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How to cite this thesis
Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujdigispace.uj.ac.za (Accessed: Date). TEACHERS' EXPERIENCES OF INCORPORATING
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE
IN THE LIFE SCIENCES CLASSROOM
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG by LIBRARY ANDJNFORMATION CENTRE campus: ~.t.c;, . MELIDA MODIANE MOTHWJ FacultylOept: :fk.(.;c~l~g,.~ . Selector:.:.:..:;.:.:. . Shelf No: •• !.Ii 2eq.:.. ?1.,q.1!.~.f:?~ . /J7o -rr{ Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of
MASTERS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
to the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
SUPERVISOR: DR JJJ DE BEER
CO- SUPERVISOR: DR U RAMNARAIN
NOVEMBER 2011 DECLARATION
I declare that the work contained in this dissertation is my own and all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of references. I also declare that I have not previously submitted this dissertation or any part of it to any university in order to obtain a degree.
(Meiida M. Mothwa)
Johannesburg November 2011
11 ACNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to dedicate this study to my determined and dedicated husband, Lesiba Edward, who was with me despite all the odds. He helped me with everything I needed for the research and really encouraged me to complete the course. He was always behind me in everything and I thank him for the support he gave me. Our two sons, Maropeng Pat and Lesetja David, were also understanding. They encouraged me to look ahead with hope. They motivated me and even made sacrifices so that this study could be a success.
Dr Josef De Beer, my supervisor, played a crucial role in my academic studies. Thank you once more, Doctor, for your guidance, courage and enormous patience throughout my studies, especially in giving direction in terms of my studies. You were a shoulder to lean on during the trying times and a pillar of strength all the way.Dr U Ramnaran, thank you also for yor support.
I sincerely thank the National Research Foundation and the University of Johannesburg for their financial support.
A word of gratitude to my RNA group which gave me support and brilliant ideas during my studies. Your deeds and inputs did not go unnoticed.
Mrs MJ Mohale, who is my colleague at work and who studies the same learning area, played a crucial role throughout the research. She always picked me up with brilliant ideas and revived me. I salute you. The contribution you have made to my studies means a lot to me.
Mokgadi Matlakala, you are a real sister. I thank you for your support and brilliant ideas. This carried me through tough times.
Pastor L.E. Kgatle and his wife Mazo, you supported me all the way and gave me courage. Thank you also to the local congregation that prayed for me. I acknowledge your efforts.
P.J. Ramathoka, principal of Phusela High, you are my hero because you encouraged me to further my studies in my learning area and you helped me with certain ideas. My colleagues with whom I exchanged knowledge and ideas at work Mokware, Megokgo, Ntepane and Baatseba - I thank you all. You formed a very mighty team behind me.
A special word of thanks and acknowledgement to all the people with whom I interacted throughout the research. The teachers who voluntarily responded to my pleas, I salute you. Your positive responses helped to turn this project into a success. Mashaba M V, with your knowledqe of technology, were alsways available and your deeds did not go unnoticed.
111 SYNOPSIS
South Africa is one of the global hotspots of both biological and ethnic diversity. Southern Africa is rich in angiosperm species, and the angiosperm species count is considered to be 21,817. The traditional medicinal systems of different cultural groups and their herbal, animal and mineral materia medica have ancient origins which may date back to Palaeolithic times. Indigenous knowledge (lK) and cultural practices in many areas of the country provide learners with a good "entry" into the scientific world. A true constructivist teacher will realise the importance of building new knowledge on learners' existing knowledge. This will show the learners how relevant science is to our daily lives. It might also open future career opportunities, and develop learners' entrepreneurial skills.
This fact is acknowledged by the new curriculum (the National Curriculum Statement), and Life Sciences teachers are expected to infuse their teaching with indigenous knowledge. When these new policies were created, policy makers focused on the what of desired educational change, and unfortunately neglected the how (Rogan & Aldous, 2009). Teachers often have limited understanding of the curriculum changes. The textbooks used in class give little or even no proper information about indigenous knowledge. Whereas some textbooks still provide information on IK in the form of examples, hardly any attention is given to teaching strategies and practical work that can be done in the classroom. My study highlights the problem that many teachers simply ignore IK, due to their lack of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in this regard, and the lack of guidance and support from the Department of Education. As many teachers were trained in the "old method" of teaching and not in the pedagogy prescribed by the National Curriculum Statement (NCS), many of them do not have specific knowledge about the indigenous knowledge that they need to impart to learners. Those who are fortunate enough to have sufficient knowledge of indigenous knowledge systems (IKS), often lack the pedagogy. Once again, we need to go back in history to understand why teachers find it so difficult to teach IK. In the apartheid era it was a taboo to mention traditional medicine in the classroom. Our traditional medicine was often replaced by Western
IV medicine. Black South Africans were robbed of their identity. Under the Suppression of Witchcraft Act, indigenous belief systems were undermined and in most cases referred to as pagan (heathen) belief systems. As a result, indigenous belief systems were viewed as something that derails society.
This study focuses on a number of issues related to the incorporation of indigenous knowledge in the classroom. One of the main concerns is teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Two additional factors also make the introduction of indigenous knowledge difficult in the classroom: (a) the multicultural South African society (whose IK should be entertained?), and (b) the nature of science, and many teachers' perception that the introduction of IK would constitute pseudo-science.
The question arises whether it is possible to introduce indigenous knowledge in a scientific way in the Life Sciences classroom. Is an IK focus compliant with the syntactical nature of Life Sciences, namely an emphasis on inquiry-based approaches? A second question arises: Are South African teachers able to teach IK in such a context? As mentioned above, many Life Sciences teachers find it difficult to follow heuristic approaches where learners engage with discovery learning making observations, formulating hypotheses, developing experimental designs, collecting and interpreting data, and making conclusions. Now, in addition to this challenge, teachers need to follow such a pedagogy to investigate indigenous knowledge claims. It is just so much easier for teachers to rely on "chalk and talk" approaches, as a study of Petersen (2010) reveals.
This study focuses on the lived experiences of Life Sciences teachers in incorporating IK in their teaching, and on whether these teachers' pedagogical content knowledge is adequate. Explanatory, sequential and mixed-method research - which involves both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis - has been done (Creswell, 2009). The quantitative study draws from a University of Johannesburg Science Education study that was commissioned by the Gauteng Department of Education (GDE). One of the sections in the questionnaire, which was sent to all the Gauteng schools offering Life Sciences, deals with indigenous knowledge. A Likert scale was used, and STATKON, the statistical unit of the
v University of Johannesburg (UJ), analysed the data. More than 250 completed questionnaires have been returned to serve as underpinning for this study. Based on the teachers' feedback, an interview protocol was compiled for the qualitative part of the research.
Phase 2 of the study entailed the generic qualitative inquiry (with elements of a phenomenological approach, since I wanted to capture the "lived experiences" of the teachers). A number of teachers were individually interviewed and the interviews were recorded. Transcriptions were made and analysed to reveal a number of codes, categories, patterns and themes. In addition to the interviews, the researcher also made use of classroom observations and looked at both teachers and learners' portfolios. Another data source informing the qualitative part of the study is the Grade 12 examination scripts which were analysed. The researcher tried, through the triangulation of the data, to provide a portrait of the lived experiences of teachers regarding the introduction of IK in their teaching. In this regard, Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) was used as a lens.
This study shows that teachers lack knowledge in all three the PCK domains: (a) Teachers do not have sufficient content knowledge to adequately teach IK. From the interviews it is clear that most teachers have very little knowledge of how our indigenous flora can be used for medicinal reasons. Most teachers also do not have sufficient chemical and pharmacological content knowledge to understand complicated techniques such as chromatography (and the organic chemistry to understand the different active ingredients that have been isolated in plants).
(b) Teachers lack the pedagogical knowledge to use science-as-inquiry approaches to teach IK. From the qualitative data it is clear that most teachers pay lip service to IK, and merely mention a few examples of IK in class. Golden opportunities exist where the teacher could have provided learners with examples of scientific processes and procedures that support IK claims. For example, Botany can come alive if a teacher introduces simple chromatography techniques while busy with plant studies or organic chemistry. Simple chromatography can be done on shoestring science in the
VI laboratory. As enrichment, a teacher can also refer to modern techniques used in laboratories today, such as thin layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) or high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These are basic procedures applied in most university laboratories, and they will give learners a better understanding of the nature of science, as well as future career opportunities. (c) Teachers often lack the contextual knowledge insofar as they have limited (or no) IK of different cultural groups in South Africa.
This study also contributes to new knowledge by providing a detailed curriculum, based on the current NCS/CAPS, on how IK can be taught in the existing themes. This will be part of the research report provided to the Gauteng Department of Education, following a UJ research project that was commissioned by the GDE.
VB TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCING THIS STUDY
1.1 Background to the problem 1
1.2 Knowledge apartheid: the ROSE study and IK 6
1.3 What is the gap that this study addresses? 7
1.4 Research questions 8
1.5 Research design 9
1.6 Overview of the dissertation 9
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE OVERVIEW: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN THE LIFE SCIENCES CLASSROOM, AND THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THIS STUDY
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Definitions 12
2.2.1 Indigenous Knowledge 12
2.2.2 Society 15
2.2.3 Culture 16
2.3 Constructivism and the nature of science 18
2.3.1 Constructivism 18
2.3.2 Globalisation as change 22
2.3.3 Integrating Western science and IK 24
2.3.4 Indigenous knowledge and education 25
2.3.5 Nature of science 27
2.4 South Africa - a rich source of IK 29
2.4.1 Transfer of culture and knowledge 29
2.4.2 Ethnobotany 30
Vlll 2.4.2(a) Medicine and traditional healing 31
2.4.2(b) Introducing ethnobotany with scientific rigour in the Life
Sciences classroom 37
2.4.2( c) Introducing ethical aspects, such as intellectual property rights,
in the classroom 37
2.5 The problem addressed by this research 40
2.5.1 Pedagogical content knowledge 40
2.5.2 PCK and role of critical reflection 43
2.5.3 The gap that this research addresses 44
2.6 Conceptual framework: Cultural Historical Activity Theory 45
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 49
3.1.1 Aim of the study 50
3.1.2 Objectives of the study 50
3.1.3 Research questions 50
3.2 Research design and methodology 51
3.2.1 Phase 1: Qualitative research 52
3.2.2 Phase 2: A generic qualitative study 52
3.3 Choosing a sample for the research 54
3.3.1 The setting 54
3.3.2 Population 54
3.3.3 Sample and sampling technique 54
3.3.3.1 Eligibility criteria 55
3.3.3.2 Sample size 56
3.4 Data collection 56
IX 3.4.1 Phase 1: Qualitative data collection 57
3.4.2 Phase 2: Qualitative data collection 58
3.4.2.1 Recruitment of the participants 58
3.4.2.2 The interviews 59
3.4.2.3 Classroom observations 61
3.4.2.4 Script analysis 61
3.4.3 Ethical considerations 62
3.4.3.1 Permission to conduct the study 62
3.5.1 Confidentiality 63
3.5.2 Respect for participants 63
3.5.3 Beneficence 63
3.5.4 Honesty with professional colleagues 63
3.6 Challenges encountered during data collection 64
3.7 Data analysis 64
3.7.1 Quantitative data analysis 64
3.7.2 Qualitative data analysis 64
3.8 Validity and reliability of data 65
3.8.1 Validiy 65
3.8.2 Reliability 68
3.9 Summary 68
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 Introduction 68
4.2 Quantitative data 69
4.3 Qualitative data analysis 73
4.3.1 Interviews with teachers 73
x 4.3.1.1 Biographies of teachers 73
4.3.1.2 Focus of the interviews 74
4.3.1.3 Assumptions 75
4.3.1.4 Data analysis 75
4.4.1 Lesson observations 107
4.4.2 Artefacts 117
4.4.2.1 Teacher and learner portfolios 117
4.4.2.2 Grade 12 Life Sciences exam scripts 118
4.5 Triangulation 122
4.6 Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) 127
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND AREAS OF
FUTURE RESEARCH 134
5.1 Introduction 134
5.2 Major findings and discussion of findings 136
5.2.1 Changes in the education system and curriculum content 136
5.2.2 Perception of being disempowered 137
5.2.3 Feeling demotivated and lacking of urgency 138
5.2.4 Lack of resources 138
5.2,5 Cultural diversity 139
5.2.6 IK vocabulary to be used in the Life Sciences classroom 140
5.2.7 Insufficient pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) to teach IK 141
5.2.8 Lack of support by the DoE 143
5.2.9 Belief systems 144
5.2.10 How teachers view science and its role in society
(nature of science) 145
xi 5.3 Recommendations 145
5.3.1 Developing resource materials addressing IK 145
5.3.2 Support from the DoE 146
5.3.3 Teachers' agency and professional development within communities
of practice 146
5.3.4 Teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) 147
5.3.5 The curriculum must provide IK content and skills 147
5.4 Contribution of this study 148
5.4.1 Suggested curriculum for the inclusion of IK in Life Sciences
In the FET band 148
5.5 Limitations of this study 151
5.6 Suggestions for future studies 152
References 154
XlI LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Callilepis laureola (impila), a traditional medicine that
causes 1 500 deaths per year in KwaZulu-Natal 35
Figure 2.2: Sutherlandia frutescens, a plant known for its
medicinal properties 36
Figure 2.3: Hoodia gordonii and some of the products produced 38
Figure 2.4: Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) combines
integrated science knowledge, pedagogical knowledge
and context knowledge 41 Figure 2.5: The third-generation activity 46 Figure 3.1: An explanatory sequential mixed-method design 51 Figure 3.2: Data collection activities 57 Figure 3.3: Saldana's theory model for qualitative inquiry 65 Figure 4.1: Triangulation design visual model 123 Figure 4.2: Integrating emerging themes with CHAT 128
Xlll LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
Table 2.1: 'Well-being enhancing" medicines and their uses in
percentages 33
Table 4.1: The GDE research data 69
Table 4.2: Frequencies and standard deviations 70
Table 4.3: Biographical details of the teachers 74
Table 4.4: What teachers said, codes, categories and themes 75
Table 4.5: The grid used to analyse Question 4.3, Paper 1 119
Table 4.6: The grid used to analyse Question 4.3, Paper 2 121
XIV LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX DESCRIPTION PAGE
Appendix A Consent form 172
Appendix 8 Interview questionnaire 173
Appendix C Transcripts of interviews with teachers 177
Appendix D RTOP instrument used 241
Appendix E RTOP observation readings with of lessons 246
Appendix F GDE questionnaire 188
Appendix G Script analysis rubric 303
Appendix H Letter to Limpopo Department of Education 306
Appendix I Response from Limpopo Department of
Education 308
Appendix J Letter to Mopani District Education 309
Appendix K Response from Mopani District 310
Appendix L Letter to Thabina Circuit 311
Appendix M Response from Thabina Circuit 312
Appendix N Letter to Shiluvane Circuit 313
Appendix 0 Response from Shiluvane Circuit 314
Appendix P Letter to Khudjwane Circuit 315
Appendix Q Response from Khujwane Circuit 316
Appendix R Response from Phusela High School 317
Appendix S Examples of IK that could be used in the
Classroom 318
xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AAMPS Association for African Medicinal Plant Standards
AfrHP African Herbal Pharmacopoeia
BSCS Biological Sciences Curriculum Study
CAPS Curriculum and Assessment Policy
CHAT Cultural Historical Activity Theory
CoRes Content representations
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
DNA De-oxyribose Nucleic Acid
DoE Department of Education
EU-ACP European Union Centre for the Development of Enterprise
FET Further Education and Training
GDE Gauteng Department of Education
HPLC High-performance liquid chromatography
HPD Holistic professional development
IK Indigenous Knowledge
IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems
INSET In-service Teacher Education and Training
LC-MS Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry
L03 Learning Outcome number 3
LS Life Sciences
NCS National Curriculum Statement
NOS Nature of Science
OBE Outcomes-based Education
Pap-Res Pedagogical and Professional Experience Repertoires
XVI PCK Pedagogical Content Knowledge
PRESET Pre-service Teacher Education and Training
ROSE Relevance of Science Education
RTOP Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol
SAP Script Analysis Project
SSI Socio Scientific Issues
UJ University of Johannesburg
XVll CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING THIS STUDY
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM
Science education has undergone several waves of change over the past few decades. Wallace and Louden (1998) refer to three such waves of science curriculum reform in the international arena, namely (a) a focus on science as discipline knowledge in the 1950s and 1960s, (b) science as relevant knowledge in the 1970s (with an emphasis on scientific literacy and a science-technology-society approach), and (c) science as imperfect knowledge, with an epistemological shift towards cognitive science and more constructivist approaches in the 1980s and 1990s. In the 1960s, following the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) and the Nuffield Project, the emphasis in science education was on inquiry-based learning. The more constructivist approach to science education today asks of the Life Sciences teacher to acknowledge the indigenous knowledge that a learner might have. In a true constructivist fashion, the teacher should build on this pre-knowledge of learners. However, the current National Curriculum Statement (NCS) and the new curriculum introduced in 2012, the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS), still emphasise the foci of the first two waves, namely inquiry learning (emphasising scientific investigation) and the role of science in society. This poses a challenge to the Life Sciences teacher as it places high demands on a teacher's Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK).
Many South African Life Sciences teachers were educated under the old apartheid education system. Under this divided system, many black teachers received their teacher education at colleges with questionable standards. Many of these teachers today rely on teacher-centred strategies in the classroom (chalk-and-talk), which Nkabinde (1997) calls traditional teaching. Nkabinde further urges that the Bantu education system was designed to suit the needs of the economy and was never intended to provide Africans with sufficient education in order to allow them to participate intelligently in conducting their lives. Today, many science teachers experience difficulties in following more inquiry-based approaches in the classroom. Since South Africa became a democracy the government and all its stakeholders have worked hard to ensure that the benefits of a good education are enjoyed by all South Africans. Democratic elections in 1994 led to education in the country experiencing many changes. The old education system was replaced with outcomes based education (OBE). Curriculum 2005 was introduced, and this new approach was built on the new South African Constitution, emphasising the human right that every learner should be provided the opportunity to succeed in a good education. The new curriculum, the National Curriculum Statement, builds on the Constitution, and the point of departure is that all learners should succeed in achieving the stated outcomes. Education, as explained by White (1999), should prepare learners for life within society, forming its future workers and citizens. This implies that education is directed at producing good citizens, competent workers and sensible thinkers.
The political changes in the country had a great influence on educational policy development. When these social and political changes came along the curriculum also had to change. The official curriculum of South Africa is the National Curriculum Statement (NCS), which is inspired by the Constitution. The following principles have been established to ensure that the Constitution is being pursued:
Social transformation, Outcomes-based Education, high skills and knowledge level integration and applied competence, progress integration and portability, inclusivity, consistency environmental and social justice value on indigenous knowledge systems, credibility, quality and efficiency (Petersen, 2010: 18).
The new content and expected pedagogy brought about problems with the implementation, and a streamlined curriculum, the Revised National Curriculum Statement, was introduced (Department of Education, 2003a). The National Curriculum Statement for Life Sciences states clearly that indigenous knowledge should be incorporated in the Life Sciences classroom. In the apartheid era, indigenous knowledge was often marginalised in the science classroom, as this study will explain later. Learning Outcome 3 (L03) in the NCS includes this knowledge that is found in a society. This will make learners aware of the existence of different viewpoints in a multicultural society and encourage openness in their
2 discussions. The Assessment Standard for Learning Outcome 3 (the application of Life Science in the society) also states clearly that teachers should evaluate the scientific ideas of the past and present indigenous knowledge systems.
The principle of inclusivity dictates that all learners should be involved in science that embraces their diversity and cultural backgrounds. A learner should be able to have a good understanding of the nature of science (NOS), the influence of ethics and biases in the Life Sciences classroom, and the interrelationship between science and technology, indigenous knowledge and society (Department of Education, 2003: 12). Learners from different backgrounds should all contribute and participate in what is learnt in the Life Sciences classroom. As they come from different cultural groups they have different ways of perceiving the world around them. Petersen (2010) argues that people from different' cultures have contributed to the scientific innovations through their indigenous knowledge.
Various ethnic groups have contributed to the scientific innovations of today. Petersen (2010) also acknowledges the contribution of the indigenous people of South Africa. Learners should not be deprived of the opportunity to learn about their ancestors' contribution to science. With the incorporation of indigenous knowledge (IK) in the classroom every learner will feel that his/her forefathers contributed towards science, and they will appreciate that their culture is respected. Learners must be able to evaluate the past and make informed decisions about the current and future uses of science. International studies like the Relevance of Science Education (ROSE) show that the incorporation of IK leads to a situation where learners experience the science curriculum as more relevant (De Beer & Whitlock, 2008). This will lead to a claim in ownership of the learning content. Life Sciences teachers therefore need to incorporate IK into their teaching. The policy states that indigenous knowledge should be part of the curriculum and should be infused in the Life Sciences classroom.
However, anecdotal evidence shows that this incorporation of IK in the teaching of Life Sciences is easier said than done. The lack of teaching skills among Life Sciences teachers or poor teaching styles make it difficult for teachers to incorporate indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom. One of the major obstacles in 3 infusing IK in a sensible way into the Life Science:s curriculum is the lack of teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which is a theoretical construct that was introduced by Shulman (1986, 1987) as a way to describe the particular form of content knowledge that embodies the aspects of content most germane to its teachability (Shulman, 1986: 9). Teachers need the knowledge and didactical skills to incorporate indigenous knowledge in the classroom in a sound way.
The inadequate training that many South African teachers received during the apartheid regime led to inferior science education in many of our schools. Today, seventeen years after the first democratic elections, many teachers seem to have little knowledge or understanding of the content they have to teach, and the skills to be applied in their teaching. The lack of PCK also applies to the infusion of IK in the classroom. Two additional factors make the introduction of indigenous knowledge difficult in the classroom: (a) the multicultural South African society (whose IK should be entertained?), and (b) the nature of science, and many teachers' perception that the introduction of IK would constitute pseudo-science. Some teachers, who do acknowledge IK in their teaching, use their own indigenous knowledge from their own cultural backgrounds and ignore the indigenous knowledge of learners. Insufficient knowledge, methods, skills and material make their teaching difficult.
The question arises whether it is possible to introduce indigenous knowledge in a scientific way in the Life Sciences classroom. Is a focus on IK compliant with the syntactical nature of Life Sciences, namely an emphasis on inquiry-based approaches? A second question arises: Are South African teachers able to teach IK in such a context? As mentioned above, many Life Sciences teachers find it difficult to follow heuristic approaches where learners engage with discovering learning making observations, formulating hypotheses, developing experimental designs, collecting and interpreting data, and making conclusions (Horak & Frieke, 2004). Now, in addition to this challenge, teachers need to follow such a pedagogy to investigate indigenous knowledge claims. It is much easier for teachers to rely on chalk-and-talk approaches, as a study of Petersen (2010) reveals. The pleas of the new curriculum, namely emphasis on scientific processes and the incorporation of indigenous knowledge, are problematic for many South African teachers. They often do not have the knowledge and skills required to follow science-as-inquiry 4 approaches. Teaching methods need transformation in order to meet the new demands of a new curriculum in a changing environment.
As many teachers were trained in the "old method" of teaching and not in the pedagogy prescribed by the NeS, many of them do not have specific know-how about the indigenous knowledge that they need to impart to learners. Those who are fortunate enough to have sufficient know-how on indigenous knowledge systems (IKS), often lack the pedagogy. Once again, we need to go back in history to understand why teachers find it so difficult to teach IK. In the apartheid era, it was a taboo to mention traditional medicine in the classroom. Our traditional medicine was often replaced by Western medicine. Music and folktales also suffered the same fate. Black South Africans were robbed of their identity. Under the Suppression of Witchcraft Act, indigenous belief systems were undermined, in most cases referred to as pagan (heathen) belief systems and viewed as something that derails the society.
Most Life Sciences teachers are now faced with the dilemma of teaching the new curriculum content and incorporating IK, using the little knowledge they have. "Western science" without any reference to IK or the immediate worldview of the learner will probably result in sub-optimal learning, since the incorporation of IK is a constructivist approach which acknowledges the learner's everyday world in the science classroom. By including IK in the curriculum the particular social identity of the student is acknowledged.
This study focuses on teachers' experiences of the infusion or incorporation of indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom. This research also investigates whether a socio-scientific issues (SSI) approach to infusing the Life Sciences curriculum with Indigenous Knowledge (IK) can be valuable in sensitising learners to moral dilemmas which are so often neglected in the science classroom. Furthermore, it also focuses on the perceived conflict between so-called Western science and traditional science, and the extent to which Life Sciences educators are trained in infusing their teaching with IK without advocating pseudo-science. The study also wants to see whether secondary school learners can be turned into scientific sleuths or investigators with lessons that focus on IK. The research will be
5 conducted within the framework of Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) so that the bigger picture of the teachers' experiences in the incorporation of indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom can be viewed, as well as the tensions that emerge in the Life Sciences classroom as an activity system.
1.2 KNOWLEDGE APARTHEID: THE ROSE STUDY AND IK
During the apartheid regime the education system was designed to suit the needs of the economy and to ensure African subordination. The education system at that time was never intended to provide all Africans with sufficient education in order to allow them to participate intelligently in conducting their lives (Nkabinde, 1997). The previous science curriculum was favouring "Westernised" science, and the South African curriculum had a very British feel to it. This Westernised focus on biology often comes at the expense of indigenous knowledge - a practice that Odora Hoppers (2004) calls knowledge apartheid. This Western education taught Africans to feel, think and perceive themselves as inferior.
Indigenous knowledge can be referred to as knowledge about the world around us which has been developed by local cultures and has been used to sustain their lives. Indigenous knowledge is the knowledge found among the indigenous people of the country. Such knowledge should be valued in the Life Sciences classroom since community, culture and school cannot be treated as separate entities. They need to work hand in hand in order to make the education of learners more meaningful.
The more developed a country becomes, the more irrelevant students often find the curriculum (Tytler, Sjoberg & Schreiner, 2007). A possible reason for this might be that curricula in developed countries subscribe to what Odora Hoppers (2004) calls "cosmopolitan knowledge", anchored in Western philosophies and scientific discoveries that might be alien to some students. The Relevance of Science Education (ROSE) project showed that there is an extraordinary high negative correlation (between 0.77 and 0.94) between learners' perceptions of the relevance of science and a country's development index. The more developed a country becomes, the less relevant learners' views of science becomes (Tytle, Sjoberg & Schreiner, 2007). Cummins and Swain (1986) are of the opinion that the language of
6 science is "cognitively demanding" and "context reduced". The scientific knowledge of indigenous culture is cognitively less demanding than Westernised science because it is based on experienced reality and it is associated with a vocabulary that is more accessible to students. Incorporating IK in the Life Sciences curriculum will enable students to better understand academic science content while accessing scientific language.
1.3 WHAT IS THE GAP THAT THIS STUDY ADDRESSES?
Indigenous knowledge need to be incorporated in Life Sciences teaching and learning. The focus of the study is on the lived experiences of teachers in incorporating IK in the c1assroom.This, however, places demands on the development of teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), since many teachers' pre-service training did not adequately prepare them for teaching IK. Anecdotal evidence suggests that little was done to address this problem through in service (INSET) training. Science teacher education and development is a problem in South Africa as the country is challenged to provide properly qualified teachers.
This study focuses on the lived experiences of Life Sciences teachers in incorporating IK in their teaching, and on the adequacy of these teachers' pedagogical content knowledge. Many studies suggest that teachers often lack a deep conceptual understanding of the content they are supposed to teach, and that their content knowledge is fragmented, compartmentalised and poorly organised, making it difficult to access this knowledge efficiently when teaching (Loughran, Mulhall & Berry, 2008). Would this also be true of teaching indigenous knowledge systems?
With this new focus in the curriculum of teaching IK, this study will shed light on teachers' experiences in teaching IK, Western science and the nature of science. Do teachers provide sufficient scaffolding so that learners would be better empowered to align their thinking with that of scientists? If Life Sciences teachers are to make effective use of indigenous knowledge in the classroom, they must have a clear understanding of the relationship between the traditional practices and beliefs in their community and conventional science (Semeli & Kincheloe, 1999).
7 The following points made by Semeli and Kincheloe (1999) also have a bearing on this study:
• Teachers are the product of society and perhaps construct meaning from an indigenous base. • Teachers should first come to an understanding of their worldviews and the Nature of Science, and the relationship between indigenous knowledge and the conventional scientific view. • Teachers need to be encouraged to develop an understanding of indigenous knowledge and an appreciation for traditional wisdom, its characteristics and the purpose that it serves in the lives of students. • Teachers need to be trained to deal with complex situations in the classroom in an attempt to make conventional science accessible to learners.
This study will highlight the challenges or barriers that teachers experience in teaching about indigenous knowledge systems. In the official curriculum and policy documents, very little guidance is provided to teachers on how IK could be taught in a scientifically sound way. This study will result in the formulation of such guidelines, based on teachers' lived experiences.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The main research question is: What are teacher's lived experiences of the infusion of IK in the classroom? The following sub-questions guide this research: • How do Life Sciences teachers experience teaching indigenous knowledge systems in the Life Sciences classroom? • How do teachers view their own training and professional development for infusing IK in their teaching? • Why should IK receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom? • How does a keystone species promote IK in the Life Science curriculum, and what implications does it have for professional development of teachers within in a community of practice?
8 1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN
Explanatory and sequential mixed-method research, which involves both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis, has been undertaken (Creswell, 2009). The quantitative study was underpinned by a University of Johannesburg Science Education study that was commissioned by the Gauteng Department of Education (GDE). One of the sections in the questionnaire, which was sent to all the schools in Gauteng that offer Life Sciences, deals with indigenous knowledge. A Likert scale was used, and STATKON, the statistical unit of UJ, analysed the data. More than 250 completed questionnaires have been returned to offer a wealth of information for this study. Based on teachers' feedback, an interview protocol was compiled for the qualitative part of the research.
Phase 2 of the study entailed the generic qualitative inquiry (with elements of a phenomenological approach, since this study wanted to capture the "lived experiences" of the teachers). A number of teachers were individually interviewed and the interviews were recorded. Transcriptions were made and analysed to reveal a number of codes, categories, patterns and themes. In addition to the interviews, this study also used classroom observations and looked at the portfolios of both teachers and learners. Another data source informing the qualitative part of the study is the Grade 12 examination scripts that were analysed. This research also attempted, through the triangulation of the data, to provide a portrait of the lived experiences of teachers regarding the introduction of IK in their teaching. In this regard, this study uses Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) as a lens.
1.6 AN OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTATION
• In Chapter 2, the researcher provides a literature review (in other words, what other researchers say and this researcher's own views on this). Smith (1999) views indigenous knowledge as a term that internationalises the experiences, 9 concerns and struggles of some of the world's colonised peoples. Indigenous knowledge, as pointed out by Dei (2000), does not reside in "pristine fashion" outside of the influence of other knowledge. The argument is that bodies of knowledge continually influence each other, demonstrating the dynamism of all knowledge systems (Le Grange, 2004). This chapter also introduces the conceptual framework used in this study, namely Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT). This provides a useful lens in trying to capture teachers' lived experiences, since CHAT effectively captures tensions in an activity system (in this case, the Life Sciences classroom, and the challenges and barriers in incorporating IK in Life Sciences learning). • This is followed in Chapter 3 by a discussion of the research design and methodology. This chapter will also explain the specific nature of the mixed methods approach followed in this study. A generic qualitative study with elements of phenomenology has been conducted (in order to capture the "lived experiences" of a selected group of teachers). For this purpose, in depth personal interviews with Life Sciences teachers were done with purposive sampling. The quantitative component of the study (UJ research, commissioned by the GDE) will also be discussed. This study further draws on classroom observations, and script analysis of the Grade 12 Life Sciences examination papers of 2008. • Chapter 4 covers an analysis of the data, and explains emerging patterns and themes. The findings are integrated with the literature, and CHAT is used as a lens to paint a portrait of teachers' lived experiences. • Chapter 5 discusses the findings and makes conclusions and recommendations to help create an awareness of how important it is that the teaching of IK should be addressed in pre-service teacher education (PRESET) and in-service teacher education (INSET). This chapter also focuses on limitations of this study, and on the scope for future research in this field.
10 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE OVERVIEW: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN THE LIFE SCIENCES CLASSROOM, AND THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THIS STUDY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
As the Life Sciences curriculum policies urge the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the classroom, teachers need to incorporate IK into their teaching. This will enable learners to better understand biological, physical, environmental, technological and societal processes that influence the environment - such as food production, distribution and consumption, health promotion, conservation and sustaining the environment. When prior knowledge or IK is integrated in classroom settings or learning environments, students had better connect with the material taught and can become a major source for their community's sustainable development (World Bank, 2005).
Today, indigenous knowledge continues to be marginalised, even denigrated, but it Sustains millions of people economically, socially and spiritually as a living framework for continuing and innovating in most fields of technology. It is a source of wealth, both as an economic asset and as cultural patrimony (Odora Hoppers, 2004). The school community in the form of parents, learners, teachers and departmental officials need to work together so that there can be a smooth exchange of knowledge. By acknowledging students' particular cultures, science programmes can turn learning into a more positive experience for students who are resistant to studying the Westernised science curriculum.
By including indigenous knowledge in the curriculum, the particular social identity of the student will also be acknowledged. Learners will be able to acquire more skills for their real life, for example problem-solving and socialisation skills. They will also be able to collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information while
11 becoming culturally and ethically aware. The incorporation will extend the borders of education and learning beyond the classroom while teachers will develop the desire to do more research since learners have the desire to learn more.
2.2 DEFINITIONS
2.2.1. Indigenous knowledge Indigenous knowledge (lK) can be defined as a legacy of knowledge and skills unique to a particular culture and involving wisdom that has been developed and passed on from generation to generation (Semeli & Kincheloe, 1999). It is the knowledge of the indigenous people of a country about what happens in that country. Africans are the indigenous people of this country and therefore their indigenous knowledge should be given due recognition in the schools of this land.
Indigenous knowledge is local knowledge, derived from interactions between people and their environment (Kibirige & Van Rooyen, 2006). Indigenous people are people who originally belong to a particular country. Indigenous people are not there by virtue of having been displaced or having moved to the said country. Their origin is in that country. Kibirige and Van Rooyen (2006) further suggest that it is a form of "traditional wisdom" which is the product of practical engagement with the environment in everyday life. Smith (1999: 7) views indigenous knowledge as a term that internationalises the experiences, concerns and struggles of some of the world's colonised peoples while Dei (2000: 113) points out that IK does not reside in "pristine fashion" outside of the influence of other knowledge. It is also important to note that the term indigenous is not used by all in the same way. Different cultural groups use it to suit their own descriptions.
Grenier (1998) defines IKS as the sum total of the knowledge and skills that people in a particular geographic area possess, and which enables them to get the most out of their environment. Most of this knowledge and these skills have been passed down from earlier generations, but individual men and women in each new generation adapt and add to this in a constant adjustment to changing circumstances and environmental conditions (Odora Hoppers, 2004). She further argues that traditional knowledge is the totality of all knowledge and practices, whether explicit or
12 implicit, used in the management of socio-economic, spiritual and ecological facets of life.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems in the South African context refer to a body of knowledge embedded in African philosophical thinking and social practices that have evolved over thousands of years (Le Grange, 2005: 204). This knowledge qualifies as indigenous because it was in existence prior to the first contact with the colonial power of the outside world. They are the practices that people have been engaged in long before the colonists set their foot on African shores.
Emeagwali (2003) urges that the community is a source of strength for IK in terms of the discovery process and knowledge production. IK - like knowledge of the medicinal properties of plants - is also a social capital of the poor and their main asset to invest in the struggle to survive, produce food, provide shelter or achieve control of their own lives. In the emerging global economy, a country's ability to build and mobilise knowledge capital is equally essential for sustainable development as the availability of physical and financial capital (World Bank, 1997). Flavier et al. (1995: 479) states that IK information systems are dynamic (ever changing, never static) and are continually influenced by internal creativity and experimenting as well as by contact with external systems. Understanding indigenous ways of seeing as subjugated knowledge alerts us to the fact that there are different ways of seeing the world (Semeli & Kincheloe, 1999).
The National Curriculum Statement for Life Sciences (Department of Education 2003b, 64) views IK as follows: "Indigenous Knowledge is knowledge that has been produced by groups of people in an area, such as a province, country or continent, for a long period of time. Some of this knowledge may have served as the basis for modern technologies. In some instances, this knowledge and the wisdom that accompanies it have been lost either because established practices have changed or because people have moved away from their well-known environment."
The researcher views Indigenous Knowledge as the dynamic knowledge together with the skills and wisdom of a particular cultural group that has been acquired through ages and transferred from generation to generation. The researcher agrees 13 with Semeli and Kincheloe (1999: 3) when they explain that IK reflects the dynamic way in which the residents of an area have come to understand themselves in relationship to their environment and how they organise their folk knowledge of flora and fauna, cultural beliefs and history to enhance their lives. The knowledge is acquired through the interaction of cultural people in anenvironment that involves practical engagement in everyday life. Indigenous knowledge has been inherited from ancestors and it has been adopted from parents and grandparents. It will be transferred to their children and adapted to ever-changing circumstances based on what a person has known since birth. It is knowledge applied in a given territory in different cultures. This is what people of a particular community or population accumulate over generations in a particular environment and it is based on tradition, religion and customs. Indigenous Knowledge encompasses all forms of knowledge including techniques, skills, practices and beliefs - that enable communities to achieve a stable livelihood in their environments.
One of the participants in this study referred to Indigenous Knowledge as follows during an interview: "It is a knowledge that is spontaneous and informal because it occurs naturally where people do not need to go to school to acquire it. The knowledge is gained from home and all over the place in which a person is living. I think there is no specific time and method to acquire it as it is informal. When a child goes to school, he or she goes there having it already as it is acquired through ages."
The following excerpt from a transcribed interview highlights the complexity of infusing IK in the curriculum, and the contested nature of this.
This participant said: "Indigenous knowledge can be regarded as a knowledge based on what a person knows by nature or since birth. The knowledge normally starts at home by parents and grannies who have adopted it from their parents. Most of this knowledge is transmitted orally, so how can we be sure of them? Huh? Mostly, it cannot be scientifically proven and is not worth being taken to class. For instance, we normally hear a lot about the Modjadji people who are well known about rain making but no one will ever tell you what do they exactly do to make rain. This is the secret that is only known to them only. I think even the community cannot tell about
14 the processes over there. It is the secret which is known by the royalties only. This is the science that is needed in the Life Sciences and other science-related classes?"
Queen Modjadji is a female ruler who is normally known as the rain queen. It is traditionally accepted by the tribe of Balobedu that the Queen has the powers of making rain and she is still regarded as the most famous rainmaker on the sub continent (Limpopo province). The queen is still regarded as the focal point and source of strength of their kingdom. To date, it is still the Lobedu's (Modjadji people) custom for the rain queen to be succeeded by the eldest daughter. Krige (1993) explains that as the queen grows older, she is expected to pass on the baton (secrets of rainmaking) to her successor and then to commit what is normally known as "ritual suicide" by drinking a mixture of poison. Some traditional societies may show a strong symbolic dimension in which every action that occur within is highly ritualised and will allows humans to participate in the preservation of the natural order.
The rituals differ from culture to culture as each society has its own belief system that determines its cultural identity and type of technology. Some of the traditional practices are extinct, like the secret drum. This drum may still be heard on special occasions, normally when the tribe appear before their queen. This is practised barefooted in a kneeling position to show that they respect and obey her. The queen does not normally appear in public as a male member from the royal family is appointed as a proxy to act on her behalf.
The queen's fascinating rainmaking skills are a secret. The rainmaking can form an important part of a science lesson, as this will enable learners to learn about the water cycle. Important processes, like evaporation, precipitation and condensation, will be practically observed and acquired.
