pull her to me then lift her up off the floor. We step on the pizza box as we head toward her room. I‟m glad we have a long time”

(Johnson 50). When suddenly faced with a possible separation, Bobby and Nia handle 90

the related emotions only in passing: “„My parents are talking about sending me to my grandma‟s house in Georgia. They say I wouldn‟t be under so much stress there.‟ … I feel better when I say to Nia, „Don‟t go, okay? Don‟t leave.‟ She says „Can we go out for pizza later?‟” (Johnson 79-80). Bobby‟s pain and suffering after Feather‟s birth are limited to superficial descriptions, primarily of his fatigue: “I can hardly keep my eyes open in Brit Lit. …I was up all night with Feather, who thinks two in the morning is party time” (Johnson 42). Even his parental responsibilities are reduced to a sarcastic quip: “There‟s ten pounds of I need my daddy, a pissed off mother, and a disappointed neighbor waiting at home. You ready to deal?” (Johnson 74). Almost as important as the lack of sex in The First Part Last, however, is the lack of death. Though her brain is unresponsive, Nia remains alive at the novel‟s close. Perhaps because of this, Bobby never seems to grieve for her: “The nurse came in and turned her over. Another nurse came in and cleared her breathing tube. But it didn‟t matter what was going on, baby; I kept telling her about you” (Johnson 118-9).

In an interview, Johnson revealed that she had deliberately avoided giving The

First Part Last a moral: “[H]ere I am slapping them in the face with teenage pregnancy. But I'm in no way moralistic. I don't write with a message. It's just a story”

(Hallett 1). Perhaps this lack of overt moral is the problem at the heart of the story.

Ultimately, what happens to Nia, Bobby, and Feather does not matter. Bobby is free to bumble ineffectively through fatherhood because Johnson has chosen to remove much of the power and impact from his story. Simply introducing issues of sex, pregnancy, pain, and death does not inherently influence readers in a positive way. Without a 91

moral or message, young adults won‟t necessarily glean a progressive lesson from the text.

And what of Nia, the sexually aware, pregnant teenager? Johnson created a strong, sexually aware young woman, and left her lying in a hospital bed. Unlike many teenagers, Nia faced a difficult pregnancy; however, instead of using Nia‟s pains and fears to propel the novel, Johnson excises them completely. Nia‟s agency never fully develops, and by the novel‟s end, she is merely an object to be moved and cleaned.

For female readers especially, The First Part Last presents a child with little to nothing said about its conception, gestation, birth, or mother. The larger effect these issues seem to have on young girls is that they are denied knowledge of Nia‟s, and by extension, their own bodies. They may now have a legal right to choose whether to have an unplanned child, but young adult literature seems to give only the options of raising the child or giving it up for adoption. The lack of sexual content, especially in books about teen pregnancy, separates the consequences from the cause.

Although predating of the legality of abortion, My Darling, My Hamburger and Too Bad About the Haines Girl offer far more of the details and emotions surrounding adolescent sexuality and teenage pregnancy. All Johnson tells the readers of Nia‟s first reaction to her pregnancy is that she “look[s] all lost” (Johnson 6). While

Zindel also writes very little of Liz‟s first reactions, he uses two notes sent from Liz‟s best friend Maggie to demonstrate that Liz has withdrawn from her friends: “What‟s happened to you and Sean lately? Dennis and I hardly ever see you two anymore. Is anything wrong? I called you 5 times last week and you only called me once. …Where 92

have you been????” (Zindel 93-4). In Too Bad About the Haines Girl, Sherburne likewise establishes Melinda‟s mood and reactions before revealing that Melinda is pregnant:

It was like walking in the shadows, Melinda thought, like moving

through a nightmare that went on and on. No matter how bright the day,

how gay the companions, the cloud was there, a chill thing ready to fall

about her shoulders like a clammy coat, silencing her unthinking

laughter and dimming her easy smile. As the days ticked by and her

unspoken dread grew into certainty, day-to-day life became even more

difficult. (Sherburne 7)

Both Liz and Melinda agonize over the decision to tell their boyfriends about their pregnancies. When Maggie suggests telling Sean, Liz is outraged: “I didn‟t ask what the hell you thought!” (Zindel 99-100). Once she is alone with Sean, she continues to worry: “She felt warm against his body, and she tried to forget what she was there to do. …Perhaps she wouldn‟t tell him. Postpone it. A month. A week. She didn‟t have to tell him now” (Zindel 106-7). After realizing that she is pregnant, Melinda tries to withdraw from Jeff; she only tells him the truth after he confronts her: “„You see!‟ he said explosively, „You‟re still pushing me away, shutting me out.‟ … „I haven‟t changed,‟ she said. „Not in the way you mean. It‟s just…well, there isn‟t any easy way to tell you. I‟m scared, Jeff, that‟s what‟s been the matter these past weeks….I‟m pregnant‟” (Sherburne 32-3). Again, when compared to Zindel and Sherburne,

Johnson merely glosses over this aspect of a pregnant teen‟s experience: “I never had 93

any cake though 'cause my girlfriend Nia was waiting on our stoop for me with a red balloon. … „Bobby, I‟ve got something to tell you.‟ Then she handed me the balloon”

(Johnson 6).

As young mothers-to-be, Melinda and Liz grapple with more in their first weeks than Nia does throughout her pregnancy. By the time Nia is ready to talk about abortion, Melinda and Liz have already made their decisions. Despite the demonization of abortion in these novels, the procedure still appears to be a more viable option than it is in The First Part Last. For young women, these earlier novels provide far better role models in terms of both sexual awareness and maturity. Unlike

Bobby and Nia, Melinda, Liz, and their boyfriends take immediate responsibility for their actions, proving that while premarital sex can have consequences, those consequences can be accepted and challenged by young adults. While My Darling, My

Hamburger and Too Bad About the Haines Girl reflected the progressive views of second wave feminism, The First Part Last is a product of the conservative backlash against these ideas. Although all three novels include teen sex, pregnancy, and abortion, The First Part Last reflects the post Roe v. Wade desire to downplay the complexity of these issues.

94

Chapter Three

Although reaction to Clarence Thomas hearings ignited feminism‟s third wave, since the second wave waned in the 1980s, the movement has seen a growing trend of uncertainty toward women‟s rights. Women born during and after second wave feminism often took for granted the equality that their predecessors struggled so long to achieve. Third wave scholars Rory Dicker and Alison Piepmeier reflect, “We experience hard-fought feminist gains as fundamental rights, without recognizing the efforts that went into securing those rights. We expect many feminist ideals to be a part of our culture, but many of us have no idea whether these ideals are being met or how, even, to agitate for change” (11). This uncertainty informs and shapes gender representations in two of the most popular fantasy series in recent years, Harry Potter and Twilight. First published in 1997, J.K. Rowling‟s Harry Potter novels initially reflect a progressive, third wave attitude toward gender issues. Like third wave feminists, who “[work] to redress inequalities of all kinds, not just those based on sex,” the majority culture of Harry Potter promotes an egalitarian worldview. Whether male or female, white or non-white, magical or non-magical (“Muggle”), most characters in the Harry Potter series are portrayed as worthy, valuable individuals.

