UTILISATION OF TRADITIONAL AND INDIGENOUS FOODS IN THE NORTH WEST PROVINCE OF SOUTH AFRICA SARAH T.P. MATENGE (M. Consumer Sciences) Thesis submitted for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Consumer Sciences at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University Promoter: Prof. A. Kruger Co-promoter: Prof. M. van der Merwe Co-promoter: Dr. H. de Beer POTCHEFSTROOM 2011 DEDICATIONS This thesis is dedicated to: My beloved parents, Johnson Matenge and Tsholofelo Matenge who taught me how to persevere and always have hope for better outcomes in the unpredictable future. Thanks again for your guidance and patience. I love you so much. To my children, Tapiwa and Tawanda, leaving you at a time when you needed me the most was the hardest thing that I had to do in my life, but I thank the omnipresent God who is watching over you and because of him you coped reasonably well. My son Panashe, has given me sincere love and support, has endured well the tough life in Potchefstroom and has been doing a good job at school. Just one look in his eyes gave me hope. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is evident that this thesis is a product of joint efforts from many people. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following people who have contributed to make this study possible: Prof. A. Kruger, my promoter for her profound knowledge and her ability to see things in a bigger picture. Thanks for the hard work you have done as a supervisor. Prof. M. van der Merwe, co-promoter for her excellent guidance, expertise and selfless dedication. Definitely you are a role model for aspiring young researchers. Thanks again for your meticulous feedback on the papers in this thesis. Dr. H. de Beer, co-promoter, for the time that you spent guiding me, the constant support that you provided. Prof. M.J.C. Bosman, for her expertise, guidance in the field of sensory analysis and for pushing me to new levels of learning. Dr. S. Ellis, from the Statistical Consulting Service for conducting the statistical analysis for some of my papers in this thesis. Thanks again for the encouragement and your endless support that kept boosting my morale. Dr. W. van Deventer, you are an amazing mentor. I appreciate your knowledge, wisdom, insight, guidance and quality control. I am forever grateful for the fatherly role you played in enabling me to remain motivated and to persevere. Prof. M. Greef, Dr. R.L. Mamabolo and Dr. P.T. Pisa for your research expertise. ii Caroline Modiakgotla for using her technical skills in preparing test samples and assistance and support during the acceptability study in Ganyesa and Tlakgameng. Marinka, thanks for your support, guidance, encouragement, help and for your empathetic heart. Karen, Aimee, thanks for your undying love and support. I will cherish the moments we spent together in our office, where we kept each other going under difficult circumstances. I love you all. To my colleagues, Soretha, Joyce, Christi, Vasti, Carolien, Madri, Karlien, Fazel, Juanita and Poncho, I have enjoyed my time here and I appreciate having had the opportunity to work with you. Thanks for your unconditional support, help and the guidance you have provided me over the time I was here. My siblings, Neo, Nono, Tumie, Ndiks, Shakes and Katlo for your unconditional support and encouragement. You have always been my motivation and inspiration. I owe everything to you. To my late sister Ntshwenyi, it was a pity God took you away from me before you could come to enjoy the fruits of all the support and encouragement you gave me. My dearest Stokie, thanks for your friendship and support. A special thanks goes to the field workers, for your endurance in the study areas during the data collection period and also thanks to the research participants. Without your contribution and willingness to co-operate in the research process, this would not have been possible. Lastly to all those whose names I could not mention, especially my friends, your interest in what I was involved in gave me the feeling that I was involved in something valuable. iii PURE-South Africa: The PURE-SA research team, field workers and office staff in the Africa Unit for Transdisciplinary Health Research (AUTHeR), Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa. PURE International: Dr. S. Yusuf and the PURE project office staff at the Population Health Research Institute (PHRI), Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University. ON, Canada. Funders: Bioversity International, African Unit for Transdisciplinary Health Research and the PSPPD/EU programme of the Presidency of South Africa. iv SUMMARY BACKGROUND In South Africa and Africa as a whole malnutrition and poverty often co-exist with urbanisation, which is associated with significant dietary changes mostly due to neglect of indigenous foods and loss of indigenous knowledge (IK). Consumption of traditional leafy vegetables (TLV), legumes and fruits is the most sustainable way of reducing micronutrient deficiencies in resource-poor communities as they are often easier to grow, resistant to pests and