2.2.2. Society Society can be explained as the sum of relationships among groups of people who are related to each other and who are living in a particular area or surrounding (Pretorius, 2000). t society can also be referred to as the structured community of people that bound together by similar or same traditions, institutions or nationality. A
15 society is a body of individuals outlined by the bounds of functional interdependence, possibly comprising characteristics such as national or cultural identity, social solidarity, language or hierarchical organisation (Liston & Zeichner, 1996). A society in South Africa that still upholds its identity to date is the Zulu. They are proud of who they are, they speak their language proudly in other societies and practise their culture with respect. They put on their traditional clothing; males often have some weaponry in their hands as the protectors of their families. They carry their weaponry irrespective of how hard one may try to convince them otherwise. Sometimes even the laws of the country fail to take their weapons away from them.
Society cannot be separated from culture, and it plays an important role in the education of our children. Schools and society are symbiotic (gain from each other) and cannot be separated because when major occurrences shock society the schools change in one way or another. Society and school play a major role in the education of a child and therefore change is impossible if the two do not work together. The knowledge that society has can be given to children in the form of indigenous knowledge that forms part of their culture. Both the society and the school are able to exchange knowledge. Therefore, indigenous knowledge comes from the society in which the school is situated and it is supported by its cultural groups. The school that attempts to operate in isolation or as an island is bound to fail in its efforts.
2.2.3. Culture Culture in its broader sense stands opposite nature and entails everything man's hand and spirit took from natural materials because it represents some value to him. Nature is transformed into cultural goods and man cultivates his activities in work and creates a spiritual culture such as science, morality and religion (Pretorius, 2000). Pretorius refers to culture as spiritual and moral life that includes everything regarded as belonging to the field of science and art, life-view and religion. This can be seen as learned or acquired ideas, beliefs and knowledge that are shared by people in the society. What goes on inside schools is greatly influenced by what occurs outside of schools (Liston &Zeichner, 1999). Teachers who work within those walls at school bring in all sorts of cultural assumptions, social influences and contextual dynamics which may include the customs and achievements of a
16 particular civilisation or group. It is best understood as the totality of socially transmitted behaviour, arts, beliefs, institutions and all other products of human work and thoughts.
Culture is all the knowledge and values shared by a society. Culture exists when members of the society know the same things in the same or similar way and attach value to the same or similar things. These are attitudes and behaviours that are characteristic of a particular social group or organisation. A group of boys or girls who attended circumcision school (mountain school) together belong together; they behave almost the same. They are even given a "clan name" such at Mangana or Magas. They have a cultural way of doing things and a way of speaking that distinguishes them from other groups. If a person happens to be among them accidentally, this person might feel like a misfit. Culture draws the lines between what is permissible and what is "taboo". There are certain things that are permissible in one culture and totally unheard of in the next. In some societies, respect for women and children's rights is the way of life while the same is unheard of in the next society. People from different cultures have different ways of thinking.
Learners' ability to evaluate and make informed decisions about current and future uses of science in the society, environmental management and lifestyle choices, will also depend on their cultural backgrounds. Their views are based on scientific knowledge, beliefs, ethics, values and norms, and may over time change (Department of Education, 2003: 10).
Culture is best understood as the totality of socially transmitted behaviour patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions and all other products of human work and thoughts (Odora Hoppers, 2002). Certain values are held in high esteem by organisations while others disregard these values. A society may possesses a culture or way of life, which members of that society share. Not all values and beliefs are held in common in a complex society, as there are sub-cultures within the major society. The link between education and culture is very important. Those involved in educational services make decisions about those aspects of culture considered important enough to be included in school programmes or school curricula. Students should be
17 exposed to the different cultural perspectives as part of their history and heritage rather than ignoring the diverse cultural perspective completely.
2.3 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
2.3.1. Constructivism The lens through which this researcher looks at this research is constructivist philosophy where learners come to school with certain knowledge from home that needs to be built on in such a way that learning can be effective. (It will be explained later how this relates to CHAT as conceptual framework.) The term constructivism holds different meanings for different people. Originally, it was used to describe a theory of learning. More recently it has "become associated with a theory of knowledge that says the world is inherently complex, that there is no objective reality, and that much of what we know is constructed from our beliefs and the social milieu in which we live" (Killen, 2000). When the term is used to describe cognitive models of learning, constructivism can be defined as "an approach to learning in which learners are provided with the opportunity to construct their own sense of what is being learned by building internal connections or relationships among the ideas and facts being taught" (Killen, 2000). This approach emphasises that learners may actively construct knowledge for themselves by forming their own representations of the material to be learned and selecting information that they perceive to be relevant in interpreting this on the basis of their present knowledge, and needs.
A person who is learning something new may bring to that experience of all his or her previous knowledge and present mental patterns . These authors further state that each new fact or experience is assimilated into a living web of understanding that already exists in that person's mind. This model suggests that we construct and reconstruct knowledge in order to make it meaningful (Killen, 2000).
In principle, human beings are shaped by both nature and culture but they are also actively shaping their own development. A constructionist approach treats learning as a social process whereby students acquire knowledge through interaction with their environment instead of merely relying on the teacher's lectures (Powers-Collins, 1994: 5).
18 Its basic principle is that all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived by the senses. Knowledge is not passively received; it is actively constructed. The knowledge is actively built up (constructed) and developed to progressively higher levels in each learner. Learners do not come to school as empty vessels. Instead, they come with certain knowledge. Through engaging in experiences, activities and discussions which challenge them to make meaning of their social and physical environment, learners might actively engaged in building progressively more complex understandings of their own world. The social constructivist explans that learning holds the meaningful learning that occurs when people are explicitly taught how to use the psychological tools of their culture (like language, mathematics, diagrams and approaches to problem solving) and are then given the opportunity to use the said tools to create a common or shared understanding of some phenomenon.
Constructivism can starts from the assumption that knowledge is formed in person's brain and that the thinking subject has no alternative but to construct what he or she knows. The school should use the knowledge that the learner has and construct or build the phenomenon from there. The teacher needs to help learners to construct knowledge by building on the knowledge of each learners (including IK) and by assimilating new concepts in the existing schemata. Using the ideas of constructivism, the essence of a constructivist lesson will provide learners with realistic problems that cannot be solved with their current level of understanding while allowing them to interact mainly among themselves to work out new understandings. The learner's prior knowledge should be used so that the desired outcome can be reached. People need to accept that human beings cannot be understood as objects that are passively influenced by the forces around them. All stakeholders in education that include students, teachers, parents and school management are active agents who are making meaning of their lives within and through their social context .
The knowledge needs to be constructed in such a way that learners can understand and realise the importance of this indigenous knowledge. Deepa Srikantaiah (2005) acknowledges that the first important pedagogical technique is the recognition of
19 learners' prior knowledge that often is IK. Learners can be allowed to construct their knowledge based on their prior knowledge. Teachers can pose problems of relevance to students and value their points of view, i.e. respect the culture, tradition and identity that students bring to the classroom. This involves both teacher and learner in an ongoing active process of exploration of the physical and social world in which they are involved.
Srikantaiah (2005) further highlights that what is taught and what is learnt cannot be separated from social context. Constructing new ideas building on prior knowledge can be done at the start of a new topic, but should not be limited to that part of the lesson. Teachers should realise that there are many rich sources of IK in the local environment, namely parents, peers and other members of society, who can all help with the accumulation of knowledge,skills and understanding of their society and immediate social context (Killen, 2000).
Snowman and Biehler (2000) refer to the following common principles of contemporary interpretations of constructivism:
• What a person "knows" is not just received passively but actively constructed by the learner - meaning learning is the active creation of knowledge structure from personal experience. • Because knowledge is the result of personal interpretation of experiences, one person's knowledge can never be totally transferred to another person. • The cultures and societies to which people belong influence their views of the world around them and, therefore, influence what they "know". In general, the understanding that people reach are largely consistent within a given culture and society. • The construction of ideas is aided by systematic, open-minded discussions and debate.
It is essential to place learners at the centre of the teaching and to structure learning environments together with activities that help learners construct knowledge rather than just absorb it. Killen (2000) expresses this idea as learners using their
20 experiences to actively construct understanding in a way that makes sense to them. Constructivist teaching involves getting learners to use what they know to figure out what they need to know. It should be clear that this approach to teaching emphasises that it is the learners' interaction with the content that is important rather than the content itself (Killen, 2000). Learners need to be given the opportunity to integrate information from different sources while teachers facilitate. Learners need to be given the chance to construct their indigenous knowledge in order to construct meaning in such a way that they can learn.
Killen (2000) suggests that a teacher can use the following to help learners to construct meaning:
• Scaffolding: This Vygotskian concept refers to providing a learner with enough help to complete a task. Help is then gradually decreased as the learner becomes ready to work independently. • Realistic learning content: A teacher needs to be able to select topics and content that can help learners in their real-life situations. The content needs to be real in the life of a learner • Multiple perspectives: The teacher needs to be able to use multiple techniques that will deliberately encourage learners to view situations from different angles.
Suggested characteristics of constructivist teaching practices, according to Borich and Tombari (1997, in Killen, 2000), include:
• Teachers organise learning and instruction around important ideas (such as the primary concepts, generalisations and underlying themes of the content) rather than focusing on isolated facts. • Prior knowledge is important because it provides learners with a cognitive structure that can be used to make sense of new learning. • Some teachers challenge the adequacy of the learner's prior knowledge, often by creating some conceptual conflict.
21 • Other teachers provide for ambiguity and uncertainty to students with problems that have ambiguity, complexity, uncertainty and multiple solutions. • Most teachers teach learners how to learn, how to regulate their skills and how to direct their own learning efforts. • Others view learning as a joint cognitive venture between learners, peers and teachers. • Teachers assess learners' knowledge acquisition during a lesson so that the learning activity is tested and learners receive immediate feedback.
When learners are allowed to construct meaning from new content or a new learning situation, their prior knowledge is recognised and utilised effectively. The indigenous knowledge that learners bring from their homes and surrounding areas will be constructed to make learning meaningful for these learners.
A constructivist approach to teaching encourages teachers to look for patterns in students' thinking (Killen, 2000). Dominick and Clark (1996) suggest that being aware of the thinking patterns that students typically use may help teachers to anticipate and appreciate their students' understanding. This happens when teachers are able to plan for situations that learners can examine or think about carefully in order to understand (analyse) their learning.
2.3.2. Globalisation as change Globalisation describes a process by which regional economies, societies and cultures have become integrated through a global network of communication, transportation and trade (Torres, 2009). It is a vehicle through which the economies of the world are put together and benefit from one another. Under the revised social setup there is a clear expectation that in return for public funds, scientists and universities must address the needs of users in the economy and in society. It is globalisation that influences institutions of tertiary education all over the world.
Science is the systemic enterprise of gathering knowledge into testable laws and theories. It is an expression of human creativity, both individual and collective. It is therefore concerned with the origin and development of human society, relationships
22 and ideas involved in social life. In recent years, a number of scientific bodies and development agencies have called for indigenous and traditional systems of knowledge to be recognised as valuable reservoirs of learning (Bala & Joseph, 2007). The interface between indigenous knowledge and globalisation develops a model for systemic integration of indigenous knowledge into formal and semi-formal education. It should not be restricted to Western science but should include the knowledge systems of diverse cultures in different periods of history.
The World Conference on Science for the 21st Century declared that all cultures can contribute scientific knowledge of universal value (World Bank, 2007). They also emphasised that there is a need for a vigorous, informed and constructive intercultural and democratic debate on the production and use of scientific knowledge. The practice and application of scientific knowledge should not be seen to conflict with the recognition of spiritual, cultural, philosophical and religious values (Odora Hoppers, 2004). Buford et al. (2008) call for a re-acknowledgement of the power and contemporary relevance of indigenous knowledge. The conceptual issues associated with indigenous knowledge, and the nature of the intersection between science and IK, should be acknowledged and explored in terms of needs, goals, teaching strategies and instructional resources in the classroom.
Indigenous knowledge as part of science must therefore become a shared asset benefiting all people. Scientists, therefore, have the responsibility to practise and apply the sciences in a manner that is inclusive of participation of indigenous people and ethnic minorities. Scientific research and its applications can yield significant returns towards economic growth and sustainable development includinq poverty alleviation. An example of this is the commercialisation of the Hoodia plant, as will be discussed later. Used as an appetite suppressant by the Khoi-San, this is now commercially available to the global village as a dietary product.
There is great concern about the unprofessional conduct of scientists, especially the tradition of making local communities anonymous in scientific practice even when they have divulged key information regarding certain plants or drugs (Odora Hoppers, 2004). The author further encourages transparency in the interaction
23 between the collectors of knowledge that visit local communities and the holders of indigenous knowledge.
2.3.3. Integrating Western science and IK Western science is a body of knowledge that has a specific and unique origin in "the scientific revolution". Western science normally isolates its objects from their context by putting them in simplified and controllable experimental environments. Its objectives are based on literature and academic transmissions, and favours analytical and reductionist methods (Nakashima & Roue, 2002). This was favoured in South African schools in the previous dispensation. Traditional science may be regarded as the science that is established by indigenous people and it includes traditional knowledge or local knowledge.
The word traditional emphasises the transmission of knowledge from a cultural point of view; but it might ignore the ability of traditional societies to adapt to changing circumstances. Traditional societies live in ever-changing times and circumstances. Indigenous medicines are now bottled. This is a significant change that attests to the fact that the society is not static.
The word indigenous explains the nature of knowledge. At the same time, it might overlook knowledge from populations who are not officially recognised as indigenous. The depth of indigenous knowledge rooted in the long inhabitation of a particular place offers education that can benefit everyone, from educators to scientists searching for more satisfying and sustainable ways to live on this planet. Indigenous knowledge should be viewed as living knowledge, full of creativity and continuous learning. Western science perspectives influence decisions that impact every aspect of indigenous people's lives . Despite their differences, different forms of knowledge can learn from each other.
Cultures from all over the world have developed different views of nature throughout human history. Many of them are rooted in traditional belief systems in which indigenous people use to understand and interpret their biophysical environment . The indigenous communities developed their own way of managing and using their resources to ensure their conservation for the future. Their knowledge includes a 24 wealth of wisdom and experience of nature gained over years from direct observations, transmitted orally over generations.
The incorporation of IK in the Life Sciences classroom should not be a case of introducing pseudo-science to learners. De Beer and Whitlock (2009) and De Beer & Van Wyk (2011) show that IK can be used to illustrate the scientific process and rigour in the sciences. This will be discussed later in the dissertation.
2.3.4. Indigenous knowledge and education The National Curriculum Statement (NCS) document for both General Education and Training (GET) and Further Education and Training (FET) encouraged a major shift in orientation by incorporating societal and cultural aspects into science education (Van Rooyen & Kibirige, 2006). In the Life Sciences Curriculum Statement "the learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of the nature of science, the influence of ethics and biases in the Life Sciences and the interrelationship of science, technology, indigenous knowledge, the environment and society" (Department of Education 2003b: 12).
By including IK in class, learners might view Life Sciences as being more relevant. Also, the particular social identity of the learner will be acknowledged. In this case, the learners also need to be active in order to learn effectively and to contextualise the knowledge. They can also be motivated and develop a personal interest in the material taught to them. Learners will not learn facts in a purely abstract way, but in relationship to what they already know. When IK is integrated in classroom settings or learning environments, learners better connect with the material taught. Hence, learners can become a major source of knowledge for the sustainable development of their communities.
How teachers interpret the infusion of IK into Life Sciences can result in very different learning experiences in South African classrooms. This poses a serious challenge to them in multicultural classrooms as they should deal with the application of science in society as well as the negative effects of its application. Learning activities should be constructed around big ideas and explorations that allow learners to create meaning. Such learning activities should allow learners to do
25 complex tasks and show learners the processes needed to carry out such tasks. These learning tasks should also allow learners to think about and challenge their thinking strategies while solving problems. Teachers need opportunities to reflect on, and develop their understanding of the structure of science knowledge as well as opportunities to apply this understanding in classroom practice (Loughran, Mulhall & Berry, 2008). They also need to have a good knowledge of child development and learning theory so that they can judge more accurately what learning can offer.
Barnhardt (2004) describes a ten-year educational restoration effort aimed at bringing the IK systems and ways of knowing that have sustained the native people of Alaska to the forefront in the educational system serving all Alaskan students and communities today. The focus was to reintegrate their own knowledge systems into the school curriculum as a basis for connectinq what students learn in school with what they learn from life out of school. He further states that the process has sought to restore a traditional sense of place while at the same time broadening and deepening the educational experiences for all students.
Curricula, teaching methodology and teacher training are normally based on the world views that do not always recognise or appreciate indigenous knowledge . In a curriculum that builds on indigenous knowledge, educators and their learners appreciate the need to analyse what they know, how they came to know it, why they believe or reject it, and how they evaluate the credibility of the evidence (Semeli & Kincheloe, 1999). This includes may include the role of local elders, cultural atlases, traditional values, experiential learning and cultural standards. The curriculum designers should be able to design curricula that can incorporate different cultures and indigenous knowledge systems. Emeagwali (2003) states that curriculum planning must always take into consideration existing power relations and multiple centres of power involved in the process of decision making and implementation. The local indunas and chiefs occupy a special place in society because of the indigenous knowledge they have.
The Education Act of 1988 resulted in the implementation of the National Curriculum, and its assessment framework had supporters among the educational establishment (White, 1997). Along with policies such as the Reconstruction and Development 26 Programme (RDP) and Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), the birth of the movement called the African Renaissance have been witnessed (Le Grange 2004). Odora Hoppers (2002: 2) writes: "the African Renaissance aims at building a deeper understanding of Africa, its languages and its methods of development. It is a project that includes the rewriting of major tenets of history, both past and contemporary. Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) thus posit tremendous challenges for the reconstruction and development strategies in Southern Africa."
Semeli and Kincheloe (1999) state that the curricular reforms based on the analysis of indigenous knowledge require that teachers become hermeneutist (scholars and teachers who structure their work and teaching around an effort to help students to make sense of the world around them) and epistemologists (scholars and teachers who seek to explore how accepted knowledge came to be validated). The knowledge can be used to illustrate and introduce scientific concepts and inquiry procedures. One procedure for obtaining and using these scientific concepts in Life Sciences could be via direct interaction with the community and society.
Le Grange (2005) points out that teachers require approaches to effectiveness that is based on an in-depth understanding of the context-specific socio-political causes of ineffectiveness.
2.3.5 Nature of science Life Sciences education in school should focus on scientific knowledge (the facts, principles and laws of science) and also emphasise scientific processes. Learners should be assisted to state hypotheses, test predictions, do experiments and analyse data. In this way, students will get a better understanding and a "feel" for the true nature of science. Our understanding of the Nature of Science (NOS) can be described as the ideas and assumptions we hold in terms of scientific knowledge and the science process (Vhurumuku, 2010). The NOS can be described as the way of knowing and the characteristics of scientific knowledge which are intrinsic or internal ideas guiding all scientific investigations. One of the greatest ideas regarding the nature of science is that scientific knowledge is not stable or cast in stone and can change at any given time. This implies that other scientists around the country are able to test and challenge the previous assumptions and findings. By doing so, 27 the nature of facts, hypothesis or theories as important key words of scientific knowledge are often wrongly interpreted. Learners' understanding of the nature of science can influence how learners attend to evidence in support of or in conflict with their own belief systems regarding social issues (De Beer & Whitlock, 2008). The two authors further suggest that all science is embedded in cultural assumptions and historical processes, which are deterministic to the ways knowledge is apprehended and encouraged. Education research and reform documents strongly stress the need for teaching learners to appreciate the nature of the scientific enterprise and its social ramifications (Laugksch, 2000). For learners to acquire an understanding of the NOS, there needs to be a radical change in the learning opportunities provided to learners in school (Vhurumuku, 2010).
The question arises whether the inclusion of IK in the Life Sciences classroom can assist students in obtaining a better understanding of the NOS. If a person's perception of indigenous knowledge includes metaphysical views on traditional healers making contact with ancestors, the answer is probably no. However, if IK is introduced in the classroom in a rigorous scientific way, students will get a better understanding of the nature of science. De Beer and Whitlock (2008) and De Beer and Van Wyk (2011) propose teaching strategies that could be followed when introducing indigenous knowledge in the classroom, based on observation, hypotheses formulation, data collection and data analysis. Such an approach in the Life Sciences classroom will give learners a more nuanced understanding of the NOS.
Scientific facts which are observable phenomena in a particular situation are very important in the Life Sciences classroom. So, scientific knowledqe should not be referred to as facts as this will tend to perpetuate the idea that scientific knowledge is unchangeable. In this case there is an example that says: "Mopani worms feed on mopani leaves." This is a fact because the phenomenon was observed in a particular situation. The responsibilities of Life Sciences teachers towards their learners extend far beyond the delivery of science content. Personal integration of science should prepare learners to evaluate the reliability and merit of this information outside the classroom (Laugksch, 2000). Theories are ideas that have not been validated and have stronger meaning and broadly based concepts that make sense of a large body
28 of observations and experimentation. This forms the most important ideas in science. Scientific method is a step-by-step process that must be followed in order to conduct scientific research which is restrictive in its sense. Scientific methods normally give direction on how to perform an experiment or research. As methods will be followed, observations will at the same time be made. In this case, learners need to make good observations to actively integrate knowledge into their daily lives.
The nature of science can be incorporated in the Life Sciences classroom, e.g. during the harvest time of mopani worms. Several themes - like metamorphosis, conservation, exploitation, preservation and extinction - can be investigated. Pre research activities such as the following can play an important role in the Life Sciences classroom: gathering information on traditional medicines used for the healing of certain diseases, traditional methods used for the prevention of pregnancy, causes of water pollution in a nearby river or stream, and traditional methods of preserving seeds, vegetables and other materials.
2.4 SOUTH AFRICA - A RICH SOURCE OF IK
The multicultural South Africa has a wealth of indigenous knowledge that the Life Sciences teacher can utilise in the classroom. The following section provides examples of IK that could be used when planning learning opportunities in the classroom.
2.4.1 Transfer of culture and knowledge The school has a transfer function with regard to the cultural heritage of society. If the school children are given the opportunity to actively participate in culture and to create and develop their own world. The incorporation of indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom will help learners to actively integrate this knowledge into their daily lives. Cultural practices and the IK of society must systematically be revealed to children so that they can adopt this know-how. Society needs to be instrumental in children's development by transferring knowledqe that can help them grow and become adults. The education that children get from the community in the form of skills and technology should help them to improve the economy and
29 technology of the society. The above activities in local communities create employment and put food on peoples' tables.
2.4.2 Ethnobotany Ethnobotany is defined as the part of ethno-ecology that concerns plants (De Beer & Van Wyk, 2011). The term ethno-ecology has in recent years received considerable emphasis in international literature. This term refers to studies which describe local people's interaction with the natural environment (Martin, 1995). Ethnobotany is that part of ethno-ecology which concerns plants. Ethnobotany has been defined by Balick and Cox (1996) as "the study of relationships between plants and people" as ethno refers to the study of people and botany refers to the study of plants. Ethnobotany is therefore the study of the knowledge, skills and daily uses of plants in a particular area which enable people in local communities to get the most out of their natural environment (De Beer & Van Wyk, 2011: 90). Jones and Hunter (2003) and Michie (2000) identify a number of common themes embedded in indigenous knowledge which are intrinsic to its integration into the science curriculum. According to them, indigenous knowledge is characterised by the following: • Based on experience • Often tested over centuries of use • Developed as a collective database of observable knowledge • Adapted to local culture and environment • Dynamic and changing: a living knowledge base • Application of problem solving • Transmitted orally and sometimes encapsulated in metaphor • Inseparably embedded in ethics, spiritually, metaphysics, ceremony and social order • Bridging the science of theory with the science of practice •A holistic (IK) versus a reductionist (Western science) approach • An ecologically based approach • Contextualised versus decontextualised science.
30 Ethnobotany is important for curriculum perspective as it can help to ensure that school science reflects the intellectual and cultural traditions that characterise the practice of contemporary science. Teachers need to implement ethnobotanical surveys in the Life Sciences classroom as De Beer and Van Wyk (2011) urge that it can put learners in touch with their cultural roots. The incorporation of ethnobotany in the school curriculum will also show learners that IK claims do not constitute "pseudo-science", but that many of these IK claims can be shown to have a scientific basis.
2.4.2 (a) Medicine and traditional healing South Africa is one of the global hotspots of both biological and ethnic diversity. Southern Africa is rich in angiosperm species, and Germishuizen and Meyer (2003) give the species count as 21,817. Van"Wyk and Gericke (2000) estimate that about 3,000 medicinal plants are regularly used in South Africa. The combination of botanical and cultural diversity in Southern Africa has resulted in a complex regional mosaic of traditional plants that has not yet been properly recorded. All communities understand health in terms of their culture, which in turn shapes the ways in which people make sense of the causes and manifestations of illness. Traditional healing is done by traditional healers, people who playa major role in the healing of different types of diseases (De Beer & Whitlock, 2009). These healers call for an understanding of the impact of culture on the treatment of diseases and illnesses. As outlined in the article by Gqualeni (2007), traditional healers are not a homogenous group. The group normally shares the same socio-cultural values as their communities, including beliefs about the origins, significance and treatment of illnesses.
Three main categories of healers need to be distinguished: • The divine or igai aup (Laidler, 1928) who treats serious ailments. • The herbalist or bossiedokter who treats minor and chronic ailments. Van Wyk (2008) makes it clear that the term bossiedokter (bush doctor) is a designation of honour, referring to highly skilled herbalists. • The poison or snake doctor, who normally specialises in the treatment of snake bites (Van Wyk, 2008). Snake doctors daily ingest small doses of
31 snake poison to make them immune against snake bite. Laidler (1928: 438) referred to Jacob Klaas, whose father was a full-blooded Nama, and who used to be the poison doctor for the northern parts of Namaqualand. His father made two small cuts above the elbow of each of his (Jacob's) arms, and rubbed a small portion of dried cobra and night adder venom into the cuts. Two weeks later his father prepared a mixture of venoms that he had to put onto his tongue, until he felt "funny and shivery".
The approach of the traditional healers is usually a holistic one, dealing with all aspects of the patient's life, including his/her relationship with other people, with the natural environment and with supernatural forces as well as physical or emotional symptoms (Gilbert et al., 2008).
Increased recognition is given to the contribution of African traditional medicinal practices and knowledge to present-day treatment and understanding of diseases. South Africa has a remarkable bio-cultural diversity and a rich herbal medicine tradition with origins that probably reach back to Paleolithic times. Gericke (1996) argues that it is an indictment on South Africa's medical and scientific research establishments that have no significant official support for the institutionalised, systematic development of the enormous wealth of medicinal plants that this country possesses. He further states that the Traditional Medicines Programme (TRAMED) at the Pharmacology Department of the Medical School, University of Cape Town, was started in June 1994 to promote the sustainable development of South Africa's medical plants primary through providing information on folk anecdotes and scientific information to encourage scientists, and to provide traditional healers with access to the results of scientific investigations into the traditional materia medica. This suggests that imperialism did not succeed entirely in undermining indigenous knowledge production; it merely drove it underground. People who use traditional healing systems also invest in products which they believe could promote their health. Cocks and Moller (2002) looked at the consumption of herbal remedies in an African culture. They focused on indigenous herbal remedies that can easily be purchased from an amayeza (Xhosa chemist) and discovered that "well-being enhancing" medicines are used for various purposes.
32 Table 2.1: "Well-being enhancing" medicines and their uses in percentages Type of "well-being enhancing" medicine (based on 180 medicine purposes) Specific use to which medicines are put % As protection against evil spirits 61 For good luck 23 To cleanse one's blood 5 To remove poison from witchcraft 5 Other and customised uses 6 Total 100 Source: Cocks & Moller, 2002.
This data clearly illustrates an earlier point: the distinction between herbalism for medical conditions and plant use for metaphysical purposes. Freidson (1990) argues that in the communities the first step of "help-seeking behaviour" includes consultations with family members, friends and neighbours. This is referred to as the "lay referral system". Following this referral, a person may decide to seek help from "traditional" healers. How people react to treatment is shaped by cultural factors and reflects predominant value orientations (Gilbert et al., 2008). As outlined in the article by Gqualeni (2007), traditional healers are not a homogenous group. The group normally shares the same socio-cultural values as their communities including beliefs about origins, significance and treatment of illnesses.
The approach of the traditional healer is usually a holistic one, dealing with all aspects of the patient's life, including his/her relationship with other people, with the natural environment and with supernatural forces, as well as with physical or emotional symptoms (Gilbert et a/., 2008). They provide culturally familiar ways to explain ill health and relationships to the social and supernatural world. Ashforth (2005) also acknowledges that in societies where ill health and other forms of misfortune are blamed on social causes, relationships, witchcraft or supernatural (gods or ancestors) causes, traditional healers are particularly common. Due to decades of colonialism, cultural imperialism and the power of the multi-national pharmaceutical industry, traditional healers and traditional medicines have been
33 marginalised and their value to communities underplayed (De Beer & Whitlock, 2009).
In 1977, the World Health Assembly of the World Health Organization (WHO) passed a resolution promoting the development of training and research related to traditional medicine. Many developing countries have taken action to develop policies and programmes for the integration of traditional systems of medicine into national primary health care systems.
In South Africa, the government is strongly committed to rectify the situation of traditional healers. They are committed to take steps to legalise African traditional health care. It recognises that traditional healing is an integral part of health care and various processes have been set in motion to elevate the legal status of traditional healers. Traditional healers or sangomas have been recognised as important partners in providing health care to all South Africans. In order to include traditional healing as part of holistic health care in South Africa and to regulate the practices of traditional healers in South Africa, a National Reference Centre for African Traditional Medicine was established. Partners include the Department of Health, the Medical Research Council and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (http://www.mrc.ac.za/traditionalmedicines/national.htm). Whereas many people benefit from treatment by traditional healers, it is also well recorded that many people die every year because of poisoning by such healers. This often relates to traditional healers not being clear on dosages. There is often a very fine line between a therapeutic dose and a lethal dose. An interesting example is CalJilepis laureola (Impila). This plant belongs to the Astereceae family. This traditional remedy is used by the Zulu, mainly in KwaZulu-Natal, for stomach problems, tapeworm infestations and impotence. It is administered orally or as an enema. Mortality rates from the use of impila is estimated to be 1 500 deaths per annum in KwaZulu-Natal (GAIA, 2001).
34 Figure 2.1: Callilepis laureola (Impila), a traditional medicine that causes 1500 deaths per year in KwaZulu-Natal Source: Josef de Beer, November 2009
In South Africa , letters from traditional healers are recognised for leave purposes in some places of employment. African Traditional Medicine (ATM) is holistic and attempts to go beyond the boundaries of the physical body into the spiritual realm (Emeagwali, 2003). African Traditional Medicine can therefore be categorised as mind-body medicine. Traditional healers have a crucial role to play in building the health system in South Africa and in strengthening the national response to HIV/Aids (De Beer & W hitlock, 2009). Traditional healers are consulted on matters related to HIV/Aids.
An interesting example of a "healing plant" that Life Sciences teachers can use in the classroo m is the "cancer bush" or Sutherlandia frutes cens.
35 Figure 2.2: Sutherlandia frutescens, a plant known for its medicinal properties Source: Josef de Beer, September 2009
According to the traditional healer, Credo Mutwa, the cancer bush radiates energy and well-being, cleanses the blood, serves as a tonic, combats flu symptoms and can be used to combat cancer and STDs . These sentiments were echoed by Jan Baadjies, the main source of information in De Beer and Van Wyk's survey in the Hantam, Northern Cape Province, in South Africa. Researchers have realised that this indigenous shrub common in South Africa has potent medical qualities that were known in early times by the Khoi, San and Zulu healers. Early people have observed that people suffering from cancer responded well to extracts made from this plant. They hypothesised that Sutherlandia frutescens may assist cancer patients, since there are active ingredients in this plant that assist the immune system to fight disease. Recent research has shown that the shrub contains an amino acid which fights depression, pinitol which helps patients to gain weight, and canavanine which
36 is successful in treating retroviruses (Van Wyk, 2008). It is used to treat Aids patients today. Although it does not cure Aids, it definitely helps people with Aids to enjoy a better quality of life. This is an interesting example of how modern science is giving status to the work of traditional healers.
2.4.2(b) Introducing ethnobotany with scientific rigour in the Life Sciences classroom De Beer and Whitlock (2009) and De Beer and Van Wyk (2011) show that ethnobotanical perspectives can be brought into the Life Sciences classroom with rigour, and without introducing pseudo-science. By using ethnobotanical approaches, students can engage with the true Nature of Science, as well as with the so-called scientific method. These authors indicate how learners can do ethnobotanical surveys, tapping into the IK of cultural groups, using the rapid appraisal methodology. Learners can prepare herbarium voucher specimens of the plants used by people, identify these plants, and also consult literature and websites, like the website of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), for clinical tests carried out on these plants in order to identify active ingredients with anti-microbial activity. The authors also suggest methodologies, based on the scientific method, where learners can isolate active substances from plant material (using simple chromatography techniques) and test for anti-microbial activity. The question is whether teachers have the PCK to effectively guide learners in rather sophisticated procedures.
2.4.2(c) Introducing ethical aspects, such as intellectual property rights, in the classroom An interesting South African example that can be used to illustrate the ethical minefield we find ourselves in, is the ghaap or ghoba (Hoodia gordonil) which is a popular food item used locally to suppress hunger and thirst and also to treat stomach pain. (The Khoisan hunters had to endure hunger and thirst on their hunting expeditions.) The appetite-suppressant properties of the plant have been studied scientifically and are ascribed to a chemical compound in the plant known as P57 (Van Heerden et aI., 1998). This plant, sometimes incorrectly referred to as the "South African desert cactus", has become internationally famous as potential anti obesity drug. The economic implications are huge as the current market potential for
37 dietary control of obesity is billions of US Dollars per annum in the USA (Wynberg , 2004). Hoodia gordonii provides an interesting examp le of some of the ethical issues encountered in science (Wynberg , 2004) . The earliest people in South Africa, the Khoisan, used it as an edible plant, and the fleshy stem provided the necessary water in a very dry part of South Africa. Research undertaken by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in South Africa shows that this plant , with an active ingred ient named P57, is an effective appetite suppressant.
In the late 1990s, the American firm Pfizer was given the rights to develop Hoodia tablets as a commercial undertaking . However, questions were asked about the intellectual property rights of the indigenous (San) people, who have used this plant for many decades or perhaps even centuries. The CSIR therefore signed an agreement with a particular San group in the Kalahari, whereby this San group will receive royalties from the sales of this plant product. However, this created prob lems as on ly one San community was acknowledged and the plant is widespread in the dry areas of South Africa. Th is might be one of the reasons why Pfizer announced that it will no longer develop the commercial use of Hoodia, although restructuring of the company was given as official reason for withdrawal from the project. However, illegal trade in Hoodia has led to the plant becoming a threatened species. These issues should be addressed in the Life Sciences classroom.
Figure 2.3: Hoodia gordonii Source: Josef de Beer, November 2009
38 Josef de Beer, Novembe r 2009
39 2.5 THE PROBLEM ADDRESSED BY THIS RESEARCH Many teachers feel unsure, even anxious, to address IK in the classroom, partly because of their lack of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). In many cases, they are unsure of what needs to be taught to learners and tend to ignore some aspects of the learning content. Although the curriculum policy states clearly that IK should be included in the Life Sciences classroom, many teachers tend to ignore this. There is no clear indication of which IK content should be taken into consideration, or whose indigenous knowledge should be applied.
Most teachers are faced with the challenges of multiculturalism because of the different cultures that form our Rainbow Nation. Culture has a great impact on learning and school achievement, and the geo-socio-cultural environment represents the link between what is already known and what is learned. Moreover, it has been shown that effective science in South Africa depends on understanding how non Western learners learn (Le Grange, 2007).
2.5.1 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) Life Sciences teachers are expected to have clear and in-depth knowledge of the life sciences content to be taught to learners. Teachers' knowledge needs to stretch far beyond the knowledge found in the school curriculum and textbooks. Life Sciences teachers are expected to have knowledge of general pedagogical approaches which are suitable for different topics. PCK focuses on the knowledge of what method or teaching strategy would be most useful to ensure student understanding of a particular topic. Contextual knowledge is also necessary. Teachers should know the students, and the environment they come from. This will enable teachers to understand and anticipate misconceptions that learners might encounter on specific topics (Shulman, 1986; Sanders, 2007). Knowledge of the context in which the knowledge is mediated is important and such that individual students' abilities and possible barriers to learning. The context also includes knowledge of the setting of the school and the facilities or lack thereof, and how this could be overcome (e.g. the teacher's agency of introducing science-on-a-shoestring approach). Sanders (2007) explains pedagogical content knowledge or PCK as integrated science knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and context knowledge.
40 Figure 2.23 below shows the subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge which are the primary elements of a teacher's pedagogical content knowledge. The three must be combined in order to give learners a proper insight of the knowledge.
Subject matter knowledge
Pedagogical knowledge Knowledge of context
Figure 2.4: Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) combines integrated science knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and context knowledge
Shulman (1986) introduced PCK in 1985 after America revealed that there was a poor correlation between learners' needs, teaching methodology and the content to be taught. According to Shulman (1986: 9), PCK includes "the most useful forms of representation of topics, the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples and demonstrations - in a word the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others".
Pedagogical knowledge in the diagram is seen to be the knowledge concerning learning and learners, principles of instruction, classroom management, aims and purposes of education. Pedagogical knowledge may be regaded as the knowledge that helps a teacher understand how learners construct knowledge and acquire certain skills. Teachers need to understand how learners apply cognitive, social and developmental theories of learning in the classroom.
41 Content knowledge refers to the subject matter to be taught by teachers to learners in the classroom. In this case, it refers to the Life Sciences knowledge to be taught as described by the NCS, and the infusion of relevant IKS in class. According to Shulman (1986), content knowledge must include knowledge of concepts, theories and ideas. Established practices and approaches towards developing such knowledge will also be included. Knowledge of content includes knowledge of the school setting, the culture of the school and its surrounding area and individual learners as a whole. The social circumstances and abilities of learners are also included.
The PCK of Life Sciences teachers is a big concern in South Africa. Although teachers' PCK is important, Loughran, Mulhall and Berry (2008) argue that there is very little literature on how teachers can develop and acquire PCK. The three authors are of the opinion that PCK can be learned through access to experienced teachers' teaching. Teaching styles or skills evolve as a combination of one's educational philosophy and preferred teaching methods, techniques and strategies (Katzenmeyer & Moller, 1996: 113).
The way in which PCK is presented to student teachers in order to acquire and reflect on their teaching practice is offered by Loughran et al. (2008). The method is known as the CoRes and PaP-eRs which uses the concept of content representations (CoRes) and pedaqoqical and professional-experience repertoires (PaP-eRs) to address both the science content as well as specific ways to teach it. This approach focuses on the main content ideas ("big ideas") and on possible misconceptions and areas that students will find difficult. This also includes creative ways and methods to determine whether learners understand certain concepts and ideas to scaffold their understanding. A PaP-eR will focus on the teaching and learning aspect of the specific topic. The specific content determines which pedagogical approach will be followed. This will help to determine why the teacher follows a specific method of teaching. Critical reflection is of the utmost importance in developing one's PCK. Teachers will improve their teaching practices only if they reflect critically on what happened in the classroom and on the teaching philosophy that underpins the methods they use.
42 The methods proposed by Loughran et al. (2008) can be used as a framework in a community of practice in order to help teachers understand and develop PCK. The CoRes and PaP-eRs concepts can be an approach that can help teachers to reflect on their own teaching practice and on their professional development and PCK development. The benefits of acquiring PCK may lead to teachers being more knowledgeable, flexible and capable in their work. Acquiring PCK will also allow teachers to cater for the individual needs of each learner. Without sufficient PCK teachers are likely to focus on covering a certain amount of study material in a certain time instead of focusing on deep conceptual understanding. Teachers are required to apply the knowledge they acquired or experienced in their teaching lifetime. According to Shulman, a teacher should have "different knowledges".