With strong, independent characters like Hermione Granger and Minerva McGonagall,

Rowling designed a progressive, third wave feminist society. However, the uncertainty surrounding feminism‟s status in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries eventually undermines such a progressive message . Because Hermione and McGonagall‟s rights as women seem guaranteed, there was little reason for them to push for a more 95

complete equality. Despite the fact that Rowling‟s novels fall short of her feminist ideal, the series as a whole represents a step forward in the portrayal of third wave feminism in young adult literature.

Harry Potter and Third Wave Progress

Despite its male-dominated plots and characterization, the series remains successful across genders. Throughout the Harry Potter series, J.K. Rowling creates a wizard society that is, in subtle ways, more gender-equal than our Muggle reality. The dominant social institutions of this world—Hogwarts and the Ministry of Magic— both have a history reflecting equal treatment of male and female leaders.

Authoritative adults are addressed with gender-neutral titles, such as Minister and

Professor. Though men hold the highest offices (Minister and Headmaster) throughout the novels, women have also served in these capacities; of the four founders of

Hogwarts, two are female: Helga Hufflepuff and Rowena Ravenclaw. Women frequently serve in other high positions, and Rowling characterizes these women as highly competent. Minerva McGonagall, though technically an equal of the other three

Heads of House, is also Dumbledore‟s Deputy Headmistress (Rowling Sorcerer‟s

Stone 51). After Dumbledore‟s sudden death, McGonagall assumes his role and immediately demonstrates calm and competence: “„Thank you, Hagrid,‟ said Professor

McGonagall…“I shall have to see the Ministry when they get here. Hagrid, please tell the Heads of Houses—Slughorn can represent Slytherin—that I want to see them in my office forthwith. I would like you to join us too” (Rowling Half-Blood Prince

625). 96

As a school founded by both wizards and witches, Hogwarts has been co- educational since its inception. Boys and girls are formally separated only in sleeping arrangements; they share common areas, classes, and their pastime of choice,

Quidditch. The school sport promotes co-ed teams, and Rowling seems to use each team‟s gender ratio as a sign of its inherent morality. The brave, noble Gryffindors have a near equal distribution of boys and girls, (three girls to four boys every year), while the sly, untrustworthy Slytherins never have any girls on their team during the years spanned by the series. Girls tend to perform as well as boys do, though they seem to be better suited to the Chaser position. Ginny Weasley out performs all six of her older brothers in that she is talented in two positions: “Ginny Weasley…had outflown all the competition and scored seventeen goals to boot” (Rowling Half-Blood

Prince 224). Additionally, leadership on the house teams is based upon seniority and talent. Though boys held the captaincy during Harry‟s first five of years on the team, no one questions seventh-year Chaser Angelina Johnson‟s promotion during Order of the Phoenix: “„Hi,‟ [Angelina] said briskly, „good summer?‟ And without waiting for an answer, „Listen, I‟ve been made Gryffindor Quidditch Captain.‟ „Nice one,‟ said

Harry, grinning at her” (Rowling Order of the Phoenix 224). While Harry, Ron, and

Hermione recognize their individual strengths and weakness, they treat each other as equals as well. In quiet moments, the three might joke about Hermione‟s different experiences and understanding as a female, but Hermione‟s gender is not considered during dangerous situations. Men and women of the wizarding world also demonstrate the sense of innate gender equality in their interpersonal interactions. The Weasleys, 97

who are given as the example of positive wizard parenting, treat each other with respect and as intellectual and magical equals. Headmaster Dumbledore likewise respects and values Professor McGonagall‟s intelligence and insight.

Rowling‟s most consistent female character, Hermione Granger, shows tremendous development in her years at Hogwarts. At her introduction, Hermione is perceived as a homely know-it-all: “She had a bossy sort of voice, lots of bushy brown hair, and rather large front teeth” (Rowling Sorcerer‟s Stone 105). Throughout the series, Hermione is an obsessive student, constantly referring to knowledge she has gained by reading ahead or through her own supplementary studies. Many peers and some professors treat this characteristic with disdain: “„I don‟t remember asking you to show off, Miss Granger,‟ said Snape coldly, and Hermione went as pink as Neville”

(Rowling Prisoner of Azkaban 126); after one lesson, even Ron comments, “It‟s no wonder no one can stand her, she‟s a nightmare, honestly. …She must‟ve noticed she‟s got no friends” (Rowling Sorcerer‟s Stone 172). Until her fourth year, Hermione exemplifies the gendered double standard surrounding intelligence: “Men are allowed intelligence in myriad forms, whereas women‟s intelligence must occur within strict boundaries. Such constructions allow women some power (their intelligence) but at a cost (they must be unattractive and unpopular)” (Mayes-Elma 93). Eventually, Harry and Ron begin to see Hermione‟s value and begin to ask for her help. Despite their desire for her expertise, the boys continue to mock Hermione‟s reliance upon rules and study: 98

“What‟s all that, Hermione?” Harry asked, pointing at no one but three

bulging bags in the chair next to her. “Well, I‟m taking more new

subjects than you, aren‟t I?‟ said Hermione. „Those are my books for

Arithmancy, Care of Magical Creatures, Divination, the Study of

Ancient Runes, Muggle Studies—” “What are you doing Muggle

Studies for?” said Ron, rolling his eyes at Harry. “You‟re Muggle-

born!” … “Are you planning to eat or sleep at all this year, Hermione?”

asked Harry, while Ron sniggered. (Rowling Prisoner of Azkaban 57)

Behind the boy‟s mockery, however, lies a deep respect for Hermione‟s intellect: “„What does she understand?‟ said Harry …. „Loads more than I do,‟ said

Ron, shaking his head” (Rowling Chamber of Secrets 255). When Hermione faces prejudice from pureblood wizards, Harry and Ron are quick to defend her: “„No one asked you, you filthy little Mudblood,‟ [Draco] spat. … Ron plunged his hand into his robes, pulled out his wand, yelling, „You‟ll pay for that one, Malfoy!‟” (Rowling

Chamber of Secrets 112). Though her male friends are eager to protect Hermione, she proves that she is more than capable of asserting herself: “Harry and Ron made furious moves toward Malfoy, but Hermione got there first—SMACK! She had slapped

Malfoy across the face with all the strength she could muster. Malfoy staggered.

Harry, Ron, Crabbe, and Goyle stood flabbergasted as Hermione raised her hand again” (Rowling Prisoner of Azkaban 293). Her defenses, which include her intellect, seem to be not only a facet of her own character, but also a reaction to the social prejudices she encounters in both the Muggle and wizarding worlds. The 99

aforementioned pureblood prejudice is Rowling‟s way of handling racism in her imaginary realm—like minorities and mixed-race individuals in the real world, witches and wizards with one or both non-magical parents (“Mudbloods”) are considered by some to be inherently inferior to pureblooded witches and wizards

(Chamber of Secrets 115-116). In Hermione‟s case, this prejudice goes beyond racism, but also reflects a subtle sexism. Though Harry himself is a Mudblood, few in

Hogwarts seriously doubt his abilities and potential. The mockery Harry receives consists of accusations of arrogance and claims that he‟s just as poorly-behaved

(though not as talented) as his pureblood father. Hermione, conversely, receives more comments about her heritage: “I‟m quite surprised the Mudbloods haven‟t all packed their bags by now. …Bet you five Galleons the next one dies. Pity it wasn‟t Granger”

(Rowling Chamber of Secrets 267). In light of the prejudice Hermione faces, her passion and drive for learning wizardry can be seen in a new light. It is not enough that, with little effort, Hermione is consistently at the top of her class; because she is considered naturally inferior by a large portion of the population, Hermione feels the need to work even harder to prove that she is as worthy of her pureblood—and often male—peers, who are in fact, her inferiors. Such a reading provides a gentle analogy to the real-life experiences of women in the workforce. Because readers of all genders can recognize how unfair this prejudice is, Hermione‟s experience forwards the notion of merit-based equality.

