Chapter Three Engineering Materials and Their Properties

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Chapter three / Selection of Materials and processes / Dr.May George Amin Fourth class - 2013-2014 / Dep. of Production Eng. And Metallurgy / industrial Engineering

Chapter Three

Engineering materials and their properties

3-1- The families of engineering materials:

It is helpful to classify the materials of engineering into the six broad families shown in Figure 3.1: metals, polymers, elastomers, ceramics, glasses, and hybrids. The members of a family have certain features in common: similar properties, similar processing routes, and, often, similar applications. 1- Metals have relatively high moduli. Most, when pure, are soft and easily deformed. They can be made strong by alloying and by mechanical and heat treatment, but they remain ductile, allowing them to be formed by deformation processes. Certain high-strength alloys (spring steel, for instance) have ductilities yields before it fractures and that fracture, when it occurs, is of a tough, ductile type. Partly because of their ductility, metals are prey to fatigue and of all the classes of material, they are the least resistant to corrosion. 2- Ceramics too, have high moduli, but, unlike metals, they are brittle. Their ‘‘strength’’ in tension means the brittle fracture strength; in compression it is the brittle crushing strength, which is about 15 times larger. And because ceramics have no ductility, they have a low tolerance for stress concentrations (like holes or cracks) or for high-contact stresses (at clamping points, for instance). Ductile materials accommodate stress concentrations by deforming in a way that redistributes the load more evenly, and because of this, they can be used under static loads within a small margin of their yield strength. Ceramics cannot. Brittle materials always have a wide scatter in strength and the strength itself depends on the volume of material under load and the time for which it is applied. So ceramics are not as easy to design with as metals. Despite this, they have attractive features. They are stiff, hard, and abrasionresistant (hence their use for bearings and cutting tools); they retain their strength to high temperatures; and they resist corrosion well.

Chapter three / Selection of Materials and processes / Dr.May George Amin Fourth class - 2013-2014 / Dep. of Production Eng. And Metallurgy / industrial Engineering

Figure 3.1- The families of engineering materials

3- Glasses are non-crystalline (‘‘amorphous’’) solids. The commonest are the soda-lime and boro-silicate glasses familiar as bottles and ovenware, but there are many more. Metals, too, can be made non-crystalline by cooling them sufficiently quickly. The lack of crystal structure suppresses plasticity, so, like ceramics, glasses are hard, brittle and vulnerable to stress concentrations. 4- Polymers are at the other end of the spectrum. They have moduli that are low, roughly 50 times less than those of metals, but they can be strong—nearly as strong as metals. A consequence of this is that elastic deflections can be large. They creep, even at room temperature, meaning that a polymer component under load may, with time, acquire a permanent set. And their properties depend on temperature so that a polymer that is tough and flexible at 20_C may be brittle at the 4o C of a household refrigerator, yet creep rapidly at the 100o C of boiling water. Few have useful strength above 200 o C. If these aspects are allowed for in the design, the advantages of polymers can be exploited. And there are many. When combinations of properties, such as strength per- unit-weight, are important, polymers are as good as metals. They are easy to shape: complicated parts performing several functions can be molded from a polymer in a single operation. The large elastic deflections allow the design of polymer components that snap together, making assembly fast and cheap. And by

Chapter three / Selection of Materials and processes / Dr.May George Amin Fourth class - 2013-2014 / Dep. of Production Eng. And Metallurgy / industrial Engineering accurately sizing the mold and pre-coloring the polymer, no finishing operations are needed. Polymers are corrosion resistant and have low coefficients of friction. Good design exploits these properties. 5- Elastomers are long-chain polymers above their glass-transition temperature,