2.5.2 PCK and the role of critical reflection No single teaching strategy is effective for all learners at all times. Teaching strategies should work hand in hand, supplementing each other in order to ensure effective learning. Factors such as learners' attitudes, abilities and learning styles, teachers' beliefs, knowledge and abilities, and learning context have important an effect on what learners learn (Killen, 2000). Teaching needs to be conducted in such a way that learning is optimal, and teachers should ensure that any barriers to learning are addressed.
The Department of Education has high expectations of teachers, and values their professional development. Teachers are professionals and specialists in curriculum development, assessment and teaching. They are also community members, scholars, care givers, leaders and managers (Smith & Nduna, 2008). One important focus of the new curriculum is that the teacher should facilitate learning, and that the teacher should not, as the source of all knowledge, follow a "chalk-and-talk" approach. This means teachers need to help learners construct their own knowledge. This is a challenge, especially when it comes to the incorporation of IK. Learners should be at the centre of teaching and they should discover meaning by including their indigenous knowledge. Learners can be given the opportunity to connect the information they receive at school with their knowledge from home. They can be given a topic to explore or discuss on their own and to research at home and
43 their surrounding area. By using a learner-centred approach, teachers will no longer be able to filter all the knowledge or information reaching the learners because some of the information will come from the learners' individual or group investigations and discussions. Teachers will be facilitating learning while at the same time monitoring the situation.
Teachers often experience problems in infusing indigenous knowledge in their teaching because of their lack of pedagogical content knowledge. Hence, they encounter barriers in the infusion of IK. For example, teachers may find it difficult to source the material they want to use in class or they do not have sufficient knowledge of IK or of appropriate teaching methods. Some teachers are also hesitant to infuse IK in their teaching out of a fear for introducing "pseudo-science" in the classroom. Teachers ought to learn to use their local environment and to expand from it into the large world (Katzenmeyer & Moller, 1996: 154). Furthermore, the knowledge that teachers have is often only situated in a particular culture, and many teachers lack insight into the IKS of other cultural groups.
It is difficult for teachers to know all the indigenous knowledge systems that operate in South Africa's multi-cultural environment. Little IK content is provided in the prescribed school textbooks and this makes teaching difficult. Teachers only rely on the knowledge that learners bring from home after they were given a task or research to conduct. Teachers often lack the skill to critically reflect on their own teaching. Only through critical reflective practice can teachers develop their own PCK. There is a need for teacher development programmes that will help them to develop professional practice in their learning area.
2.5.3The gap addressed by this research Despite the fact that the curriculum document for Life Sciences advocates for the inclusion of IK in the classroom, it provides very little information or guidance on how this should be achieved. This research highlights the problems that teachers face in the implementation of this curriculum requirement, and try to determine whether teachers have the necessary PCK to effectively succeed in this regard. Anecdotal evidence shows that teachers:
44 • Have insufficient content knowledge - both biological content knowledge and indigenous knowledge - to effectively design lessons showing how science influences our daily lives. • Do not have sufficient pedagogical knowledge. Too many South African teachers still use "transmission" approaches in the classroom and, where practical work or scientific investigations are involved, it is often done as "cookery book" approaches and not as true science-as-inquiry approaches (Petersen, 2010; Cronje, 2011). Teachers do not know how to introduce IK in an effective way, especially in a way that uses the "scientific method" while reflecting the Nature of Science. • Teachers experience problems with contextual knowledge, for example knowing about the cultural practices of so many different South African cultural groups.
2.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: CULTURAL HISTORICAL ACTIVITY THEORY (CHAT) Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) was seen as a model for change that has the potential to "drive innovation in practice" (Meyer, 2007:1 3). The model was developed by the co-workers of Lev Vygotsky (1978), who is generally considered the founder of social and cultural constructivism. Vygotsky believes that learning takes place during social and cultural endeavours between the child and knowledgeable adults (or more competent peers). The theory explains that human beings never react directly to their environment, but that an artefact (cultural means, tools and signs) always mediates learning. This is a useful lens that can be used in research to look at the dynamics in a classroom (called an 'activity system' in CHAT language). I have therefore used third generation CHAT as a lens to discuss my findings.
The positioning of research within the broad theoretical framework of an interpretive study fits in with the adoption of Activity Theory as conceptual framework. According to Leontiev (1981), the concept of first-generation activity theory included the idea of mediation and included the concept of collectivity as well as individual action from which the second generation of activity evolved. This can also be linked
45 to the concept of the division of labour which is seen as the fundamental historical process assisting in the development of cognitive functions. Engestrom (1987) built on Vygotsky and Leontiev's model to generate the third-generation activity theory which is represented in Figure 2.24. In this case, the NCS states clearly that indigenous knowledge needs to be incorporated by teachers in the Life Sciences classroom. Due to the insufficient pedagogical content knowledge of many teachers, it is often difficult to comply with this curriculum principle. The training that was given to teachers for the teaching of the NCS was often not sufficient for teachers to incorporate or infuse indigenous knowledge in their teaching. The pedagogical content knowledge of teachers is therefore seen as an important tool to obtain the desired outcomes.
NCS policy Language
Local examples and Pedagogy resources
Incorporation ofIK PCK Development ------.~ ~ /.... I Object I~IOutcome I L..-__--Jj + r----%.------, Footing + voice of LS teacher
Guidelines in HOD, Knowledgeable Teaching Learning the NCS DoE people (sangomas), about IK more about Subject parents, LS teacher IK Rules ofthe school Advisor, or community, Cultural heritage Learners Developing PCK Figure 2.5: Third-generation activity theory
46 Indigenous Knowledge (lK) can act as a powerful tool in a learning environment to teach learners about the social dimensions of science. The third-generation activity theory will be used where the actions of an individual are seen as embedded within an activity system which includes the subject (individual), the object of action and a community engaged in collective activity.
The subject of the activity system is the person or subgroups whose actions we seek to understand - this is the focus of our analysis. In this case, our subject is the Life Sciences teacher incorporating indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom. The object motivates the actions of the subject and can be thought of as the "raw material" or "problem space" at which the activity is directed (Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Work Research, 2003: 4). In this study, the object will be the incorporation of indigenous knowledge, and the development of teachers' pedagogical content knowledge. The subject uses tools which can be physical, cognitive or symbolic to direct actions towards the object and to produce outcomes (Beatty et a/., 2009). The tools include the curriculum (NCS), the pedagogy used, language and local resources such as medicinal plants used in an area. The community consists of the participants engaged in collective activity with the subject, along with other individuals or groups with a stake in the object of activity; the object defines the community and distinguishes it from other communities (Engestrom, 2001; Murphy & Rodriquez-Manzanares, 2008). Therefore, the community in this study is the parents as community members, learners, knowledgeable people (for example, sangomas or traditional healers) supplying teachers with information, the Life Sciences teacher, colleagues, HOD, principal, DoE and also subject advisors. The Department of Education does not give teachers enough support in teaching IK and as a result teachers become demotivated.
Engestrom (1987) presented these elements and their interconnections as a triangle showing the subject as a teacher whose actions need to be understood, and the object as the effective incorporation or infusion of indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom.
47 The division of labour in the classroom specifies the power structure, including the teacher's authority to design learning goals or outcomes, and establish performance criteria and measures. It also reflects on two distinct "hats" that the teacher wears: that of teacher, facilitating learning activities in which IK is examined, and that of a life-long learner, learning more about the IK of different cultural groups and developing PCK. Guidelines in the National Curriculum Statement, the rules of the school or community and cultural heritage will act as the rules. Religious beliefs are factors that often hinder or affect the infusion of IK because both teachers and learners sometimes do not want to engage themselves in class discussions. This will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.
The activity system's fools warrant a more detailed discussion: The NeS policy document: • This document is informative but does not give direction on how to infuse the IK. Most school textbooks run short of IK content to be taught to learners. • Language and terminology: Terminology has been and continues to be a serious challenge in infusing indigenous knowledge in the classroom. Some of the indigenous events do not have scientific names and therefore it becomes a challenge to explain them to scientists. As a result, it is sometimes difficult to explain IK and cultural practices, which normally require colloquial language, in scientific language. • Pedagogy: Teachers find it difficult to use effective methods because they are not well trained to infuse IK in Life Sciences. Teachers are often not well versed in science-as-inquiry approaches and the Nature of Science. • Local examples and resources: South Africa is a rich source of indigenous knowledge, as illustrated in this chapter. Local products and plants can be used and skilful people in the community, such as traditional healers, can be invited as guest speakers into the classroom. • Books and the internet: There are a number of very good books that can be used in the Life Sciences classroom, especially in the field of ethnobotany, and medicinal plants. Teachers can also access excellent websites, notably those of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANSI) and the National Reference Centre for African Traditional Medicines (NRCATM).
48 The outcome in this activity system will be the professional development, footing and the voice of Life Sciences teachers in the incorporation of indigenous knowledge in their teaching.
Using CHAT as a lens in this research will help to highlight tensions in this activity system. If teachers do not receive adequate support in their PCK development from the community (e.g. from an HOD or subject advisor), such tension might result in ineffective teaching of IK.
Teachers are directed by the Life Sciences policy to infuse indigenous knowledge in the classroom, which forms part of the community. Teachers always find themselves at a crossroad, not knowing which route is the most suitable. They must obtain knowledge from the community, yet the same community is sometimes reluctant to offer such knowledge. The learners from the same community are yearning for the same information. It resembles the story of the chicken and the egg: Which one came first? Must teachers teach before obtaining information from the community or must they obtain the information before teaching?
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1. INTRODUCTION
Research designs are the plans and procedures used to construct the research process. The chosen design includes the entire spectrum from assumptions made to the methods of data collections and analysis (Creswell, 2009: 3). Henning et al. (2005: 1) refer to the whole research process as a home of knowledge or an epistemological home. In terms of this metaphor the research design chosen for this study resembles the architectural plans for the custom-designed research home of the study (Cronje, 2011). This chapter explains in detail the research design and
49 methodology used for this study. Methodology is the procedure followed by the researcher in obtaining data to answer the research question (Van Der Walt & Van Rensburg 2006: 191). The quality of research findings is directly dependent on the methodological procedures followed in the study. Therefore, a complete account of the way in which this study has been planned, structured and executed will be described in this chapter.
3.1.1 Aim of the study The aim of this study is to explicate the participating teachers' experiences of incorporating indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom.
3.1.2 Objectives of the study The following objectives were identified for the study: • To determine whether Life Sciences teachers have the expertise to address IK in the classroom • To identify the problems that teachers experience in infusing IK in their teaching • To identify communities of practice where teachers support each other in applying IK • To identify keystone species teachers, and to identify best practices in teaching indigenous knowledge in an integrated way in the Life Sciences classroom.
3.1.3 Research questions The main question is : Wwhat are teacher's lived experiences of the infusion of IK in the classroom? The following research sub-questions guided this research: • How do teachers experience teaching IK in the teaching of Life Sciences? • How do teachers view their own training and professional development for infusing their teaching with IK? • Why should IK receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom? • What problems do teachers experience in incorporating IK in the classroom?
50 • How does a keystone species promote IK in the Life Sciences curriculum in a community of practice?
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
A mixed-method study that involved collecting, analysing and integrating quantitative and qualitative research data was used as a programme of inquiry (Creswell, 2003). The method was used to achieve richness of data. Both quantitative and qualitative research data were combined to provide a better understanding of the research problem - an outcome that would not have been possible if one approach was used on its own. This was done in the Gauteng province, in order to identify basic challenges in addressing IK in the classroom.
This study is divided into two phases. During Phase 1, quantitative research approach was used, and this was followed by a generic qualitative research design in Phase 2.
Creswell refers to various sequential designs, and this study will be implementing an explanatory design (see Figure 3.1).
QUANT QUAL Data & Data & Interpretation Results Results
Figure 3.1: An explanatory sequential mixed-method design Source: Creswell, 2003.
This design will enable triangulation to ensure rich, thick research data.
3.2.1 Phase 1: Quantitative research
51 Quantitative research is underpinned by a formal, objective and systematic process which uses numerical data to obtain information about the phenomenon (Burns & Grove, 2005: 23). Information was collected through structured questions (see Appendix B) using a questionnaire to explore and describe the experiences of Life Sciences teachers regarding the incorporation of indigenous knowledge in the classroom. The insight gained from this quantitative inquiry was utilised to develop interview questions for Phase 2 of this study.
The quantitative research component included a questionnaire that was sent to all Life Sciences teachers in Gauteng province. A surprisingly high number of teachers completed the questionnaire. As a result, 255 completed questionnaires were used for this study. One of the sections (Section F) dealt with indigenous knowledge, and teachers were requested to answer a set of 20 questions, using a Likert scale. Data was analysed by UJ's statistical division, STATKON, providing a wealth of information for this study.
3.2.2 Phase 2: A generic qualitative study In Phase 2 of this study, a generic qualitative inquiry was built on the quantitative data in an explanatory sequential design style (Creswell, 2009), with traces of a phenomenological study that aimed to find the essence or structure of Life Sciences teachers' experiences of the inclusion of IK in their classroom. Mostert (2009) describes phenomenology as the descriptive methodology of human science seeking to explore and describe phenomena as they present themselves in the lived world in order to find the meaning of the phenomena.
Giorgi (1997) explains that, in qualitative research, the researcher needs to have an attitude of openness to let the unexpected meanings emerge. This study wants to uncover the true meaning of infusing or incorporating indigenous knowledge into the themes explored in the Life Sciences classroom by peeling back the various layers of moral, ethical, social and cultural influence that learners and teachers encounter in their life world. This study also aims to describe the lived experiences of Life Sciences teachers in this regard. Van Manen (1997: 39) states that lived experiences is the starting point and the end point of phenomenological research. It is best to obtain information from people who have lived the life one wants to
52 research. There in an English adage that goes: "Take it from the horse's mouth." Burch (1989) suggests that phenomenology does not produce new information but rather appropriates and interpret a meaning already implicit to experiences as its truth.
This method of study will uncover the experiences of Life Sciences teachers in their inclusion of indigenous knowledge in their classrooms. This study also envisages to identify the problems teachers encounter during their teaching in relation to the infusion of IK, as well as their knowledge about IK (or lack thereof) in terms of infusing IK in multicultural classrooms. This is what Shulman (1986) refers to as teachers' pedagogical content knowledge, or PCK.
There is an alignment between the research questions and methods used for the study. This study uses the following data collection methods: questionnaires, .individual interviews, an analysis of Grade 12 examination scripts (answer sheets), classroom visits and observation of portfolios. As part of the study, the data and findings of the UJ Script Analysis Project (SAP) done by staff and postgraduate students of UJ (of which the researcher was also part) for Umalusi will be looked at.
In line with the methodology followed in undertaking phenomenological studies, the researcher conducted personal interviews with Life Sciences teachers and recorded their "lived experiences" of dealing with indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom. The researcher observed lessons and looked at students' portfolios to obtain an idea of how IK is incorporated in the classroom. Through triangulation the different data sets will be integrated to provide a rich description of teachers' experiences in incorporating indigenous knowledge in their teaching. The focus of this study is on the qualitative data, because of the phenomenological nature. The data obtained in Gauteng province, with its arguably more diverse cultures, is simply to provide background on the challenges experienced.
53 3.3 CHOOSING A SAMPLE FOR THE RESEARCH
The following were taken into account in selecting a sample for the research on teachers' experiences of teaching IK in the Life Sciences classroom:
3.3.1 The setting The setting may refers to the physical location and conditions in which the data collection takes place during the of the study . This study was conducted in secondary schools in the Thabina, Khujwane and Shiluvane circuits of the Mopani district in Limpopo province, South Africa. The Mopani district was selected because the researcher works in this area and because it would be convenient to conduct the study here.
3.3.2 Population According to various authors (Van Der Walt & Van Rensburg, 2006: 123; Babbie, 2004: 190; De Vos, 2002: 198), a population is the entire group of persons that is of interest to the researcher or that meets the criteria the researcher is interested in studying. As stated, the population consists of 10 teachers working in the proposed secondary schools in Mopani district, Limpopo province.
The target population is all the elements, individuals or members that meet certain criteria for inclusion in the study (Polit & Beck, 2006: 259; Burns & Grove, 2003: 43, 491). In this case, the target population is teachers who are teaching Life Sciences to Grade 10, 11 and 12 learners.
3.3.3 Sample and sampling technique From the population of teachers who are teaching Life Sciences in the FET grades of the proposed schools, only a portion was selected as suited for the study in the form of a sample. A sample is a subset of a large population selected by the researcher to participate in a research study (Van Der Walt & Van Rensburg, 2006: 124; Burns & Grove, 2005: 750) or a portion of the population to represent the entire population.
54 Van Der Walt and Van Rensburg (2006: 124) further indicate that sampling involves selecting a group of people (sample) from a population in order to obtain information regarding the phenomenon in a way that represents the population of interest. For the quantitative component of the study, a questionnaire was sent to Gauteng schools so that it could be completed by Life Sciences educators. Over 250 completed questionnaires were returned.
In the case of interviews, a teachers' forum or meeting was scheduled where interested participants could learn about the research and ask questions. The purposive sampling method was applied. According to Burns and Grove (2003: 255) and Creswell (2008), purposive sampling involves the conscious selection of certain elements by the researcher. In this case, the researcher wanted to specify criteria for screening potential participants, the number of people to be recruited, the location of schools and the approach to be used.
3.3.3.1 Eligibility criteria Burns and Grove (2005: 343) indicate that a study may have inclusion or exclusion sampling criteria (or both). The inclusion sampling criteria are those characteristics that a subject must possess to be part of the target group while the exclusion sampling criteria are those characteristics that can cause person or subject to be excluded from the target population (Burns & Grove, 2005: 343; Van Der Walt & Van Rensburg, 2006: 124). Teachers were selected on the basis of their ability to provide or generate data that will be suitable for the research. The sample of teachers will be Life Sciences teachers. To be included in the study the teachers should: • Have 10 years or more of teaching experience • Teach at the Thabina, Khujwane or Shiluvane circuit in Mopani district in Limpopo province (for the qualitative research). The quantitative research was done in Gauteng. However, the Life Sciences curriculum is a national curriculum, and teachers would face the same challenge in all provinces. • Teach Life Sciences in Grade 10, 11 or 12. • Have the ability to incorporate indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences.
55 3.3.3.2 Sample size The sample size is the number of study participants in a sample (Polit & Beck, 2005: 509). Participants who meet the eligibility criteria will be included according to their availability and willingness to participate. The minimum sample size depends on the data collection method for the different phases. The researcher was summoned to a meeting at the circuit office to discuss the research with the three circuit managers and three Life Sciences subject facilitators. They helped with identification of Life Sciences educators who can do well in the incorporation of indigenous knowledge in their lessons at school. In identifying them, the researcher desired to make sense of their lived experiences and to be open to discovering new meaning. This clearly showed that science education is not only found in observational experiences but in the experiences of its presence in real-life situations (Mostert, 2009: 16). The researcher started off with a sample of fifteen (15) teachers, but some dropped out during the research process for different reasons. Ten (10) teachers remained. This number is sufficient to capture the lived experiences of teachers on the inclusion of IK in the classroom. Data saturation was actually obtained before all ten interviews were done.
3.4 DATA COLLECTION The study seeks to uncover the experiences of teachers that have taught Life Sciences for more than 10 years and will focus on their infusion of IK in their teaching. The study also aims to explore the knowledge and skills that teachers have in the infusion of IK and to describe the problems they encounter in this regard. The quantitative data used the results of questionnaires that were sent to all schools in the Gauteng province and that were returned. The qualitative data includes transcriptions of the interviews, classroom observations, an analysis of Grade 12 scripts, and the portfolios of both teachers and learners.
Based on Creswell's view (2007: 118) of data being a series of activities that are connected to each other, the data collection activities for this study is presented in Figure 3.2.
56 /]
]
Figure 3.2: Data collection activities
3.4.1 Phase 1: Quantitative data collection A questionnaire was used to collect data. The study questionnaire drew on the UJ Science Education study that was commissioned by the Gauteng Department of Education. The questionnaire explored a number of issues, including the research focus of IK in the Life Sciences classroom, and was sent to all schools offering Life Sciences in Gauteng province.
The questionnaires were sent to schools so that Life Sciences educators could complete them. Fortunately, 255 teachers completed the questionnaires. A Lickert scale was used, and data was analysed by UJ's statistical division, STATKON. As a
57 result, a wealth of information informed the study. Based on teachers' feedback, an individual interview schedule of Life Sciences teachers was compiled for the qualitative part of the research in which purposive sampling took place.
3.4.2 Phase 2: Qualitative data collection The qualitative research included individual interviews with ten (10) of Life Sciences teachers. These interviews were conducted at their schools. The teachers' experiences in the teaching of Life Sciences, the way they incorporate indigenous knowledge in their teaching and problems that they encounter were explored.
In-depth unstructured interviews were conducted in order to capture the exact description of experiences and to preserve the spontaneity of the participants. Probing follow-up questions were posed, based on the responses of the participants.
The study attempted to obtain in-depth opinions from participants in order to show what range of experiences was possible in the world that the participants live in. As it includes attitudes, behaviour and experiences which are important, people took part in the research so that contact with them could last longer.
The interviews were conducted in English, and each individual interview lasted approximately 35 to 40 minutes. The interviews were conducted in the specific schools where the teachers are employed as it is a convenient place for them considering time constraints and other work commitments. Each of the schools organised a private office for the interviews. The interviews were conducted in these quiet and private offices, away from other activities, distractions and noise from learners and bells.
3.4.2.1 Recruitment of the participants Recruitment consisted of a project-specific plan to identify and enrol teachers to participate in this research study. In this case, the researcher wanted to specify criteria for screening potential participants, the number of people to be recruited, the location of school and the approach to be used. The participants were recruited before the initiation of the study. The relationship with participants was developed before the interviews. A teacher's forum or meeting was scheduled where interested
58 teachers could learn about the research and ask questions. The research and its purpose were clearly explained to potential study participants.
3.4.2.2 The interviews The interviews were seen as formal meetings in which participants as interviewees were asked questions by an interviewer for the purpose of the research. Formal interviews were pre-arranged on occasions. Meetings took place at a time convenient to both parties and in a location suitable for the purpose. Venues at the teachers' place of work, i.e. schools, were used.
Before the interviews the broad nature of the research was discussed with the teachers (see Paragraph 3.5. where ethical considerations are discussed). This was done with the intention to reassure teachers and give them the opportunity to prepare themselves for the interview.
Interviews began with questions about the personal backgrounds of the teachers and provided a context for evaluating subsequent information provided by the interviewees. This was followed by open-ended questions on the inclusion of IK in the lessons.
The following questions were posed to the teachers: 1. How do you incorporate IK in your teaching? 2. What problems do you encounter in your teaching of LS? 3. How does IK differ from "Western science"? 4. Why should IK receive consideration in LS? 5. How do you incorporate IK in your lessons? (i.e. the skills you use to teach IKS). 6. What problems do you experience with the inclusion of IK in your teaching? 7. Where do you get information and relevant material on IK? 8. How do you view the training that you received at university or college? Did it prepare you to teach IK? 9. How do learners and colleagues experience IK? 10. What support structures are available to help you in the incorporation of IK? 11. How do you manage to infuse IK in a multicultural classroom?
59 12. How does a keystone species (master teacher) promote IK?
Questions were always phrased as simple and straightforward as possible and in a familiar language, namely English. Complex and double-barrelled questions were avoided. During the interview, the interviewer remained neutral because her opinions on the research were not the focus of the interview.
The interviewer listened carefully and politely to participants without interrupting them while waiting for them to finish talking. Follow-up questions for clarification were asked. Hints such as pauses or slight changes in voice that indicated the participants may have additional thoughts or feelings to describe, were observed while follow-up questions were asked.
The use of body language and eye contact to encourage the interviewee's response were taken into consideration. The researcher also managed to observe the participants' body language because at times they were not comfortable with other lines of questioning, became tired or even wanted to take a break. Smiles and nods were often effective for the interview. Silence was also used as an effective tool to elicit reaction from the interviewees. At times, participants kept quiet in order to think about what they were going to say.
The interviews were digitally recorded, and a notebook was used to keep track of follow-up questions and additional points. This really helped to keep the interview organised, and to concentrate on the participants as interviews are tiresome.
Some participants habitually answered with short sentences, or one or two words. Questions were asked to elicit as much information as possible, remembering that each participant was unique and treating the situation with respect. In cases where participants were talkative, the researcher tried to keep the interviews focused on the topic at hand in a polite and gentle manner.
For the interviews to be successful, qualities such as the following were used: an interest in and respect for participants as individuals, flexibility in responding to them, an ability to show understanding and sympathy for their point of view, and the 60 willingness to sit quietly and listen to them. As·this is a qualitative research it allowed participants to respond more elaborately and in greater detail. Most of them managed to bring new meaning to the research.
3.4.2.3 Classroom observations Lessons were observed on the days of the interviews to assess how teachers incorporate indigenous knowledge in their teaching. Teachers were observed within their classroom teaching during their teaching periods so that the smooth running of the school was not disrupted. A careful and systematic description of the lessons were done, focusing on whether IK content was introduced, the pedagogy used, and how the Nature of Science was introduced.
The Reformed Teaching Observation 'Protocol (RTOP) was used as an instrument for analysing the lessons. This included background information about the teacher, contextual background and activities with the description of the lesson observed together with relevant details about the learners and teachers, lesson design and implementation methods, content and classroom culture that involved communication interactions and learner/teacher relationships. The instrument uses a Likert scale, with ratings that range from never occurred (0) up to very descriptive which was rated as five (5). Aspects of the lesson presentation were rated according to the ratings and additional comments about the lessons were made.
3.4.2. Script analysis Grade 12 scripts of 2008 were to determine if the exam questions assessed subject outcomes and to evaluate the question paper in terms of its inclusivity and sensitivity to culture, gender, religion and race, e.g. the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, as prescribed in the NCS policy document. A team of four analysts conducted the analysis. The four analysts were a university Biology lecturer, a Senior Certificate Biology/Life Sciences examination moderator, a Biology/Life Sciences subject advisor, and the researcher as a FET Biology/Life Sciences teacher.
Both Papers 1 and Paper 2 were analysed but only selected questions that could provide insight in terms IK were taken into consideration. Only Question 4.3 in both papers were analysed. A rubric consisting of five columns containing the question
61 number, misconception, scientific investigations, general problems and IK application with codes was used to analyse the scripts (see Table 4.5 in Chapter 4). The codes used were also abbreviated in the columns provided. The last column, which referred to indigenous knowledge application, was emphasised as the IK experiences needed to be explored.
3.4.3 Ethical considerations Every code of ethics is designed to guide research in terms of the requirements of fully informed voluntary consent on the part of individuals concerned (Gregory, 2003: 35).
3.4.3.1 Permission to conduct the study The nature of the study was explained to the participants, and they were provided with an option to either participate or not. The participants were also informed of their inherent right to withdraw at any stage without being held accountable. The teachers all entered the research process voluntarily and were given the consent form to complete and sign. The individual informed-consent forms for participants included the following aspects: • The purpose of the research • What was expected of participants, including the amount of time likely to be required for participation • The fact that participation was voluntary and that one could withdraw at any time with no negative repercussions • How confidentiality will be protected, e.g. through the use of pseudonyms • The name and contact information of the researcher, should the participants want to contact her.
62 3.5.1 Confidentiality In reporting on the interviews, the privacy and anonymity of the participants were ensured by using pseudonyms. Personal opinions were not shared with others or participants or even with anyone not directly involved in the study.
3.5.2 Respect for participants This required a commitment to ensure the anonymity of research participants and it was done in order to protect them from exploitation of their vulnerability. The participants' dignity was respected. Adherence to these principles ensured that participants were not used simply as a means of achieving research objectives. They were assured that they will not be exposed to undue physical or psychological harm.
3.5.3 Beneficence This required a commitment to minimise the risks associated with research, including psychological and social risks and minimizing accrue to research participants. The study was for academic purposes and therefore there were no financial benefits. However, the researcher was of the opinion that the findings and recommendations of this study would help the participants overcome the problems encountered in the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom.
3.5.4 Honesty with professional colleagues The findings were reported in a complete and honest fashion without misrepresenting what the researcher has done or intentionally misleading others as to the nature of their findings. Discussions and feedback were sent to participants from time to time as this served to keep participants updated on what happened in the research. The discussions and verbal report preceded the final report. The research was under no circumstances aimed at fabricating data to support a particular conclusion.
63 3.6 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED DURING DATA COLLECTION At times, the researcher arrived as scheduled for the interviews at a school only to discover that the participant has changed his or her mind about participating for a variety of reasons. These reasons included the following: the participant's health was not good or personal issues that demanded immediate attention (e.g. family matters like a sick child). A few participants became unwilling to be interviewed or terminated their involvement. In 2010, soccer mania plagued the country, and we suffered a prolonged teacher strike, and this also disrupted the interview schedule and school visits.
3.7 DATA ANALYSIS
Data is the information collected by the researcher during the course of the study (Streubert & Carpenter, 2003: 467).
3.7.1 Quantitative data analysis In the quantitative analysis, the statistical analysis for description, comparing and relating variables was used. Returned questionnaires were analysed, and the frequencies (means) and standard deviations will be discussed in Chapter 4. However, the focus of this study is on the qualitative part, since this research tries to portray the lived experiences of teachers teaching IK. The quantitative data was used to finalise the interview protocols.
3.7.2 Qualitative data analysis Audio-recorded data was transcribed verbatim. Data was analysed by coding it into meaningful themes and categories. This enabled the researcher to organise large amounts of texts and to discover patterns that would be difficult to detect by just listening to a tape or reading a transcript. The transcripts are attached at the end as Appendix C.
64 Category
I I -I ~
Category • [ Subcategor )
------I. [ Subcategor )
Code
Figure 3.3: Saldana's theory model for qualitative inquiry Source: Saldana, 2009: 12.
Similar units were grouped together as subcategories. Initial short names were assigned to categories according to the interpretation of what each seemed to be saying.
3.8 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF DATA
3.8.1 Validity Validity involves measuring what is supposed to be measured or the accuracy of measurements. Validity checks whether or not the researcher investigates what he
65 originally wanted to investigate. Validity keeps the researcher on track. Validity itself refers to the criterion of ensuring that the researcher is actually studying and reporting on what he or she claims to be reporting. It is also defined by Cook and Campbell (1979) as the best available approximation to the truth or falsity of a given inference, proposition or conclusion. Four types of validity were examined in this research, namely conclusion validity, internal validity, construct validity and external validity.
Conclusion validity This type of validity asks whether there was a relationship between the research instruments and methodologies. The requirement was fulfilled by the nature of sampling the participants. As the study seeks to explore the infusion of IK in the teaching of Life Sciences, the participants were experienced Life Sciences teachers. As such, they could provide the required information. The type of questions that were posed to them was in line with what was being investigated. The themes that emerged from the data were discussed within the postgraduate Research Niche Area (RNA) which is headed by the researcher's study leader.
Internal validity Internal validity asks whether there was a connection between the research instruments and methodologies and the outcome, and whether that was a causal relationship. The causal relationship investigated by this study is whether the infusion of IK in the teaching of Life Sciences demoralised both the educators and the learners, and whether any tensions existed. This will be further discussed in Chapter 4, which focuses on emerging tensions.
Construct validity Construct validity deals with finding out if there was a relationship between the operationalization of the concept in this study and the actual causal relationship studied. Construct validity tests the relationship between how the researcher operated as a researcher in order to come up with the causal relationship studies. In this study, there was a linkage between all the data collected. Qualitative and quantitative data were linked together in order to provide a rich, thick description (Henning, 2005). 66 External validity This type of validity refers to the ability to generalise the results of the study in terms of other settings. The results cannot be generalised in terms of other situations as this study was contextualised in the Mopani district only, with some insight (through the GDE questionnaires) from Gauteng.
The validation strategies, as described by Creswell (2007: 207-210) and Cohen et al. (2002: 109-115), followed in this study are:
Triangulation: • Data-generating methods were used to explain the richness of observed phenomena. In this study, data was generated using multiple methods, such as questionnaires, classroom observations, personal interviews, Grade 12 script analysis, and learner and teacher portfolios. The combination of the above instruments reduced the bias on the part of the researcher. Rich and thick data description: • This study described the participants' lived experiences in detail as it will help the readers of this study to use the information in other settings or in future research. The Life Sciences teachers and the tensions that arise in the Life Sciences classroom (as an activity system) when introducing IK are described in detail. Clarifying researcher bias: • The report findings reflect the views and feelings of the participants and not those of the researcher. Member checking: • The transcriptions of the interviews were taken back to the respective teachers in order to check if they were correctly understood, and whether the transcriptions resembled their sentiments. By so doing the accuracy of the recordings were clearly checked.
67 3.8.2 Reliability Reliability estimates the consistency of measurements or, more simply, the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used in the same conditions with the same subjects. It also refers to the care taken by the researcher to ensure that participants' responses were not prompted by the interviewer being biased. The researcher remained neutral in her response to what she was told and saw.
3.9 SUMMARY
The research methodology was - highlighted in detail focusing on population, sampling and sample size. A sample of ten experienced Life Sciences teachers from the Thabina, Khujwana, Shiluvana circuits were interviewed. These circuits form part of the Mopani district in Limpopo province. The data collection methods were also discussed. The ethical considerations for the study were outlined. The next chapter will focus on data analysis and interpretation.
CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the data from the GDE research study (quantitative data) as well as the qualitative data obtained through individual interviews, lesson observations (where the RTOP instrument was used - see Appendix D) and the script analysis (where a rubric was used - see Appendix E). The researcher hopes to provide the reader with a portrait of the status of indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom, and the challenges that teachers face in addressing IK in their teaching.
68 This study built on the data obtained from the GDE-commissioned research. As a result, this data and the data obtained from the interviews, classroom observations and script analysis project will be merged. The aim is that this triangulation will assist the researcher to describe and analyse the experiences of Life Sciences teachers regarding the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the classroom and to describe the problems that they encounter. The researcher critically looked at the data through a Cultural -Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) lens, which forms the theoretical framework of the study.
4.2 QUANTITATIVE OATA The quantitative study draws on the GDE-commissioned research that was done by the Department of Mathematics, Science, Technology and Computer Education, Faculty of Education, University of Johannesburg. Questionnaires were sent out to Life Sciences teachers in all the schools in Gauteng and 255 completed questionnaires were returned to the University. Table 4.1 gives an overview of some of the data obtained on IK in the Life Sciences classroom. The following are selected data from the questionnaire about the indigenous knowledge for this study:
Table 4.1: The GOE research data
Indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom Strongly disagree = 1, Disagree = 2, Agree = 3, Strongly agree = 4 Strongly Oisagre Agree Strongl disagree e yagree By referring to indigenous Count 4 27 140 59 knowledge, science % (1.7%) (11.7%) (60.9%) (25.7%) becomes more relevant to my learners Learners do not understand Count 21 150 39 13 science concepts because % ( 9.4%) (67.3%) (17.5%) (5.8%) they want to cling to their indigenous knowledge
69 Science explains all natural Count 17 115 75 17 phenomena completely % (7.6%) (51.3%) (33.5%) (7.6%) The importance of Count 10 143 57 13 indigenous knowledge is % (4.5%) (64.1%) (25.6%) (5.8%) exaggerated There is little connection Count 21 142 51 10 between indigenous % (9.4%) (63.4%) (22.8%) (4.5%) knowledge and Western science I understand what is meant Count 2 133 94 by indigenous knowledge % (0.9%) (58.1%) (41.0%) Indigenous knowledge is Count 1 82 111 22 often in conflict with Western % (0.5%) (38.0%) (51.4%) (10.2%) science
Table 4.2: Frequencies and standard deviations
Strongly disagree =1, Disagree =2, Agree =3, Strongly agree =4 Valid Missing Mean Standard deviation E5 By referring to indigenous knowledge 230 6 3.10 .659 science becomes more relevant to my learners E7 Indigenous knowledge that my learners 228 8 2.23 .651 possess interferes with the learning of science E8 I welcome any new views on science 232 4 3.36 .548 phenomena E9 Learners do not understand science 223 13 2.20 .682 concepts because they want to cling to
70 their indigenous knowledge E10 Science explains all natural 224 12 2.41 .740 phenomena completely E11 People from all cultures contribute to 229 7 3.21 .602 scientific knowledge E14 Science is an integral part of social 228 8 3.35 .607 and cultural traditions E16 There is little connection between 224 12 2.22 .672 indigenous knowledge and Western science E17 Ideas for science research come from 212 24 2.87 .683 indigenous knowledge E19 Indigenous knowledge is often in 216 20 2.71 .648 conflict with Western science
From the data it is clear that most Life Sciences teachers see the value of IK in the Life Sciences classroom. Of the 230 teachers whose answers were used, 86.6% indicated that the incorporation of IK in the classroom makes science more relevant to the learners. This is in line with the findings of the Relevance of Science Education Study (ROSE) (De Beer & Whitlock, 2008). A high percentage of teachers (76.7%) indicated that IK is not limiting the acquisition of scientific knowledge by learners. These teachers are of the opinion that learners, despite being taught IK, are open to explore and embrace scientific investigations (Sjoberg & Shreiner, 2006). In constructivist fashion, these teachers start off by teaching IK, and then introduce learners to the "scientific content".
The majority of teachers (67.3%) disagree with the statement that learners might cling to their IK (IK is not a barrier in the understanding of science), which might negatively impact on the learning and understanding of science. Another 9.4% of the teachers strongly disagreed. Some teachers did feel that IK has a negative influence on learners' understanding of science. A total of 17.5% of teachers agreed with the
71 statement, and 5.8% strongly agreed. A large percentage of teachers (86, 6%) felt that by referring to IK, science might become more relevant to learners. About 60.9% of teachers agreed with this in the questionnaire, while 25.7% strongly agreed. A total of 11.7% disagreed, and 1.7% strongly disagreed with the statement.
The question on whether science adequately explains all natural phenomena led to, a split in opinions. A total of 58.9% of teachers felt that science alone cannot adequately explain natural phenomena, while 41.1% felt that it does. In the survey, 51.3% of teachers disagreed with the statement that says science explains all natural phenomena completely, while 7.6% strongly disagreed, 35.5% agreed and 7.6 strongly agreed. In retrospect, the researcher wishes that the nature of science (NOS) questionnaire/instrument was administered to determine how teachers view the nature of science. This item. shows that there are massive differences in teachers' perceptions of the NOS (nature of science).
In the survey, 31.4% of teachers are of the opinion that IK is overrated and over emphasised in the curriculum (25.6% agreed, while 5.8% strongly agreed). On whether the importance of IK is exaggerated, 64.1 % of teachers disagreed and 4.5% strongly disagreed. It is therefore encouraging that 68.6% of teachers disagree with the statement that IK is overrated.
It is encouraging that 72.8% of teachers feel that there is a connection between IK and Western science. Hopefully, these links are discussed in the classroom. This means that conceptual change could take place where both scientific concepts and indigenous knowledge concepts are assimilated into learners' worldviews. It is of concern that 22.8% of teachers felt that there is not a connection between IK and "Western science", and that 4.5% of teachers strongly felt that IK and Western science cannot be merged.
A very positive outcome is that 99.1 % of teachers indicated that they have a good understanding of what is meant by IK (41% strongly agreed that they have a good understanding of IK, whereas 58,1% agreed to this statement). This shows that the majority of teachers (99.1%) indicated that they understood what is meant by IK. The
72 question on whether teachers have adequate pedagogical content knowledge to pay justice to the teaching of IK will be dealt with later in this dissertation
A cause for concern is that 61.6% of teachers are of the opinion that there is conflict between "IK" and "Western science". In response to the item whether indigenous knowledge is in conflict with Western science, 38% of teachers disagreed, and 0.5% strongly disagreed. A worrying 51.4% agreed, while 10.2% of teachers strongly agreed. If we look at this through a lens of conceptual change theory, it has severe implications for students' understanding and concept formation. This will be discussed in more detail later in the dissertation.
4.3 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
As mentioned, this qualitative research built on data obtained from the GDE commissioned research. The quantitative data informed the researcher's interview protocol, and also made the researcher realise that it will be useful to do script analysis and lesson observations (for which the researcher used the Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol- RTOP). The researcher analysed the experience of Life Sciences teachers about the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the classroom and identified problems that the teachers encounter by using the above-mentioned qualitative data. The researcher therefore implemented an explanatory mixed methods design (Creswell, 2008).