In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, in which Harry, Ron, and Hermione are fourteen, Rowling introduces puberty and sexual development to their characters. 100

In earlier books, Hermione‟s interest in romance and the opposite sex was characterized as a series of silly, harmless crushes: her most serious “romantic interest” was her professor of Defense Against the Dark Arts, Gilderoy Lockhart, during her second year. As it seems that Harry and Ron have not yet begun pursuing romantic relationships, they tease Hermione mercilessly: “„Why,‟ demanded Ron, seizing her schedule, „have you outlined all Lockhart‟s lessons in little hearts?‟”

(Rowling Chamber of Secrets 95). To her detriment, Hermione allows this first crush to cloud her otherwise impeccable judgment: “„How can you stick up for Lockhart now, Hermione, eh?‟ Ron called through the cuff. „If Harry wanted deboning he would have asked.‟ „Anyone can make a mistake,‟ said Hermione” (Rowling Chamber of Secrets 174). By her fourth year, Hermione has grown from this mistake, but now seems frustrated that her peers don‟t yet view her with romantic interest. As Harry and

Ron awkwardly attempt to find dates to the Yule Ball, Hermione grows more and more frustrated with their antics:

But Ron was staring at Hermione as though suddenly seeing her in a

whole new light. “Hermione, Neville‟s right—you are a girl….” “Oh

well spotted,” she said acidly. “Well—you can come with one of us!”

… “I can‟t come with you,” said Hermione, now blushing, “because

I‟m already going with someone.” “No you‟re not!” said Ron. “You

just said that to get rid of Neville!” “Oh did I?” said Hermione, and her

eyes flashed dangerously. “Just because it‟s taken you three years to 101

notice, Ron, doesn‟t mean no one else has spotted I‟m a girl!” (Goblet

of Fire 400)

After the ball, Hermione hints that she had actually wanted to go with Ron, but leaves him with a lesson: “Next time there‟s a ball, ask me before someone else does, and not as a last resort!‟ (Rowling Goblet of Fire 432). In these episodes, Hermione proves to be a positive peer model for young girls caught up in the excitement of the ubiquitous school dance. Hermione waits for Ron and hopes that he‟ll notice her for who she is; when he doesn‟t, she doesn‟t base her own worth upon his reaction. Rather, she accepts another invitation and enjoys herself.

During the Yule Ball, Harry and Ron are astounded by Hermione‟s beauty.

Throughout the earlier books, Hermione exemplified the common assumption that intelligent women cannot be pretty (or its inverse, beautiful women cannot be smart).

From her first appearance, Rowling notes Hermione‟s bushy hair and large teeth.

Others describe her as plain. When she arrives at the Ball, however, Hermione is both

Cinderella and the Ugly Duckling:

It was Hermione. But she didn‟t look like Hermione at all. She had

done something with her hair; it was no longer bushy but sleek and

shiny, and twisted up into an elegant knot at the back of her head.

…She was also smiling—rather nervously, it was true—but the

reduction in the size of her teeth was more noticeable than ever; Harry

couldn‟t understand how he hadn‟t spotted it before. …Parvati was 102

gazing at Hermione in unflattering disbelief. (Rowling Goblet of Fire

414)

Because Hermione has been so self-reliant, Rowling allows her to bloom, to become the belle of the Yule Ball. Her message is simple: girls who find worth within themselves and their talents are, in fact, beautiful, well-rounded individuals.

Conversely, Elizabeth E. Heilman argues that this episode demeans its female readers:

“The message to girls is: get a makeover. You are not okay” (229). However, in the larger context of the novel—and the series—this is “makeover” is a transient stage of

Hermione‟s development. Unlike the heroines in a traditional fairy tale ending, after the ball, Hermione returns to her normal self and is quite happy: “Hermione‟s hair was bushy again; she confessed to Harry that she had used liberal amounts of Sleekeazy‟s

Hair Potion on it for the ball, „but it‟s way too much bother to do every day,‟ she said matter-of-factly, scratching a purring Crookshanks behind the ears” (Rowling Goblet of Fire 433). Hermione‟s sudden transformation does not make her less intelligent in her friends‟ eyes. While Hermione feels like herself again, Harry and Ron have changed their views of her. She is no longer simply their friend, the plain bookworm; now Hermione is their friend, a bookworm, and a sexual being. While the change in the boys‟ perception may have been in response to Hermione‟s makeover, it must be noted that she feels no need to maintain this conventional beauty. Through this experience, Hermione ultimately subverts the beauty-intelligence binary. Rowling handles this change gracefully, normalizing the idea that girls can be intelligent, sure of themselves, attractive, and sexually aware while still maintaining their existing 103

friendships. Through the first books of the series, Hermione serves as a model for adolescent girls:

Rowling seems to have successfully, thus far, developed an emerging

adolescent who appears armed to withstand the most dangerous gender-

related pitfalls and not retreat into silence, intimidated by the masculine

world. The most dreadful and one of the most long-lasting things to

happen to young women as they reach adolescence is for them to “lose

their voices,” symbolic of their losing their self-confidence and their

agency. (Dresang 229).

With Hermione as a guide, female readers may be inspired to maintain their agency and voice, even as their confidence wavers throughout adolescence.

For thematic purposes, the trio‟s unity begins to break down in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. At the same time, many other elements of Rowling‟s gender equality begin to erode as well. As the story concludes in Harry Potter and the

Deathly Hallows, some of these ideals are rebuilt with Harry, Ron, and Hermione‟s renewed friendship. Others are left unrealized, floundering when examined under a feminist lens. In Half-Blood Prince, Harry spends much of his time working privately with Dumbledore. As a result, Ron and Hermione‟s character development stalls.

After Ron and Hermione cease speaking to each other because of an argument,

Hermione all but disappears from the novel. When she does feature in meaningful scenes, her character is no longer presented as a voice of reason; now Harry considers her an annoyance. As Hermione tries to understand who the Half-Blood Prince could 104

be, she makes a small fight against the assumption that the Prince is male. Bringing

Harry a clipping of a young witch named Eileen Prince, Hermione grows angry when

Harry laughs off her suggestion:

“The truth is that you don‟t think a girl would have been clever

enough,” said Hermione angrily. “How can I have hung around with

you for five years and not think girls are clever?” said Harry stung by

this. “It‟s the way he writes, I just know the Prince was a bloke, I can

tell.” (Rowling Half-Blood Prince 538)

While Harry‟s defense is commendable in that he implicitly recognizes women‟s intelligence, he is still blinded by an assumption that gender can express itself in an individual‟s writing style. Ultimately, Harry was correct. Severus Snape, son of Eileen and a Muggle, was the Half-Blood Prince. Hermione‟s arguments do not alter any paradigm, but rather are a nagging red herring. With this precedent set, Hermione‟s later protests of assumed masculinity read as trite, “token feminism:” “„Well, what if he did finish [the horcrux] off?‟ said Ron. „Or she,‟ interposed Hermione.