Tg. The covalent bonds that link the units of the polymer chain remain intact, but the weaker Van der Waals and hydrogen bonds that, below Tg, bind the chains to each other, have melted. This gives elastomers unique property profiles: Young’s moduli as low as 10_3GPa (105 time less than that typical of metals) that increase with temperature (all other solids show a decrease), and enormous elastic extension. Their properties differ so much from those of other solids that special tests have evolved to characterize them.This creates a problem: if we wish to select materials by prescribing a desired attribute profile, then a prerequisite is a set of attributes common to all materials. To overcome this, we settle on a common set for use in the first stage of design, estimating approximate values for anomalies like elastomers. Specialized attributes, representative of one family only, are stored separately; they are for use in the later stages. 6- Hybrids are combinations of two or more materials in a pre-determined configuration and scale. They combine the attractive properties of the other families of materials while avoiding some of their drawbacks. The family of hybrids includes fiber and particulate composites, sandwich structures, lattice structures, foams, cables, and laminates. And almost all the materials of nature—wood, bone, skin, leaf—are hybrids. Fiber-reinforced composites are, of course, the most familiar. Most of those at present available to the engineer have a polymer matrix reinforced by fibers of glass, carbon or Kevlar (an aramid). They are light, stiff and strong, and they can be tough. They, and other hybrids using a polymer as one component, cannot be used above 250o C because the polymer softens, but at room temperature their performance can be outstanding. Hybrid components are expensive and they are relatively difficult to form and join. So despite their attractive properties the designer will use them

Chapter three / Selection of Materials and processes / Dr.May George Amin Fourth class - 2013-2014 / Dep. of Production Eng. And Metallurgy / industrial Engineering only when the added performance justifies the added cost. Today’s growing emphasis on high performance and fuel efficiency provides increasing drivers for their use.

3-2 - Metals and Alloys

Metals are polycrystalline bodies consisting of a great number of fine crystals. Pure metals possess low strength and do not have the required properties. So, alloys are produced by melting or sintering two or more metals or metals and a non-metal, together. Alloys may consist of two more components. Metals and alloys are further classified into two major kind namely ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals.

(a) Ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as pig iron, cast iron, wrought iron and steels.

(b) Non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent, such as copper, aluminum, brass, bronze, tin, silver zinc, invar etc.

3-3- Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels Steels can be classified by a variety of different systems depending on:

1. The composition, such as carbon, low-alloy or stainless steel. 2. The manufacturing methods, such as open hearth, basic oxygen process, or electric furnace methods. 3. The finishing method, such as hot rolling or cold rolling. 4. The product form, such as bar plate, sheet, strip, tubing or structural shape 5. The de-oxidation practice, such as killed, semi-killed, capped or rimmed steel. 6. The microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlitic and martensitic. 7. The required strength level, as specified in ASTM standards.

Chapter three / Selection of Materials and processes / Dr.May George Amin Fourth class - 2013-2014 / Dep. of Production Eng. And Metallurgy / industrial Engineering

8. The heat treatment, such as annealing, quenching and tempering, and thermo mechanical processing. 9. Quality descriptors, such as forging quality and commercial quality. 3- 4- Classification by carbon content wt %

1. Dead soft (0.05 – 0.15) Wires, rivets, chain, sheet, strip, welded pipes. 2. Mild (0.10 – 0.30) Rolled plate, structural shapes, gears, forgings. 3. Medium Carbon (0.30 – 0.60) Connecting rods, crane hooks, shafts, axles, gears, rotors, rails. 4. High Carbon (0.6 – 1.0) , hardness of 450 to 600 BHN Screw drivers, saws, drills, dies, hammers, punches, chisels. 5. Ultrahigh Carbon (1.0 – 1.4) Special applications such as making railway, springs, mandrels, taps, balls, pins, tools, and thread metal dies. 3-5- Classification by alloy content  Manganese steels  Silicon‐manganese steels  Chromium steels  Chromium‐nickel (stainless) steels  Tungsten‐chromium‐vanadium (tool) steels  etc.