4.3.1 Interviews with teachers This study has elements of phenomenology, and the researcher wanted to capture the essence of teachers' lived experiences through interviews. For this reason, the researcher limited the sample to ten teachers.
4.3.1.1 Biographies Table 4.3 summarises the biographic information of the teachers who participated in the qualitative study.
73 Table 4.3: Biographical details of the teachers Population Teachers working in secondary schools in Mopani district in Limpopo province Sample Ten (10) participants included in the individual interviews Qualifications Most of them have STD, SPTD, HED with specialisation in Biology Sampling method Purposive Setting Interviews were conducted in the schools where the teachers work Gender Four males and six females Inclusion criteria Teaching Life Sciences in Grade 10 to 12 classes Teaching More than 10 years experience
4.3.1.2 Focus of the interviews The qualitative part of the study contains elements of a phenomenological study, capturing the lived experiences of teachers in the inclusion of indigenous knowledge while teaching the subject Life Sciences.
The central question was: What are the experiences of teachers in the inclusion of IK while teaching the subject Life Sciences? The following were some of the questions that guided interviews: 1. How do teachers experience IK in the teaching of Life Sciences? 2. How do teachers view their own training and professional development for infusing their teaching with IK? 3. What problems do teachers experience in incorporating IK in the classroom? 4. What support structures exist to assist teachers to address problems emanating from the inclusion of IK in their teaching? 5. Do teachers invite knowledgeable parents and community members to school to address IK in their classrooms? What other resources do teachers use?
74 6. How does a keystone species promote IK in the Life Sciences curriculum in a community of practice?
4.3.1.3 Assumptions Assumptions are basic principles assumed to be true without proof or verification. The following assumptions were made for this study: 1. Human beings assign meaning to their experiences. 2. Human beings live in a world of experiences that are bound with both cultural and social influences. 3. Qualitative research supports narrative data collection in order to capture the life worlds of people and the meanings they assign to their experiences.
4.3.1.4 Data analysis The audio-taped information from the interviews was transcribed verbatim. The transcriptions of the interviews are provided in Appendix C. Data was analysed using the descriptive phenomenological analysis method according to Georgi (1985, in Polit & Beck, 2008: 519) and qualitative content analysis (Polit & Beck 2008: 518) using thematic distinctions (delineate units according to themes) and categorical distinctions (define units by identifying something they have in common in a category). The following major themes emerged and are coded in tabular form according to themes, categories and subcategories:
Table 4.4: What teachers said, codes, categories and themes
What teachers said Codes Categories Themes
"As a Life Science Lack of Category Theme 1: educator I have overcome training 1.1: The more experiences that I Changes in challenges cannot explain them al/. the experience Some are the changes that education din are brought about by the system and relation to National Curriculum curriculum the Statement (NCS) that content infusion of reduces the love ofLS to IK in me. The change in the teaching learning area makes me life feel less comfortable in my sciences
75 teaching career because we were not trained to do what the Department is expecting us to do."
"My main problem is that of lack ofteaching methodology and it is difficult to teach the learners. I think this is the teacher's greatest concern." Lack of PCK
"We have got a problem of IK not written Category not having enough material in books 1.2: concerning IK. Teachers Lack of IK- do not have places of related reference or at times do material not get necessary material resources in to use in class. As I have school already said that this type ofknowledge verbally transmitted, there is nowhere one can get the proofofa solution."
"Okay, I normally encounter a problem ofnot getting enough information to teach learners. As I move around, visiting Knowledge is elderly or knowledgeable verbally people I waste time to transmitted complete the syllabus and the knowledge I got is sometimes folklore as it is not written anywhere or there is no proofthereof. "
"It makes teaching difficult because mostly it is not written in the books. Teachers have got nowhere to refer."
"Mmmm ... as an educator Teachers Category I'm from my community and learners 1.3: Culture and cultural group, while come from differences
76 learners are also from their different group. This makes me not communities, to be sure ofwhat I am cultural teaching because the two groups and do not match. So we come religious up with different things beliefs altogether. "
"For instance, they have Changes Category Theme 2: introduced indigenous brought 2.1: Feeling The knowledge and evolution about by the of lack of emotional as part ofthe content to be NCS control over experience taught to learners but did own (feelings) not give us the direction on practice of the how to infuse or where to participant get the information to The inclusion s teach learners. " of IK in the (teachers) syllabus or in relation LS to teaching "Eish... it is difficult to Negative Category life handle but you just invite attitude of 2.2: sciences other teachers to give help. teachers Perceptions Most ofthem have a towards IK of teachers negative attitude towards regarding IK as they take it to be teaching IK outdated and barbaric. Maybe it is because of their religion. To some people, anything that is not European is notjust worth their time."
"Most of them have a negative attitude towards it as I have already said because oftheir beliefs. At times it is because it is time wasting and money to run around seeking help from otherpeople and knowledgeable people and even come up empty handed."
"As they are divided I think Attitudes of the positive ones will be learners excited and accept it towards IK without questions or doubts while the negative ones will feel bored and
77 not be interested to learn. Only the positive learners will show interest and be eager to know and explore more about it. We know that ifa learner can be positive in what the teacher is teaching he/she will grasp quickly and be able to help others. So, few as they are as a teacher I feel happy because they will always be there to help each other."
"My learners are very negative as they have already showed no interest in such knowledge. Their response to certain questions did show that they dislike it. As I normally give them some research to ask for more information from their parents, they proved that even some of their parents show lack of interest by the way they respond."
"Eeh ... indigenous Defining IK Category Theme 3: knowledge is a knowledge and the 3.1: Having The that is spontaneous and origin of IK an discovery informal because it occurs understandi of the naturally where people ng of IK meaning of need not go to school to IK in acquire it. The knowledge teaching is gained from home and life all over the place in which sciences a person is living. I think there is no specific time and method to acquire it as it is informal. When a child goes to school he or she goes there having it already as it is acquired through ages."
"Mmm... this is the
78 knowledge inherited from ourforefathers and was transmitted from generation to generation. Each child inherited it from the parents who got it from theirparents. This type of knowledge is from long ago known by elders."
"The two cannot be Lack of inter- Category separated because the dependence 3.2: knowledge that one has between IK The can be linked with the and Western relationship knowledge that can be science between IK acquired in everyday life. and Western science favours Western analytic and reductive science methods as opposed to the mere intuitive and holistic view often found in traditional knowledge. It is based on academic and literature while indigenous knowledge is passed on orally from generations."
"Indigenous knowledge is home based and does not require one to make experiments orprove the findings. It is just what you have learned from home and the surrounding area in which you live and from the community. This knowledge is subjective. Western science is based on academic and literature. It is normally not influenced by your own feeling or opinions (objective) and analytic, that is, using methods that help you examine your facts orassumptions carefully. " "Because, eeh ...mmm ... it IK as the Category will connect learner's basis for 3.3: traditional knowledge with science The
79 curriculum knowledge importance science at school. " of IK in Life Sciences "Okay, I think it helps to make learners aware of the scientific methods and ideas that were used in the past that they don't differ from the ones they learn from class."
"Mmh ... This will make students to be actively engaged in trying to provide a conventional science explanation for their everyday practices. "
"I think parents will have access in the education of their children because they will be participating by giving them information. The indigenous knowledge will serve as a link Parents' between the school and involvement home." in learners' education
''Eeh...1normally gather Working with Category Theme 4: information from parents parents and 4.1: Strategies even though some part is community Consultation to not reliable. Elderly people leaders from s with overcome from the community and the parents, and the other traditional healers surrounding curriculum challenges give information as area advisors with required." inclusion of IKin "Knowledgeable parents teaching in the community such as Life traditional leaders together Sciences with traditional healers will give a helping hand. Ifit is the problem ofthe curriculum, I will also invite Organising curriculum advisors to regular help. Even those who meetings and specialise in IK from the forming universities will be discussion
80 contacted. This will depend groups on the type ofproblem."
"I think oforganising regular meetings wherein educators can be able to discuss topics to be treated in class and share information in order to help others. In ourschools we may form discussion groups in the learning area where we can also help one another. Mm ... clusters together with forums can be formed for such discussion."
The following section discusses the themes and categories that emerged in more detail.
Theme 1: The challenges experienced in relation to the infusion of IK in teaching Life Sciences
The data revealed that the participants experience several challenges in relation to the infusion of IK in teaching Life Sciences. When requested to share their experiences as an educator one participantmentioned the following:
"Eish, mmm... teaching Life Sciences is vel}' much challenging, especially that you teach learners from different cultures and communities. As a teacher you cannot cover all their cultures, some of which you do not know. When you emphasise knowledge from one cultural group, others feel belittled while others feel excluded. At times you do not get the necessery or enough information or material you want to teach learners. Leamers are from different cultures and environment and it is difficult to know and cater for their different cultural backgrounds in class. Our policy states clearly that we must include their indigenous knOWledge in class, but it is difficult because as an educator I did not know them all. It is only few that I am acquainted with."
81 Learners and teachers all come from different cultural backgrounds. Teachers realise that they need to include IK from different cultures (based on who the learners in their class are), and that they do not always have the necessary knowledge to do so. It is evident that there are problems that the educators come across with the infusion of IK in their teaching and several categories emerged from the theme and are discussed below as follows:
Category 1.1: Insufficient training and professional development for the implementation the NCS With regard to the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) in South Africa, which states that indigenous knowledge must be incorporated in the Life Sciences classroom, the participants acknowledged that the infusion of IK in Life Sciences posed challenges. It was indicated that the changes in the education system brought about challenges related to the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) content. The narratives also revealed that the teachers were concerned with the extent to which Life Sciences educators are trained to infuse their teaching with IK. Teachers acknowledged that they lack knowledge related to the contemporary curriculum of aBE and infusing IK in their teaching, due to a lack of training.
Some participants revealed the following:
"As a Life Science educator I have overcome more experiences that I cannot explain them all. Some are the changes that are brought about by the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) that reduces the love of LS to me. The changes in the learning area make me feel less comfortable in my teaching career because we are not trained to do what the Department is expecting us to do. They expected more than we anticipated and make us even to forget the content that we are supposed to teach. For instance, they have introduced indigenous knowledge and evolution as part to be taught to learners but did not give us the direction on how to infuse or where to get the information to teach learners. Heh ... how can we teach whereas we are not sure ofwhat we are teaching? Mmmh ... what do they expect from us? It makes teaching difficult because mostly it is not written in the books. Teachers have got nowhere to refer."
82 "Eish ... mmmh ... As educators we find it difficult to teach aBE and NCS to learners eventually depreciated the standard of education in our area. My main problem is that ofthe lack ofteaching methodology and it is difficult to teach the learners. I think this is the teachers greatest concern. Learners are adapted to western life and mostly their belief system makes them loose interest in their indigenous knowledge. This makes them relate IK to evil spirits (Satanism). The practical application of the indigenous knowledge in class is also difficult. As a teacher I am challenged to develop some practices that can convince them to be at least gravitated towards science."
"Most of the colleague will tell me that they don't want to teach something that they do not understand."
Teachers need relevant pedagogical content knowledge in order to infuse their teaching with IK. A Life Sciences teacher needs content knowledge, l.e. know-how of the indigenous knowledge claims of different cultural groups, e.g. plants used for medicinal reasons; pedagogical knowledge, l.e. how to effectively structure learning opportunities for learners when exploring IK claims, and contextual knowledge, l.e. what the cultural background of the learners are. Teachers need to know the environment from which the learner comes.
Category 1.2: Lack of IK-related material resources in school The transcriptions of interviews revealed that it was difficult to include IK because of a lack of material resources. The participants indicated that it was difficult to obtain further information about this indigenous knowledge. It was also mentioned that parents and elders do not respond when invited to share information. Department officials and other teachers have also been consulted and are willing to share the information. However, the information is found to be insufficient. A participant mentioned that:
"We have got the problem ofnot having enough material concerning IK. Teachers do not have places of reference or at times do not get necessary material to use in class. As I have already said that this type ofknowledge is verbally transmitted, there is nowhere one can get the proofofits existence in the first place. Everybody comes
83 up with his or her own statement. This leads us to the misconceptions and misrepresentations about indigenous knowledge."
"My experiences as an educator is that our education system is now Westernised and is difficult for us to implement indigenous knowledge. Modem technology and other related materials make us not to put more emphasis on such knowledge. Even our textbooks say Iitt/e about it while we are expected to incorporate it in class. Mmmh ... it is difficult for me to teach when I think of this knowledge because it hinders my progress as I will be running around looking for people who can give clarity, ideas and assistance in some ofthe topics."
On the other hand, it was mentioned by some teachers that members from the community did help with information. Most of the information is obtained from cultural villages where the learners live. At times, the school organises trips to African museums - such as the Bakone Malapa open-air museum in Polokwane, the Dzata ruins and museums in Makhado, the Muti wa Vha-Tsonga open-air museum Tzaneen in the Mopani area, and the Tsonga Kraal Tzaneen in the Letsitele area where they can obtain a significant amount of information to supplement the information they already have. Some undertake research on the internet while others ask for information from elderly community members. Certain radio and television programmes highlight strategic topics that deal with the indigenous people of this country.
However, the participants acknowledged that they as educators are encountering problems with the infusion of IK in teaching. A participant mentioned that:
"Okay, I normally encounter a problem of not getting enough information to teach learners. As I move around, visiting elderly or knowledgeable people I wasted time to complete the syllabus and the knowledge I got is sometimes folk as it is not written anywhere or there is no proof for thereof. Sangomas can also give us unreliable information because they want customers. Some teachers have a negative attitude because oftheir beliefsystem. The method to apply it is not clearly stated but we are requested to include it. I didn't come across any question paper wherein the
84 examiner asks something about indigenous knowledge because there will be no specific answer."
This seems self-evident as research shows that many teachers in South Africa do not know or understand the content they have to teach - their knowledge may be very superficial or they themselves have misconceptions about the content (Sanders, 2006). Effective learning depends on teachers' understanding of their learning areas and.their ability to manage classroom discourses related to learning (Le Grange, 2007).
Despite the problems with knowledge and skills, the narratives revealed that the participants are aware of the sources of IK, and where and how to obtain information. The sources of IK were identified as members from the community, information from the cultural villages where the learners live, the internet, traditional healers, radio and television programmes. Sometimes schools organised trips to African museums where they could obtain information to supplement what they already have. It was also indicated that learners are given research projects from time to time, encouraging them to source information from their parents, the people around them and the community. The participants indicated that despite the sources identified, it is sometimes difficult to obtain comprehensive information as it is given selectively. In addition, Life Sciences themes like molecular biology and DNA structures hardly allow for any IK. Hence, very little (if any) IK on the DNA molecule will exist in indigenous cultures. One participant revealed that:
"Eeh '" I normally gather information from parents even though some part is not reliable. Elderly people from the community and other traditional healers give information as required. There is also hidden information that they do not want to give to us but one can hear those who used to visit them to seek help. There is this issue of classified information, i.e. information that can only be given to a particular class ofpeople. It is a taboo, for instance to discuss any topic related to circumcision with anybody who has never been there, be it a male or female. This can be valuable to us ifgiven information because it forms part ofour learning area."
85 Where curriculum problems are encountered, curriculum advisors and those who specialise in IK from the universities are consulted to help solve the problem. Srikantaiah (2010) suggests that the learning environment needs to be adapted to help students build on their indigenous communities' knowledge and to recognise students' culture and value systems. Various strategies can help educators to recognise the IK that learners bring with them to the learning environment. This IK can be used as stepping stones to help them succeed academically.
Category 1.3: Cultural diversity and differences The narratives indicate that sources of IK include knowledgeable parents in the community - such as elderly people, traditional leaders and other teachers. However, it was noted that it is challenging to obtain information in time. One such challenge with regard to the infusion oflK is the diversity of cultures. It was indicated that each culture has its own indigenous knowledge. In addition, the teachers have their own indigenous knowledge while the learners have their own unproven knowledge. Teachers might be knowledgeable in terms of their own culture, but do not necessarily know much about IK in other cultures. This leads to a confusion of whose culture to consider as they do not match. One of the participants revealed the following:
"Mmmm ... as an educator I'm from my community and cultural group, while learners also from their group. This makes me not to be sure of what I am teaching because the two do not match. So we come up with different things altogether. At times there is no enough information about things to be taught so you will have to go around, seeking people to help you and may not get them. Members of the community will promise to come and disappoint you at the very last minute. Other learners may have a negative attitude towards IK and not willing to work."
According to Van Rooyen and De Beer (2006), IK is not easily shared with members of another community as certain information is not shared with other cultural groups. Each community guards its IK. This may have added to arguments by Afrikaans people who are pushing the agenda for a volkstaat. They want to be free in their own area to practise their culture without any hindrances. Certain things are only known to them and they would like to keep it that way. 86 This poses a serious challenge to teachers in multicultural classrooms in South African schools because they do not know which IK to teach to learners. Learners are also confused about whose IK needs to be taken seriously in class. In a multicultural country like South Africa, there needs to be a clear understanding of how this IK can be incorporated in class.
Category 1.4: Lack of support systems from the Department of Education The participants indicated that there is lack of support from the DoE. As such, they try to work on their own by organising Saturday schools and inviting knowledgeable people from the community to come and share lessons on IK. The only available support comes from colleagues, educators from surrounding areas, parents and community elders. The participants mentioned that:
"We are not supported by anybody, instead we run around seeking help from others. We are just like a train moving without the head. You as a teacher will see how to come up or to solve problem."
'~s I have already said, we do not have any assistance from the Department and this makes us lose interest in teaching."
''The most serious problem is that of not getting the relevant information. Teachers run around digging information from elders and community leaders at whose expense? Some refuse to tell the truth while others do not just want to discuss anything. The subject facilitators also do not have anything in hand that can give relevant information. We are expected to teach knowledge that the Department cannot give with insufficient training they have given us. As our country is a multicultural country teachers only know their indigenous knowledge. What about knowledge from other cultures? Heh....? The belief system is also a problem that needs teachers to be very careful with. A teacher needs to present IK in an acceptable way. In the process of teaching no one's rights should be tampered with. You may find a teacher violating one child's right to privacy during his teaching to cite just but one example. This takes time discussing in class and trying to make clarifications where necessary." 87 The Department needs to organise in-service education and training for the teachers in order to upgrade their skills and the knowledge they impart to learners. In-service education and training (INSET) refers to instructional programmes to provide for continued professional development of education practitioners during their working years (Le Roux, 2005: 236). These programmes should be aimed at upgrading the skills and qualifications of educators by providing ingoing professional development. Of course, one should also question whether initial teacher education (PRESET) adequately prepares teachers to infuse their teaching with IK.
Category 1.5: Lack of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) Teachers seem to have a problem with teaching IK to learners. They highlighted the problem of not knowing the content that forms part of the IK to be taught to learners in the classroom. They struggle to obtain the relevant content they need for their learners as some members of the community withhold such information.
"Okay, I normally encounter a problem of not getting enough information to teach learners. As I move around, visiting elderly or knowledgeable people I waste time to complete the syllabus and the knowledge that I get is sometimes folk as it is not written anywhere or there is no proof for thereof. Sangomas can also give us unreliable information because they want customers. Some teachers have a negative attitude because of their beliefs and not getting any form of support. The method to apply it is not clearly stated but we are requested to include it. I didn't come across any question paper wherein the examiner asks something about indigenous knowledge because there will be no specific answer. Lack of specific methodological training and continuous consultation also plays a role."
Shulman (1986, 1987, in Loughran, 2010) suggests that teachers need strong PCK to be the best possible teachers. This has resulted in a range of studies on PCK in pre-service science teacher education. Teachers need an opportunity to reflect on and to develop their understanding of the structure of science knowledge as well as opportunities to apply this understanding in classroom practice (Loughran, 2010). Therefore, they must be able to select and match content which is closely related to science. 88 Over and above developing PCK, teachers should also be critical and reflective practitioners. During interviews with teachers and classroom visits, the researcher realised that teachers do not often reflect on their own teaching practice. This is one reason why teachers do not build capacity in terms of PCK. Although some teachers respond positively, it was also revealed that some struggle to incorporate IK with new subject matter in class as they feel they are being deskilled.
The participants indicated that, in their opinion, several factors are making their work difficult and are giving them problems with regard to teaching Life Sciences. These factors include lack of knowledge, lack of skills and insufficient training in aBE. Teachers also are unclear on when, where and how to use IK, and how to include it in their lessons. It is concluded that the.participants feel that they lack teaching skills even though they have undergone training and meet the requirements of the DoE.
Theme 2: The emotional experience (feelings) of the participants (teachers) in relation to teaching IK in Life Sciences
The findings of the narratives indicate that the participants experienced negative emotions (feelings) because of the perceived risk of not being able to convey the correct IK content to learners. The curriculum changes, without thorough professional development support, also create stress among teachers. Some participants indicated the following:
"There are changes in our education system that leads to the confusion and frustration on us. For instance, we are trained in an old method ofteaching and they brought us aBE which was followed by NCS. It is difficult for us to apply them in class. When doing the NCS there are some outcomes that we need to accomplish with the inclusion or infusion of indigenous knowledge, but it is difficult because of the lack of material, different cultures from different communities and our own experiences as educators."
"My experience is that teaching has brought confusion and frustration in trying to link it with the knowledge indoctrinated or the knowledge that we got in our teaching. I
89 overcome challenges that come my way especially in class where I am supposed to teach some of the things that I as a teacher do not even understand. This brought confusion and frustration in trying to link the information I accumulated over past years and the newly formed one."
Category 2.1: Feeling of a lack of control over own practice (e.g. changes in the education system and curriculum, and the inclusion of IK in the LS syllabus)
The narratives indicated that the participants felt they have no control over their teaching as educators and as professionals because of the changes in the education system and curriculum, and the inclusion of IK in the syllabus for Life Sciences. This is almost the same as Category 2.2. This research therefore shows a similar pattern to that of Rogan & Aldous (2005: 331). The following quote from Rogan and Aldous also applies to the inclusion of IK in Life Sciences:
Teachers are at times described as being reluctant to changes, ofbeing bound to tradition, or even active saboteurs of the intended curriculum. In our case studies, the low level of implementation, for the most part, cannot be described to 'foot dragging or lack ofeffort'. The interview revealed an overwhelming desire to faithfully implement the new curriculum, but tinged with an enormous perplexity about how to do so, and an uncertainty as to whether their efforts in the classroom were 'the right way'.
Category 2.2: Teachers' own negative perceptions of IK Some teachers are negative about IK, and feel that IK cannot be scientifically proven and that it constitutes "pseudo-science". This once again brings the researcher to PCK and teachers' perceptions of the nature of science (NOS). Many teachers do not have the know-how to incorporate PCK in a scientific and rigorous way.
"Eist; eeh '" some of the things cannot be scientifically proven and do not have a living evidence. Some cannot be brought to class so that they can be done practically or even show to learners when the teacher needs to give an explanation. It is difficult to convince them as they are from different cultures. Being different, we cannot all be convinced by one's experience, so, this gives a teacher tough work." 90 The participants indicated that they use several different strategies of teaching and including IK in the teaching of LS - such as introducing IK at the beginning of the lesson to connect with the learners' prior knowledge or at the end of the lesson so that the learners can go and investigate or inquire more. Some indicated that they task the students with research so that they can further explore the topic under discussion. This might be a strategy to pass the responsibility on to the learners themselves, and it might also portray teachers' lack of confidence in teaching IK. It was indicated that it is rare to come across LS topics that allow for the inclusion of indigenous knowledge and where the so-called scientific process can be followed (which again points to the lack of PCK among teachers). One participant indicated:
"According to our syllabus, it is on rare occasions. At times one has to create his activity but you will find that they come up with different responses in such a way that as a teacher it is difficult to reach the objective or even the outcome."
In terms of how colleagues feel about indigenous knowledge, the narratives revealed that educators were divided as their belief systems differ from each other. Most of them have no interest and dislike IK.
"Eisn... it is difficult to handle but you just invite other teachers to give help. Most of them have a negative attitude towards IK as they take it to be outdated and barbaric. Maybe it is because oftheir religion. To some people, anything that is not European is notjust worth their time."
Category 2.3: Positive attitudes of teachers' colleagues towards IK Colleagues' feelings could be hurt when seeking help from them or sending learners to ask for more information. However, the findings indicated that some of the participants are keen to engage educators in their immediate area in incorporating indigenous knowledge as they indicated that the educators can be invited to the forums, and be encouraged to form clusters where they can be motivated and help each other. Well-functioning communities of practice may therefore be useful in developing teachers' PCK in terms of teaching IK. In the forums, knowledgeable 91 people could be invited to share their know-how with the teachers. The Department should also be involved by sending subject advisors, local people and other academics to improve the situation.
It was mentioned that not all the educators were positive about IK. However, a few showed interest in the work and they were willing to deliberately share their information. In such a community of practice, teachers can perhaps jointly devise lessons on IK according to the principles of the Japanese "lesson study" initiative. Certain matters are then discussed before going to class in order to get clarity on these issues. This shows that teachers find it difficult to influse IK in their teaching. Most of them are confused about what to teach to learners.
Some participants indicated the following as challenges that caused educators to have a negative attitude towards IK:
"They seem to be negative because of their religious beliefs and difficulty in incorporating IK in class. Some ofthem do not want to share the knowledge with the thought that they will be belittled and develop an attitude towards them."
"Most of them have a negative attitude towards it as I have already said because of their beliefs. At times, it is because is time wasting and money to run around seeking help from otherpeople and knowledgeable people and even come up empty handed. Lack ofspecific methodological training and continuous consultation also playa role. Those who are traditional are positive because mostly are the things that they enjoy and practice."
Category 2.4: Attitude or perception of learners towards IK With regard to the perceptions of the learners about IK, it was indicated that the learners have not yet recognised the importance of IK. However, the participants anticipated that the learners will be very excited because they will learn about things that occur in their everyday life and their surrounding areas. The Relevance of Science Education Study (ROSE) showed that a very high correlation exists between students' perceptions of the relevance of science and the development ofthe country (De Beer et al., 2008). It was highlighted that in most cases each learner becomes 92 more interested and is eager to discover more about the concept if it was well known before. Some participants explained that they expect the following in terms of learners' attitude towards IK:
"As they are divided I think the positive ones will be excited and accept it without questions or doubts while the negative ones will feel bored and not be interested to learn. Only the positive learners will show interests and be eager to know and explore more about it. We know that ifa learner can be positive in what the teacher is teaching he will grasp quickly and be able to help others. So, few as they are as a teacher I feel happy because they will always be there to help each other."
On the other hand, the educators mentioned the following about their experience of teaching IK to learners:
"My learners are very negative as they have already showed no interest in such knowledge. Their response to certain questions did show that they dislike it. As I normally give them some research to ask more information from their parents, they proved that even some of their parents show lack of interest by the way they respond."
This may happen because teachers seem to introduce IK in class in an uninspiring way, indolently and in a sloppy manner, which makes their lessons uninteresting. If the lesson in class is not well introduced, learners will lose interest and develop a negative attitude.
"In most cases they become excited and interested because of their knowledge they gained from their forefathers while some take it as a joke. Some lose interest and become discouraged. The inclusion has divided the leamers because they are from different communities with different cultures and beliefsystems. So, as a teacher you will have to be careful of what you are saying at all times. Being too sarcastic when coming to certain topics may ruin the little trust and confidence the leamers might have built towards you as their teacher."
93 Theme 3: The discovery of the meaning of IK in teaching Life Sciences
The transcripts indicated that the participants have an understanding of the meaning of IK. The participants verbalised their inner satisfaction of knowing what IK is, its importance and relevance to teaching LS, and the impact that IK has on the involvement of parents in learners' education.
Category 3.1: Having an understanding of IK The findings of this study indicated that the participants understood the definition and meaning of IK even though they put it in different words. Beliefs, values, customs, traditions, family, culture and norms, communities and societies, generations and the environment were among the common terms used in the definition of IK. From the narratives, the term IK was explained as follows:
"Eeh ... indigenous knowledge is a knowledge that is spontaneous and informal because it occurs naturally where people need not go to school to acquire it. The knowledge is gained from home and all over the place in which a person is living. I think there is no specific time and method to acquire it as it is informal. When a child goes to school he or she goes there having it already as it is acquired through ages."
"Mmm ... this is the knowledge inherited from our forefathers and was transmitted from generation to generation. Each child inherited it from the parents who got it from their parents. This type ofknowledge is from long ago known by elders."
The narratives also revealed that indigenous knowledge is the knowledge applied in a given territory in a specific culture, that it is normally communicated verbally and that it is passed on from generation to generation. Indigenous knowledge was referred to as the knowledge acquired from the community one comes from. It involves the values of the inhabitants (original people) of that particular area. Traditions, beliefs, customs and local skills are also involved. It is said to be the knowledge that is based on contextual concepts and that is more deeply rooted in the communities and the environment. It is interpreted as knowledge of indigenous
94 people and it is traditional while based on the communities that are integrated within the societies which have their own distinct cultures.
In terms of IK information, it was mentioned that it is sometimes difficult to trust the accuracy of the information as it is not written down anywhere, nor is it scientifically proven. A participant indicated that:
"We hardly find it in the prescribed books."
It was also indicated that sometimes the information is not given fully because of some taboos related to it or because it is a family or cultural secret. One participant revealed the following:
"This can be regarded as a knowledge based on what a person knows by nature or since birth. The knowledge normally starts at home by parents and grannies who have adopted itirom their parents. Most of this knowledge is transmitted orally, so how can we be sure ofthem? Heh? Mostly some cannot be scientifically proven and are not worth being taken to class. For instance, we normally hear a lot about the Modjadji people who are well known about rain making but no one will ever tell you what do they exactly doing to make rain. This is the secret that is only known by them only. I think even the community cannot tell about the process over there. It is the secret which is known by the royalties only. This is the science that is needed in the Life Sciences and other science related class. The knowledge is worth knowing to learners. Why do people hide this valuable information which is rich for all the learners?"
Some teachers also understand (as constructivists) the value of building on this prior knowledge. Prior knowledge can be considered as learners' experiential knowledge. Teaching supported by this form of knowledge increases learners' ability to grasp the material taught to them (Srikantia, 2010). Teachers can allow learners to construct their knowledge based on their prior knowledge. They can pose problems of relevance to students. It can also value their point of view by respecting the culture, tradition and identity that they bring to classroom. In Pedagogy of the Oppressed,
95 Paul Freire suggests that allowing students or individuals to have ownership of their knowledge is equivalent to respecting their culture, tradition and identity.
Category 3.2: The relationship between IK and Western science According to the findings, there is a difference between IK and 'Western science" in that indigenous knowledge is acquired from home while Western science is acquired from school. IK is gathered from the communities in different cultures and is learned through experiences. Western science, on the other hand, is said to be normally scientifically proven and is also positivist and materialist in contrast with indigenous knowledge which is normally spiritual. Some participants indicated that:
'The two cannot be separated because the knowledge that one has can be linked with the knowledge that can be acquired in everyday life. Western science favours analytic and reductive method as opposed to the mere intuitive and holistic view often found in traditional knowledge. It is based on academic and literature while indigenous knowledge is passed on orally from generations."
"Indigenous knowledge is home based and does not require one to make experiments or to prove the findings. It is just what you have learned from home and the surrounding area in which you live and from the community. This knowledge is subjective. Western science is based on academic and literature. It is normally not influenced by your own feeling or opinions (objective) and analytic, i.e. using methods that help you examine your facts orassumptions carefully."
Indigenous knowledge is imbedded in cultural beliefs and addresses traditional and cultural practices within the learning context and learning curriculum. Western science is the search for valid explanations for physical reality. Consequently, the IK that deals with practices and beliefs with regard to the conduct of African learners' lives may be used in the science class to allow students to evaluate the relationship between indigenous knowledge and school knowledge for the conduct of their own lives. In that case, it supports the reason why communities have practices and beliefs that pertain to child rearing, menstruation, pregnancy, child birth, human nutrition, food preparation, food preservation, medicines and others. Some participants indicated that: 96 "Indigenous knowledge is normally practiced by indigenous people using their unfounded methods and ideas that are only known to them. It was implemented in order to earn their normal living and to make their lives just prosper and have got to do with cultural beliefs and customs. Western science is practiced by each and every person who is westernized (either by birth or colonization) and lived a westernized life. Most ofthe activities that occur in this practice can be scientifically proven. Most of us were taught for a long time that anything Western is good for us, if has been tested, it stands the test of time, etc. Western scientific perspectives influence decisions that impact on every aspect of indigenous people's lives. It is based on academic and objectives. "
"Indigenous knowledge is more concerned with life in the past while Western science is more concerned with knowledge of the future. It is more concerned with cultural and community's activity. IK is native and is within a particular plan of a particular society while Western science is universally known and can be scientifically proven. "
Turnbull (2000: 5) suggests that Western science is a body of knowledge that has a specific and unique origin in the scientific revolution of 17th century. Western science and indigenous knowledge may be viewed either as disparate epistemologies or complementary frameworks depending on whether one views science or knowledge as representation or performance (Srikantia, 2010). It is therefore crucial for teachers working in this context to be aware of the interaction between indigenous knowledge and Western knowledge, and to understand the way in which the learning process can be complicated by the two.
Category 3.3: The importance of IK in Life Sciences Many teachers are of the opinion that there are positive changes that can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences. It was indicated that learners need to connect the knowledge from home with the knowledge from school. Their traditional knowledge is equally important in comparison to the curriculum knowledge they receive at school. Learners do not come to school as empty vessels. Hence, their knowledge from home and their knowledge from school need to form a connection. One participant indicated that:
97 "I think the infusion can make leamers love and be interested in Life Sciences although some do not like indigenous knowledge. Even if you give they are given work to complete orinvestigate; only few ofthem seem to be reluctant to work orjust leave it. Our traditional healers will have a wide and broad opportunity of imparting the knowledge ofplants and animals to our learners while taking part in the teaching process."
The findings revealed that it was important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum because learners need to know where they come from. They should be able to know their roots before they will be able to know where they are going. Their traditional knowledge is important for their future. The findings indicate that learners will appreciate inclusion of IK in Life Sciences because it connects them with their knowledge from home and it takes them to their roots. Hence, they will realise the importance of their culture.
"Because, eeeh ... mmm... it will connect learners' traditional knowledge with curriculum knowledge science at school. This will make leamers feel proud of their culture and tradition."
With regard to the importance of including IK in the curriculum, one participant indicated that it was important, however, to note that there were some problems related to inclusion of IK on the side of the educators. The participant revealed the following:
"Indigenous knowledge brought fear to us as educators because we don't know how to approach it as we were never given courses or trained about it. We are just striving to understand it and feel that it is a challenge to us as we are having different beliefsystems. As teachers we are divided where some ofus just brush it aside and continue with the otherpart ofthe syllabus."
It was also indicated that IK serves as recognition of traditional practices and that learners need to appreciate this. The educators want learners to remember and love their roots, as was practised by their parents at home. They want to remind learners 98 of the past experiences so that they can connect with new ones. From the findings it is evident that IK forms the foundation of the learners' education and that people possess knowledge that have been handed down from the forefathers. It connects both learners and educators to the community in which they are living. Learners are now aware of their grandparents' science and they link it with the science learnt in the class. They become aware of the impact and influence of their culture on education. The findings indicated that the participants regarded IK to be relevant in teaching of Life Sciences.
It was indicated that learners are given a new dimension from which to view life, leadership and community, and to realise that IK may be different to Western knowledge. However, the two may lead to the same outcome or objective. Some participants mentioned the following:
"Okay, I think it helps to make learners aware of the scientific methods and ideas that were used in the past that they don't differ from the ones they learn from class. The aim here should not be misconstrued to be that of aligning our science to the European science. The two will remain Somewhat parallel, i.e. going in the same direction but not necessary being the same. Leamers become more interested to know about their scientific knowledge together with their science."
"Hmmm ... This will make students to be actively engaged in trying to provide a conventional science explanation for their everyday practices. Such strategies can serve to generate interest among students and to develop pride in the knowledge and wisdom of their ancestors. This can serve as a point of departure to conventional science that can be highlighted and discussed. Eeeh ... it can also be used to highlight the fact that there is still much to be explored and understood in our world."
It was posited that IK is concerned with the scope of Life Sciences teaching and that it gives learners a chance to express or show the experiences they have gained from home and to be more scientific in approaching life. Learners are able to connect Life Sciences with science-related experiences in their everyday lives. Furthermore, it was mentioned by teachers that IK can change learners' perspective towards Life 99 Sciences and make them more understanding of the relationship between traditional practices and beliefs in the community and modern science. It will give every aspect of life a more scientific basis and learners will be able to understand their surroundings, the relationship between them and their surroundings, and its importance in their lives. Several examples could be used to sensitise learners in terms of IK. A narrative indicated that:
"Learners are able to relate experiences from home or scientific matters to those acquired at school e.g. making bread using Anchor yeast. In the past, they used to dry bubbles/foam of the traditional beerto replace yeast. The making of Marula drink is copied and modified from IK. Throughout indigenous knowledge, being interrelated with science, people can now be able to make yeast from beer, fruit jam, foam bath, skin lotion, etc. Learners can think scientifically so that they can be able to apply it in their lives."
Effective learning depends on teachers' understanding of the interaction of both Western and indigenous knowledge, and their ability to manage classroom discourses related to integration. It is therefore crucial that teachers infusing the two be aware of the interaction and understands the way they could enhance the learning process. Le Grange (2007) suggests that indigenous learners can perform excellently in a Western science classroom without assimilating the associated values. A good scientist at school can be a traditionalist at home without any feeling of cognitive perturbation or dissonance (Le Grange, 2007).
Category 3.4: The effect of IK on parents' involvement in learners' education The findings indicate that IK was important as it led to positive involvement of the parents in their children's education. It surfaces that, as parents are members of the community, they have a wealth of IK. It is easy for them to involve themselves in learners' education by imparting their IK-related information, especially when learners have been given projects and research to perform at home. Parents as source of information are also able to identify the relevant people in the community who are knowledgeable about the subject at hand. Some participants indicated the following:
100 "I think parents will have access in the education of their children because they will be participating by giving them information. The indigenous knowledge will serve as a link between the school and home. Teachers will be able to communicate with parents and this will also form a link between the home and the school. The scientific principles that are applied at school will help them to improve their lives. I think this will be able to tum them into scientists."
"Parents will have access to their children's education related issues as they will have to share their knowledge with them. There will be a connection between the school and home while learners will change their attitude towards Life Science. Leamer will be actively involved in their education by giving inputs."