„Whichever,‟ said Ron” (Rowling Deathly Hallows 101).

Beyond her “token feminism,” in Deathly Hallows, Hermione returns as a powerful member of the trio. When Harry declares that she and Ron will not accompany him on his quest, it is Hermione who leads the argument:

“No, Harry, you listen,” said Hermione. „We‟re coming with you. That was

decided months ago—years, really.” “But—“ “Shut up,” Ron advised him.

“—are you sure you‟ve thought this through?” Harry persisted. “Let‟s see,” 105

said Hermione, slamming Travels with Trolls onto the discarded pile with a

rather fierce look. “I‟ve been packing for days, so we‟re ready to leave at a

moment‟s notice, which for your information has included doing some pretty

difficult magic, not to mention smuggling Mad-Eye‟s whole stock of Polyjuice

Potion right under Ron‟s mum‟s nose.” (Rowling Deathly Hallows 96).

Hermione also reveals that she has made the greatest personal sacrifice in preparing for the Horcrux quest; while Harry has no family and Ron has bewitched a troll to make it seem that he is home but sick, Hermione has had to find a way to keep her

Muggle parents safe: “„I‟ve also modified my parents‟ memories so that they‟re convinced they‟re really Wendell and Monica Wilkins and that their life‟s ambition is to move to Australia, which they have now done” (Rowling Deathly Hallows 96). In their hunt for the Horcruxes, Hermione becomes an even more powerful force within the trio. In earlier books, she often worked in a supportive role: “Hermione is primarily an enabler of Harry‟s and Ron‟s adventures, rather than an adventurer in her own right. … Hermione‟s knowledge is important, but it is primarily used for Harry‟s adventures, not her own” (Heilman 224). By the time Harry, Ron, and Hermione begin their quest, however, Hermione is an active participant, regardless of danger (or Harry and Ron‟s desire to protect her). After Ron abandons them, Hermione finishes Harry‟s battle with the snake in Godric's Hollow: “The snake lunged as he took a running leap, dragging Hermione with him; as it struck, Hermione screamed „Confringo!‟ and her spell flew around the room, exploding the wardrobe mirror and ricocheting back at them” (Rowling Deathly Hallows 342). Later, when the trio is captured, it is Hermione 106

who is tortured—and put in danger of rape or mauling by the werewolf Greyback: “I am sure that the Dark Lord will not begrudge you the girl, Greyback, after what you have done tonight” (Rowling Deathly Hallows 473). Though in this situation,

Hermione does become somewhat of a “damsel in distress,” mere hours after the group arrives at Shell Cottage, she back in control of herself and talking about her experience: “„It was me they chose to torture, back at the Malfoys‟!‟ As she spoke, she pulled aside the neck of the dressing gown to reveal the thin cut Bellatrix had made, scarlet against her throat” (Rowling Deathly Hallows 489).

In the final battles of Hogwarts, Rowling‟s ideas about gender equality return with the amassing of the armies. McGonagall‟s only requirement for students wishing to fight is that they be seventeen years old. Thus, Harry is supported by most of his female classmates, including Lavender Brown and Luna Lovegood, as well as

Hogwarts alumnae Angelina Johnson, Katie Bell, and Alicia Spinnet. Of Harry‟s friends, only Ginny is not allowed to fight; her mother claims that this is because

Ginny is underage, but her phrasing hints that Ginny‟s gender may play a role in the decision: “I won‟t permit it! The boys, yes, but you, you‟ve got to go home!” Despite her mother‟s orders, Ginny eventually makes it to the battle: “Bellatrix was still fighting, too, fifty yards away from Voldemort, and like her master, she dueled three at once: Hermione, Ginny, and Luna, all battling their hardest, but Bellatrix was equal to them, and Harry‟s attention was diverted as a Killing Curse shot so close to Ginny that she missed death by an inch—” (Rowling Deathly Hallows 735). Many of the adult women Harry knows arrive to fight as well. Mrs. Weasley, in her fight to protect 107

(and avenge) her children demonstrates an unknown magical prowess: “Molly‟s curse soared beneath Bellatrix‟s outstretched arm and hit her squarely in the chest, directly over her heart. Bellatrix‟s gloating smile froze, her eyes seemed to bulge: For the tiniest space of time she knew what had happened, and then she toppled, and the watching crowd roared, and Voldemort screamed” (Rowling Deathly Hallows 736-7).

Rejecting social roles of mothers, Nymphadora Tonks leaves her infant son at home and fights to the death alongside her husband. Even Neville‟s grandmother joins in the fray: “„Have you seen my grandson?‟ „He‟s fighting,‟ said Harry. „Naturally‟ said the old lady proudly. „Excuse me, I must go and assist him‟” (Rowling Deathly Hallows

624).

Over the course of these battles, many of these women are recognized briefly for their admirable traits. Luna displays intelligence and quick thinking, while Ginny and Molly Weasley fight with fierce pride. Bellatrix, too, is recognized for her strength and cruelty. The only woman whose talents are truly downplayed is

Hermione. During the battle, Hermione has the opportunity to destroy a Horcrux; however, she does not conceive of the plan— Ron does and grants her the opportunity. Additionally, when Harry and Ron destroy Horcruxes, the scenes explored darker parts of their characters brought to light by the evil of the Horcrux.

Hermione‟s experience, in comparison, is truly glossed over: “„So we‟re another

Horcrux down,‟ said Ron, and from under his jacket he pulled the mangled remains of

Hufflepuff‟s cup. „Hermione stabbed it. Thought she should. She hasn‟t had the pleasure yet‟” (Rowling Deathly Hallows 623). Because this moment is barely 108

mentioned, Hermione‟s climax within the battle becomes her kiss with Ron: “There was a clatter as the basilisk fangs cascaded out of Hermione‟s arms. Running at Ron, she flung them around his neck and kissed him full on the mouth. Ron threw away the fangs and broomstick he was holding and responded with such enthusiasm that he lifted Hermione off her feet” (Rowling Deathly Hallows 625). That Hermione initiates this kiss is a positive message for female readers, but it is misplaced. As Hermione never rises higher than this moment, Rowling seems to intimate that the female lead‟s role is always a romantic one, regardless of her abilities and contributions.

Almost as soon as Rowling published the first of her series Harry Potter and the Sorcerer‟s Stone in 1997, teachers and parents began to celebrate the books, which seemed to encourage previously reluctant readers. With all this praise (and, perhaps, because of it), some critics seemed reluctant to address the obvious flaws within the work. Australian primary school researcher Sarah Prince argues, “Criticism of the books has come…from those believing women are not well represented in them. But on these issues, I do not wish to comment, for me the sheer pleasure of reading about these brilliant characters having such fantastic adventures is all due to the invention of a genius” (668). Few critics would argue against Rowling‟s talent; however, compelling writing cannot absolve the text of its shortcomings in the development of its female characters. Because the sheer number of people reading Harry Potter, the series should be even more closely scrutinized: “Is [a feminist critique] important, since the books are fun to read and have a lot to recommend them? I think so. Gender representations…both obscure and justify oppressive practices” (Heilman 222-3). 109

Harry Potter‟s popularity with readers of all genders demands a careful analysis of the series‟ implications.