diseases and acceptable to local tastes. AIM AND OBJECTIVES The main aim of this thesis was to explore the possibilities of promoting the cultivation, utilisation and consumption of indigenous and traditional plant foods (ITPF) among urban and rural communities in the North West Province of South Africa that could possibly lead to increased IK and dietary diversity. The objectives were the following: Assess consumption of TLV in the rural and urban communities. Compare nutritional status of consumers and non-consumers of TLV using data obtained from the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiology (PURE- SA) study. Assess the availability, cultivation and consumption patterns of ITPF. Assess indigenous knowledge (IK) within the rural and urban communities. Assess consumers’ views of ITPF in the rural and urban communities. Assess consumers’ acceptance of, preference for and consumption intent of dishes made from cowpea leaves. v To compile recipes for the most important ITPF commonly consumed in the study areas in order to promote the cultivation and consumption of ITPF (see Addendum D). STUDY DESIGN Health profile study: For the health profile study, a comparative study was conducted on the baseline data of the population that participated in the PURE-SA study (1004 urban and 1006 rural participants) which follows the health transition in urban and rural subjects over a 12 year period. The baseline data for the North West Province of South Africa were collected from October to December 2005. Utilisation of ITPF study: The study on the utilisation of ITPF used a sequential explanatory study design which involved the collection of quantitative and qualitative data and analyses. The consumer acceptance study consisted of an explorative and experimental phase. Participants were male and female, aged older than 20, residing in the selected communities and knowledgeable on the indigenous and traditional foods of the area. METHODS A variety of quantitative and qualitative research techniques were used. Data were generated through questionnaires, focus groups and individual - and group interviews. Health profile study: Demographic characteristics and frequency of consumption of TLV data were collected by the researcher from 396 randomly selected subjects from participating subjects in the PURE-SA study. An extensive nutritional profile of these subjects was compiled including blood samples, blood pressure, anthropometric measurements and total dietary intake by means of a quantitative food frequency questionnaire. vi Utilisation of ITPF study: A comparative study was conducted in rural and urban populations of the North West Province. Data were collected by the researcher using a questionnaire (n=396 households), key informant interviews (n=4), and four focus groups. Consumer study: Four focus groups were conducted by the researcher, two in rural and two in urban communities, to investigate consumers’ views about ITPF. Eighty- seven participants were recruited based on a specific purpose rather than randomly. Consumers’ acceptance of, preference for and intended consumption of products made with cowpea leaves were assessed. A 5-point hedonic scale and a 7-point food action rating scale were used for sensory evaluation. RESULTS Health profile study: As expected, rural inhabitants were more likely to consume TLV. However, no household reported to consume TLV more than ten times a month. Factors such as price (affordability) and availability and easy-to-get-to points of purchase were found to be major constraints in the consumption of TLV, especially in urban communities. Urban respondents had significantly higher macronutrient intakes than rural subjects. There was no significant difference between the selected micronutrient intakes between consumers and non-consumers of TLV. Non- consumers of TLV had higher blood lipid levels than consumers from both the rural and urban areas. In the urban subjects the relative risk to develop high blood pressure was higher in non-consumers of TLV than in the consumers. However, the risk ratios of raised serum cholesterol and triglycerides were not significantly different. Utilisation of ITPF study: More plant foods were available and consumed in the rural area than the urban area. However, fewer species were available than expected due to insufficient rainfall, poor soil quality, deforestation and over harvesting. Consumption of indigenous foods was influenced by price, culture, vii seasonality/availability, accessibility and diversity in markets. A lack of markets for indigenous crops, insufficient rainfall and diseases and pests were cited as the major cultivation problems, followed by a lack of capital to buy farming implements, veld fires and poor soil quality. Consumer study: Based on the qualitative focus group discussions, factors that influence the consumption of ITPF were identified. These factors included benefits and barriers of ITPF consumption. Ways to increase ITFP consumption were also identified. Health and nutrition; tradition and culture; and food safety emerged as drivers for ITPF consumption.