Theme 4: Strategies to overcome the challenges associated with including IK in the teaching of Life Sciences
The barriers related to including IK in Life Sciences came from the teachers, the learners as well as the curriculum. However, teachers also indicated that they support each other within the communities of practice in their schools. One of the teachers in the interview indicated that support in infusing IK into teaching is provided by colleagues:
The teachers suggested that it is difficult, especially if the teacher is not teaching LS or is not interested in IK. However, consultation was mentioned as one method to overcome barriers to IK in LS. Category 4.1: Consultation The narratives revealed that teachers consult colleagues or people from the community before going to class. Colleagues were consulted every time an educator encountered problems and when help or assistance of some sort was required. Teachers also gathered information from parents and elderly people from the 101 surrounding areas, or specialists like traditional healers. One participant revealed the following: "Eeh ... I normally gather information from parents even though some part is not reliable. Elderly people from the community and other traditional healers give information as required. There is also hidden information that they don't want to give to us but one can hear from those who used to visit them to seek help. There is this issue of classified information, i.e. information that can only be given to a particular class of people. It is a taboo, for instance, to discuss any topic related to circumcision with anybody who has never been there, be it a male or female. This can be valuable to us ifgiven information because it forms part ofour learning area." It is apparent from these interviews that teachers are committed to consult with knowledgeable holders of IK before they go to class so that they can gather sufficient information to impart to learners. There is an indication that some of the participants are working with their colleagues, notably in schools where they function well. Some schools can be labelled as "pseudo-communities" of practice. In these schools, teachers often experience the silo effect, and do not receive assistance from colleagues. Teachers in pseudo communities of practice are struggling with the infusion of IK as they have no direction on how to apply it, and they do not receive assistance from colleagues. The division among them may be caused by the struggle, lack of understanding and attitude. Some participants revealed that: "As I have already said they are divided. Some are negative while others are positive because oftheir religious beliefs. The positive ones really give support and help with the information." "Not all of them were positive but the few showed interest in the work. They were willing to deliberate more and share the information that they got. We normally discuss certain matters before going to class in order to get clarity on certain issues." 102 "Some teachers seem to be negative because of their religious beliefs and the difficulty in incorporating in class. As I have already said, we do not have a clear strategy on how to apply and the fact that teachers are to seek information on their own without any assistance from Department makes them lose interest. Most of them will tell me that they don't want to teach something they do not understand. Some of them do not want to share the knowledge with the thought that they will be belittled and developed a negative attitude towards them." On the other hand, it was mentioned that other colleagues are willing to give a helping hand in order to achieve their desired goals. Knowledgeable people, who in Vygotskian terms can be called the "more competent peers", are even invited to schools with the aim of sharing their knowledge. This showed a spirit of working together as they hold meetings where they are encouraged by motivational speakers, share information and form clusters. Clusters, as ecologies of practice, can also be valuable in empowering teachers to infuse their teaching with IK. One such keystone species, who has been invited to other schools to assist colleagues with IK, had the following to say: "I am normally invited to other school in the afternoon to address learners and give help to educators if possible." "Hmmm ... As I have already indicated, at school we are used to gather every morning before we go to class to discuss about each and every aspect or topic we are to teach for that particular day. We make sure that we treat the same section in all the grades which is similar and help each other where possible. If the section differs we just help each other." Category 4.3: Working with teachers from the surrounding area (e.g. formulating clusters, inviting knowledgeable people, inviting Departmental officials) Teachers need a well-functioning community of practice where in they can work together and help each other with the incorporation of IK. This will enable them to learn by participating in a group. Smith (2003) refers to this as a social participation. This can be an important tool as it can help to drive strategy, solve their problems quickly and to develop professional skills. With regard to the formation of a 103 community of practice by working together with other teachers from neighbouring schools, the narratives highlighted the following: "I think of organising regular meetings wherein educators can be able to discuss topics to be treated in class and share information in order to help others. In our schools we may form discussion groups in the leaming area where we can also help one another. Hmm ... clusters together with forums can be formed for such discussions." "Hmm ... I think ofposing issues to them even though I did not do it so that we can share what we have. I will make it a point that we contact each other, form a group work or discussion wherein we will help each other. This will be a good idea because we are having or sharing the same sentiments." "Teachers from the surrounding areas or schools are also invited especially in the afternoon and on Saturdays. This is where we invite elderly people and community members even ifthey at times do not show up." The narratives revealed that the DoE needs to involve itself with the teachers and assist them in their professional development. The Department needs to supply more material in the form of magazines to teachers and help with the formation of clusters where teachers can help each other as peers. Subject advisors need to visit schools regularly with the aim of assisting teachers in their teaching. More often than not, they assume the position of critics. Instead, they should do more than that by also assisting with the formation of living and functioning clusters. One participant mentioned the following: "I think we will have to form a cluster from our circuit with the help of Departmental officials wherein we discuss certain topics and help each other. This can help us to gather more information and be sure of what we are teaching in class. Yah, from there we can move from school to school to give help. By so doing we can form a very strong team that interacts with each other." 104 The interviews showed that subject facilitators act as support structures although they visit schools per chance and teachers perceive these visits as "fault-finding engagement". Teachers feel that these subject facilitators do not simply come to the school to help or support, but to look for mistakes and to criticise teachers while seeking for written work. They seem to enjoy telling teachers what to do instead of doing the job themselves. For the bigger part of the academic year, they remain dormant claiming to do office work and planning. Most of them come out of their closets during the Cass moderation period. These advisors then demand information about the amount of work undertaken during the year, the number of tests written, the marking of the tests and more. This has been revealed by participants when saying: "Curriculum advisors act as support structure although they do not normally show themselves when they are needed. Actually, nobody is supporting us. We as teachers just help one another where we can. We support ourselves because we just keep on going on our own." "We normally see the officials when they are in need of written work, for problems and for clarification, no." Category 4.4: Inviting knowledgeable people from the surrounding area or community In addition to consultation (Category 4.1), some of the teachers also indicated that they occasionally invite holders of IK to their classrooms to come and share their expertise with the learners. The teachers also mentioned that it is not common practice due to logistical obstacles. For example, it takes a long time for invited guests to respond, and guest speakers sometimes expect payments for their presentations. In one instance, a teacher invited a traditional healer to the classroom to discuss the common diseases he deals with and some of the plants he uses to treat such diseases. Some participants revealed the following: "Knowledgeable parents in the community such as traditional leaders together with traditional healers will give a helping hand. Ifit is the problem ofthe curriculum, I will 105 also invite curriculum advisors to help. Even those who specialise in IK from the universities will be contacted. This will depend on the type ofthe problem." "I run around seeking information from knowledgeable people and elderly ones from the community." Theme 5: Religious beliefs The narrative revealed that most participants are bound by their religious beliefs in their infusion of IK. It sounded as if their belief systems discouraged them to involve themselves in IK. This led to some of them being negative about teaching IK. "Most of them really give me a very negative attitude towards IK by not even attending to me while others say it is against their religious beliefs. It is only few who seem to be interested in it. This makes learners also to lose interest and become reluctant in doing the work." 'The belief system is also a problem that needs teachers to be very careful with. A teacher needs to present IK in an acceptable way. In the process of teaching no one's rights should be tampered with. You may find a teacher violating one child's right to privacy during his teaching to cite just but one example. This takes time discussing in class and trying to make clarifications where necessary." "They seem to be negative because of their religious beliefs and the difficulty in incorporating in class." "Most of them have a negative attitude towards it as I have already said because of their beliefs. At times, it is because is time wasting and money to run around seeking help from other people and knowledgeable people and even come up empty handed. Lack of specific methodological training and continuous consultation also plays a role. Those who are traditional are positive because mostly are the things that they enjoy and practice. n 106 It is important for teachers to separate religious beliefs and IK. Most Christians think that visiting a sangoma or traditional healer is belittling their faith in God. Hence, it is against their belief as it seems that religious beliefs and indigenous knowledge are incompatible. The two belief systems cannot survive in the same space without one trying to eliminate the other. Religion is a set of beliefs about the cause, nature, and the purpose of life and the universe, especially when seen as the creation of a supernatural agency. Christians and sangomas do not believe in the same principles, or agree on who or what the source of life is. Most Christians think that visiting a sangoma and making contact with their ancestral spirits is against their religious belief system. Also, most Christians do not believe in muthi and herbs from sangomas and traditional healers. People will rather refrain from discussing anything than have their religion questioned. More often than not, Christians are not prepared to discuss anything that will challenge their own belief systems. The same goes for traditionalists and other religions. As a consequence, religion can become a vivid obstacle in infusing IK in the classroom. 4.4.2 Lesson observation A number of Life Sciences lessons presented by teachers for this survey were evaluated to see how these teachers incorporate IK in their lessons. The Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP) instrument was used for this evaluation. The notes of one such observed lesson will be provided to illustrate how the RTOP instrument has been used. The other lessons are described in Appendix E. The following is one example of a lesson that was observed: LESSON 1 Background information Name of teacher: Participant 1 Announced observation: No 107 Location of class: Middle classroom of Block C Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 10 August 2010 Topic/theme: How modern biotechnology provide evidence for ethnobotanical knowledge claims Contextual background and activities Teacher used examples and applications to illustrate scientific concepts such as biotechnology and ethnobotanical knowledge while learners were attentive, engaged and asked questions in the context of everyday life. The learners were tasked with an investigation to perform at home. Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learners' prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 4 I 1 IX 1 '1 1 1 I 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 I 1 I 1 1 I 1 I 3. In this lesson, students' exploration preceded formal presentation. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 2 X 3 4 1 1 I I 1 1 I 1 I 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. 108 Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 IX 4 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 CONTENTPropositional knowledge 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 4 I I IX 1 1 I 1 1 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 IX 2 3 4 I 1 1 1 1 1 I 9. Elements of abstraction (Le. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 IX 2 3 4 I 1 1 1 I 1 I 109 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real-world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 I 1 2 3 4 1 IX 1 1 I 1 I Procedural knowledge 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulates, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X' 3 4 I I 1 1 1 I 1 1 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses, and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 4 I I IX 1 1 1 1 I 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activities that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 I I I 1 1 I 1 1 14. Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 IX 2 3 4 I I 1 1 I 1 I 110 15. Intellectual rigour, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 I1 IX 2 3 4 I 1 1 I 1 I CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative interactions 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 2 X 3 1 1 /4 1 1 1 1 1 I 17. The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 I 1 2 X 3 4 / I 1 1 I 1 1 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 x /4 1 I 1 /2 /3 / 1 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 / 1 2 3 4 I IX 1 1 1 1 / 111 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 2 X 3 4 1 1 I I 1 1 I 1 1 Student Jteacher relationships 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X' I 3 4 I I I 1 I 1 I 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 1 1 I 1 1 I 1 I 23. In general, the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 I I I 1 1 I 1 I 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 4 I 1 IX 1 1 I 1 I 25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. 112 Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 I I 1 1 1 I 1 1 Lesson observations In this particular lesson, there was an opportunity to focus on how modern biotechnology provides evidence for ethnobotanical knowledge claims - an opportunity that the teacher unfortunately did not utilise. Two interesting examples of indigenous plant uses came to mind while the researcher was observing this lesson, namely the use of Lippia javanica as a mosquito repellent, and the use of Sutherlandia frutescens in treating diabetes. The CSIR has initiated a project in conjunction with the local community in Giyani in Limpopo which involves the registration of a patent which uses the molecules of Lippia javanica as insect repellent. Whereas clinical tests on citronella oil as mosquito repellent show a success rate of 40%, the oils in Lippia javanica seems to be 95% effective. Another case in point: ProBetix is a drug, mainly consisting of derivates of the Sutherlandia plant which is now used commercially for the treatment of diabetes. Unfortunately, the teacher only mentioned that indigenous plants can have economic use, without giving examples. It is a pity. The researcher's findings of the observations Most teachers managed to use IK as an introduction to their lessons. In most cases, one could deduct from the lessons that these teachers were not very knowledgeable on the content. Neither were they always sure of what they were trying to say. The researcher realised that teachers do not reflect on their own teaching practice. The explanations were not clear, which made the researcher realise that the teachers lack the Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) to be used in class. Teachers feel threatened when confronted with the challenges and demands because of their lack of the necessary knowledge and skills to apply in the incorporation of indigenous knowledge. Some were simply confused about how to introduce and incorporate IK in their teaching because of the lack of understanding of fundamental concepts in Life Sciences. Teachers tend to have misconceptions about the subject content and seem to mislead learners. Lack of training and even lack of clear information was 113 observed. Some teachers looked nervous and trembling while some of the facts and concepts were not clearly explained. Golden opportunities were missed, where teachers could have provided learners with examples of scientific processes and procedures to support IK claims. For example, botany can come alive if a teacher introduces simple chromatography techniques while teaching plant studies or organic chemistry. Simple chromatography can be done on shoestring science in the laboratory. As enrichment, a teacher can also refer to modern techniques used in laboratories today, such as thin-layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These are basic procedures applied in most university laboratories, and the teachers could easily have arranged a trip to a professional laboratory to give students a "feel" for science. Unfortunately, the incorporation of IK was seen as sterile and without much excitement. Lack of enthusiasm was detected when learners were amazed because they did not understand what the teacher was trying to explain. Some learners were curious or even eager to know more. Those who showed interest managed to ask more questions because they wanted to know more about the content. Not all learners participated well in the lesson. Most learners were quiet; looking at the teacher and just listening to what the teacher was saying without seeming to understand anything the teacher was saying. In general, it was clear that IK was only introduced through selected examples provided by the teacher, and that very little attention was given to the "syntactical" aspects of IK in the classroom. There are so many hands-on enquiry-based activities that the teacher could have introduced in the classroom. Learners could have done surveys among local communities in order to record IK claims. De Beer and Van Wyk (2011) provide a methodology where learners can follow a rapid appraisal methodology linked with the Matrix Method. The researcher has already referred to the use of simple chromatography techniques that can be used in the classroom to introduce learners to the biochemical and pharmacological work that is currently done in the field of ethnobotany. However, most teachers do not have the technical know-how to use such methods in the classroom, and therefore the PCK development of teachers should receive urgent attention. Some teachers even 114 mentioned that they were trying to teach the part of IK that is against their belief system. They did not want to go deeply into the matter, and just introduced a lesson by asking questions to learners while only few took part. In most cases, learners were told to go and investigate on their own or even ask their parents at home. No clarification was given on how the investigation should be done. Some teachers mentioned problems with the lack of academic knowledge, the packaging of new content to learners and the incorporation of indigenous knowledge into the science curriculum. Other teachers mentioned that they would have done better in their explanations to the learners if they had the necessary resources. In some instances, learnerswere asked to bring different muthi and herbs that are used by parents and people in the surrounding area to heal Aids-related diseases. The learners brought a variety of herbs and muthi to the class but nobody could identify the herbs or explain their uses. Based on the observations, the researcher realised that few teachers were proud of their culture or could even make others develop an interest in their culture. The teachers loved their culture and even enjoyed explaining this to their learners. One could therefore enjoy the lesson even though one understands nothing about their culture. Their lesson presentations showed that thorough consultation, research and presentation was clearly done. In the researcher's observation of teachers' lessons, she could identify only one teacher who did justice to IK in teaching. This teacher is proud of his culture and succeeds in making others develop an interest in their culture. The lesson presentation showed that thorough consultation, research and presentation was done. The teacher successfully tapped in into the rich database of IK that South Africa has. The teacher taught the learners about the exploitation of rooibos. Rooibos (Aspalathus Iinearis) is an indigenous legume native to South Africa's Western Cape region. Local inhabitants, the so-called Khoi-San, were the first to collect and use it as a herbal beverage. Documented biological properties of rooibos include antioxidant activity, antimutagenic properties, hepatoprotective effects, phyto- 115 oestrogenic properties, antimicrobial and antiviral activities. Nakano et a/. isolated a polysaccharide that showed strong anti-HIV activity. Learners were asked about the stages of preparing rooibos and how they prepared and used rooibos in their homes. The teacher and the learners discussed different ideas in class. The learners also had to complete an exercise for the following day. A debate followed on whether or not Rooibos is an indigenous plant. Two groups of learners were chosen to argue for or against the topic. Life Sciences teachers can also use the Association for African Medicinal Plants Standards' website at www.aamps.orgasausefulresource.This initiative was established by the European Union Centre for the Development of Enterprise (EU ACP), with funding from the EU Prolnvest. This resulted in the publication of the African Herbal Pharmacopoeia, which has now established ethnobotany as an exciting new scientific field that has the potential to drastically improve the lives of Africans (Eloff, 2011). Sometimes, IK was introduced towards' the end of the lesson when learners were given work to do at home. Learners were asked to look for different methods for the prevention of pregnancy used by their parents in the olden days. They needed to visit elderly people and traditional healers to enquire about traditional methods used to prevent pregnancy. They also had to write a report that would be assessed. Teachers mentioned that they attended multi-day short courses in order to be trained in the new content and policies of the NCS. According to them, they did not benefit from these workshops and requested an ongoing professional development process. Some teachers mentioned that they were introducinq IK unwillingly, since they perceived it as being against their belief system. They reported that they did not want to go deeply into IK in the classroom. As a consequence, they simply introduced IK briefly in a lesson by asking learners a few questions. In many cases, learners were told to go and investigate indigenous knowledge systems on their own or ask their parents at home about this. They received no guidelines on how. to do this investigation. Many teachers seem to equate IK and emerging fields such as 116 ethnobotany with pseudo-science or even "witchcraft". Fundamentalist Christians often see holistic healing practices, such as the alleged "contact with ancestors", as Satanism. This aspect will be discussed in Chapter 5. 4.4.3 Artefacts In addition to the lesson observations, the researcher also studied artefacts such as teachers' lesson plans, teacher portfolios and learner portfolios, and analysed Grade 12 Life Sciences scripts. 4.4.3.1 Teacher portfolios and learner portfolios During the ten school visits for this research report, the researcher analysed a total of ten teacher portfolios and 30 learner portfolios. The researcher noted that teachers occasionally gave IK-relatedassignments and "investigations" to learners. One such example is where learners were given a task to investigate the uses of the African potato and a number of diseases that can be cured by using this particular plant. Another example is where learners were given a research project to "investigate" (the researcher would prefer "report", since the teacher did not give guidelines on how to conduct research) Many portfolios and teacher lesson plans had no indication of IK incorporation. Where IK was addressed, it was usually only one or two examples of an IK practice. It became clear that lip service was paid to the IK requirements of the NCS. However, one of the few "best practices" observed, was on Sutherlandia frutescens (see Chapter 2). Albrecht (2011) draws attention to the fact that Sutherlandia frutescens is sometimes compared to a Swiss army knife with multiple functions. Various textbooks and review articles have indicated the many functions of Sutherlandia: it is used as a treatment for cancer, diabetes, stomach ailments, influenza, inflammation, chicken pox, fever, varicose veins, haemorrhoids, bladder infections, liver ailments, stress-related ailments and severe depression. It is also used as an appetite stimulant and an eye wash (Albrecht, 2011). However, there are 117 no clinical studies to support these claims. This particular teacher made a few articles available to the learners, and also encouraged learners to do research on the internet and to write research reports on the evidence for such claims. One learner in this teacher's class was clearly stimulated by this creative assignment, and wrote an excellent report, with the basic finding (slightly simplistic, which is understandable, since the learner did not have access to all the scientific journals) that there is only sufficient clinical evidence for one of these claims: Sutherlandia's use to treat diabetes. This learner referred to ProBetix, a commercial product available for treating diabetes, made from Sutherlandia. It contains Pinosundia, which is an alpha lipoic acid. What impressed the researcher was that the learner reported on how this drug assisted his grandfather, who suffered from diabetes. He indicated how his grandfather's sugar levels, which constantly varied between 7 and 8 when he used other medication, dropped to 5 a few weeks after his grandfather started to use ProBetix. The learner also looked at other indigenous plants that can assist in the treatment of diabetes. One such example that the learner referred to was Athrixia phylicoides, which, during clinical tests, stimulated in vitro glucose uptake, suggesting that it can be beneficial to type 2 diabetes. 4.4.3.2 Grade 12 Life Sciences examination scripts As part of this study, the researcher was involved in the University of Johannesburg's Script Analysis Project (SAP), done for Umalusi. One thousand Grade 12 learners' answer sheets for both Paper 1 and Paper 2 in Life Sciences (December 2008) were analysed. The researcher wanted to determine whether IK filtered through into the learners' answers. The researcher specifically looked at questions which made provision for the incorporation of IK, and revealed the following findings: Question 4.3 deals with human reproduction, determining the sex of the child, and medical assistance to help people to fall pregnant. This question lends itself to answers in which IK is incorporated. 118 Table 4.5: The grid used to analyse Question 4.3, Paper 1 Question Misconception Scientific General IK application 4.3 CODES investigation problems CODES: An: (analogical) CODES: CODES: NT: Not Ap: Ps: Lack of ExT: Poor introduced anthropomorphic problem solving examination NA: Not applied F: Functional skills technique at all G: Genetic HYP: Cannot L: Language (only briefly M: Mechanical formulate problems mentioned) NI: Mp: Metaphysical hypothesis TM:Time No idea about P: Practical DR: Cannot management it Ra: Rational interpret graphs MIS: DNC:Difference Ta: Tautological AN: Cannot Misunderstood not clear Te: Teleological analyse data question LC: Little said Re: Relational KN: Lack of about it Pr: Problem scientific WM: Western based knowledge methods used Mo: Model based REL: Religious beliefs mentioned Comments on findings: 1. The learners did not perform well at all in this question, and the average mark for the question was 27% (4 marks out of a possible 15). There was extremely little evidence of IK insights in learners' answers, and they mostly reflected on how Western medicine can help childless couples. 2. From analysing the answers, it seems as if educators mostly concentrated on Western science, and did little in terms of IK practices to ensure healthy pregnancy. 3. It seems as if old teaching methods or pedagogic methods were used instead of the NCS's teaching methods. 4. Educators seem unsure about which IK to consider in dealing with such 119 matters. 5. It seems as if educators were not trained in the infusion of IK and that they need to be motivated to infuse it. 6. As a result of these problems learners end up achieving poor results. 7. Most learners use their general knowledge to answer the questions. Some learners mentioned religious beliefs in attempting to answer the question (for instance, some learners feel that Western scientists sometimes "play God" by helping a woman to fall pregnant through modern fertility techniques). It seems as if the examiner tried to assess Learning Outcome No 3, which refers to the application of Life Sciences in society, as well as learners' know-how of indigenous knowledge in one question. Very little materialised in this regard in the learners' answers. The question was related to the learning content while it required the learners to respond to unfamiliar data. It was based on the data given although the researcher was not assured that the candidates were compelled to study the data for answers. Very little reference was made to plants that could help during pregnancy, though a significant amount of attention was given to this in both scientific and popular magazines. To mention two examples: it is reasonably well documented that rooibos (Aspalathus Iinearis) has phyto-oestrogenic properties, and that Combretum erythrophyl/um can assist during labour and birth (Ledwaba, 2011). Question 4.3 in Paper 2 dealt with the exploitation of indigenous plants, and the sustainable use of plants for food and medicinal purposes. 120 Table 4.6: The grid used to analyse Question 4.3, Paper 2 Question Misconception Scientific General IK application 4.3 CODES: investigations problems CODES: An: (Analogical) CODES: CODES: PU: Poor Ap: PS: Lack of ExT: Poor understanding (Anthropomorphic problem solving examination LS: Very little F: Functional skills technique said about IK G: Genetic HYP: Cannot L: Language IKP: No M: Mechanical formulate problems knowledge of Mp: Metaphysical hypothesis TM: Time IK (ethno- P: Practical GR: Cannot management botany) plants Ra: Rational interpret graphs MIS: IKNC: Ta: Tautological AN: Cannot Misunderstood Indigenous Te: Teleological analyse data question Knowledge not Re: Relational KN: Lack of considered Pr: Problem scientific BWS: Based on based knowledge Western Mo: Model based methods MGN: General knowledge applied AI: Answers irrelevant to questions 1. The average mark for this question was 4.47 out of a possible 15 (a percentage average of 29.8%). Learners had very little knowledge of indigenous plants, its uses (ethnobotany), or issues regarding the conservation of these plants. 2. Learners do not seem to have a clear understanding of issues regarding indigenous knowledge. Based on the researcher's analysis, it seems that indigenous knowledge was not properly introduced in the Life Sciences classroom. Very few students referred to the endemic plants of their particular region, or to the ethnobotanical uses of these plants. The researcher also missed an L03 focus. Learners in general did not seem 121 to be too concerned about the illegal harvesting of plants. This suggests that teachers focus too strongly on cognitive content and on preparing learners for examinations. 3. Learners had several misconceptions about IK (for instance, some learners think that sangomas and inyangas only use indigenous plants). OBE and NCS policies did not give educators direction and clarity on the inclusion of IK. Learners were not able to express their feelings and sentiments on IK while others did not understand the use of medicinal plants by different cultural groups. 4.The examiner managed to include L03, which refers to the application of Life Sciences in society, by asking learners about the risk that indigenous plants may be overexploited for medicinal and nutritional purposes. The question critically evaluates beliefs, attitudes and values on science, technology and society. The NCS expects teachers to indicate that our rich South African flora can supply food, medicine and raw materials for arts and crafts. There is a wealth of data available on how plants are used by different cultural groups. There is also concern about the harvesting of plants in a non-sustainable way. The demand for natural and organic products is estimated to be growing at 25% per year (Swanepoel & Alberts, 2011). The pressure on natural resources can be prevented if careful and sustainable measures are taken, and if communities are involved in growing these plants and crops. Very little of this discourse has been captured by learners in their answers. 4.5 TRIANGULATION To analyse the data and establish emerging themes, the researcher triangulated the GDE quantitative data, the interviews, observations, artefacts like the portfolios, and the scripts analysis. This triangulation assisted the researcher to paint a portrait of how teachers experience indigenous knowledge. The following concurrent triangulation design visual model was used: 122 QUAN Data collection QUAN • Individual Data collection interviews • Survey • Observations • Checklist • Artefacts QUAN QUAN Data analysis Data analysis • Statistical • Coding analysis • Thematic analysis RESULTS Comparing results • Codes • Themes • Grounded theory Composite model Figure 4.1: Triangulation design visual model Source: Creswell, 2009. Although most Life Sciences teachers see the value of IK in the Life Sciences classroom (quantitative data), most teachers either pay lip service to IK, or ignore it 123 altogether (qualitative data). Some teachers understand (as constructivists) the value of building on prior knowledge. A high percentage of teachers (76.7%) indicated that IK does not stand in the way of learners trying to acquire scientific knowledge. These teachers are of the opinion that learners "do not cling" to their IK concepts, but that it opens opportunities for learners to explore and embrace scientific investigations. However, the fact that so little IK materialises in most classrooms, is probably the result of many teachers' lack of PCK. The study would have benefited from the administration of the Nature of Science (NOS) questionnaire or instrument to determine how teachers view the nature of science. This item shows that there is a large difference in teachers' perceptions of NOS. The majority of teachers feel that there is a connection between IK and Western science. Theoretically, this should pave the way for such discussions in class. A cause of concern is that 61.6% of teachers are of the opinion that there is conflict between IK and Western science. One of the reasons is fundamentalist viewpoints, and a lack of knowledge. The qualitative findings revealed that the participants experience several challenges in relation to the infusion of IK in the LS classroom. Problems include insufficient training and insufficient professional development to implement IK. Teachers were concerned about how well Life Sciences educators were trained to infuse their teaching with IK. They acknowledged that they lacked the knowledge and skills in terms of the OBE curriculum to infuse IK in their teaching. The people who create policies and legislation seldom look down the track to the implementation stage (Rogan & Aldous, 2004). Little guidance is provided in the official policy documents on how teachers should incorporate IK in their teaching. Teachers' comments highlighted that there is a need to assist teachers in the development of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Another concern highlighted by some teachers is that the inclusion of IK calls for the promotion of pseudo science. Such sentiments show teachers' ignorance about the growth of a field such as ethnobotany. An African Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AfrHP) has recently been published by the Association for African Medicinal Plant Standards (AAMPS) (Eloff, 124 2011), and if one looks at the AfrHP, it is clear that ethnobotany should be recognised as a rigorous science. Teachers should be critical and reflective practitioners. This was revealed during interviews with teachers and the classroom visits that teachers do not really reflect on their own teaching practice. This is also one of the reason why teachers do not build capacity regarding PCK (Conley, 2010). This involves content knowledge, teaching experience and pedagogy. IK should encompass the so-called scientific methods and should assist learners in developing critical thinking skills. The lack of material resources was also revealed as one of the difficulties encountered by teachers in their incorporation of IK in the LS classroom. However, having said this, many teachers do notutilise resources and resourceful people from the local community. Not all Life Sciences content allows for IK. It will be challenging to add an IK focus to themes such as molecular biology and DNA structures. Indigenous cultures probably have very little IK on the DNA molecule. The DoE needs to develop curriculum material like books that can address IK, and assist teachers to teach IK. The rich South African cultural diversity can also pose a challenge in the Life Sciences classroom. Teachers might be knowledgeable in terms of IK in their culture but do not necessarily know much about IK in other cultures. This poses a serious challenge to teachers in multicultural classrooms in South African schools. There is also a lack of support from the DoE. As a result, teachers try to work on their own by organising Saturday schools and by inviting knowledgeable people from the community to share lessons on IK. The interviews with the teachers made it clear that teachers are committed to consulting knowledgeable holders of IK before they go to class. Subject advisors (curriculum specialists) are often not providing guidance on the teaching of IK. Teachers are negative about IK at times, and feel that IK does not belong in the Life Sciences classroom. Some teachers say that IK cannot be scientifically proven, and that it constitutes pseudo-science. This again raises the issue of PCK. Many 125 teachers do not have the know-how to incorporate PCK in a scientific and proper way. The research findings indicated that participants understood the definition and meaning of IK even though it was placed in different meanings. It was mentioned that it is sometimes difficult to trust the accuracy of the information as it is not written anywhere, nor is it scientifically proven. Teachers are starting to believe in the importance of IK in Life Sciences. They have come to realise that traditional knowledge is as important as curriculum knowledge. Learners do not come to school as empty vessels. Hence, they need to make a connection between their indigenous knowledge and their classroom-acquired knowledge. Participants revealed that it is important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum because learners need to know where they come from, i.e. they need to know their roots before they will be able to know where they are going. Colleagues from the same school are supporting each through regular group discussions. They have even formulated morning classes to help each other in a learning area. Some of the participants work with their colleagues, notably in schools with well-functioning communities of practice. Teachers therefore support each other within the ecologies of practice (clusters). Clusters, as ecologies of practice, can therefore be valuable in empowering teachers to infuse their teaching with IK. Teachers from neighbouring schools can also provide guidance and scaffolding. However, in other schools teachers often experience the silo effect as they do not receive assistance from colleagues. Teachers in such pseudo-communities of practice are struggling with the infusion of IK as they have no direction or assistance in this regard. In addition to consultation, some of the teachers indicated that they occasionally invite holders of IK to their classrooms to share their expertise with learners. However, this was not common practice because of logistical obstacles, payment expectations and other issues. 126 The interviews revealed that most participants are bound by their religious beliefs in their infusion of IK. It seems as if their belief system discouraged them to become involved in IK. As a result, some of them are negative about infusing their teaching with IK. Most people are not open to discuss religion as they regard religion as a matter of life and death. The fact that most of the indigenous knowledge is not recorded and is associated with evil or ancestral spirits aggravates the situation. Learners did not perform well at all in Question 4.3 of Paper 1. The.averaqe mark for the question was 27% (4 marks out of a possible of 15). The lack of teacher PCK results, unfortunately, in underperformance by the learners. This was clear from the researcher's analysis of the examination scripts. There was extremely little evidence of IK insights in learners' answers. From analysing the answers, it seems as if educators mostly concentrated on Western science without taking IK practices into account. 4.6. CULTURAL HISTORICAL ACTIVITY THEORY (CHAT) The pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is impotant to teaching profession and can be considered to be useful part of the teacher's lived experience. It is also described as a transformation of teacher knowlwdge from a vriety of domains of knowledge, which includes subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and knowledge about content ( Botha & Reddy, 2011; 257).This change model has the potential lito drive innovation in practice" (Meyer, 2007; 13). Lev Vygotsky (1978), as the founder of social and cultural constructivism, believes that learning takes place during social and cultural endeavours between children and knowledgeable adults. According to this theory, learning is always mediated by an artefact like tools, signs and cultural means. Leontiev (1981) suggested first-generation activity theory that included the idea of mediation and the concept of collective as well as individual action from which the second generation of activity theory evolved. Linked to the concept of the division of labour, it is seen as a fundamental historical process assisting in the development of cognitive functions. Engestrom (1987) built on Vygotsky and Leontiev's models to generate the third generation of activity theory. 127 Viewing the findings through a CHAT lens The themes that emerged will now be studied through a CHAT lens in order to come to an understanding of the tensions that teachers experience in teaching IK. The themes that emerged will be used to identify the tension and relationship between tools (NCS, policy document, pedagogy and PCK), subject (the teacher), rules, community (the school), division of labour (teacher role, professional development), object and outcome. Professional Resources Language development I Pedagogy Religious Emotional Community of factor practice beliefs 1------.1 Prof Development Outcome-Footing+ Voice ofLS teacher Community Multicultural Colleagues learners I Leamer factors IParents I Management I __Subject Advisor I Figure 4.2: Integrating emerging themes with CHAT Source: Engestrom, 1987. 128 Examples of activity systems include teachers working together at the school, classroom activities, the school itself, Departmental officials, and parents as community members who interact with the school. These people are continuously helping each other to develop in a social relationship. The top part of the triangle represents the tool. The bottom of the triangle represents individual actions that are embedded in a social realm. Third-generation activity theory (CHAT) was chosen as the conceptual framework for this study to view the bigger picture of teachers' experiences in the infusion of IK. Subject: This can be referred to as the Life Sciences teachers in the schools who are supposed to infuse indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences in the classroom. This occurs when teachers have a good understanding of NCS policy and its application, sufficient material and a sound PCK. Teachers need to have the required skills to apply the content knowledge acquired. Rules: This refers to the guidelines of the NCS and the rules of the school in which these teachers are operating. Rules include the norms, values and social interaction around the school and in the classroom. They also include the norms, values, beliefs and traditional values that exist in the school. It is the role of the Department of Education, the school's management and the teachers to ensure compliance with the rules. Object: The object of the activity system is the teachers' PCK development in order to effectively teach IK; in other words, finding a professional "footing" and "voice". Outcome: For the successful incorporation of indigenous knowledge, both teachers and learners must be able to understand each other and to apply the knowledge to their everyday lives. Community: Communities of practice include cluster meetings, colleagues working together and the community in which teachers work. The community includes parents, community members in the form of sangomas, the Department of Education 129 (DoE), community leaders and other knowledgeable members of society. There is a need for mutual relationships between teachers, management, Departmental officials and community members. Colleagues and management also form part of the community as they give learners information about IK. Community of practice: This refers to the way in which people interact with each other and the relationship they have in the social networks in which they operate. Whitelaw at al. (2008: 36) explain the community of practice as a group of people who share a concern or passion for something they do and who learn how to do things in a better way through regular interaction. Learning in a community of practice is not so much about acquiring knowledge from other members of the community as it is a process of social participation (Smith, 2003). Jarzabkowski (2002), and Wenger and Snyder (2000) suggest that communities of practice can be an important tool for any organisation as these communities can help to drive strategy, solve problems quickly, and transfer best practices and skills. Cluster meetings can help to achieve this. Working together can be very effective to improve teachers' .professional development and acquisition of PCK while social interaction can improve the quality of teaching and learning. Communities of practice can be sustained by teachers who gather to share knowledge. This includes gatherings of teachers from different schools. Whitlock et al. (2008) also refer to a "pseudo-community of practice" where teachers refuse to share information on IK. In this case. it shows a tension in the community of practice. As mentioned, CHAT is not simply a classification system, but a barometer for tensions. For instance, it will point out if there is tension between the subject (Life Sciences teacher) and the tools used to achieve the outcome (effective teaching of IK). The teacher often does not have sufficient tools to achieve the outcome (object) of the activity system. As mentioned, PCK is often not sufficient to teach IK in the classroom. Very often, the teacher does not know which resources to use in the classroom. IKS now includes fields such as ethnobotany. To pay justice to these emerging fields in the classroom, calls for specialised knowledge and skills. Modern ethnobotany requires teachers to be knowledgeable about techniques such as the rapid appraisal method, matrix method, chromatography and spectrometry. Teachers 130 selfish and do not consider other peoples' feelings. When this happens, there is no collaboration. The sharing of information If all stakeholders are able to share information and to help each other with new ideas and knowledge, this will make solutions flow. By sharing and exchanging knowledge, teaching will be made easier and learners will be able to understand science and its implications. The society we aspire to build needs sharing and not selfishness. There are adults who are unable to share. This is a clear indication that sharing should be taught to learners at an early age. People who do not share are . hiding information from other people up. This could lead to the loss of valuable information. Others use information to add value to them. Should somebody possess certain information, a meeting needs to be arranged to disseminate this information instead of just giving it to the first person who wants it. Sharing resources, special talents and strengths Nothing will be hidden or hoarded if everybody is willing to exchange knowledge. Teachers need basic resources to achieve their teaching goals. Books are an important source of information and are needed in larger quantities in schools. However, quality information and age-appropriate information should be a serious pre-requisite and books should add value to activities. A large collection of books is no indication of a school that is well-equipped with books. Morale High morale is often seen when people work in a group and not in isolation. Teachers need to be motivated all the time as low morale among teachers could hamper the quality of their teaching. Teachers need to be encouraged, praised and even thanked when they make an effort with their teaching or when they infuse their teaching with indigenous knowledge. Through the incorporation of IK, teachers can contribute to the development of tomorrow's scientists. Teachers need to collaborate and share their expertise with others, while principals should foster learning and sharing. Professional growth and development also need to be encouraged and accommodated. 132 To ensure that teaching and learning work well with the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom, there should be guidelines on how to incorporate IK and which IK should form part of the learning content. Such guidelines do not curb creativity or initiative. They allow space for teachers to share ideas and to be creative but in a controlled environment. Guidelines on the incorporation of IK will make teachers focus more strongly on their work to reach their desired goals. Teachers can use socio-scientific issues in the teaching of Life Sciences (for example by bringing preserved seeds to class). By doing so, they will encourage . students to consider how science-based issues affect their lives and to reflect on the moral principles that underpin science. Teachers in the Life Sciences classroom also need to realise the importance of hands-on experiences. To achieve this, teachers need to be equipped with the knowledge and skills to incorporate IK more meaningfully and successfully. Some teachers show great dedication to incorporate IK in the Life Sciences classroom despite a lack of skills, methodology and resources. There is a need to form communities of practice among teachers. Regular meetings will lead to the exchange of useful information and ideas. Teachers will experience well-chaired meetings as stimulating, time-effective and worthwhile. This will help teachers to stay focused, to monitor progress and to be keystone species within their ecologies of practice. Henning (2008) refers to such teachers as are leaders in their field and possibly also leaders in an emergent ecology of practitioners in certain geographical areas. The input of every person needs to be welcomed and encouraged. 133 CHAPTERS FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND AREAS OF FUTURE RESEARCH 5.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter looks at the major findings of this study, including recommendations that will help to address the problem, the limitations of the study, and suggestions for future research. The findings revealed that teachers are facing difficulties in incorporating IK in their teaching. Shulman (2004) in Gravett et a/. (2010) suggests that classroom teaching is the most complex, challenging, demanding and frightening activity our species have ever inherited. Teaching is not just about transferring knowledge and implementing the methods and techniques acquired through teacher training at colleges or universities. It is a challenging profession that requires teachers to think and reflect (Gravett et et., 2010). In the process, learners need to gain in such a way that their knowledge can be applied throughout their lifetime. Therefore, teaching is not merely the transfer of knowledge from textbooks while making sure that learners learn. Teachers need to know and apply different teaching methods in class and they need to know the learning content to be taught. It should also be emphasised that teachers must be ready and prepared to learn throughout their teaching career. In addition, teachers need to be critically reflective practitioners. However, before summarising the major findings of this study, it is important to first focus on the incorporation of IK in the classroom. South Africa with its rich cultural diversity and rich biodiversity offers wonderful learning opportunities to Life Sciences learners. As an emerging economy, South Africa is faced with a number of challenges. These challenges include unemployment, a lack of scientists (which prevents us from becoming a global player in the world economy), poverty and issues regarding food security, diseases and pandemics such as HIV and Aids, and 134 a lack of proper healthcare for many South Africans, especially those in rural areas. These obstacles pose a threat to economic growth. The inclusion of indigenous knowledge can help to address many of these issues. Firstly, the rich IK and cultural practices in many areas in the country provide learners with a good entry point into the scientific world. A true constructivist teacher will realise the importance of building new knowledge on learners' existing prior knowledge. This will show learners how relevant science is in ourdaily lives. It may even open future career opportunities and develop learners' entrepreneurial skills. An example of the application of IK: The local people in the Giyani district have been using the plant Lippia javanica as an insect repellent for decades. The CSIR, in conjunction with the local community in Giyani in Limpopo, has registered a patent on the use of Lippia javanica as insect repellent. Clinical tests on citronella oil as a mosquito repellent showed a success rate of 40% while the oils in Lippia javanica seems to be 95% effective. The commercialisation of this application is also benefiting the community by creating jobs. In South Africa, a large percentage of the population is dependent on traditional healers for medical care. Even though many people benefit from treatment by traditional healers, it is also well recorded that many people die every year because of poisoning. This often relates to traditional healers not being clear on dosages. There is often a very fine line between a therapeutic dose and a lethal dose. An interesting example here is Callilepis laureola (impila). This plant belongs to the Asteraceae. This traditional remedy is used by the Zulu, mainly in KwaZulu-Natal, for stomach problems, tapeworm infestations and impotence. It is administered orally or as an enema. Mortality rates from the use of impila is are estimated to be 1500 deaths per annum in KwaZulu-Natal (Gaia, 2001). The government is strongly committed to rectifying the situation of traditional healers. In order to include traditional healing as part of holistic health care in South Africa, and to regulate the practices of traditional healers, a National Reference Centre for African Traditional Medicines was established. Partners include the Department of Health, the Medical Research Council and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (www.mrc.ac.zaltraditionalmedicines/national.htm). 