Although Rowling created the wizarding world of the Harry Potter series in great part as a gender-neutral society, by Deathly Hallows, she loses her grasp on this ideal: “Thus, despite the fact that in many ways, Rowling creates a world of impressively emancipated women…still, in the world she creates the nuclear family structure is intensely traditional and patriarchal, and the books, of course, focus on a hero, not a heroine” (Kellner 367). For all their talents, every woman in Harry Potter, remains in a subjugated, submissive, or subordinate role. The most powerful figures, both good and evil, remain male. Though McGonagall becomes the Headmistress of

Hogwarts, she must still answer to Kingsley Shacklebolt, the Minister of Magic.

Molly Weasley, for all her spunk and spirit, defers to her husband throughout the novels. Though Bellatrix is undoubtedly less sane and, at times, more frightening than her master, she remains under his control. Hermione herself is unable to overcome the stereotypes of her gender. In the epilogue of Deathly Hallows, set nineteen years in the future, Hermione is married to Ron and mother to their two children. No mention is made of her professional position or achievements, if any. At the novel‟s close, she has assumed Mrs. Weasley‟s role, waving goodbye to her Hogwarts-bound children.

Despite these final disappointments, as is clear from the critiques themselves,

Rowling‟s women remain positive role models for readers. Most are able to look past the shortcomings of these characters to see the strong women at their cores. 110

Ultimately, while Rowling‟s series is by no means an ideal feminist story, it represents an important step forward in the development of feminist young adult literature.

Twilight and Third Wave Backlash

In the years preceding the rise of third wave feminism, the gaining momentum of political conservatism triggered public backlash against the women‟s rights movement. The “New Right” of the Republican party promoted patriarchal “family values” and blamed feminist subversion of these ideals for economic and social struggles the United States faced: “In 1980, the Republican presidential campaign blamed feminists for rising divorce rates, the epidemic of single motherhood, and the increase in welfare recipients” (Dicker 104). While this backlash has faded from the majority opinion with the promotion of third wave feminism, the anti-feminist mindset still thrives among many socially conservative groups. Stephanie Meyer, a Mormon and the author of the Twilight series, came of age in just such a conservative climate.

Though her novels have little Christian or religious imagery, Meyer‟s characters and plots promote traditional, patriarchal values. Protagonist Bella Swan regresses from an independent, self-sufficient teenager to a submissive young wife. The conservative perspective portrayed within the Twilight novels does not reflect the majority

American opinion, but the series‟ mainstream success means that more and more young female readers are influenced by Bella‟s example.

Rivaling J.K. Rowling‟s enormously successful Harry Potter books, Stephanie

Meyer‟s 2005 novel Twilight and its sequels, New Moon (2006), Eclipse (2007), and

Breaking Dawn (2008), have become one of the most popular young adult series in 111

recent memory. In the first volume, Bella Swan, the central character and teenaged narrator, moves to a small town in Washington where she meets and eventually begins a relationship with the mysterious Edward Cullen, only to discover that he is an eternally-teenage vampire. The series chronicles the exhilarations and the hardships of their relationship, as well as Bella‟s additional attraction to a young man named Jacob, who turns out to be a werewolf, and her desire to become a vampire, sharing an immortal life with Edward. When Bella first appears in Twilight, she is independent and self-reliant. Before they become romantically involved, Bella asserts her self- reliance in relation to Edward. For instance, after Edward saves her from a car accident, Bella tries to understand how he was able to move so quickly and fights against his evasive explanations: “„Bella, you hit your head, you don‟t know what you‟re talking about.‟ His tone was cutting. My temper flared now, and I glared defiantly at him. … „I want to know the truth,‟ I said. „I want to know why I‟m lying for you‟” (Meyer Twilight 64). However, once Edward begins to actively pursue Bella, she seems to lose any self-reliance she has previously asserted. As Bella gives in to him, Edward establishes his control over her: “We were near the parking lot now. I veered left, toward my truck. Something caught my jacket, yanking me back. „Where do you think you‟re going?‟ he asked, outraged. He was gripping a fistful of my jacket in one hand. I was confused. „I‟m going home.‟ „Didn‟t you hear me promise to take you safely home?‟” (Meyer Twilight 103). In most situations in which Edward exercises his control over Bella, he claims to do so because he wants to protect her.

Bella, who has developed an exaggerated clumsiness, accepts with little protest. 112

Edward also stalks Bella, which Bella seems to enjoy: “„You spied on me?‟ But somehow I couldn‟t infuse my voice with the proper outrage. I was flattered” (Meyer

Twilight 292). Vampires, of course, appear as stalkers throughout folklore and earlier novels, though tradition intimates that the stalking occurs only at the victim‟s

“invitation”: “Most vampires can enter a house (or a dream?) only when invited in by a living human” (Kamir 76). The night after Edward saves Bella from a skidding van, he begins to appear in her dreams:

In my dream it was very dark and what dim light there was seemed to

be radiating from Edward‟s skin. I couldn‟t see his face, just his back as

he walked away from me, leaving me in the blackness. No matter how

fast I ran, I couldn‟t catch up to him; no matter how loud I called, he

never turned. Troubled, I woke in the middle of the night and couldn‟t

sleep again for what seemed like a very long time. After that, he was in

my dreams nearly every night …. (Meyer Twilight 68)

With her implied invitation for Edward to enter her dreams, Bella becomes complicit in his stalking and subsequent control, accepting both as a sign of his “love.”

When Bella is welcomed into Edward‟s family and they, in turn, reveal to her their vampiric nature, the Cullens also ask Bella to enter their protection. While agreeing at first, Bella‟s innate desire to manage her own problems arises again, but when she finally begins to act independently, she is punished by circumstance and must be rescued once more. Thinking that her mother is being held hostage in Phoenix and knowing that she can‟t tell her vampire protectors—Edward‟s siblings Alice and 113

Jasper—Bella forms her own plan, evades Alice and Jasper, and travels to the ballet studio where the villain, James, claims that he has her mother. Throughout this episode, Bella demonstrates great calm in planning her escape and bravery in going to what she knows is certain death. It seems that Bella has redeemed herself, until she finds that she‟s been fooled: “„Sorry about that, Bella, but isn‟t it better that your mother didn‟t really have to be involved in this at all?‟ His voice was courteous, kind.

And suddenly it hit me. My mother was safe. She was still in Florida” (Meyer Twilight

444). Discovering that her intended sacrifice is for naught, Bella‟s strength falters, and she must be rescued by Edward and his family: “„What happened to James?‟ „After I pulled him off of you, Emmet and Jasper took care of him” (Meyer Twilight 468).