Fig.3-2- Effect of carbon on properties of steel

Chapter three / Selection of Materials and processes / Dr.May George Amin Fourth class - 2013-2014 / Dep. of Production Eng. And Metallurgy / industrial Engineering

Fig.3-3 Properties of steels as influenced by carbon content 3-6-- Classification of cast irons

Found in 5 common varieties depending on the form of carbon in the microstructure. 3-6-1-Grey iron (carbon presents as free flaky graphite). Grey cast iron is grey in color which is due to the carbon being principally in the form of graphite (C in free form in iron). It contains:

C Si Mn P S Fe 2.5 - 3.8%. 1.1 - 2.8 % 0.4 - 1.0% less than less than Remaining 0.15% 0.1% Properties and characteristics:

1. It possesses lowest melting of ferrous alloys. 2. It possesses high vibration damping capacity. 3. It has high resistance to wear. 4. It possesses high fluidity and can be easily cast into complex shapes and thin sections.

Application  Gas or water pipes for underground purposes.

 Manhole cover, machine bed.

Chapter three / Selection of Materials and processes / Dr.May George Amin Fourth class - 2013-2014 / Dep. of Production Eng. And Metallurgy / industrial Engineering

3-6-2- White iron (carbon present as iron carbide compound) For low- silicon cast irons (containing less than 1.0 wt% Si) and rapid cooling rates, most of the carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite. A fracture surface of this alloy has a white appearance, and thus it is termed white cast iron.

An optical photomicrograph showing the microstructure of white iron is presented. Thick sections may have only a surface layer of white iron that was ‘‘chilled’’ during the casting process; gray iron forms at interior regions, which cool more slowly. As a consequence of large amounts of the cementite phase, white iron is extremely hard but also very brittle, to the point of being virtually un machinable. Its use is limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear-resistant surface and without a high degree of ductility—for example, as rollers in rolling mills, rolls crushing jaw, crusher plates. Generally, white iron is used as an intermediary in the production of yet another cast iron, malleable iron. The chemical composition of white cast iron is given as:

C Si Mn P S Fe 3.2 - 3.6% 0.4 - 1.1 % 0.1 - 0.4% less than less than Remaining 0.3% 0.2% Properties and characteristics  Extremely hard, have very little commercial uses.  It has a high tensile strength and a low compressive strength.  Possesses excellent abrasive wear resistance.  Since it is extremely hard, therefore it is very difficult to machine. Application  Grinding media ball.  Raw material for malleable iron.

Chapter three / Selection of Materials and processes / Dr.May George Amin Fourth class - 2013-2014 / Dep. of Production Eng. And Metallurgy / industrial Engineering

3-6-3- Ductile cast iron

When small quantities of magnesium or cerium is added to cast iron, then graphite content is converted into nodular or spherical form and it is well dispersed throughout the material. Compositions of ductile cast iron are as follows:

C Si Mg Ni Mn Fe 3.2 – 4.2 % 1.0 - 4.0 % 0.1 - 0.8% 0.0 - 3.5% 0.5 - 0.1% Remaining 3-6-4 - Malleable cast iron

Heating white iron at temperatures between 800 and 900 c˚for a prolonged time period and in a neutral atmosphere (to prevent oxidation) causes a decomposition of the cementite, forming graphite, which exists in the form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix, depending on cooling rate.

The ordinary cast iron is very hard and brittle. Malleable cast iron is unsuitable for articles which are thin, light and subjected to shock. It can be flattened under pressure by forging and rolling. It is an alloy in which all combined carbon changed to free form by suitable heat treatment. Graphite originally present in iron in the form of flakes which is the source of weakness and brittleness.

The tensile strength of this cast iron is usually higher than that of grey cast iron. It has excellent machining quality and is used for making machine parts for which the steel forging and in which the metal should have a fair degree of machining accuracy. There are two kinds of iron casting:

- Black heart malleable iron casting , and - White heart malleable iron casting.

Properties

1. Malleable cast iron is like steel than cast iron.

Chapter three / Selection of Materials and processes / Dr.May George Amin Fourth class - 2013-2014 / Dep. of Production Eng. And Metallurgy / industrial Engineering

2. It is costly than grey cast iron and cheaper than softer steel.

Applications

Malleable cast iron is generally used to form automobile parts.

Table (3-1 ) a comparison between grey, white, and steroidal cast iron

IC = internal combustion engine