135 Another example: The Association for African Medicinal Plants Standards was established by the European Union Centre for the Development of Enterprise (EU-: ACP), with funding from the EU Prolnvest. This resulted in the publication of the African Herbal Pharmacopoeia, which has established ethnobotany as a new scientific field that has the potential to drastically improve the lives of Africans (Eloff, 2011). Ethnobotanical and pharmaceutical research could lead to possible treatments for HIV/Aids and TB, using our indigenous flora. These developments also offer the opportunity to reflect on biotechnology and modern pharmacology in the Life Sciences classroom. This provides teachers with golden opportunities to introduce learners to scientific processes and procedures that support IK claims. For example, botany can come alive if a teacher introduces simple chromatography techniques or 'organic chemistry. Simple chromatography can be done on a shoestring in the laboratory. As enrichment, teachers can also refer to modern techniques used in laboratories today, such as thin-layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These basic procedures are applied in most university laboratories, and they will give learners a better understanding of the nature of science, as well as future career opportunities. 5.2 MAJOR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 5.2.1 Changes in the education system and curriculum content When new policies were created, policy makers focused on the what of desired educational change, neglecting the how (Rogan & Aldous, 2009). Teachers often have limited understanding of the curriculum changes, and government officials do not always implement them. The inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the NCS policy for Life Sciences was highlighted as one of the unique features of the NCS (Document 8:4), and it accounts for 8.1% of the total content. Examples of indigenous knowledge include the use of indigenous plants to treat nutritional disorders, to preserve food and to control external parasites on livestock, and the use of natural resources in cultural practices. 136 The inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the science curriculum is considered important to attract children of non-Western cultures to science (Aikenhead, 2006). The NCS favours science for everyday living but it is ambiguous about what it means by relevance to everyday life. The official policy documents do not provide sufficient guidance to teachers on the implementation of IK in their teaching. Another point highlighted by some teachers is that the inclusion of IK does not call for the promotion of pseudo-science or even medical quackery. IK should encompass the so-called scientific methods, and should assist learners in developing critical thinking skills. By so doing (including IK in their lessons), teachers will be encouraging students to consider how science-based issues affect their own lives and to reflect on the moral principles that underpin science. Some teachers show great dedication with the incorporation of IK. However, when teachers are not well trained in application methods, they become confused about how to implement IK in their Life Sciences classrooms. 5.2.2 Perception of being disempowered Constant curriculum changes (first NATED 550, then the NCS, then the RNCS, followed by CAPS in 2012) are challenging teachers. Many teachers show great dedication to incorporate IK in the Life Sciences classroom despite a lack of skills, methodology and resources. They are confused about the methods to use in the implementation of OBE, the NCS and also IK. This leads to poor teaching styles. Hence, teachers need help with methodology, teaching techniques and practical solutions (Horak & Fricke, 2004). Therefore, they should develop generic knowledge or general approaches in which suitable pedagogical methods are used for a required topic. They need to develop methods that can help them reflect on their own teaching practice - for instance, the Guided Reflection Protocol or DATA process, as described by Gravett and De Beer (2010) in Becoming a teacher. Knowledge, flexibility and the ability to incorporate IK in an effective way will help teachers to cater for the individual needs of learners. Teachers' agency is something that should receive serious consideration in South Africa. However, this cannot be separated from teachers' PCK development. 137 5.2.3 The feeling of being demotivated and a lack of agency Teacher morale is very low due to overload, a shortage of content and pedagogical skills, and the stress associated with working in challenging schools where discipline and/or resources are lacking. Teachers often blame their situation on external forces such as the lack of resource material and support from the Department. Some of the teachers have a tendency to neglect self-study to improve their subject knowledge. As a result, most of them are demotivated and lack interest in their teaching in general, and also in the infusion of IK specifically. Motivation is necessary in the teaching profession to make teachers perform more effectively. Teachers' agency should receive more attention as we need creative teachers who are problem-solvers, and who can take accountability for their own professional development. 5.2.4 Lack of resources The findings revealed that teachers are facing difficulties in incorporating IK in their teaching. Shulman (2004) in Gravette et at. (2010) suggests that classroom teaching is a most complex, challenging, demanding and frightening activity. Teaching is not just about transferring knowledge and implementing the methods and techniques acquired through teacher training at colleges or universities. It is a challenging profession that requires teachers to think and reflect (Gravett et a/., 2010). In the process, learners need to gain in such a way that their knowledge can be applied throughout their lifetime. Therefore, teaching is not merely the transfer of knowledge from textbooks while making sure that learners learn. Teachers need to know different teaching methods and the learning content to be taught. In addition to this, they need to be prepared to learn throughout their teaching careers and they need to be critically reflective practitioners. Teachers find it difficult to present or incorporate indigenous knowledge because of the lack of resources. They encounter problems in finding material they can use in class. Life Sciences teachers are unsure of what they need to teach, while some of the evidence cannot be easily be brought to class. Textbooks used in class give little or even no proper information about indigenous knowledge. While some textbooks 138 still provide information on IK in the form of examples, hardly any attention is given to teaching strategies and practical work that can be done in the classroom. As most of the IK is transmitted verbally, some people regard it as a myth because it cannot be tested scientifically. When textbooks do not address IK sufficiently, teachers often ignore this important part of the curriculum. Unfortunately, many teachers in South Africa are textbook bound as they teach only the content of the textbook. If IK is ignored in the textbook, it will also not materialise in the classroom. When textbooks do not adequately address indigenous knowledge, teachers who . are looking at the NCS and policy documents have to rely on the information that learners bring to the class and on the advice of colleagues, parents as community members, sangomas, community leaders and other elderly people from the community. Teachers need to organise the little information they have according to the purpose(s) or goal(s) of teaching, the content or subject matter to be taught to learners and the methods of instruction and evaluation, teacher role(s), learner role(s) and characteristics (Katzenmeyer & Moller, 1996). Unfortunately, many teachers do not have sufficient PCK to do justice to the incorporation of IK in their teaching. 5.2.5 Cultural diversity The cultural society in which learners are living plays a very important role in their education. Henning (2008) explains culture as carriers of extremes of race and ethnicity. It has also been referred to as the fine-tuned ways of doing and living that are present in a child's earliest learning and communication experiences, and that changes as the environment changes. Teachers revealed in the interviews that they sometimes send learners home to seek information about indigenous knowledge. As learners look for the information, they will come to realise that culture is transferred from generation to generation. Nature is transformed into cultural goods, and man cultivates his activities in work and creates a spiritual culture such as art, science, morality and religion (Pretorius, 2000). The school, therefore, has the transfer function with respect to the cultural heritage of society. So, the society is a linguistic or verbal society in which learning takes place. Cultural bias invades professional relationships negatively, and so teachers have to learn to work with "the other" 139 (Whitelaw et al., 2008). Culture continually changes in respect of contents and form of transfer, using new methodologies and technical aids. The construction of science as a culture in which belongings are characterised by the assimilation of cultural norms is consistent with socia-cultural learning theories (Leve & Wenger, 1991). It was further suggested that the theories see cognition as constructed by social, cultural and historical factors. This implies that culture plays an important role in the education of learners. Therefore, science communities of practice cannot be separated from social, cultural and historical elements of . teachers' identity. This study made the researcher realise that the rich cultural diversity of the learners (often with up to eight different cultural groups represented in a classroom) pose a challenge to teachers regarding the introduction of IK in the classroom. It requires experience, knowledge and skill to do justice to the IK of all the cultural groups represented in a classroom. For many teachers this is an overwhelming task. The question can be asked whether students in education are adequately prepared during their undergraduate training for the cultural diversity they have to deal with as teachers. 5.2.6 IK vocabulary to be used in the Life Sciences classroom There is often no clear scientific language to be used when integrating indigenous knowledge in class. The scientific knowledge of indigenous cultures are less demanding cognitively than Western science because it is based in experienced reality, and associated with a vocabulary more accessible to students (Whitlock et al., 2008). Learners come up with knowledge in their own language that cannot always be translated to either of the non-African official languages, namely Afrikaans or English. The same applies to teachers who do not have sufficient knowledge of languages because some of the terms cannot be translated. Another problem is teachers' lack of knowledge of the techniques used by scientists in modern ethnobotany. Most teachers simply do not know about thin-layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). For this reason, the 140 discussion of IK and its application to science is often done without much academic rigour. This relates to the following paragraph, namely teachers' lack of PCK. 5.2.7 Insufficient pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) to teach IK Teaching has historically been a profession which granted practitioners some degree of power to make independent decisions or rules in the classroom. It is perhaps for this reason that the official curriculum and policy documents do not prescribe specific IK content for Life Sciences. The assumption is probably that teachers have the necessary PCK to decide upon suitable content and teaching strategies to infuse classroom teaching with IK. Unfortunately, the reality is that many South African teachers have insufficient PCK to address indigenous knowledge in Life Sciences. What's more, IK and ethnobotany are gaining in complexity as rigorous chemical and pharmacological procedures are applied to test IK claims. Some of the teachers' comments highlighted the need to assist teachers with the development of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which is knowledge about learning and learners, the principles of instruction, classroom management, and the aims and purposes of education. PCK will help learners to construct and acquire skills that can be used in their lives. No qualification can prepare one adequately as professional qualifications and PCK are partially obtained at academic institutions (Whitelaw, De Beer & Henning, 2009). Developing PCK in the field of IK and ethnobotany is a continuous process due to new developments in this emerging science. A bachelor's degree (which many South African teachers do not have) will lay a solid foundation on which to build in-service training, and it will help teachers to teach IK in a stimulating and authentic way. Learners' attitudes and perceptions will be positively influenced by teaching strategies that involve interaction, and this will help to give students a "feel" for science (Kahle, 1999). During the observations, it was noticed that most of the participants looked nervous and were unsure of what was supposed to be taught. Teachers were unclear of what they were teaching. In most cases, old methods of teaching were used as they took time to explain some of the concepts. Their lessons were also teacher-centred. Some learners tried to participate, some were listening and some were unwilling to take part. There was also some confusion among learners and other participants as 141 they disagreed on many points. At the end of the lesson, most teachers tried to give tasks to be performed at home to enable learners to get more clarity from parents and community members. The learners' portfolios showed that teachers give assignments to learners where they need to research IK. Unfortunately, the learners received no feedback on the findings they brought to the class. This suggests that the teachers do not really know where to slot in IK, and that they find it difficult to assess learners' work.Learners' attitudes and perceptions will be positively influenced by teaching strategies that involve interaction, and that give students a "feel" for science (Kahle, 1999). The researcher referred to the three "knowledges" that resort under PCK. This study has shown that teachers lack knowledge in all three these domains: • Teachers do not have sufficient content knowledge to adequately teach IK. From the interviews, it is clear that most teachers have very little knowledge of how our indigenous flora can be used for medicinal reasons. Most teachers also do not have sufficient chemical and pharmacological content knowledge to understand complicated techniques such as chromatography and organic chemistry, or to know the different active ingredients in plants. • Teachers lack the pedagogical knowledge to use science-as-inquiry approaches to teach IK. The qualitative data clearly indicated that most teachers pay lip service to IK by only mentioning a few examples of IK in the class. • Teachers also often lack contextual knowledge as they have limited (or no) knowledge of the IK of different cultural groups in South Africa. Loughran ei a/. (2008) suggest that there is not much literature on how teachers can develop and acquire IK. The recommendations of this study will provide a possible strategy for developing the PCK of Life Sciences teachers. The professional development of teachers should also address PCK development. Kriek (2005) developed a professional development model for science teachers in South Africa. This model is known as the Holistic Professional Development (HPD) 142 model. This helps to address teachers' content knowledge, teaching approaches and professional attitudes. (The recommendations will elaborat on this). 5.2.8 Lack of support by the Department of Education The curriculum changes posed challenges to Life Sciences teachers as the how of curriculum implementation should have received more attention. The NCS is a good curriculum (so is the new CAPS to be introduced in the near future). However, the challenge lies in assisting teachers to implement this curriculum. From the interviews, it is clear that many teachers feel that there was not sufficient support from the Department of Education. This causes stress among teachers. Subject facilitators need to assist teachers with the implementation of IK, and many teachers felt that they do not receive sufficient guidance from subject advisors. Also, workshops focusing on enhancing teachers' PCK in terms of IK should be arranged. The workshops that were offered focused more on policy and not on PCK. Teachers deserve the support due to them in order to produce the desired results and objectives of their teaching. Classroom support is often marginalised, and the focus of the DoE is often more on the what (curriculum) and not the how (empowering teachers to effectively implement the new curriculum). There is little community of practice among teachers as some are unwilling to share and help. At some schools, teachers are trying to help each other by forming discussion groups in the morning and afternoon. In some regions in the country, the cluster groups (an initiative of the DoE) are working effectively. However, in the area where this research was conducted, the clusters are not working well. As a result, teachers do not receive professional support from colleagues. Time is wasted when teachers run around seeking information from colleagues, parents and community members. When this happens, they cannot finish the syllabus because they cannot teach content that they do not know. Professional development of teachers should focus more on improving PCK, and less on the curriculum jargon and policy that seem to have surfaced in in-service training. 143 5.2.9 Belief systems Different belief systems in the teaching and learning of Life Sciences lead to disagreement and sometimes also dysfunctional learning. For example: • Teachers have different views on the nature of science (NOS) and may well ask whether there is space inthe Life Sciences classroom for IK. • Fundamentalist religious beliefs can have a negative influence on the teaching of IK in the classroom. Some (uninformed) people are sceptic about traditional healing because they equate traditional healing with communication with the ancestors. Christians, for example, may find this offensive. In accordance with the Constitution, the South African Schools Act and rules made by the appropriate authorities, the governing bodies of public schools may make their facilities available for religious observances in the context of free and voluntary association, provided that facilities are made available on an equitable basis. It was revealed that some learners view educators who incorporate IK in their teaching in a bad light (Appendix C, pp. 25, Participant 6). On the other hand, there are teachers and learners who feel comfortable with indigenous knowledge. Another point highlighted by some teachers is that the inclusion of IK does not call for the promotion of pseudo-science or medical quackery. IK should encompass so called scientific methods, and should assist learners to develop critical thinking skills. By including IK in their lessons, teachers will encourage learners to consider how science-based issues affect their own lives and to reflect on the moral principles that underpin science. It was revealed in the interviews that most participants are bound by their religious beliefs in their infusion of IK. Their belief system therefore discouraged them to involve themselves in IK. Consequently, some of them are negative about infusing their teaching with IK. The main reason for this is that most people do not want to discuss anything - including indigenous knowledge - that makes them feel that their religion is being compromised. The fact that most of the indigenous knowledge is not recorded and that it is associated with things done by evil or ancestral spirits aggravates the situation. 144 Many belief systems do not allow people to visit traditional healers. Visiting sangomas is against some people's beliefs since they do not want to come into contact with so-called evil spirits. These people see traditional healers in the same light as evil spirits. Any mention of traditional medicine or help from members of other religions is met with the contempt. 5.2.10. How teachers view science and its role in society (Nature of Science) Some of the participants did not pitch for the pre-arranged interviews for this study. , Various reasons were given for their withdrawal: tiredness, an unsuitable time schedule for the interview due to personal or family matters, unexpected appointments, not being able to prepare for the interview, and irritation with IK because of their belief systems. The interviews made it clear that teachers have a very limited understanding of the NOS. For many teachers, science is static. It also became clear to the researcher that many of teachers' misconceptions stem from their lack of effort to keep abreast of developments in the Life Sciences. 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS From the qualitative data, it is clear that very few of the lofty goals of the National Curriculum Statement have materialised in the classroom, especially when it comes to the inclusion of IK. This is a pity, because emerging sciences like ethnobotany has the potential to assist the country in overcoming many of the problems it faces as an emerging economy. Based on the qualitative data in particular, the following recommendations are made: 5.3.1 Developing resource materials addressing IK Curriculum material for both teachers and learners should be developed, e.g. textbooks that address IK. Such textbooks should cover content (examples of IK) as well as modern techniques used in especially ethnobotany. Few Life Sciences teachers are knowledgeable about modern techniques used in laboratories, such as thin-layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The Teacher Guides that supplement school textbooks (Learner Guides) should take 145 cognisance of teachers' lack of PCK in teaching IK, and should suggest suitable pedagogies that can be used. Books are useful in the teaching of learners as they supply both teachers and learners with the desired information. The Department of Education's website includes a Thutong portal (www.thutong.doe.gov.za) and this portal can be used to disseminate information to teachers (also see Paragraph 5.3.2). 4.3.2 Support from the Department of Education Departmental officials (subject advisors) need to be in touch with teachers, motivate both learners and teachers, and be willing to help at all times. Scaffolding is necessary, and teachers' PCK development should be a primary aim of the DoE. • The Department of Education should not regard teachers are masters of all trades. Instead, the Department needs to give guidance, especially in developing PCK. There must be a direct link between schools and the Department. The Department of Education also needs to address teacher problems by frequently visiting schools. • The Department of Education needs to provide centres in every district or circuit where teachers will find the resources they need. Teachers need to be assisted in the matters that make their teaching difficult. The Department can also make electronic materials available on its website for teachers to access and to download. With the Gauteng On-Line initiative, even rural schools have access to the internet, and this can be an effective way of making much needed resources available. Subject facilitators should visit schools to offer assistance not to find fault. These facilitators should assist teachers with their professional development. 4.3.3 Teachers' agency, and professional development within communities of practice Teachers need to be empowered so that learners can benefit from the teachers' expert guidance. This study highlighted that there are very few top-level teachers who know how to infuse IK in the Life Sciences classroom. These "keystone species" (Petersen, 2011) must interact with teachers who have PCK developmental needs. 146 Cluster meetings, which are called every now and then for moderation of assessment, should be turned into fruitful and educative gatherings where PCK development is emphasised. Subject advisors, as the coordinators of cluster meetings, should address teachers' immediate needs - especially in terms of teaching IK in a more sound way. Advantaged schools need to adopt disadvantaged schools under mentorship of the Head of the Department. The "advantaged" schools, keystone species or master teachers need to assist needy schools or inexperienced teachers with support in terms of equipment, resources and teachers' PCK development. Teachers need to form communities of practice. They need to form clusters where they work together with the aim of helping each other. 5.3.4. Teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) This has been touched upon in Paragraph 5.3.3, but it warrants more attention. Teachers need to upskill their pedagogical content, subject knowledge and contextual knowledge in order to understand the following: • The importance of including IK in their teaching: The quantitative survey showed that teachers value IK in the classroom. Yet, the qualitative study indicated that teachers pay lip service to IK. • The complexity of the field: This requires knowledge of recent advances in Life Sciences, such as biology, microbiology, biochemistry and pharmacology. Workshops and in-service training on the inclusion of IK are necessary. Unfortunately, many South African teachers are not in the habit of critically reflecting on their own teaching practice. This needs to be addressed on both PRE-SET and INSET level. Teachers can only develop their own PCK if they are critical and reflective educational practitioners. 5.3.5 The curriculum must provide detailed IK content and skills In order to assist teachers in their professional growth and PCK development, we need a curriculum that clearly states the envisaged outcomes or specific aims when dealing with IK. Unfortunately, many science educators have a natve understanding of IK in Life Sciences. Hence, it is time for a knowledgeable task team to develop guidelines in this regard. 147 The next paragraph sets out the researcher's suggestions for the inclusion of IK in Life Sciences. These suggestions will form part of an official report sent to the Gauteng Department of Education. 5.4 CONTRIBUTION OF THIS STUDY Suggested curriculum for the inclusion of IK in Life Sciences in the FET band As mentioned earlier, the researcher formed part of a GDE-commissioned research project. The quantitative data on which this study draws comes from the GDE research. This contribution of this study lies in the guidelines and possible content and skills that could be introduced in FET Life Sciences, centring on the four strands or knowledge areas that were identified in the FET Life Sciences curriculum as well as a fifth dimension which focuses on the Nature of Science. The following suggested curriculum will form part of the official Research Report that will be submitted to the GDE. 1. Life Sciences, IK and the Nature of Science 1.1. What is meant by indigenous knowledge? 1.2. Why is IK important in our daily lives? 1.3. The difference between IK and Western science 1.4. IK and the Nature of Science (NOS) (a) Science is empirically based (b) Scientific knowledge is tentative, yet durable (c) Difference between observation and inference (d) Scientific knowledge is theory-laden, yet partly subjective (e) Imagination and creativity playa role in science (f) There is no single scientific method 1.5. IK and the scientific method (a) Observations (b) Formulate a problem for investigation (c) Formulate a hypothesis to be tested (d) Design an investigation to collect data (e) Take relevant measurements 148 (f) Interpret observations (g) Conclusions and reporting results 1.6. Careers in ethnobotany I ethno-veterinary science: e.g. biochemical, microbiological and pharmacology applications in modern ethnobotany and ethno-veterinary science 2. Structure and control in processes of basic life systems 2.1. Life systems and diseases: indigenous knowledge systems offer a holistic perspective 2.2. Drug absorption studies using animal tissues in the laboratory 2.3. The Nagoya Protocol on access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilisation to the convention on biological diversity (CBD-COP 10) 3. Tissues, cells and molecular studies 3.1. Anti-microbial activity of indigenous medicinal plants 3.2. How bio-assays work 3.3. The use of Escherichia coli in studies on medicinal plants that can treat diarrhoea; the difference between in vitro and in vivo studies 3.4. IK on fermentation processes (e.g. traditional beer making, marula (Sclerocarya birrea) fruit beer, cereals) 3.5. The antioxidant activity of plant extracts 3.6. Plant active ingredients and their influence on metabolism: e.g. plants claimed to help in the treatment of diabetes, tests on the influence of 0 amylase 4. Diversity, change and continuity 4.1. Plant studies 4.1.1. Ethnobotany as an emerging science 4.1.2. How people use plants as sources of food, and for arts and crafts (a) Local examples of food plants (e.g. uphoku (isiZulu); mpogo (Sepedi); mojolothi (Ndebele); mufhoho (Tshivenda) (b) Case studies: rooibos (Aspalathus Iinearis); sorghum (Sorghum bicoloun (c) Plants used to make mats and baskets (d) Plants used for cosmetics, e.g. Helinium integrifolius (ubhubhubhu or mampehlele) used for making soap; 149 Cassipourea malosana (umemezi in isiZulu) used as a face mask. 4.1.3. Medicinal plant use and traditional healing in South Africa (a) Local examples of indigenous plants used for medicinal reasons (e.g. in Limpopo, the use of the baobab for fever and diarrhoea) (b) Case studies, also focusing on scientific evidence and clinical tests for medicinal claims. An example from the following: Sutherlandia frutescens (emphasis on its use to treat diabetes); Hoodia gordonii (focus on media hype regarding its use as an appetite suppressant, and the issue of intellectual property rights); Artemisia afra (wilde-als); medicinal plants used for the treatment of sexually transmitted infections; Sceletium totiuosum (Mesembryanthemaceae) as a treatment for central nervous system related disorders (c) The publication of the African Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AfrHP), and regulating traditional healing in South Africa (d) Medicinal plants and poisoning: the fine line between therapeutic and lethal doses. 4.1.4. The rapid appraisal method of gathering data, and the matrix method, Species Popularity Index (SPI) and Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index (EKI) 4.1.5. Chromatography techniques (shoestring-science, using paper chromatography) 4.1.6. Biochemical and pharmacological testing of medicinal IK claims (e.g. high-performance liquid chromatography; mass spectrometry briefly mention principles; no detail required) 4.1.7. Herbarium voucher specimens and identifying plants (introduction to taxonomic keys) 4.1.8. Project: Investigating IK claims in my community (learners to interview knowledgeable people in the community; collecting plant specimens for herbarium voucher specimens; identification of plants; literature search to determine whether clinical studies were done to test efficacy; writing a report (or doing a poster). 4.2. Animal studies 4.2.1. IK related to animal diseases 4.2.2. Livestock nutrition (sustainable production of livestock involves efficient utilisation of locally available resources) 4.2.3. Ethno-veterinary practices used by rural farmers to influence reproduction of livestock 150 5. Environmental studies 5.1. The Khoi-San people: an example of sustainable living 5.2. Sustainable harvest of natural resources 5.3. Models for the development of indigenous plants as industrial crops 5.4. Empowering local communities through commercialising indigenous plants 5.5. "Green" science: examples of green innovations, e.g. BP1, a novel mosquito repellent from Lippia javanica, developed by the CSIR and local people of Giyani. 5.5. LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY The study was conducted in Limpopo, and had a relatively small sample. Consequently, the findings cannot be generalised. Similar research needs to be undertaken elsewhere in the country in order to compare the results. (Although a relatively large sample of teachers responded to the questionnaire, a limited number of participants took part in the qualitative study. However, given the phenomenological stance of the study, this is acceptable.) As interviews were done during the school break, some teachers wanted to go for tea or even to get something to eat. Schools normally use break time for their briefing meetings and announcements, so some teachers were in a hurry to attend such gatherings. In some cases, this did not warrant the ideal conditions to obtain rich data. Teachers were not comfortable with the visit as they thought that the study was done to expose problems or weaknesses in their teaching, despite the fact that the researcher briefed them on the rationale for the study. One of the factors that hindered the study was the teachers' strike, which took nearly a month. After the strike, teachers had to catch up with their classroom teaching, and this ripple effect made it difficult to arrange the interviews. In retrospect, the researcher wishes that the nature of science (NOS) questionnaire/instrument could have been administered to determine how teachers 151 view the nature of science. This item shows that there are massive differences in teachers' perceptions of the NOS. However, this study already triangulates from a significant amount of quantitative and qualitative data, and for a master's degree the focus cannot be too broad. The researcher is a teacher with a significant amount of school responsibilities. Hence, a lack of time also had its limiting effect on the quality of the study. The researcher had to do the study part-time, and did not have the luxury of study leave to engage more with issues emerging from the study. The researcher also needs to acknowledge the fact that, as a third-language English speaker, it was at times challenging to communicate findings, especially in terms of the fine nuances in some of the African languages. 5.6 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES The incorporation of IK in the Life Sciences classroom is a challenge which should be addressed systemically. Higher Education Institutions (universities), the Department of Education, curriculum developers and the teacher unions should all apply their attention to the incorporation of IK in the curriculum. Teamwork leads to success. In her book Life interrupted, the scoop on being a young mom, Tricia Goyer shared this quote from an anonymous person: "When you dream alone, your eyes shut, asleep, that dream is an illusion. But when we dream together, sharing the same dream, awake and with your eyes wide open, then that dream becomes a reality!" Of crucial importance is setting standards for teaching IK in Life Sciences. As highlighted in this dissertation, an emerging field like ethnobotany requires specialised knowledge and skills. However, the lack of guidance from official curriculum documents makes it very difficult to implement a professional development programme for teachers. A PhD candidate now needs to undertake design-based research on an intervention programme where teachers are assisted in their PCK development, and where transfer (or lack thereof) is monitored in the classroom. 152 The researcher has already drawn attention to the relatively small sample. Similar research in other parts of the country is also needed. From informal discussions with colleagues in faculties of education at South African universities, it seems as if IK does not receive much attention in teacher education (BEd degrees). This can be a worthwhile focus for an MEd study. 153 REFERENCES Aikenhead, G.S. 2006. Science Education for Everyday Life: Evidence-Based Practice. New York: Teachers College Press. Albrecht, A. 2011. What is the use of Sutherlandia Frutescens? Biodiversity, innovation and opportunities: past knowledge, present activities and future products. Abstract of the Indigenous Plant Use Forum Conference, 4-7 July 2011. Aldolous, C.M. & Rogan, J.M. 2009. 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Accessed: 5 June 2009. 171 APPENDIX A: Participant consent form Dear Participant Thank you for considering being part of our research project. We feel honoured to have you as part of us, and we value your contribution more than the words can describe. The aim of the research is to find answers to the following: . ~ How much teachers know about indigenous knowledge. ~ How they plan to teach indigenous knowledge in Natural sciences or the life sciences, and if they come across any problems. Which impediments stand between the teachers and the teaching of indigenous knowledge If they have already been including indigenous knowledge in their teaching, and if they came across any problems. ~ What these problems are and what it is that could be done to remedy them. ~ The role this course can play in trying to help the teachers to understand indigenous knowledge or to .make better their teaching of indigenous knowledge. Volunteering participants will be asked to fill out a questionnaire at the beginning of the course and to participate in a focus group interview at the end of the course. All participants will be identified in the research by a pseudonym. At no stage will the actual names of the participants be mentioned in the research reports. I will also keep in touch with the participants for the duration of the course. Once again, participation is voluntary. Agreement to participate in research project I agree to participate in this study. I am aware that I can withdraw at any stage. Signed at. On Date . 172 APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW QUE~T10NNAIRE Surname: ~ . First name(s): '.. ~" . Pseudonym (for the purpose of the .course) ~ . Date -" . 1. What do you understand under th e term Indigenous Knowledge? 2. How does Indigenous Knowled ge differ from "western science"? •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 '" 0_ . 3. What change do you think can be brought about by the infusion of Indigenous Knowledge in the teaching of Life Science? ...... " . 4. Why should Indigenous Kno\Nle£lge receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom? 5. Could you substantiate your reSponse to the previous question? ...... ·0- ." ~ , .. 173 6. How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous knowledge in your teaching ? 7. How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of IK? 8. Why is it important to include IK in the curriculum? 9. Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your teaching. ...... 10. How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in your inclusion of IK? 11. Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge? 12.What relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today? 13. How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous knowledge in your teaching? 174 14. What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching ? 15. How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? 16. What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in Life Science education? 17. How frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents in the community to address IK in your classroom? 18. What type of activities do you envisage for your learners pertaining to indigenous knowledge? 19.What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge? 175 20. How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area in incorporating IK? Let me take this opportunity to extend a word of gratitude to all the participants for their precious time and other resources they have invested in this work. Your efforts won't go unnoticed. Anyone who would like to participate in these activities can feel free to chat to me at any time during the course. Let me further remind the participants that their participation in this activity remains voluntary. Yours truly, Melida Modiane. 176 APENDIX C: TRANSCRIPT OFINTERVIEW WITH EDUCATORS 1. PARTICIPANT As part of my research I visited a school in the Khujwane area on the 10th August to make interviews with a Life Sciences educator teaching grade 10-12. Interviewer: Good afternoon, sir. Interviewee: Good afternoon, mam. Interviewer: Can you tell me about your experiences in your learning area as an educator? Interviewee: There are changes in our education system that leads to the confusion and frustration on us. For instance, we are trained in an old method of teaching and they brought us aBE which was followed by NCS. It is difficult for us to apply them in class. When doing the NCS there are some outcomes that we need to accomplish with the inclusion or infusion of indigenous knowledge, but it is difficult because of the lack of material, different cultures from different communities and our own experiences as educators. Each culture has got its own indigenous knowledge and the teacher with his or her own. Learners come up with their unproven knowledge and the teacher with his. The two do not match and we do not know whose to consider. Interviewer: How could you explain indigenous knowledge if you were to do it in class? Interviewee: Mmm... , this is the knowledge inherited from our forefathers and was transmitted from generation to generation. Each child inherited is from the parents who got it from their parents. This type of knowledge is from long ago known by elders. 177 Interviewer: Thank you, how does indigenous knowledge differ from "western knowledge"? Interviewee: I think mmm... , indigenous knowledge is known from home. It is gathered from the community in different cultures and is learned through experiences while western science is learned from school. Western science is normally proven scientifically and .is also positivist and materialist in contrast with indigenous knowledge which is normally spiritual. Interviewer: Thank you. What changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Science? Interviewee: I think this will make learners to love science and connect them with their knowledge from home. Most of them cannot really connect science with their prior knowledge and do not know that they can work together. They perceive science and their prior knowledge as entirely two separate entities. Interviewer: Okay, why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom? Interviewee: Because learners need to connect the knowledge from home with the one from school. Their knowledge is equally important in comparison to the one they receive at school. The fact that he does not come to school as an empty vessel, his knowledge needs to form a connection between school and home. Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question? 178 Interviewee: Learners need to know where they come from, i.e. they should be able to know their roots before they can be able to know where they are going. Their knowledge is important for their future. Interviewer: Thank you. How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: According to our syllabus, it is on rare occasions. At times one has to create his activity but you will find that they come up with different responses in such a way that as a teacher it is difficult to reach the objective or even the outcome. Interviewer How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: Mmm ... 1think they will appreciate it because it connects them with their knowledge from home. It takes them to their roots and will realize the importance of their culture. Interviewer: Why is it important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum? Interviewer: Because, eeeh ... mmm... it will connect learner's knowledge with knowledge science at school. This will make learners feel proud of their culture and tradition. Interviewer: Thank you sir, could you explain the problems you as an educator normally come across with the infusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching. 179 Interviewee: Eish, eh, some of the things cannot be proven scientifically and do not have a living evidence. Some cannot be brought to class so that they can be done practically or even shown to learners when the teacher needs to give an explanation. It is difficult to convince them as they are from different cultures. Being different, we cannot all be convinced by one's experience, so this gives a teacher tough work. Interviewer: This means, it makes your work difficult and give you problems? Interviewee: Yes, of cause. Interviewer: How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if eyer you encounter them in your inclusion of indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: Eee, I normally give them assignments or research so that they can go and ask their elders and some community members and come up with the information. Most of the community members like it when being asked questions by learners and enjoy it because they normally come and tell us to give them more work so that they can share their knowledge with us. Interviewer: Thank you. Where can you obtain further information about this indigenous knowledge if you want to know more about it? Interviewee: As I have already said, members from the community help us with the information. Most of the information is obtained from the cultural villages where the learners live. At times the school organizes trips to the African museums where they can get lots of information to supplement the information they already got. Some research from the internet, not forgetting to ask the elderly from the community. There are some 180 radio and television programs that highlight very strategic topics that deal with indigenous people of this country. Learners start to have a new dimension from which to view life and leadership and community. Interviewer: What relevance does indigenous knowledge have to Life Sciences today? Interviewee: Okay, I think it helps to make learners aware of the scientific methods and ideas that were used in the past that they don't differ from the ones they learn from class. The aim here should not be misconstrued to be that of aligning our science to the European science. The two will remain somewhat parallel, i.e. going in the same direction but not necessarily being the same. Learners become more interested to know about their scientific knowledge together with their science. Interviewer: How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Learners are called individually and politely talk to them. If the problem persists, I call upon colleagues, head of department or even the principal to address them. At times I even invite elders or even knowledgeable people to come and address them. Interviewer: What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Eeh.... , normally we are supported by our colleagues and at times some moral regeneration movements if ever they have visited us. 181 Interviewer: How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: I normally introduce it at the beginning of the lesson as I want to connect them with their prior knowledge or at the end of the lesson so that they can go and investigate or inquire more. Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners pertaining to indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: I normally give them research so that they can explore more about the topic we were discussing. They can also be given investigation to seek more knowledge or are given work in the form of practicals. Interviewer: How frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from the community to address indigenous knowledge in your classroom? Interviewee: Inviting people occurs rarely and after a long period as it takes time. This is normally done by the principal through the help of the departmental officials. Interviewer: Thank you, what are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge? 182 Interviewee: They were divided as their belief systems differ from each other. Most of them show to have no interest and dislike it. Their feeling could be heard when I normally seek help from them or send learners to ask information. Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area in incorporating indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: They can be invited to the forums, and be encouraged to form clusters where they can be motivated and help each other. In the forums more knowledgeable people could be invited to come and share the knowledge with them. The department should also be involved by sending helpers, I think this can help us a lot and more improvement can be done. Interviewer: Thank you, sir for your precious time you have invested in this work. Your efforts won't go unnoticed. If you would like to participate once more in this activities feel free to chat to me at any time during the course. My arms are always open for the comments and additions at any time. Thank you once more. 2. PARTICIPANT. The researcher visited a school in the Thabina area on the 12th August 2010 to make interviews with a Life Sciences educator. Interviewer: Good afternoon, mam. Interviewee: Good afternoon, mam. 183 Interviewer: As a Life Sciences educator, can you share with me your experiences in your learning area? Interviewee: Eish, mmm... teaching Life Sciences is very much challenging, especially that you teach learners from different cultures and communities. As a teacher you cannot cover all their cultures, of which some you do not know. When you emphasize knowledge from one cultural group, others feel belittled while others feel excluded. At times you do not get the necessary or enough information or material you want teach learners. Learners are from different cultures and environment and it is difficult to know and cater for their different cultural backgrounds in class. Our policy states clearly that we must include their indigenous knowledge in class, but it is difficult because as an educator I do not know them all. it is only few that I am acquainted with. Interviewer: Okay, you said something about indigenous knowledge, how can you explain this term if you where to do it in class? Interviewee: Eeh ...., indigenous knowledge is a knowledge that is spontaneous and informal because it occurs naturally where people need not go to school to acquire it. The knowledge is gained from home and all over the place in which a person is living. I think there is no specific time and method to acquire it as it is informal. When a child goes to school he or she goes there having it already as it is acquired through ages. Interviewer: Thank you mam, how does indigenous knowledge differ from "western knowledge" ? 184 Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is acquired naturally without schooling and western science is acquired through formal education wherein scientific principles are applied to have knowledge of something. Mmm.... Va! That is all. Interviewer: What change do you think can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Science? Interviewee: I think , the infusion can make learners love and be interested in Life Sciences although some do not like indigenous knowledge. Even if you give them work to complete or investigate, few of them seem to be reluctant to work or just leave it. Our traditional healers will have a wide and broad chance of imparting the knowledge of plants and animals to our learners while taking part in the teachinq process. Interviewer: Thank you, could you explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your teaching? Interviewee: Mmmm... as an educator I'm from my community and cultural group, while learners also from their group. This makes me not to be sure of what I am teaching because the two do not match. So we come up with different things altogether. At times there is no enough information about things to be taught so you will have to go around, seeking people to help you and may not get them. Members of the community will promise to come and disappoint you at the very last minute. Other learners may have a negative attitude towards IK and not willing to work. Interviewer: Thank you, how do you manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in your inclusion if IK? 185 Interviewee: I normally invite colleagues and heads of department. Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: It is difficult to get the information because most of the parents and elders do not even respond if you invite them or seek help. They would normally promise you but do not respond I especially the departmental officials. Other teachers are willing but the information is notenough. Interviewer: Thank you. What relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today? Interviewee: To me it shows no relevance as learners do not like it and show no interest in the work. It will only help or benefit those from rural areas or a particular cultural group. Only few will benefit from it. Interviewer: How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: At times I normally treat them as if they do not exist and continue with the work. Some of the barriers are beyond our control and there is nothing we can do to address them. Departmental officials are normally called to intervene even though the response is slim. Willing parents from the community as members are very much supportive and visit the school even if not invited. They show love and support at times. 186 Interviewer: Thank you mam, eeh.., what support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Knowledgeable parents in the community such as traditional leaders together with traditional healers will give a helping hand. If it is the problem of the curriculum, 1will also invite curriculum advisors to help. Even those who specialize in IK from the universities will be contacted. This will depend on the type of the problem. Interviewer: Thank you, now how would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee When teaching about plants and their uses 1will invite traditional people, especially the traditional healers to come and share the knowledge with us or even to arouse learners' interest. I think this will make them to investigate more from their families at home. Interviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in the Life Sciences education? Interviewee: Mmh....1think this will change learners' perception they have on indigenous knowledge and make them love the learning area. Even learners from urban areas will have a chance to be eager to know more and be exposed to many things pertaining to IK. Interviewer: Thank you. How frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents in the community to address IK related issues in your classroom? 187 Interviewee: Sometimes when I have a challenge in dealing with diseases and their cure, I have to consult knowledgeable parents from the community. Some normally do not respond to our invitation as I have already said and they frustrate us. Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage for your learners pertaining to indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: I normally give learners a research on the topic to be conduct about the portion to be studied and an investigation to perform. Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indiqenous knowledge? Interviewee: Most of them really give me a very. negative attitude towards IK by not even attending to me while others say it is against their religious beliefs. It is only few who seem to be interested in it. This makes learners also to loose interest and become reluctant in doing the work. Interviewer: Thank you, how do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area in incorporating IK? Interviewee: I think of engaging them by inviting them to our discussion and meetings where in knowledgeable people will be invited. Those who are not willing to go I will ask those people to come to my school to share the knowledge. Parents from the community my also be invited to the meetings to give motivating speech. The department can also give a helping hand by supplying teachers with more information and magazines that will help. 188 Interviewer: Let me take this opportunity to thank you for your wonderful time and effort you took to help me in my research. I really appreciated it and my God bless you. Once more feel free to contact me if ever you need to give me advice or information concerning the research. Interviewee: Thank you. I feel honored to be part of the research or to give an input. Feel free to come for more information. And let it not be for the last time. 3. PARTICIPANT . On the 16th August I visited a school in the Shiluvane area for the continuation of my research project and the interviews with the Life Science educator teaching grade 10-12. Interviewer: Good day mam. Interviewee: Good day mam. Interviewer: As we know that the National Curriculum Statement, l.e. NCS states clearly that the indigenous knowledge be incorporated in the Life Science classroom. Mam, can you please share with me your experiences as a teacher in your learning area, l.e, Life Sciences educator? Interviewee: Yes mam. My experience is that teaching has brought confusion and frustration in trying to link it with the knowledge indoctrinated or the knowledqe that we got in our teaching. I overcame challenges that come my way especially in class where I am supposed to teach some of the things that I as a teacher do not even understand. This brought confusion and frustration in trying to link the information I accumulated over past years and the newly formed one. 189 Interviewer: What do you understand under the term indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is the knowledge applied in a given territory in different cultures. It normally occurs verbally or orally and being passed on from generation to generation. Interviewer: How does indigenous knowledge differ from 'western science'? Interviewee: The two cannot be separated because the knowledge that one have can be linked with the knowledge that can be acquired in everyday life. Western science favors analytical and reductive method as opposed to the mere intuitive and holistic view often found in traditional knowledge. It- is based on academic and literature while indigenous knowledge is passed on orally from generations. Interviewer: Thank you, what changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences? Interviewee: As I have already said that indigenous knowledge cannot be separated from western science, according to me there will be no change. Our learners do not want to learn, so how can they be interested as most of them are feeling somehow about the IK. Only few can. Interviewer: So, why _should this indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences class? 