As the second volume, New Moon, opens, Bella and Edward‟s relationship is as exclusive as it was at Twilight‟s close; Bella‟s time is completely monopolized by

Edward and his needs. When Edward unexpectedly breaks up with Bella and his family moves away, Bella‟s depression isolates her from all human contact. Even without Edward‟s physical presence, Bella cannot help but be controlled by him. In moments of danger, Bella finds that she can hear Edward‟s pleas and warnings:

“„Bella, stop this right now!‟ …It was his voice” (Meyer New Moon 111). After the initial experience, Bella begins to seek out dangerous situations in order to fulfill her need to hear his voice. Throughout these episodes, she remains aware of the risks she‟s taking: “It clicked for me then. I wanted to be stupid and reckless” (Meyer New

Moon 127). In order to experience a stronger adrenaline rush, Bella buys a motorcycle; when she falls from it, she considers the voice‟s reaction a reward: “More than fine. 114

The voice in my head was back. It still rang in my ears—soft, velvety echoes” (Meyer

New Moon 185). Bella‟s most dangerous stunt, cliff diving, seems to bring her the most pleasure: “I knew that this was the stupidest, most reckless thing I had done yet.

The thought made me smile. The pain was already easing, as if my body knew that

Edward was just seconds away….” (Meyer New Moon 358). Notably, the voice— which is not actually Edward at all—seems to try to exert its own control over Bella:

“„Go home to Charlie,‟ the voice ordered” (Meyer New Moon 186). Granted, in these situations, the voice‟s orders truly are in Bella‟s best interest, but they also offer an interesting parallel to Edward‟s “protection.” Again, the voice is not Edward, and so he is not actually controlling her throughout these episodes. However, Bella has become obsessed with the concept of Edward and repeatedly endangers her own life to experience it. She has handed her agency over to her own delusions.

When Edward and Bella are reunited, Edward is apologetic and relieved. Soon after, though, Edward begins to manipulate Bella‟s emotions so that he might once again control the relationship. When he explains his actions, though, Edward abdicates any responsibility and blames Bella: “„But how could you believe me? After all the thousand times I‟ve told you I love you, how could you let one word break your faith in me? … I could see in your eyes, that you honestly believed that I didn‟t want you anymore. The most absurd, ridiculous concept—as if there were any way that I could exist without needing you! …Bella,‟ he sighed. „Really, what were you thinking!”

(Meyer New Moon 510). Once Bella apologizes for believing that Edward was 115

breaking up with her (when he was, in fact, breaking up with her), their relationship returns to its normal balance of masculine control and feminine submission.

Beginning in New Moon, Bella falls under the control of her dear friend Jacob

Black (later revealed to be a werewolf), in addition to Edward and the voice. During

Edward‟s absence, Jacob‟s home on the La Push reservation becomes Bella‟s refuge.

Once Edward returns, both he and Jacob become highly possessive of Bella, each trying to prevent the other from seeing her at all. When Bella makes it clear that she will continue to date Edward and maintain a friendship with Jacob, Jacob refuses to leave the reservation and enter Edward‟s “territory.” To see Jacob, Bella must deceive

Edward and avoid his sister Alice‟s psychic ability. Despite her precautions, Bella is still “in trouble” with Edward when she returns from the reservation: “„That‟s ridiculous. I mean, I know [Alice] couldn‟t see me with Jacob, but you should have known—‟ „But I didn‟t,‟ he broke in. „And you can‟t expect me to let you—‟ „Oh yes

I can,‟ I interrupted him. „That‟s exactly what I expect—‟ „This won‟t happen again‟”

(Meyer Eclipse 142). After this exchange, whenever Edward must leave Forks, he arranges to have Alice babysit Bella so that she won‟t visit Jacob: “„All the boys went, and we‟re having a slumber party!‟ [Alice] announced in a trilling, singsong voice. …

„You‟re kidnapping me, aren‟t you?‟ She laughed and nodded. … „Sorry,‟ Alice said, not sounding the least bit penitent. „[Edward] paid me off‟” (Meyer Eclipse 145).

Eventually, Edward decides to call a truce in regards to Jacob:

“I realized that you were right. My problem was more about my

…prejudice against werewolves than anything else. I‟m going to try to 116

be more reasonable and trust your judgment. If you say it‟s safe, then

I‟ll believe you.” “Wow.” “And…most importantly…I‟m not willing to

let this drive a wedge between us.” (Meyer Eclipse 190)

After this agreement, Edward begins to rescind his control over Bella. Most dramatically, he allows Jacob to warm her while waiting out the battle between the renegade vampires Victoria and Riley and the Cullens and werewolves: “Edward hesitated, then his hand fell away and he slid back to his position in the corner. His voice was flat and frightening. „Watch yourself.‟ Jacob chuckled. „Scoot over, Bella, he said, unzipping the sleeping bag open farther‟” (Meyer New Moon 490-1).The more

Edward accepts Bella‟s friendship with Jacob, the less he exercises complete control over her.

Since the vampire appeared in folklore, and as it developed in literature, the creature has been associated with intimacy, often of the forbidden or perverse variety:

“The bloodsucking implies the woman‟s lack of sexual virtue (loss of virginity), her sexual punishment (rape), and incest (sexual „breast-feeding‟)” (Kamir 78).

Throughout Twilight, Meyer uses Edward‟s “natural” need to drink Bella‟s blood as a symbol of his sexuality. To curb his need to drink, Edward must show great control in touching Bella at all. Thus, their contact is limited to a few chaste kisses. Edward, who cannot remember the sensation of human sexual desire, equates it to hunger, indicating its danger: “There are other hungers. Hungers I don‟t even understand, that are foreign to me” (Meyer Twilight 278). Whenever Bella shows any kind of sexual expression,

Edward rejects her: “Sweet, delicious, the scent made my mouth water. It was unlike 117

anything else. Instinctively, unthinkingly, I leaned closer, inhaling. And he was gone, his hand ripped from mine. … „I‟m…sorry…Edward,‟ I whispered” (Meyer Twilight

263). As their relationship becomes relatively more physical, Bella believes that her desire for sexual experience is wrong: “There was really no excuse for my behavior.

Obviously I knew better by now. And yet I couldn‟t seem to stop from reacting exactly as I had the first time. Instead of keeping safely motionless, my arms reached up to twine tightly around his neck, and I was suddenly welded to his stone figure. I sighed, and my lips parted” (Meyer Twilight 363). Over the course of these incidents,

Bella‟s sexuality is forced into sublimation and vilified if she loses control. Meyer argues that this is for Bella‟s safety, that Edward will drink her blood if she reacts any differently. But the reader, like Bella, never actually believes that Edward would harm her. Without this danger, all that remains is a girl whose own boyfriend has forbidden her sexual expression.

Beginning in Twilight, Bella expresses her desire to become a vampire. To appease her, Edward agrees conditionally; he will make her a vampire only after she marries him. For the first time, Bella truly balks at Edward‟s desires: “„Oh, c‟mon,‟ I said, an edge of hysteria in my voice. „I‟m only eighteen. …Look, marriage isn‟t exactly that high on my list of priorities, you know? It was sort of the kiss of death for

[my parents]” (Meyer New Moon 540). Bella frequently reflects upon her impending marriage and the irony of that situation: “Sometimes I wondered if he was only pretending that he couldn‟t read my mind. How else had he struck upon the one condition that I would have trouble accepting? The one condition that would slow me 118

down” (Meyer Eclipse 94). In this instance, the independent Bella from the opening of

Twilight reappears with healthy views of marriage: “…smart people took marriage seriously. Mature people went to college and started careers before they got deeply involved in a relationship” (Meyer Eclipse 45-6). Throughout Eclipse, Bella struggles with her desire to become a vampire—being with Edward for all eternity—and legally marrying him. Though Bella‟s desire for self-reliance before marriage has a refreshingly feminist perspective, in asking to become a vampire, Bella has already pledged her life to Edward. Of the two outcomes, marriage is the less permanent. This flaw in Bella‟s logic diminishes the pro-feminist understanding of marriage, making it seem contrived.

At the same time, Bella is discovering her sexuality and realizes that she wants to experience sex as a human before becoming a vampire. Once again, the theme of wrongful female sexuality returns with Edward‟s reactions: “„We‟re not having this discussion.‟ He glared at me as he refastened the two buttons I‟d managed to open”

(Meyer Eclipse 443). As Eclipse ends and Breaking Dawn begins, Bella begins to see power in her sexuality. By agreeing to wait until they are married to have sex—but be made a vampire only after the honeymoon—Bella succeeds in hastening her timeline:

“„You know this will speed things up‟”(Meyer Eclipse 455). Once Bella and Edward arrive on their honeymoon isle, Meyer reintroduces physical intimacy to the reader. At last, sex is portrayed as a natural (if awkward) act, rather than a shameful one: “And I wasn‟t freaking out because I thought we were making a mistake. Not at all. I was freaking out because I had no idea how to do this, and I was afraid to walk out of this 119

room and face the unknown. …This moment was so perfect, so right, there was no way to doubt it” (Meyer Breaking Dawn 83-5).

Despite their legal marriage, Bella and Edward do not feel that they are sexual equals until they are joined again by Edward‟s making Bella a vampire. After her transformation, Bella discovers the full extent of physical intimacy: “He was all new, a different person as our bodies angled gracefully into one on the sand-pale floor. No caution, no restraint. No fear—especially not that. We could love together—both active participants now. Finally equals” (Meyer Breaking Dawn 482). As Breaking

Dawn ends, Meyer also implies that intellectual intimacy cannot be achieved outside of marriage any more than the physical variety can: “I knew it was working, so I concentrated even harder, dredging up the specific memories I‟d saved for this moment, letting them flood my mind, and hopefully his as well. …„I heard you,‟ he breathed” (Meyer Breaking Dawn 753). By equating marriage to both intellectual and physical intimacy, Meyer encourages her readers to embrace a conservative understanding of female sexuality. Meyer‟s abstinence-before-marriage message also vilifies the female body and its urges. Bella understands very little about her own physicality and feels overwhelmed by the unknown surrounding sex.

During the honeymoon, Meyer introduces pregnancy and abortion issues to the narrative. Bella is shocked to discover her pregnancy so quickly and is initially overwhelmed by her options. Once she decides to keep her baby, Bella‟s decision becomes the intersection of two unhealthy views of a woman‟s reproductive rights.

Edward, Carlisle, and Jacob all clearly want Bella to have an abortion for her own 120

safety, as they believe that the half-vampire fetus is killing her: “„So why hasn‟t

Carlisle done anything?‟ [Jacob] growled. „He‟s a doctor, right? Get it out of her‟”

(Meyer Breaking Dawn 177). Jacob goes so far as to suggest that they abort the fetus by force: “Just back up a second. She won‟t let you? … Did you ever notice that she‟s exactly as strong as a normal hundred-and-ten-pound human girl? How stupid are you vamps? Hold her down and knock her out with drugs” (Meyer Breaking Dawn 178).

Edward himself reveals that he has only called upon Jacob because he wants Jacob to manipulate Bella into agreeing to the abortion: “She won‟t listen to me, because she thinks I‟m underestimating her. She thinks she‟s strong enough for this. …She might listen to you” (Meyer Breaking Dawn 180). Of course, no woman should be forced into a decision about her reproductive future by others. In this light, Edward, Jacob, and Carlisle are in the wrong for trying to force Bella to have an abortion. However, they are so adamant about this procedure because the baby is quite literally killing

Bella from the inside out. In reality, many people morally opposed to abortion still believe that the procedure is acceptable if the pregnancy or birth puts the mother‟s life in danger. Meyer, however, seems to want the reader to side with Bella, who will risk her life for the unborn Renesmee. Considering the underhanded tactics of Carlisle,

Edward, and Jacob, who so desire this abortion, it is little wonder that Meyer is largely successful at a surface level. Her depiction of a pro-abortion position characterizes it as manipulative, untrusting of women, and forced upon Bella by powerful men in her life. Such negativity nudges unsuspecting or undecided readers toward an anti- abortion stance. 121

Early in her pregnancy, Bella narrates her emotions and experiences: “As I put my hand on my stomach, waiting for the next nudge, tears streaked down my cheeks again” (Meyer Breaking Dawn 132). Soon after this episode, however, the narration changes—for the first time in the series—to Jacob‟s perspective. Readers must experience Bella‟s pregnancy through a male gaze: “Bella‟s body was swollen, her torso ballooning out in a strange, sick way. …It took me a second to realize what the deformed part was—I didn‟t understand until she folded her hands tenderly around her bloated stomach, one above and one below” (Meyer Breaking Dawn 174).

Furthermore, women are completely removed from the birth itself. As Bella goes into labor, we see through Jacob‟s eyes as Rosalie prepares to deliver the baby via C- section:

Rosalie‟s hand came up with a scalpel. “Let the morphine spread!”

Edward shouted at her. “There‟s no time,” Rosalie hissed. “He‟s

dying!” Her hand came down on Bella‟s stomach, and vivid red spurted

out from where she pierced the skin. It was like a bucket being turned

over, a faucet twisted to full. Bella jerked, but didn‟t scream. She was

still choking. And then Rosalie lost her focus. I saw the expression on

her face shift, saw her lips pull back from her teeth and her black eyes

glint with thirst. (Meyer Breaking Dawn 350)

Once Rosalie leaves to avoid drinking from Bella, only Edward and Jacob remain to deliver the baby. Continuing his narration, Jacob gives Bella CPR throughout the delivery, while Edward takes over surgical duty: “The next sound jolted through me, 122

unexpected, terrifying. Like metal being shredded apart. …I glanced over to see

Edward‟s face pressed against the bulge. Vampire teeth—a sure way to cut through vampire skin” (Meyer Breaking Dawn 351-2). Throughout the birth, Bella is barely aware of what is happening to her. Once the narrative shifts back to Bella‟s perspective, she recalls her labor experience: “My lungs ached, oxygen burned away.

The pain faded away again, though I clung to is now. My baby, my baby, dying….”

(Meyer Breaking Dawn 371). Bella‟s next memory doesn‟t begin until after Renesmee is born. In these narrative and plot choices, Meyer effectively removes the female perspective from one of the most uniquely female experiences, pregnancy and childbirth. Bella, overcome with pain, falls unconscious. The remaining female figure,

Rosalie is removed because she will endanger Bella and Renesmee. What remains is a male-dominated birth, told from a male perspective.

Beyond the oppressive relationship Edward has with Bella, the Twilight saga demonstrates myriad gender inequalities, particularly surrounding fertility. Soon after her marriage to Edward, Bella realizes that only male vampires are fertile: “Of course

Rosalie could not conceive a child, because she was frozen in the state in which she passed from human to inhuman. Totally unchanging. And human women‟s bodies had to change to bear children. …Men had no such thing as child-bearing years or cycles of fertility” (Meyer Breaking Dawn 126). Leah, the only female werewolf among

Jacob‟s group, reveals that she suffers from a similar “lack of change:”

And then, when the weeks dragged on and nothing turned into more

nothing, she‟d realized her body wasn‟t following the normal patterns 123

anymore. The horror—what was she now? Had her body changed

because she‟d become a werewolf? Or had she become a werewolf

because her body was wrong? The only female werewolf in the history

of forever. Was that because she wasn‟t as female as she should be?

(Meyer Breaking Dawn 318)

Because the werewolf trait is passed genetically, it is obvious that male werewolves remain fertile despite their physical changes. Even among the rare half-vampires, traits seem assigned by gender; Nahuel, a half-vampire with the ability to create immortals, explains, “My sisters are not venomous, but whether that‟s due to gender or random chance…who knows?” (Meyer Breaking Dawn 737). Because Renesmee, the child of a pre-vampiric Bella and the vampire Edward, is a female half-vampire as well as non- venomous, it appears that Meyer is, in fact, linking another trait to masculinity and the male gender.

Despite its patriarchal overtones, the Twilight saga became the one of the most popular and successful franchises of the 2000s. All four novels broke the top five of the New York Times bestseller list, while the first three movies have grossed nearly $8 million. Academic publications, including the Journal for Adolescent and Adult

Literacy, have published glowing reviews: “Although the content [of Twilight] is appropriate for younger readers (anyone old enough to handle the basic idea of vampires), many adults have confessed that they enjoyed the book and have found nothing in it to suggest that it should be restricted to an adolescent audience. …This is a fantastic novel, and Meyer is developing quite a following” (Blasingame 633). The 124

positive fervor surrounding Meyer‟s novels appears mysterious considering the intensely anti-feminist themes within them. Propelling the novels‟ success is the familiar literary convention, escapism. Like any fantasy novels, the Twilight saga is inherently escapist: “Fantasy allows readers to escape the mundane and to revel in glorious adventures” (Donelson and Nilsen 201-2). Though Bella‟s human life is mundane, her contact with super strong and preternaturally beautiful vampires and werewolves allows her—and by extension, the reader—to experience extraordinary adventures. Beyond the fantastic, however, the Twilight saga is laden with tropes of another escapist genre: romance literature. Bella‟s relationship with Edward follows the conventions of the ideal romance as Radway as delineated them: “Although the women are unusually defiant in that they are capable of successfully opposing men, they are also characterized by childlike innocence and inexperience. Most of the heroines, in fact, are seventeen to twenty” (Radway 126). Bella, as a high school senior, immediately fits the ideal age range. Besides her early confrontation with

Edward, she continues to successfully oppose the men in her life, particularly her father: “I stared straight into [Charlie‟s] eyes. „I meant, “Fine, I‟ll move out.”‟….

„Dad, I don‟t want to move out… but you need to trust me on this. And you‟re going to have to ease up on Edward if you want me to stay. Do you want me to live here or not?‟” (Meyer New Moon 545). Despite this strength and manipulative power over her law-enforcement officer father, when she is outside the human realm, Bella acts like and is treated as a child. Her innocence also translates to her submission to Edward, another trait favored by adult romance readers: 125

These women are telling themselves a story whose central view is one

of total surrender where all danger has been expunged, thus permitting

the heroine to relinquish self-control. Passivity is at the heart of the

romance experience in the sense that the final goal of each narrative is

the creation of that perfect union, where the ideal male, who is

masculine and strong yet nuturant too, finally recognizes the intrinsic

worth of the heroine. (Radway 97).

Although both Edward and Jacob recognize Bella‟s intrinsic worth almost immediately, their attempts to control her are easily integrated into the romance code.

Bella‟s passivity, in this light, is indicative of her desire to join her ideal man.

Because the Twilight series is essentially escapist, some may find that its anti- feminist themes lose their power over the reader. In some situations, this is certainly true, but such a loss depends upon the individual reader. As Radway claims, “Reading to escape the present is neither a new behavior, nor one particular to women who read romances” (89). Rather, most readers engage in escapist reading throughout their lives: “For some readers (perhaps for all readers at certain times) escape is all that‟s demanded [from a fantasy novel]” (Donelson and Nilsen 202). In the case of the

Twilight saga, however, escapism does not absolve the novels of their shortcomings; the escapism present allows its patriarchal ideals to subtly influence young readers. An important aspect of adult romance reading is the reader‟s knowledge that the “reality” proposed in such novels is not present or necessarily desirable outside the text:

“[romance] readers openly admit that parts of the romantic universe little resembles 126

the world as they know it” (Radway 97). Adult readers are not only cognizant of the disconnect between escapist romance and reality, but actually enjoy it: “Romances are valuable to them in proportion to their lack of resemblance to the real world” (Radway

100). Bearing these facts in mind, the Twilight saga becomes an acceptable set of romance novels—for adults. The young women to whom Twilight is marketed, however, often do not have the life experience necessary to differentiate between romantic escapism and reality. Couched in fantasy escapism, the line between the acceptable and the imaginary becomes irrevocably blurred. Because young readers see

Edward‟s control as characteristic of the ideal romantic man, they may easily assume that such control is characteristic of the ideal actual man. Because young readers are not fully aware of their own sexuality, they may learn from Bella that sexual desire is wrong—or worse, a mode of manipulation. Because young readers lack the life experience to discern reality from escapism, it is problematic to expose them to the patriarchal lifestyle that Meyer prescribes. 127

But Why Young Adult Literature?

Despite the enormity of the accomplishments of feminists throughout history,

gender inequality remains present in both the United States and the world at large.

While adults may claim that boys and girls have all the same opportunities and that

women can achieve anything they desire, reality falls far below these expectations.

Women still struggle with unequal pay, inadequate healthcare, and unrealistic societal

expectations. Children and adolescents are not blind to this inequity; they are

constantly exposed to it through the people they encounter, the television shows and

movies they watch, the music they listen to, the games they play, and the books they read. If they are provided with materials that promote equality of race, gender, sexual

orientation, class, religious views, and ability, they will be better able to internalize and act upon these concepts. However, in light of the popularity of other media, when

it comes to books for children and adolescents, adults appear to be more concerned

with popularity than quality. As teachers, librarians, and parents fight to improve

literacy, most are satisfied “so long as the kids are reading.” When a book becomes

popular with young adults or encourages reluctant readers, adults are so pleased that

young adults are reading that they will overlook flaws in what young adults are reading. Popular and successful books do not necessarily, however, promote the kind

of equality that adults claim society has achieved. Books targeted toward young

female readers are especially susceptible to this inequality. Young adult literary figures such as Jo March, Nancy Drew, Judy Blume‟s many female protagonists, and, to some extent, Hermione Granger have overcome many issues of gender inequality; 128

each represents the mentality of progressive, feminist authors. Though each falls short of the era‟s feminist “ideal,” these girls and women have promoted independence, and self-reliance among readers. However, many other novels for girls have demonstrated

an acceptance for the patriarchal concept of womanhood. Even in a third wave

environment, novels like the Twilight series encourage deference toward men and

boys and a romantic role for girls, while at the same time, they discourage any understanding of female sexuality or reproductive rights. These books normalize such

unequal concepts, and young female readers continue to internalize them. This work hopes to serve as an alarm to the adults who promote young adult literature: the time has come for us to focus as much on what young women read as on the mere act itself. 129

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