190 Interviewee: Because it will link what the learner's knowledge they already knows and the knowledge acquired through learning in class. The content taught needs to be linked with the learner's prior knowledge as it forms the basis of his or her education. It is always important to the teacher to consider the learners' knowledge. In the past we teachers used to ignore what the learner knew from home. Interviewer: Thank you mam, could you substantiate your response to the previous question? Just elaborate on what you have said. Interviewee: Learning is a continuous process that stars from home. Parents at home educate learners about their cultural activities, i.e. about everything that happens within their surrounding area and home. This education needs to be. linked with the one they receive at school. The child's education stars at home and this needs to be supplemented at school, so the two need to be linked by the teacher in order to form one whole thing. Interviewer: How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: I will start by giving learners research or project to gather information so that we can compile and make it one and apply it in class. Where the information cannot be reached I will make a point that I ask my colleagues. The IK can be applied at the beginning or at the end of the lesson if possible. Interviewer: Thank you, how frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous knowledge in your teaching? 191 Interviewee: On several occasions when certain parts of the content prompt or force us to relate to this indigenous knowledge to make learners understand what we will be teaching, for example when trying to find out how traditional doctors work, pharmacists and inyangas or herbalists mixing herbs differently. This can be done when treating different diseases and their cue in class. Interviewer: How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of IK? Interviewee: For the first time they were timid and shocked but their shock made them aware of the IK and were able to understand that it is necessary for their lives as it has been applied all along. I think they will react positively provided sufficient information is supplied to convince them, but at times it could be confusing to those who know nothing about a certain cultures. It is not all the learners who like indigenous knowledge because of their religious beliefs. Learners normally don't believe that some of these things ever existed and they do not use them at home. Interviewer: Why is it important to include IK in the curriculum? Interviewee: mmm.. I can say yes and no and no. Yes, because it brings back ubuntu whereby people will be proud of their cultures. No because educators must first be trained in order to be given more information. Most of us are just working but we don't know the how part of infusing this knowledge. We were not given more training so what do they expect from us? The government is just used to impose things onto us whereas they themselves can't do them. They are expecting too much from us. 192 Interviewer: Thank you, could you explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your teaching? Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge brought fear to us as educators because we don't know how to approach it as we were never given courses or trained about it. We are just striving to understand it and feel that it is a challenge to us as we are having different belief systems. As teachers we are divided where some of us just brush it aside and continue with the other part of the syllabus. Interviewer: Thank you, mmm...how do you normally manage to resolve problems if ever you encounter them in your inclusion of IK? Interviewee: I normally ask colleagues to help me if it is class related or subject content related. It is difficult to get information from elderly,people as it is very rare to find them around. It takes time to make arrangement and is time wasting. If the problem can be taken to the departmental officials they won't even respond. We are just going on our own. Interviewer: Okay, where can you obtain further information about this indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: We normally look around for elderly people and traditional doctors because they are very rich in information.. I give learner a research project to go and dig information from their parents and people around them, but sometimes you will find different meanings that confuse us even worse although little information can be useful and be relevant to what we are supposed to teach. Interviewer what relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today? 193 Interviewee: I cannot say much as I have already said that to some it is very relevant because they are interested in their tradition. In our learning area, it helps to connect information from home to the one from school. Interviewer: Thank you, mmm...how do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Okay, I normally ask colleagues to help me if it is relevant to what I am busy with. If it is irrelevant I normally don't entertain worthless arguments. Interviewer: What support structures exist incase of problems emanating from the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Yah , there are no support structures, but we normally invite people from outside in the form of old people or knowledgeable people. Some can be able to make a turn or respond while others disappoint us. Interviewer: Thank you, how frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from the community to address IK in your classroom? Interviewee: Normally if I were to introduce a new lesson or topic or if I come along difficult situations were in I cannot explain some of the things. Interviewer: Okay, what are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in the LS teaching? 194 Interviewee: I think parents will have access in the education of their children because they will be participating by giving them information. The indigenous knowledge will serve as a connection between the school and home. Teachers will be able to communicate with parents and this will form a link in between. The scientific principles that are applied at school will help them to improve their lives. Learners will be able to see and understand the importance of science and apply it in their everyday life. I think this will be able to turn them into scientists. Interviewer: Okay, what type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners pertaining to indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: They are normally given research projects and assignments to complete. At times they are urged to make models, planting and conserving indigenous trees, making horticulture and performing experiments were possible. Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: They are also divided because of their beliefs. Most of them are against it because they are struggling with the infusion in class. They do not just want it and think it takes people back. Interviewer: Now, how do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area in incorporating IK? Interviewee: I think of organizing regular meetings wherein educators can be able to discuss topics to be treated in class and share information in order to help others. In our schools we may form discussion groups in the learning area where we can also help 195 one another. Mm....c1usters together with forums can be formed for such discussions. Interviewer: Let me take this opportunity to thank you for your contribution to this research. really appreciate your input. Thank you. Interviewee: Pleasure. 4. PARTICIPANT Lebitso High School in the Shiluvane are was also visited as part of the research on 17th August 2010 to interview a participant teaching both grade 11 and 12 at the institution. Interviewer: Good day mam. Interviewee: Good day mam. Interviewer: Our National Curriculum Statement (NCS) Policy states clearly that the indigenous knowledge be incorporated in the teaching of Life Sciences classroom. Can you share with me your experiences as an educator in the Life Sciences classroom? Interviewee: My experiences as an educator is that our education system is now westernized and it is difficult for us to implement indigenous knowledge. Modern technology and other related equipments make us not to put more emphasis on such knowledge. Even our textbooks say little about it while we are expected to incorporate it in class. Mmm... it is very difficult for me to teach when I think of this knowledge because it hinder my 196 progress as I will be running around looking for people who can give clarity, ideas and assistance some of the topics. Interviewer: How would you explain indigenous knowledge if you were to do it in class? Interviewee: This can be regarded as a knowledge based on what a person knows by nature or since birth. The knowledge normally starts at home by parents and grannies who have adopted it from their parents. Most of this knowledge is transmitted orally, so how can we be sure of them? Heh? Mostly some cannot be scientifically proven and are not worth being taken to class. For instance we normally hear a lot about the Modjadji people who are well known about rain making but no one will ever tell you what do the exactly doing to make rain. This is the secret that is only known by them only. I think even the community can not tell about the processes over there. It is the secret which is known by the royalties only. This is the science that is needed in the Life Sciences and other science related class. The knowledge is worth knowing to learners. Why do people hide this valuable which is rich for all the learners? Interviewer: Okay, how does IK differ from 'western science'? Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is home based and does not require one to make experiments or to prove the findings. It is just what you have learned from home and the surrounding area in which you live and from the community. This knowledge is subjective. Western science is based on academic and literature. It is normally not influenced by your own feeling or opinions (objective) and analytic, l.e. using methods that help you examine your facts or assumptions carefully. Interviewer: How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? 197 Interviewee: I normally include it at the beginning of the lesson maybe to arouse learner's interest and to link my lessons so that they can grasp clearly what I want to teach them. I only use what I know and ask them to relate to what I have started. mmh.... , this is the only plan I can make so that normal proceedings can continue. Interviewer: Thank you, what type of activities do you envisage for your learners pertaining to indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: I normally request my learners to collect indigenous fruits from home and come up with their methods of catching and preparinq Mopani worms. This is the time where one will separate those who are interested from the ones who are not. Make them all come up with indigenous objects in which science can be applied. Such activities make them to work because everybody will be looking for marks. Interviewer: Why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom? Interviewee: Mmh ...1think it forms connection between home and school. It serves as a bridge over which learners cross to the better side of life. It helps them to prepare for their future career using scientific methods gained at school. Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question? Interviewee: Life science is all about science and needs to be appreciated as it forms our daily activities. So, by including IK we will be shaping the future of our learners and making them future scientists. The connection will be made tighter than before. 198 Interviewer: Why is it important to include IK in the curriculum? Interviewee: I think maybe to cater for all the cultures in the learning area or to make learners to feel their culture being recognized and cherished. Interviewer: How frequently do you come across situations in which you feel like including indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: When teaching about flue-virus am) its treatment. Indigenously there are other remedies to treat flue besides using modern treatment. We were taught to use lemon mixed with mint as a medicine and it won't last for two to three days. When your tooth decay we use certain roots cooked to subside the pain. Our parents are herbalists and can help us to mix all those herbs but there is a great danger that overdose will lead to death. Interviewer: Okay, what changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of IK in the teaching of Life Sciences? Interviewee: Mmm...this will make them change their negetive attitude and have that love of science and see things differently. I think they will start thinking scientifically while at the same time recruiting others to their learning area. Maybe they can realize that Life Science is our everyday life. Interviewer: Thank you, what are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in the LS education? 199 Interviewee: This will make learners future scientists and be able to think scientifically. I think they will be able to use scientific methods they acquired at school to produce more products produced at home. They will also help and encourage their parents to use scientific methods in the making of their products. Everybody in the surrounding area will start thinking scientifically. Interviewer: How do you think your learners will react to the inclusion of this IK? Interviewee: My learners are very negative as they have already showed no interest in such knowledge. Their response to certain questions did show that they dislike it. As I normally give them some research to ask for more information from their parents, they proved that even some of their parents show lack of interest by the way they respond. Interviewer: Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your teaching. Interviewee: We have got problem of not having enough material concerning IK. Teachers do not have places of reference or at times do not get necessary material to use in class. As I have already said that this type of knowledge is verbally transmitted, there is no where one can get the proof of a solution. Everybody comes up with his or her own statement. This leads us to the misconceptions and misrepresentations about indigenous knowledge. Interviewer: Thank you, how do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in your inclusion of IK? 200 Interviewee: This normally prompts me to have a class discussion about the topic and send learners to go and explore more in order to bring information to class. At times 1 move around the village seeking help from colleagues and traditional leaders. Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about IK? Interviewee: Eeh ... 1 normally gather information from parents even though some part is not reliable. Elderly people from the community and other traditional healers give information as required. There is also hidden information that they don't want to give to us but one can hear from those who used to visit them to seek help. There is this issue of classified information, i.e. information that can only be given to a particular class of people. It is a taboo, for instance to discuss any topic related to circumcision with anybody who has never been there, be it a male or female. This can be valuable to us if given information because it forms part of our learning area. Interviewer: Thank you, how do you handle barriers that come your way when teaching or introducing IK in class? Interviewee: Eish ... it is difficult to handle but you just invite other teachers to give help. Most of them have a negative attitude towards IK as they take it to be outdated and barbaric. Maybe it is because of their religion. To some people, anything that is not European is not just worth their time. Interviewer: How do you frequently invite knowledgeable parents from the community to address IK in your classroom? 201 Interviewee: These people are invited if there is a need to do so, like for instance if you have to deal with a difficult topic or to introduce a new topic to the learners. Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: As I have already said they are divided. Some are negative while others are positive because of their religious beliefs. The positive ones really give support and help with the information. Interviewer: And how do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area? I think we will have to form a cluster from our circuit with the help of Departmental officials wherein we discuss certain topics and help each other. This can help us to gather more information and be sure of what we are teaching in class. Yah, from there we can move from school to school to give help. By so doing we cam form a very strong team that interacts with each other. Interviewer Eeh ....mam, let me take this opportunity to thank you for the patience and effort you have put in my research. If you would like to give more information for the research feel free to chat to me during the course. Thank you once more. 5. PARTICIPANT As part of my research I visited a School also in the Shiluvane area on the 19th August 2010 to make interviews with the Life Science educator who is teaching grade 11 and 12. Interviewer: Good day sir. 202 Interviewee: Good day mam. Interviewer: Life Sciences is an interesting learning area wherein one as a teacher can gain more experience in teaching it. Can you share with me your experiences as a Life Science educator? Interviewee: As a Life Science educator I have overcome more experiences that I cannot explain them all. Some are the changes that are brought about by the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) that reduces the love of LS to me. The change in the learning area makes me feel less comfortable in my teaching career because we are not trained to do what the Department is expecting us to do. They expected more than we anticipated and make us even to forget the content that V'o!e are supposed to teach. For instance, they have introduced indigenous knowledge and evolution as part to be taught to learners but the how part or where to get the information we do not know. Heh how can we teach whereas we are not sure of what we are teaching? Mmmh what do they expect from us? It makes teaching difficult because mostly it is not written in the books. Teachers have got nowhere to refer. Interviewer: Thank you. What is this indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: Well, I do take it to be the knowledge that is local to a particular people. Each group of people or culture have its own indigenous knowledge. This knowledge I can say explains the way the forefathers used to perform in order to live and is transmitted through the ages from generation to generation. I think it is better known by the elders because they know well about it. Interviewer: Okay, how does indigenous knowledge differ from 'western science'? 203 Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is internalized, verbally transmitted, culturally based, i.e. not refined, mmmh... unscientific and normally linked with the belief system. Interviewer: Thank you. How would you include this knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: By giving its background and history to the learners before teaching, trying to clarify the concept from different perspective (converge) and develop a different way of solving the particular problem (divergent) of various thinking. This will help learners to arouse their interest and understand what will be taught that particular moment or day. Interviewer: What changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Science? Interviewee: Mmmh... 1think learners will be able to connect the knowledge from class to the one they already have. They will link their knowledge from home and surrounding to the new knowledge they acquire at school. This can be important to them as they will develop that love of science and be willing to explore more. Learners will now be able to be scientifically orientated as every aspect of their lives will be scientifically based. Interviewer: Why should IK receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom? Interviewee: Mmmh ... 1think it is because it forms the bases or foundation in the education of a learner. It is very important to lay a foundation before one can build something. So we cannot teach without laying a foundation. It is very much important to consider the learner's existing knowledge in order to succeed in education. 204 Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question? Interviewee: It is able to link learners to their daily experiences from their respective households with the academic environment. They want us to take the learners knowledge from home to school so that he or she does not feel the difference. By so doing learners can be able to grasp whatever content they will be given by their teacher. Interviewer: Thank you sir, why is it important to include IK in the curriculum? Interviewee: It is because it serves as a recognition of our traditional practices and needs to be emphasized to our learners. They want learners not to forget and love their roots as was practiced by their parents at home. They just want to remind us of the past experiences so that we connect with new ones. Interviewer: How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Not very often. It is sometimes applied when learners feel abstract or do not understand other scientific concepts that I will be introducing to them for the first time. Interviewer: Okay, how do you think learners will react to the inclusion of IK? 205 Interviewee: I think they will be very much excited because I will be teaching about things that occur in their everyday life and their surrounding areas. In most cases each learner becomes more interested and be eager to discover or to find out more about the concept if it was well known before. They really show the enjoyment and become more willing to learn. Thank you sir, what relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today? Interviewee: As it is fundamental and basic it will turn learners to be more scientific and think positively about science at all the times. I think this will make our teaching easier and understandable as learners will love it. Most learners were not aware of their science from home, but now they can be able to form a connection between the two. It also takes hidden science to the public as it will be known by everybody. Interviewer: Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your teaching. Interviewee: In most cases I do not get the desired information I want to impart to my learners. The little knowledge I got seems not to be enough for the learners. At times the information seems to be unreliable because you have to make it be real even though you are not sure of the results. Learners become more doubtful to your teaching and loose trust in you. Interviewer: Thank you. How do you manage to solve the problems in your inclusion of this IK? Interviewee: By instilling confidence in learners so that they feel proud of who they are or their identity and were we are coming from in terms of our influence of culture. I run 206 around seeking information from knowledgeable people and elderly ones from the community. Interviewer: Okay, where do you obtain further information about IK? Interviewee: As I already said I move around seeking help from elderly people and knowledgeable community members. At times I even ask my colleagues to chip in with help. Interviewer: And how do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing IK in your teaching? Interviewee: Most of them cannot be handled as they are beyond our control. They just need the Department to resolve as they are curriculum related. As there is no time to run around they need to do something. Elderly people also refuse to give evidence concerning certain issues. Interviewer: Thank you, what support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of this IK in your teaching? Interviewee: Curriculum advisors act as support structure although they do not normally show themselves when they are needed. Actually, nobody is supporting us. We as teachers just help one another where we can. We support ourselves because we just keep on going on our own. Interviewer: Mmm ..what are the general feeling of your colleagues towards IK? 207 Interviewee: Not all of them were positive but the few showed interest in the work. They were willing to deliberate more and share the information that they got. We normally discuss certain matters before going to class in order to get clarity on certain issues. Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators from your immediate area? Interviewee: Mmmh.... I think of posing issues to them even though I did not do it so that we can share what we have. I will make it a point that we contact each other, form a group work or discussion wherein we will help each other. This will be a good idea because we are having or sharing the same sentiments. Interviewer: Thank you for your precious time to share with me all the information. My research will not be a success without you. I thank you so much. 6. PARTICIPANT I visited a School in the Thabina area on the 25th August 2010 to further my research project and interview teachers on how they implement or incorporate indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences. Interviewer: Good day mam. Interviewee: Good day mam. Interviewer: What do you understand by the term indigenous knowledge? 208 Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is the knowledge acquired from the community one comes from and it involves the values of the inhabitants (original) of that particular area. Traditions, beliefs, customs and local skills are also involved. This is the knowledge which is based on contextual concepts and is more deeply rooted in the communities and environment. It is interpreted as knowledge of indigenous people and is traditional or locally based. The communities intergraded within the societies which have their own distinct cultures. Interviewer: How does indigenous knowledge differs from 'western knowledge? Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is about cultural beliefs and addresses traditional and cultural practices within the learning context and learning curriculum. Western science is the search for valid explanations of physical reality. So, the IK that deals with practices and beliefs with respect to the conduct of learner's lives may be used in science class to permit students to evaluate the relationship between indigenous knowledge and school knowledge for the conduct of their own lives. For example, communities have practices and beliefs that pertain to the child rearing, menstruation, pregnancy, child birth, human nutrition, food preparation and preservation, medicine, etc. Interviewer: Thank you. What change do you think can be brought about by the infusion of IK in the teaching of Life Science? Interviewee: This infusion can turn learners into scientists and will permit learners to carefully consider relevance of science from home and that one at school. If all Life Sciences teachers are to make effective use of indigenous knowledge in their classrooms there will be a clear understanding of the relationship between the traditional practices and belief in their community and science. Life Sciences can be made more interesting and understandable in such a way that learners will love it because it deals with their life experiences. 209 Interviewer: Okay, why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom? Interviewee: I think learners need to know where they come from and what modern education teaches them is not completely foreign. It has elements of our education, so, it is the basic towards the acquiring of knowledge by our learners. It can serve to motivate learners as they begin to see that recognition is given to what they practice and say in their communities. It will further more make them to bring their experiences that form an important component of the learning content to school. Inter viewer: Could you substantiate or elaborate more to your response to the previous question? Interviewee: The learners should be made aware of. the importance of IK in their lives. It will help them to explore values, to analyze changes, etc. This can help to permit learners to evaluate the relative effect of IK and science education they receive from school. Interviewer: Thank you, how frequently do you come across situations or topics in which you feel like including IK in your teaching? Interviewee: It is sometimes in a particular section of the work or a little bit after certain topics has been treated. We normally incorporate when we feel like. There is only portion of it that appears in the textbooks. If ever I come across information or clarity about the topic I am treating or busy with it, I incorporate. Interviewer: How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of IK? 210 Interviewee: As they are divided I think the positive ones will be excited and accept it without questions or doubts while the negative ones will feel bored and not be interested to learn. Only the positive learners will show interests and be eager to know and explore more about it. We know that if a learner can be positive in what the teacher is teaching he will grasp quickly and be able to help others. So, few as they are as a teacher I feel happy because they will always there to help each other. Interviewer: Okay, why is it important to include IK in the curriculum? Interviewee: Mmmh.... 1think it is because they want the learners to recognize the importance of their scientific cultural practices and skills. It will also emphasize the practical science integrated in the education of the learner. Maybe they want to address the imbalances of the past. Interviewer: Could you explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your teaching? Interviewee: Eish ..mmmh.. The first challenge was the difficulties with regard to the ill discipline of the learners towards the educators. The difficulty of educators to impart OBE and NCS to the learners that eventually depreciated the standard of education in our area. My main problem is that of the lack of teaching methodology and it is difficult to teach the learners. I think this is the teacher's greatest concern. Learners are adapted to western life and mostly their belief system makes them loose interest in their indigenous knowledge. This makes them relate IK to evil spirits (Satanism). The practical application of the indigenous knowledge in class is also difficult. As a teacher I am challenged to develop some practices that can convince them to be scientifically proven. 211 Interviewer: How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in your inclusion of IK? Interviewee: By giving tasks which will include parent involvement to the learners will allow learners to socialize and realize the value of their learning through incorporating what they already know in their life contexts. Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: I normally run around seeking information from elder in our community. As a teacher I must first access the knowledge, then understand it and its likely relation to what is to be taught in class and then teach to the learners. Other teachers from my school sometimes help with the information. Interviewer: What relevance does IK have to Life Science Interviewee: Mmh ..This will make students to be actively engaged in trying to provide a conventional science explanation for their everyday practices. Such strategies can serve to generate interest among students and to develop pride in the knowledge and wisdom of their ancestors. This can serve as a point of departure to conventional science that can be highlighted and discussed. Eeeh ... it can also be used to highlight the fact that there is still much to be explored and understood in our world. Interviewer: Thank you mam, how will you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous knowledge in your teaching? 212 Interviewee: I will just try to contact my colleagues where possible but if it is beyond our control I will make sure that it reaches the Department by following correct procedures or channels or procedures. Interviewer: Okay, what support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: We are not supported by anybody, instead we run around seeking help from others teachers. We are just like a train moving without the head. You as a teacher will see how to come up with that problem. Interviewer: How do you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: At times I did not include it because I will have not got enough information about it. If I am not sure of what I want to teach my learners I just ignore and move on with other topics. If I get the strategy on how to implement it together with the necessary information I will implement it especially at the beginning of the lesson. Interviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in the life Sciences education? Interviewee: Parents will have access to their children's education as they will have to share their knowledge with them. There will be a connection between the school and home while learners will change their attitude towards Life Science. Learners will be actively involved in their education by giving inputs. 213 Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: They seem to be negative because of their religious believes and the difficulty in incorporating in class. As I have already said we do not have a clear strategy on how to apply and the fact that teachers are to seek information on their own without any assistance from Department makes them loose interest. Most of them will tell me that they don't want to teach something they do not understand. Some of them do not want to share the knowledge with the thought that they will be belittled and developed a negative attitude towards them. Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate surrounding area in incorporating IK. Interviewee: Together with the arrangements of the Departmental officials I will invite them to the forums, forming clusters to engage them so that they can be able to help each other. By organizing more meetings inviting experts or knowledgeable people I think we will go somewhere. Interviewer: Thank you mam for your contribution in the research. Feel free to contact me if ever you want to give other additional information. Interviewee: I tank you. 7. PARTICIPANT As part of my research I visited school in the Thabina area on the 27th August 2010 and do interviews with the Life Sciences educator teaching grade 12. 214 Interviewer: Good day sir. .Interviewee: Good day mam. Interviewer: Our policy states clearly that the indigenous knowledge be incorporated in the Life Sciences classroom. What do you understand by the term indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: With reference to the Life Sciences indigenous knowledge is the knowledge that we acquire from our forefathers e.g. about plants and animals that are useful to us. These plants are used for healing some ailments and are also used as 'charms'. They are believed to give luck to boys or males so that they can be loved by the girls and other females. Such plants are regarded as part of indigenous knowledge which is not written in the books. It is verbally transmitted by the elderly people from the surrounding area or community. There-are other skills related to Life Sciences that can be used in class to clarify other concepts in the classroom. We hardly find it in the prescribed books. Interviewer: So, how does indigenous knowledge differ from 'western science'? Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is culturally based and occurs within the surrounding area while western science favors methods that help learners to examine things carefully (analytic) and reduction methods as opposed to indigenous knowledge which is based on feelings rather than facts and examining the whole thing not just part of it. Interviewer: What changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences? 215 Interviewee: It will make us aware of skills or matters that we did not know, for instance I did not know about African potato. Its inclusion in the syllabus made me aware that it can cure or heal different diseases, reduces blood pressure, etc. There is also a certain plant known as Phayabasimane which is used by boys or men so that they can be loved by girls or even women. They used to smear themselves with the lion's fat in order to give them power. This knowledge can make learners to think scientifically as they will be able to connect science they learned from home and that one at school. Interviewer: Why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom? Interviewee: Because it forms the foundation to the teaching and learninq in the classroom. It makes learners to connect their everyday life experiences to ones gained in class. Indigenous knowledge makes learners feel included in their education. It also makes parents to form part of their children's education. I think it is the learner's life process that occurs in everyday life that they want to address. Interviewer: Could you substantiate to your respond to the previous question? Interviewee: The knowledge that is acquired from the surrounding community can be used as the foundation to learning at school. For example, children are taught how to make new plants, look after them, used for nutritional purposes and treatment of other diseases forms the basis for environmental studies. The making of African beer and Amarula drink and making of traditional bread can be linked with aerobic respiration in class. Interviewer: How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous knowledge in your teaching? 216 Interviewee: Sometimes, especially in the section of reproduction, environmental studies, e.g. there is a believe that men should not beat women with a stick from a tree called Motlopoloman because this will make her infertile. You just include indigenous knowledge where you think it necessary to do so. There is no specific area in books that displays the infusion. Interviewer: How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: In most cases they become excited and interested because of their knowledge they gained from their forefathers while some take it as a joke. Some loose interest and become discouraged. The inclusion has divided the learners because they are from different communities with different cultures and belief systems. So, as a teacher you will have to be careful of what you are saying at all times. Being too sarcastic when coming to certain topics may ruin the -little trust and confidence the learners might have built towards you as their teacher. Interviewer: Why is it important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum? Interviewee: Mmm ... Maybe to encourage teachers to research more if some of the plants they are to be discussed are really effective and write books that can be kept in the libraries so that everybody can have access to it. Because South Africa is a multicultural country, maybe they want us to know and understand the roots of every culture. They just attempts to incorporate traditional practices for the teaching of skills within the local context. Interviewer: Explain the problems that you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your teaching. 217 Interviewee: Okay, I normally encounter a problem of not getting enough information to teach learners. As I move around, visiting elderly or knowledgeable people I waste time to complete the syllabus and the knowledge I got is sometimes folk as it is not written anywhere or there is no proof for thereof. Sangomas can also give us unreliable information because they want customers. Some teachers have a negative attitude because of their beliefs and not getting any form of support. The method to apply it is not clearly stated but we are requested to include it. I didn't come across any question paper wherein the examiner asks something about indigenous knowledge because there will be no specific answer. Interviewer: How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in your inclusion of IK? Interviewee: Mmh ..1usually invite other teachers to come in or seek help from the Departmental officials. Even if you can invite the parents or knowledgeable people they take long to respond or at times do not show up. We normally see the officials when they are in need of written work, for problems and for clarification, no. Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: Eeh .. I move around asking elderly people, sangomas, visiting museums and anthropologists, but it takes time because you have to organize them bearing in mind that not all of them will respond. Teachers in my school who are teaching the same learning area used to came together and discuss about such matters. Interviewer: What relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today? 218 Interviewee: It is concerns with the scope of Life Sciences and gave learners chance to express or show their experiences from home and be more scientific. Learners will be able connect Life Sciences to the experiences they gained in their everyday lives that has to do with science. Interviewer: How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Eish ...mmm ... it is very difficult to handle them but I normally try to call learners individually if ever they are the cause. If it is about the subject matter I summon a meeting with my colleagues in the learning area so that we can discuss and each get a chance to give an input where necessary. We always have morning lessons with learner and before we meet as Life Sciences educators to discuss about the topic or portion we are to teach that day. Yah ... my group is really cooperative because they even sacrifice to come to school early in the morning, knock off late in the evenings and come on Saturdays. At times I used to go around schools discussing with other teachers. They invite me to their school in the afternoon to address learners and give help if possible. The curriculum advisors have left us alone because they do not help us with any thing. We tried to call them several times but couldn't give any respond. We are just trying to work on our own. Interviewer: Mmmh ...Thank you sir. What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of IK in your teaching? Interviewee: As I have already said, we are just trying to work on our own because we have organized our own programs even learners from neighboring school attend Saturday lessons in our school. This is where we invite knowledgeable people like community leaders, elderly people to come and give help. There is no any other structure I ever came across. 219 Interviewer: Thank you sir, so how would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: I will include it at the beginning of a lesson by giving them an overview of what I want to teach and give them work in the form of a research or an assignment at the end of the lesson. This will allow them to go and seek information within their surrounding area and come up with different answers and information. Interviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in the Life Sciences? Interviewee: Mmmh ... I think this will make them aware of their scientific culture activities being connected to Life Sciences. They will change their attitude towards their culture as they will notice its importance. Learners will think scientifically as they will be able to improve their lives by using more scientific methods and skills in their production 'at home made products. They will also teach their parent about the new scientific methods they learned at school. The whole community will be able to see and to understand the importance of their children's education. Interviewer: Thank you, how frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from the community to address IK in your classroom? Interviewee: Eeeh ... not always. I normally invite them when I come to situations were in-depth explanation is required. As I have already said it takes long for them to show up. Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners pertaining to indigenous knowledge? 220 Interviewer: Thank you sir, so how would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: I will include it at the beginning of a lesson by giving them an overview of what I want to teach and give them work in the form of a research or an assignment at the end of the lesson. This will allow them to go and seek information within their surrounding area and come up with different answers and information. .,nterviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in the Life Sciences? Interviewee: Mmmh ... I think this will make them aware of their scientific culture activities being connected to Life Sciences. They will change their attitude. towards their culture as they will notice its importance. Learners will think scientifically as they will be able to improve their lives by using more scientific methods and skills in their production at ,. home made products. They will also teach their parent about the new scientific methods they learned at school. The whole community will be able to see and to understand the importance of their children's education. Interviewer: Thank you, how frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from the community to address IK in your classroom? Interviewee: Eeeh .,. not always. I normally invite them when I come to situations were in-depth explanation is required. As I have already said it takes long for them to show up. Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners pertaining to indigenous knowledge? 220 Interviewee: I normally give them work in the form of a research, assignments so that they can go and seek information from their parents or knowledgeable people. At times they are encouraged to do models and practical if possible. Interviewer: Thank you, what are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: Most of them have a negative attitude towards it as I have already said because of their beliefs. At times it is because is time wasting and money to run around seeking help from other people and knowledgeable people and even come up empty handed. Lack of specific methodological training and continuous consultation also plays a role. Those who are traditional are positive because mostly are the things that they enjoy and practice. Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area in " incorporating IK? Interviewee: Mmmh ..As I have already indicated, at school we are used to gather every morning before we go to class to discuss about each and every aspect or topic we are to teach for that particular day. We make sure that we treat the same section in all the grades which is similar and help each other where possible. If the section differs we just help each other. Teachers from the surrounding areas or schools are also invited especially in the afternoon and on Saturdays. This is where we invite elderly people and community members even if they at times do not show up. Interviewer: Let me take this opportunity to thank you for your time and input you have made to my research. I thank you very much. 221 8. PARTICIPANT As a continuation of my research I happen to interview this participant who is a grade 12 Life Science educator in the Thabina area on the 3rd September 2010 Interviewer: good afternoon mam. Interviewee: Good afternoon mam. Interviewer: Mam, as I have already discussed with you about my research and research topic, can you tell me what do you understand by the term indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: I will first explain what indigenous means because whenever you talk of indigenous knowledge you will have to clarify meanings first. So, the word indigenous is within the boundary that a learner needs to know. Actually in indigenous knowledge you will find knowledge to the local or elderly people or even from people surrounding us. I think this is the knowledge that learners acquire everyday in their lives at home. The skills and teachings they receive in their everyday lives is very important and useful to their education. It normally occurs spontaneously with the growing of the child. Interviewer: How does indigenous knowledge differ from 'western science'? Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge deals with what the learner already have since birth until the age of schooling. The learner gains knowledge from the area in which he/she lives by relating to the community members and cultural group that he/she belong. Western science is more scientific as prescribed methods are required to come up with the desired results. It is more formal and scientific proof is required to the statements given. Western science occurs in a formal learning situation. 222 Interviewer: Okay, what relevance do you think can be brought about by the infusion of IK in the teaching of Life Sciences? Interviewee: Mmmh...This can change learner's perspective towards Life Sciences and make them more understanding of relationship between traditional practices and beliefs in the community or area surrounding them. It will make their every aspect of life to be scientifically based. They will be able to understand their surrounding, its relationship to them and its importance to their lives. Interviewer: Thank you. Why should IK receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom? Interviewee: Because it forms the foundation or basis of the learners. education. As we teach learners we start from the known to the unknown or the abstract. So, indigenous knowledge will be our known proceeding to the abstract. We will start with what the learner already have until we reach the unknown that needs more explanation and t> c1rification. Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question? Interviewee: As I already said we always start with the known to the unknown. Learners will be able to understand easily as we start with their knowledge from home and develop that interest to learn more. All learning should start with what the student and community know and are using in everyday life. Learners become more motivated to learn when the subject matter is based on something useful and suitable to the livelihood of the community. 223 Interviewer: How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Eeh ..sometimes eeh ... you just see aspects in the teaching where it can fit or you feel that learners don't understand easily, e.g. respiration process in anaerobic respiration. You just take in the scenario wherein they make a home made bread using yeast, making of African beer and Marula beer because they know all those processes. Interviewer: Thank you. How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of IK? Interviewee: I expect them to be surprised, eeh ..somehow frustrated but mostly were negative while few were excited because I was talking of thing they already know. It must be surprising and fascinating to them to here something that they had and which is home based. Interviewer: Why is it important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum? Interviewee: Because it helps the learner to connect his previous knowledge to the one he receives at school. As I have already said it forms the basis of learner's education as they become aware of their environmental activities that are science related. Maybe they want the community to form part of the learner's education by supplying information to the teachers. Interviewer: Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your teaching. 224 Interviewee: The most serious problem is that of not getting the relevant information. Teachers run around digging information from elders and community leaders on whose expense? Some refuse to tell the truth while others do not just want to discuss anything. The SUbject facilitators also do not have anything in hand that can give relevant information. We are expected to teach knowledge that the department cannot give with insufficient training they have given us. As our country is a multicultural country teachers only know their indigenous knowledge. What about knowledge from other cultures? Heh... ? The belief system is also a problem that needs teachers to be very careful with. A teacher needs to present IK in an acceptable way. This takes time discussing in class and trying to make clarifications where necessary. Interviewer: Thank you, mmmh... how do you manage to resolve problems if ever you encounter them in your inclusion of IK? Interviewee: These are the problems that cannot be resolved by us as teachers. I usually try my" best to seek information, ask assistance here and there but it is very much difficult. My colleagues are normally coming in when they are invited but it's hard for them because of their work load. Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: I go around ask elderly people and some parents in the nearby community. Sagomas just need us to consult as patients so that they can share the knowledge. According to my belief system, it's hard to me. Interviewer: What relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today? 225 Interviewee: It is relevant to an extent to learners but to teachers I don't see any relevancy. It makes learners to relate matters from class to that of their surrounding area. It can also help them to contextualize subject matter so that they can apply in their everyday lives. Interviewer: How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing IK in your teaching? Interviewee: I think it is better to solve a problem when you come to it. About learners you have to call them individually if it is in class or subject matter related. If is about the content I involve colleagues. The other one about the curriculum I just consult Departmental officials through proper channels. Interviewer: What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of IK in your teaching? Interviewee: Supporters could be my colleagues at times educators from the surrounding area, elderly people and other structures from the community in the form of parents. Interviewer: How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: I will start by motivating other teachers, showing them its importance and value so that we can discuss before I go to class. With the learners it will serve as the introduction of my lesson and give them work there after. 226 Interviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in Life Science? Interviewee: Situations like in our culture it have day to day lives. There was a case here at our school were a learner failed, contacted the sangoma and was told that he/she passed. This created a great problem to the school. As a teacher one must be able to demarcate between the indigenous knowledge and folk knowledge. This brings a serious problem to teachers it bring misconceptions to learner. Interviewer: Mmmh! How frequently do you invite knowledgeable people in the form of parents from the community to address IK in your classroom? Interviewee:. Okay, I invite them at times when I come to situations where I feel I don't have any idea or explanation about a certain topic. This occurs if my colleagues are without the idea or have little knowledge on other topics. Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners pertaining to indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: Learners are encouraged to perform some experiments, build up models, make researches in order to gain more knowledge and assignments accumulate information concerning the section treated or to be dealt with. Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge? 227 Interviewee: As they are all part of the system, they were all seemed to be understanding even though there were those that hide their feelings. Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate are in incorporating IK? Interviewee: Through subject activities and workshops related to IK that can be organized by subject facilitators. Knowledgeable people can be invited in the forums to came and share with us. Interviewer: Thank you for your participation in the research 9. PARTICIPANT The participant who is teaching Life Sciences grade 10-12 at a School in the Khujwane area was visited for research interviews on the7th September 2010. Interviewer: Good day sir. Interviewee: Good day mam. Interviewer: What do you understand under the term indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: It is the knowledge that emanated from our ancestors and is transmitted through the ages from generation to generation. This really explains how different cultures used to solve problems. It also includes the developments from how things worked in the past and how they are working now. 228 Interviewer: How does indigenous knowledge differ from western science? Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is normally practiced by indigenous people using their unfounded methods and ideas that are only known to them only. It was implemented in order to earn their normal living and to make their lives just prosper and have got to do with cultural beliefs and customs. Western science is practiced by each and every person who is westernized (either by birth or colonization) and lived a westernized life. Most of the activities that occur in this practice can be scientifically proven. Most of us were taught for a long time that anything western is good for us, it has been tested, it stands the test of time, etc. Western scientific perspectives influence decisions that impact on every aspect of indigenous people's lives. It is based on academic and objectives. Interviewer: What changes do you think can be brought by the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences? Interviewee: I think it can bring significance to the learning context with its explanations that should be first to be explained to learners so that they can relate and then explained in western terms. Learning should start with what the learner and community know and are using in there are for their everyday lives. Interviewer: Why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom? Interviewee: Mmm .. because it helps learners to familiarize themselves with new concepts. It will also help them to be prepared to concentrate and be willing to learn more. 229 Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question? Interviewee: Like when I have to teach learners about environmental studies, J start by asking the questions about their environment, its impact on human lives, effect to other living organisms, etc. They know all those answers and eventually they will lead me to where I want to start or to my abstract. Interviewer: How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel/ike including indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Not always. This can take time to get to those situations unless I want to emphasize a certain point in order to reach my outcome or objective. At times I start with it so that learners can start with what they already know before introducing new concepts. Interviewer: Thank you, how do you think learners should react to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: They will be excited because J will be teaching about what they already know, starting from the known to the unknown which is the abstract concepts. By so doing each and every learner will became anxious to share their knowledge and to exchange their views. Interviewer: Why is it important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum? Interviewee: They wanted to make educators start with learner's knowledge in order to make learning more interesting and understandable. They wanted learners to connect what 230 their knowledge from home with learning at school so that they can contextualize it. This will make learners to ask more and appreciate different culture and what they learn at home. Interviewer: Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your teaching. Interviewee: I normally encounter a problem of uncertainty in my inclusion because there is no specific method of infusing it and there is no clear explanation that one can get to give to learners. If direction and written proof of evidence can be given, I think our education can improve and learning will be easier and understandable. Teachers will be able to infuse IK without any hindrances. Interviewer: How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in your inclusion of IK? Interviewee: I give learners chance to share their views and knowledqe by discussing among themselves, clearing misconceptions other learners have, making them able to appreciate other's cultural beliefs and be proud of theirs. This will increase the love of their content in the learning area and enjoy every aspect of their learning while inviting others to join them. Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: Just by consulting villagers and other knowledgeable people in the surrounding area. Interviewer: What relevance does IK have to Life Science today? 231 Interviewee: It forms the foundation to the learner's education and shows that people have been developing with their knowledge from the forefathers. It connects both learners and educators to the community in which they are liVing. Learners are now aware of their grandparent's science and connect it with the learned one from class. They become aware of their environmental impact and influence on their education Interviewer: How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: I just ignore them and forces my way forward with teaching. If ever they persist I call upon other teachers at school to help. The bigger ones cannot be handled on my own without the help of the authorities. Interviewer: Thank you. What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Eish....mmmh ...we just support each other at school. As I have already said I call upon my colleague to help me if ever there is a need. There is nobody from outside who used to come with help at out vicinity. Interviewer: Okay, how would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Hey ... mmmh....1will just include or mention it if necessary as an introduction to my lesson and leave it to diverge so that each learner can share the knowledge with the 232 class and give additions if ever they are needed. I think it will worth doing because it will arouse the learner's interest and motivate them in their learning Interviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in the Life Sciences education? Interviewee: I think learners will be turned into scientists who can be able to connect their cultural views to education in class. They can be able to think scientifically while encouraging their parents to work and produce scientific products. Interviewer: How frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from the community to address IK in your classroom? Interviewee: This is normally done after some time if ever there is a need. Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage for your learners pertaining to indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: gave them tasks which will include parental help while allowing learners to socialize the value of their learning through incorporating what they already know in their life time. Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: They respond positively but still struggle to incorporate it in class with new subject matter. They just enjoy discussing and sharing the information to each other. 233 Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate are in incorporating IK? Interviewee: Here at our school we thought of organizing forums and workshops where we can plan how to go about introducing IK in lessons. By so doing we will be helping each other on how to gather knowledge in order to incorporate in class. Interviewer: Let me take this opportunity to tell you that your efforts are recognized in this research and thank you for your patience and contribution. 10. PARTICIPANT On the 10th September 2010 I visited a School in the Khujwane area to further my research and happen to interview a Life Science educator teaching grade 11- 12. Interviewer: Good day mam. Interviewee: Good day mam. Interviewer: Our National Curriculum Statement states clearly that indigenous knowledge be incorporated in the Life Science classroom. So, what do you understand by the term indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: It is the knowledge that arises from our culture and society and is passed through .generations. It is normally concerns with cultural beliefs, values and norms. 234 Interviewer: How does indigenous knowledge differ from 'western science'? Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is more concerned with life in the past while western science is more concerned knowledge of the future. It is more concerned with cultural and community's activity. IK is native and is within a particular plan of a particular society while western science is universally known and can be scientifically proven. Interviewer: What changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences? Interviewee: I think it can encourage learners to love Life Sciences and encourage them to learn more. Interviewer: Thank you, why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom: Interviewee: It encourages people to understand their environment and know the practices of the society while encouraging them to use more scientific methods in their lives. Indigenous knowledge is very relevant to today's education. Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question? Interviewee: Education should appreciate the vast knowledge system through which people attach meaning to the world in which they live. Interviewer: 235 How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Not always, it depends on which chapters or topics you are teaching, e.g. in human reproduction on birth control, diseases, preservation. Etc. On these sections learners can be given tasks that will make them to seek more information from home. Interviewer: Thank you. How doyou think your learners would react to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: Mmmh ...1think they will respond positively as anticipated since this knowledge have a positive impact on human nature and behavior. Interviewer: Why is it important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum? Interviewee: Okay, they wanted to connect the learner's prior knowledge to the knowledge in class and make them future scientists. They want to make them aware of their scientific activities that occurs at home and school to be applied in their lives. I think the community and society will be able to understand each other. Interviewer: Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your teaching. Interviewee: I encounter a problem of learners making noise, misbehaving and even refusing to give inputs in the discussion. Some do so because of their belief systems or their culture not willing to be exposed. Some bring myths or misconceptions in class e.g. when resolving HIV/AIDS issues they will tell of sleeping with a virgin can cure an 236 infected person. There is also a problem of cultural beliefs which leads to learners being different. Indigenous knowledge needs to be compiled in the books so that each and everyone can have access and form part of the syllabus. Interviewer: How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in your inclusion of IK? Interviewee: I will make it a point that we discuss about issues that can be scientifically proven not stories. Learners have different cultural beliefs and they need to understand and respect each learner's belief. They must also respect everybody's background. think this can help to resolve all problems that may arise. Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: It can be obtained from parents and community members and even indunas. Interviewer: What relevance does IK have today? Interviewee: Learners are able to relate experiences from home or scientific matters to those acquired at school e.g. making bread using Anchor yeast can be related to the making of bread using home brewed beer instead of Anchor yeast. In the past they used to dry bubbles/foam of the traditional beer to replace yeast. The making of Marula drink is copied and modified from IK. Through out indigenous knowledge being interrelated with science people now can be able to make yeast from beer, fruit jam, foam bath, skin lotion, etc. Learners can be science thinkers so that they can be able to apply it in their lives. 237 Interviewer: Thank you. How do you handle barriers that came your way when introducing indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: Mmmh...as an educator it is my responsibility to make sure that teaching and learning is not disturbed and I will make sure that every learner gets the right to education by keeping them disciplined. I will make sure that I carefully select the desired information and leave out the misconceptions. Interviewer: Thank you. What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: I normally supported by my colleagues and some few parents who responded by helping learners when they are given work to do at home. Interviewer: How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching? Interviewee: This can be done through class discussions where learners will formulate groups and each come up with their information to share in class. Learners can be given chance to seek and gather information to present in class. Interviewer: Thank you. What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in the Life Sciences education? Interviewee: Learners will be able to appreciate, love and respect their culture through scientific application. They will also be able to connect their previous knowledge with the new one at school. 238 Interviewer: Mmmh.. how frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from your community to address IK in your classroom? Interviewee: Truly speaking, I have never think of such a move. This people can be of help as they are rich in information. Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners pertaining to indigenous knowledge? Interviewee: Eeh ..mmmh...1 anticipate to give them case studies to perform and challenging researches that will make them explore more. Presentations and discussions will make each learner to take part. Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledqe? Interviewee: Some feel excited and curious because their cultural experiences are being recognized. Not all the people can be happy because of some other developments Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area? Interviewee; I an intending to invite them to our school so that they can share their knowledge with other teachers. With the help of the Departmental officials we will formulate committees and clusters. We will also make forums and symposiums. 239 Interviewer: Thank you a lot for your input and information you contributed to this research. Interviewee: I also feel honored to be included in the research team. Do not hesitate to give me a call if ever another input is needed. 240 APENDIX D: REFORMED TEACHING OBSERVATION PROTOCOL (RTOP) Daiyo Sawada Michael Piburn External Evaluator Internal Evaluator And Kathleen Falconer, Jeff Turley, Russell Benford and Irene Bloom Evaluation Facilitation Group (EFG) Technical Report No. INOO-1 Arizona Collaborative for Excellence in the Preparation of Teachers Arizona State University I. BACKGROUND INFORMATION Narne of teacher------Announced 0 bservati 0 n------ (yes, no, or explain) Location of class------(district, school, room) Years of Teaching------Teaching Certification------ Subject 0 bserved------Gradeleve1------:------ Observer------Date of Observation------ Start time------End time------ 241 II. CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND AND ACTIVITIES In the space provided below please give a brief description of the lesson observed, the classroom setting in which the lesson took place (space, seating arrangements, etc.), and any relevant details about the students (number, gender, ethnicity) and teacher that you think are important. Use diagrams if they seem appropriate. Record here events which may help in documenting the ratings. Time and Description of Events ------~------ 2000 Revision Copyright 2000 Arizona Board of Regents All Rights Reserved III. LESSON DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION Never Very Occurred Descriptive 1) The instructional strategies and activities respected o 1 2 3 4 242 students' prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. 2) The lesson was designed to engage students as members o 1 2 3 4 of a learning community. 3) In this lesson, student exploration preceded formal o 1 2 3 4 presentation. 4) This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative 0 1 2 3 4 modes of investigation or of problem solving. 5) The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined 0 1 2 3 4 originating with students. IV. CONTENT Propositional knowledge 6) The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject o 1 234 7) The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding 0 1 2 3 4 8) The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content 0 1 2 3 4 inherent in the lesson. 9) Elements of abstraction (i.e., symbolic representations, theory o 1 234 building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. 10) Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world o 1 2 3 4 phenomena were explored and valued. Procedural knowledge 243 11) Students used a variety of means (mode/s, drawings, graphs, o 1 234 concrete materials, manipulatives, etc.) to represent phenomena. 12) Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and 0 1 2 3 4 devised means for testing them. 13) Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity 0 1 2 3 4 that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. 14) Students were reflective about their learning. o 1 2 3 4 "15) Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging o 1 234 16) Of ideas were valued. Continue recording salient events here. Time Description of Events V. CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions Never Very Occurred Descriptive 17) Students were involved in the communication of ideas to 0 1 234 others using a variety of means and media. 18) The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking 0 1 2 3 4 19) There was a high proportion of students talk and a significant 0 1 2 3 4 amount of it occurred between and among students. 20) Student question and comment often determined the focus and 0 1 2 3 4 direction of classroom discourse. 21) There was climate of respect for what others had to say. o 1 2 3 4 StudentITeacher Relationships 244 22) Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 0 1 2 3 4 23) Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative 0 1 2 3 4 solution strategies, and ways of interpreting evidence. 24) In general the teacher was patience with students. o 1 2 3 4 25) The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support & 0 1 2 3 4 enhance student investigations. 26) The metaphor "teacher as listener" was very characteristic o 1 2 3 4 of this classroom. Additional comments you may wish to make about this lesson. 2000 Revision Copyright 2000 Arizona Board of Regents All Right Reserved 245 APPENDIX E: RTOP OBSEVATION READING AND LESSONS CANCER AND ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF HEALING AND TREATMENT The background information of mitosis and its importance in life was given to learners in the form of questions. Process of cloning discussed together with methods of cloning. Learners were taught about diseases like cancer. How cancer begin, what causes cancer, beliefs and attitudes concerning cancer. In general ,the earlier a cancer is detected, the more likely it is that a patient will be successfully treated. Many people have a negative attitude and belief about diseases and do no want to be tested. Some of the attitudes are: Fear of the disease People are terrified if they notice that they suffer from a certain disease like cancer they will die, loose jobs or even some of their body organs will be cut off. Most women feel that this will lead to loss of their ferminity and reproductive value. • Most people are uncertain about the effectiveness of the treatment Since they fear that the disease may kill them, prefer not to know about the status of their health. Women are aware .of the dangers of breast cancer and the importance of early detection and some undertake self examination or medical examination for fear of detection. • The general reluctance of men to ask for help. Apart from skin cancer prostate gland is the most common type of cancer for men and this makes them to feel shy and remain silant. Men are reluctant to undergo testing for prostate cancer. The belief that being diagnosed with the disease wil lower their openion of their macuslinity Types of cancer, treatment and 'cure' of cancer were also taught to learners. Alternative methods of healing and treatment included Sangomas and traditional healers used materials obtained from many indigenous plants and other animals for treatment. The cancer bush plant (Sutherlandia frutescens) is one of the most well- known plants used for the treatment of cancer. The plant grows about a metre high and has silvery leaves while bearing red flowers 246 that produces balloon- like pods. The plant is used for the treatment of pancreatic cancer and the improvement of those suffering from terminal breast cancer. Patience gain weight after treatment with the products of this plant. The following questions were given to learner as home-activity: 1. What other materials can be used for the treatment of cancer? 2. Go and ask elderly people includinq sangomas and traditional healers on how they can improve the treatment using different methods that were used in the past. 4.4.2 Lesson observation A number of Life Sciences lessons done by teachers were observed, in order to see how teachers incorporate IK in their lessons. To this effect I used the Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP instrument). The following are few examples of lessons that were observed. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 1 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle of block Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 10th August 2010 II Contextual background and activities Teacher used examples and applications to illustrate scientific concepts, stayed attentive and engaged while others asked questions in the context of everyday life. Investigation to perform at home was given. III Lesson design and implementation 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. 3. In this lesson, student's exploration preceded formal presentation. 247 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. 248 Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. 14. Students were reflective about their learning. 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. 17. The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. 249 · 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 I'yery descriptive 4 Io I 1_1 '-2-.. 13 I 14 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. 25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. 250 DEFENCE AGAINST INFECTIONS: IMMUNITY Different diseases that can affect men were discussed in class. Diseases can be grouped together according to their causes. 1.Those caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa, i.e. caused by outside agents. 2.Those caused by factors within the body, e.g. cancer and genetic diseases. 3.Those brought about by injury, including burns and poisoning. 4.Those caused by poor nutrition, e.g. kwashiorkor and obesity 5.Those caused as side- effects of drugs taken as medical treatment. Several defence mechanisms to protect the body against diseases caused by outside agents were taught to learners including preventing the microbes from entering the body, destroying those microbes that succeed in entering and producing antibodies to fight off later infections. Antibiotics: a product of Research in Medical Biotechnology. They are made from living organisms mainly fungi and bacteria. Some used to slow down or stop the growth of diseases causing micro- organisms or microbes. Antibiotics my be given to sick people in the form of tablets, injections, directly into the blood stream by means of 'drips' or in syrup (liquid) form. Examples of antibiotics including penicillin obtained from a blue- green mould and erythromycin obtained from a bacteria were given to learners. Boosting the immune system using traditional technology Different species of living organisms can be used for medicinal purposes. Most prescriptions are plant based ingredients that were used by traditional people in the form of herbs from certain species of indigenous plants and animals. The African potato It is a yellow flowering plant that is indigenous to Africa has a high nutrient value. It the potato is hairy, purple bulbous corm (Hypoxis hemerocallidea) and is also known as 'sterretiies'. The plant is harvested by sangomas in the wilds as it has been used by the indigenous people as laxative for generations. It is also used to increase the body's natural resistance to diseases. Research studies indicated that sterols and sterolins that are concentrated in the plant can slow the progress of HIV/AIDS. The following research was given to learners at the end of the lesson: 1. Make a research of other uses of African potato for health purposes. 2. How the plant is processed for the use. 3. What dosage do they give for treatment. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 2 Announced observation: No Location of class: Far left of admin block Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 12TH August 2010 251 II Contextual background and activities Teacher based a lesson on specific problem or issue faced by the local community and assist learners to explore the explanations of scientific phenomena by different cultural groups. Learners engaged on their initiative and offer contribution to the lesson. Requested to search for additional information in completion of given task. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner's prior knowledge and the reconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Ver 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. 3. In this lesson, student's exploration preceded formal presentation. 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. 252 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. 9.Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. 10.Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Procedural knowledge. 11.Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. 12.Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. 13.Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. 14.Students were reflective about their learning. 15.lntellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. 253 V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16.Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. 17.The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. 18.There was a high'proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. 20.There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. StudentlTeacher Relationships. 21.Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. 23.ln general the teacher was patient with students. 254 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. 25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. DEVILS CLAW AS AN ATISEPTIC. This is a plant indigenous to our continent (Africa). The plant bears hook- like projections or 'claws' protruding from its fruit. The name Davil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) comes from the Greek word 'harpaqophyturn' which means the 'hook plant'. The hooks help in defence by discouraging the herbivores from eating the plant. The fruit contains seeds which means that if it is dispersed, the seeds are also dispersed. This means that the hooks help in spreading the plants by dispersing the seeds contained in the fruit. The most active component of the devil's claw plant is the 'tuber' or root which is quiet large and often chopped and dried prior to using. Traditionally the plant is used for reducing pain and fever as well as for digestive problems. The secondary root tubers of the plant are used as herbal medicine for rheumatic diseases. The worksheet with a passage to read was given at the end of the lesson to be completed by learners with the following questions: 1.What was the hypothesis used by the scientists? 2.What is meant by a 'placebo'? 3.What is the advantage of using a placebo? 4.What was the independent variable in this investigation? 5.Which was the experimental and which was the control group? 6.List two variables that the scientists may have attempted to keep constant in this investigation. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 3 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle block next to laboratory SUbject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 16TH August 255 II Contextual background and activities Teacher facilitated learners as they designed and undertook investigations and projects on different methods and techniques used for the healing of diseases. Learners did their own investigations. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner's prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Ve 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. 3. In this lesson, student's exploration preceded formal presentation. 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. 256 9. Elements of abstraction (Le. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means- (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. 13. Students were actively engaged in thouqht-provokinq activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. 14. Students were reflective about their learning. 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. 257 V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. 17. The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. 258 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. 25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND MEDICINAL USE OF PLANTS Medicinal plants under threat The teacher stated by telling the learners of the scenario about the medicinal doctor that he visited few weeks ago. The man complained about the shortage of wild plants that he used to get at the nearby village. He wished he could make lots and plant them again. The old man was told that biotechnology can help. Biotechnology means using living things to do tasks and make useful products. There is away of making lots of copies of a plant and is known as tissue culture. This . means growing many new plants from small pieces of one plant. Part of an adult plant is cut into little pieces and treated to kill any fungi or bacteria living on them. Pieces are put onto jelly-like substance containing plant food and left for sometime.. The shoots will be seen growing on the plant pieces and are moved to a new plant food were in roots and leaves can grow. They can be planted in pots and be left for few weeks before they can be planted in the soil. The new plants are genetically the same as the parent plant and each makes his or her own nursery or buy to grow own medical garden. Plants like wild ginger (Siphonochilus aethiopicus) are under treat from overuse. The plant is normally used by traditional healers to treat diseases like asthma, hysteria, colds, coughs and flue. There are very few wild ginger left in the wild and is thought to be extinct in most parts of the country. Homework to learners: 1.Which other plants can be sustained by using biotechnology? 2. Visit your nearest traditional healer and ask how they normally sustain plants in their area. 3.Make a table of commonly used plants in the area stating the diseases that they can heal how they are normally processed before use. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 4 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle block next to hotel and catering class 259 SUbject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 17'h August " Contextual background and activities Teacher introduced learners to the evolving nature of scientific knowledge and . probed their prior knowledge. Learners interpreted information to support their knowledge. III Lesson design and implementation 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. 3. In this lesson, students exploration preceded formal presentation. 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. 260 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. 14. Students were reflective about their learning. 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. 261 V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. 17. The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. 262 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. 25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. LESSON THE BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION. The chemical energy in cell fuels (glucose) is released during this process and transferred into energy -rich ATP. This is the only process whereby carbon dioxide is liberated and oxygen is utilised. During fermentation (anaerobic respiration), products that are of economic importance like bread and alcoholic beverages can be produced. This means that without glucose people won't have any energy. Starch is reduced to glucose which is broken up to release the energy that was absorbed from the sun which is the beginning of the chain. Discussion about beer making Traditional beer is brewed by African women at home. Grains like sorghum, maize and corn are used. The result is brews like rammoora, tarsi, change, tella, umgomboti and many other traditional beers. Can be used to provide income to African women to feed their families. Homework 1.Ask elderly people in your village on how to make a home-made bread using traditional beer. 2.Discuss about more other uses of traditional beer. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 5 Announced observation: No Location of class: Far right of admin block SUbject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 19th August 263 II Contextual background and activities Teacher work designed work in such a way to encourage learner discovery of information. Learners wrote a scientific report in which they could justify their conclusions in terms of their information collected. Assessment based on extra writing of report after investigation. III Lesson design and implementation 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. 3. In this lesson, student's exploration preceded formal presentation. 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. 264 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. • 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. 14. Students were reflective about their learning. 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. 265 V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. 17. The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. StudentlTeacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. 266 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. 25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. LESSON BOOSTING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM USING TRADITIONAL TECHNOLOGY. The use of varietyof living organisms for medicinal purposes is commonly practiced world wide. The garden herbs like· ginger which is used to expel phlegm, thyme which is used as an antiseptic and tonic, commonly red or cayenne pepper for the suppressing high blood pressure and sugar diabetic, garlic for boosting immune system, etc. roughly one in four prescriptions is likely to contain plant-based ingredients. The African potato contains substances that help our bodies fight diseases. Traditional healers and indigenous people make a drink to strengthen sick children. It. can also help people with prostate problems while the juice from the root is used to treat burns. Recently it has become widely used to increase the body's natural resistance to diseases. All vegetables, especially the green and yellow varieties have a hormone-like plant fat called sterols and sterolins that are concentrated in seeds. These substances can boost the body's immune system. Research studies indicated that sterols from the African potato thereby slows down the progress of HIVI AIDS, fight against tuberculosis and cancer, and diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis can be cured. 1.Research other traditional uses of plants and herbs by traditional healers. 2.Discuss about other uses of African potato. 3.Describe the structure of African potato. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 6 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle of block next to library Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: zs" August 267 II Contextual background and activities Knowledge was constructed, was relevant and based on indigenous knowledge while learners engaged themselves on making their own notes on IK from their communities. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner's prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Ve 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. 3. In this lesson, students exploration preceded formal presentation. 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. 268 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulative, etc) to represent phenomena. 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means' for testing them. 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. 14. Students were reflective about their learning. 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. 269 V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. 17. The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. 270 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. 25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. LESSON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES: THE PROCESSING AND DRYING METHODS OF MOPANI WORMS The worms are used as food rich in proteins. They are also used at homes as food and industries. The teacher was worried about the methods of processing and drying. these worms. Health procedures should be followed because of biotechnology for the processing of the worms learners be encouraged to put on protective clothes for health. Divide yourselves in groups of eight and discuss about the processing of worms so that we can have a debate the following day. The loopholes, methods of contamination will be looked into so that they can be improved. Homework Go help your parents to follow hygienic process like washing hands, being clean during processing and avoid dirty clothes while working at a clean surface. Warn them about the cutting of trees and to avoid deforestation. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 7 Announced observation: No Location of class: in the laboratory Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 2yth August 271 II Contextual background and activities . Teacher facilitates learners as they designed and undertake investigation and assists learner in constructing theories that attempted to explain the same phenomena. Learners interpreted data in support of competing theories or explanations. '" Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner's prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Ver 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. 3. In this lesson, student's exploration preceded formal presentation. 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solvinq. 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. 272 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. 14. Students were reflective about their learning. 15. Intellectual rigor. constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. 273 - V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. 17. The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. StudentlTeacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. 274 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. 25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. LESSON THE BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION. The chemical energy in cell fuels (glucose) is released during this process and transferred into energy -rich ATP. This is the only process whereby carbon dioxide is liberated and oxygen is utilised. During fermentation (anaerobic respiration), products that are of economic importance like bread and alcoholic beverages can be produced. This means that without glucose people won't have any energy. Starch is reduced to glucose which is broken up to release the energy that was absorbed from the sun which is the beginning of the chain. Discussion about beer making Traditional beer is brewed by African women at home. Grains like sorghum, maize and corn are used. The result is brews like rammoora, farsi, change, tella, umgomboti and many other traditional beers. Can be used to provide income to African women to feed their families. Homework 1.Find out from elderly people in your village on how to make a home-made bread using traditional beer. 2.Make a research about more uses of traditional beer. 3.Write short notes on how to make traditional bread. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 8 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle block library SUbject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 3rd September II Contextual background and activities Teacher was active in participation of professional activities and showed willingness to change, improve and had a vision of incorporation. Learners from supportive 275 home environment showed interest in the work. They were willing to try new implementation methods. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner's prior knowledge and the reconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Ve 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. 3. In this lesson, student's exploration preceded formal presentation. 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. 276 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. 14. Students were reflective about their learning. 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. descriptive 4 3 277 V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. 17. The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 o 1 278 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. .25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. LESSON EXPERIMENT TO DEMONTRARATE ALCOHOL FERMENTATION Learners were divided into groups Apparatus TWo thermos flasks, dry yeast , clear lime water, sugar or glucose solution, two thermometers, two rubber stoppers, vaseline and two beakers. Aim To prove that yeast releases carbon dioxide, alcohol (ethanol) and heat during alcoholic fermentation. Method - Mark the flasks A and B - Place some sugar or glucose solution, dry yeast dissolved in warm water, a thermometer and delivery tube in flask A. - Place some sugar or glucose solution, a thermometer and delivery tube in flask B. - Pour clear limewater into the beakers - Seal both flasks with rubber stoppers and make sure that the ends of the delivery tubes are below the liquid level in the beakers containing the clear limewater. Precautions - The bulb of the thermometer must be placed in the liquid - The delivery tube end inside flask be above the liquid. - The delivery tube end outside the flask must be below the surface of the liquid in the beaker. - Seal the stoppers with Vaseline. Result Draw a table of your result using the following headings: Temperature changes, change of colour, the smell and taste. Conclusion must be recorded in your workbook. 279 Homework Research about the making of Umqombothi and compare it with your results or findings. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 9 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle of admin block Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: i h September II Contextual background and activities Teacher designs investigation in such a way that it can encourage learner discovery of information. Learners perform guided discovery in group- activities. They investigated the inclusion of IK in their own environment, e.g. making of a home made bread. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner's prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Ve 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning. community. 3. In this lesson, student's exploration preceded formal presentation. 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. 280 IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the sUbject. 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. ~everl occurri_~_o +I_v_ery-L-~ve ~ I Ix 4] 4 ] 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. 281 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. 14. Students were reflective about their learning. 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the -communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. 17. The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. 282 Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. 25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. • I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 10 Announced observation: No Location of class: Back block next to toilets Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: io" September II Contextual background and activities Teacher shows willingness to incorporate and was actively participating in professional development activities. Learners interpret data in support of given explanations. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner's prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. 283 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. 3. In this lesson, student's exploration preceded formal presentation. 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. 284 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged 'when it was important to do so. 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures: 14. Students were reflective about their learning. 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. 285 V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. 17. The teacher's questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. 286 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. 25. The metaphor "teacher as a listener" was very characteristic of this classroom. 287 · APPENDIX F: GDE Questionnaire for Life Sciences teachers Dear Teacher I am from the University of Johannesburg and I am currently engaged in research on the implementation of the Life Sciences curriculum. This is research that has been commissioned by the Gauteng Department of Education. In this regard, I would appreciate if you would complete the enclosed questionnaire. Please return the questionnaire to me in the stamped, addressed envelope provided. I wish to assure you that all information obtained will remain confidential. You are not required to provide your name. The first 300 respondents to the questionnaire will receive support material from Macmillan Publishers in the Quick-fix series. Should you have any queries please feel free to contact me. Thanking you in anticipation of your co-operation. Yours sincerely Dr Josef de Beer Department of Mathematics, Science, Technology and Computer Education Faculty of Education University of Johannesburg P.O. Box 524 Auckland Park 2006 Tel. 011 (559 2765) [email protected] Section A: Personal and School details Mark your response by crossing the number you think is most appropriate. Otherwise, indicate your response in the space provided. Example: If you do not have DSTV then cross 2 as shown Yes : 1 No :2 288 1. Where is your school located? Township : 1 Suburb : 2 City : 3 Ruml :4 2. What is the annual school fee per learner? Nil : 1 R1 - R200 : 2 R201 - R500 : 3 R501 - R1 000 : 4 R1001 - R 5 000 : 5 R5001 - R10 000 : 6 R 10 000+ : 7 3. How many years experience do you have teaching Life Sciences? 0- 5 years : 1 6 - 10 years : 2 11 - 15 years : 3 15 + years :4 4. Did you teach Grade 12 Life Sciences last year? Yes : 1 No :2 5. What is/are your qualification/s to teach Life Sciences? (Cross more than one number if necessary) None : 1 ACE in Life Sciences : 2 Teaching diploma in Life Sciences : 3 Science degree : 4 Education degree in Life Sciences : 5 289 Honour's degree in science education : 6 Honour's degree in science : 7 Master's degree in science education : 8 Master's degree in science : 9 If other qualification, please specify: _ 6. Are you doing professional development studies in Life Sciences at the moment? Yes : 1 No :2 If so, please specify your study: _ 7. How would you describe your school in terms of availability of resources for teaching Life Sciences? No resources : 1 Poorly resourced : 2 Adequately resourced : 3 Well-resourced : 4 8. How many Life Sciences laboratories does your school have? o 1 2 3 4 4+ 9. What percentage of your Life Sciences learners has English/Afrikaans as their first language? 0-20% : 1 21-40% : 2 41-60% : 3 60-80% : 4 80%+ : 5 10. What is the primary medium of instruction at your school? 11. How many classes (groups) of Life Sciences learners per grade are there at your school? Grade 10 1 2 3 4 4+ 290 Grade 11 1 2 3 4 4+ Grade 12 1 2 3 4 4+ 12. What is the average number of learners in the Life Sciences classes you teach? 0-20 learners : 1 21-30 learners : 2 31-40 learners : 3 41-50 learners : 4 50+ learners : 5 13. Do you have a laboratory assistant for Life Sciences? YES : 1 NO :2 Section B The following items relate to the new topics in the Life Sciences curriculum. Mark your response by crossing the number you think is most appropriate. Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree Uncertain disagree Agree I feel competent at teaching the 1 1 2 3 4 5 new topics I did have exposure to the new 2 topics through my previous 1 2 3 4 5 studies. I understand most of the content 3 1 2 3 4 5 on the new topics The Department of Education 4 provided effective training in the 1 2 3 4 5 new topics It was a mistake to introduce the 5 1 2 3 4 5 new topics My previous teacher education 6 studies prepared me well for the 1 2 3 4 5 new topics The new topics help to make 7 science more relevant to the 1 2 3 4 5 learner I am familiar with the practical 8 1 2 3 4 5 work on the new topics 291 The new topics are an extra 9 burden on Life Sciences 1 2 3 4 5 teachers I see no reason to teach a new topic if it is not going to be 10 1 2 3 4 5 examined in the national Senior Certificat examination. 11 I enjoy teaching the new topics 1 2 3 4 5 The new topics have concepts 12 which are difficult for me to 1 2 3 4 5 understand Very Never Seldom Sometimes Often Often My subject advisor/facilitator 13 offers me suggestions on how to 1 2 3 4 5 teach the new topics I make use of the internet to get 14 1 2 3 4 5 ideas on teaching a new topic. I have the apparatus to do 15 1 2 3 4 5 practical work on the new topics The prescribed textbooks cover 16 1 2 3 4 5 the new topics adequately . I spend more time in planning , 17 lessons to teach the new topics 1 2 3 4 5 compared to old topics My learners find the new topics 18 1 2 3 4 5 interesting I ask my colleagues to help me 19 1 2 3 4 5 with the new topics I need to consult numerous 20 textbooks to prepare lessons on 1 2 3 4 5 the new topics I have discussions with my 21 colleague/s on how to teach the 1 2 3 4 5 new topics You now need to rate your content knowledge of the following topics by using the equal interval scale provided: 1 =excellent, meaning I am very knowledgeable on this topic 2 =good, meaning I have sufficient knowledge to teach this topic 3 =poor, meaning I have some knowledge but it is inadequate to teach these topics 292 4 =very poor, meaning I have serious knowledge gaps in this topic and need to improve on this Mark your choice by making a cross in the appropriate block My content knowledge of the following topics is.... Very Excellent Good Poor Poor Ecology! people and the 1 1 2 3 4 environment 2 Human anatomy and physiology 1 2 3 4 3 Plant anatomy and physiology 1 2 3 4 Diversity of life- plant and animal 4 1 2 3 -4 diversity and taxonomy 5 Micro-organisms 1 2 3 4 6 Cell studies 1 2 3 4 7 Population studies 1 2 3 4 8 Inheritance! genetics 1 2 3 4 Molecular biology and 9 1 2 3 4 biotechnology 10 Schwantz equation 1 2 3 4 11 Evolution and natural selection 1 2 3 4 12 DNA and protein synthesis 1 2 3 4 13 Theories of mass extinction 1 2 3 4 Section C The following items relate to your planning and preparation in Life Sciences. Mark your response by placing a cross in the appropriate block. Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree Uncertain disagree Agree Writing a lesson plan is useful in 1 helping me think about the lesson I 1 2 3 4 5 will teach Only new teachers should write lesson 2 1 2 3 4 5 plans When I am planning my lessons I find 3 it useful to have discussions with my 1 2 3 4 5 colleagues It is okay for teachers to deviate from 4 1 2 3 4 5 their written lesson plans 293 If a teacher has taught for over 10 5 years he/she should not have to write 1 2 3 4 5 a lesson plan Due to the newness of the curriculum 6 1 2 3 4 5 all teachers should write lesson plans The curriculum documents from the Department of Education is useful in 7 1 2 3 4 5 telling me about the depth at which I must teach a topic I wish I could use a simpler grid to 8 1 2 3 4 5 plan my lessons Teachers should be allowed to design 9 their own lesson plan grids according 1 2 3 4 5 to their ownneeds Any lesson plan should always have a 10 1 2 3 4 5 learning outcome I wish I had more time available to 11 1 2 3 4 5 plan my lessons When planning a lesson, it is 12 necessary to have an assessment 1 2 3 4 5 task in mind I only write a lesson plan because it is 13 1 2 3 4 5 checked by somebody . Due to the new curriculum, teachers 14 should plan for more practical 1 2 3 4 5 activities in their teaching I feel isolated when planning my 15 1 2 3 4 5 lessons Lessons need to be planned so that 16 1 2 3 4 5 learners are involved in some activity It is important to use more than one 17 1 2 3 4 5 textbook in planning lessons The National Curriculum Statement is 18 written in language which is easy to 1 2 3 4 5 understand 294 Very Never Seldom Sometimes Often Often I find that I now spend more time 19 planning for my lessons compared to 1 2 3 4 5 the previous curriculum 20 I write a lesson plan 1 2 3 4 5 I plan my lessons so that learners 21 from differentethnic backgrounds are 1 2 3 4 5 conside red When planning my lesson, I 22 deliberately search for challenging 1 2 3 4 5 questions to ask my learner . I make use of the internet to get ideas 23 1 2 3 4 onhow to teach a topic 5 I follow a lesson plan grid which I received when I attended a 24 1 2 3 4 5 Department of Education training workshop I consult a variety of textbooks in 25 1 2 3 4 5 planning my lessons My lesson plan acts as a guide when I 26 1 2 3 4 5 am teaching When I plan my lessons I think about 27 howmy learners can be actively 1 2 3 4 5 involved in the lesson . When planning my lesson, I consider a variety of questions at different 28 1 2 3 4 5 levels of thinking to ask learners during the lesson I use one textbook in planning my 29 1 2 3 4 5 lessons The Subject Assessment Guidelines 30 helps me in developing appropriate 1 2 3 4 5 assessment tasks for my learners When planning to teach a certain topic I ask a teacher of another subject 31 1 2 3 4 5 whether he/she is teaching something similar in his/her subject When planning my lessons I look for 32 examples which relate to the life 1 2 3 4 5 experiences of my learners I exchange ideas with colleagues on 33 1 2 3 4 5 how best to teach a topic The curriculum documents in Life 34 Sciences guide me in my lesson 1 2 3 4 5 planning 295 If you taught Grade 12 Life Sciences last year answer the following. Otherwise, move on to Section D. Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree Uncertain Disagree Agree I received sufficient guidelines from the Department of Education on how to prepare my 35 1 2 3 4 5 learners for the Grade 12 National Senior Certificate 2008 examinations My learners were adequately prepared for 36 the Grade 12 National 1 2 3 4 5 Senior Certificate 2008 examination The Grade 12 National Senior Certificate 2008 37 examination was unfair 1 2 3 4 5 as it contained some unexpected questions The Grade 12 National 38 Senior Certificate 2008 1 2 3 4 5 . examination was difficult I found it difficult to complete all topics in preparing my learners for 39 1 2 3 4 5 the Grade 12 National Senior Certificate 2008 examination Section D The following items relate to practical work in Life Sciences. Mark your chosen response by placing a cross in the appropriate block. Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree Uncertain Disagree Agree I look forward to lessons 1 where practical work is 1 2 3 4 5 included 296 Practical work takes up 2 too much of my teaching 1 2 3 4 5 time It is difficult to maintain 3 control of learners during 1 2 3 4 5 practical work Scientific knowledge is a 4 1 2 3 4 5 well-organized of facts Practical work serves no 5 purpose if learners do not 1 2 3 4 5 obtain appropriate results Science involves 6 discovering new things 1 2 3 4 5 about the world I prefer my learners to design their own investigations (Note: 7 Design means to decide 1 2 3 4 5 upon the apparatus and arrive at a procedure to be followed) I have much expertise 8 doing science 1 2 3 4 5 investigations Science investigations help my learners to 9 1 2 3 4 5 develop experimental . process skills My head of department supports the way in which 10 1 2 3 4 5 practical work is done in my class The purpose of doing an 11 investigation is to confirm 1 2 3 4 5 theory I feel confident teaching 12 lessons where learners 1 2 3 4 5 do science investigations For learners to do science investigations, 13 the teacher needs to give 1 2 3 4 5 clear procedures on what to do. Science investigation 14 activities are difficult to 1 2 3 4 5 manage My learners derive more 15 benefit from doing a 1 2 3 4 5 science investigation than 297 me demonstrating the practical to them Scientific knowledge is 16 1 2 3 4 5 stable and unchanqinq My learners are capable 17 of planning their own 1 2 3 4 5 investigations When making a hypothesis for an investigation learners are 18 1 2 3 4 5 required to look for a pattern in the data they collect Sometimes I am unclear on how to formulate a 19 1 2 3 4 5 hypothesis for an investigation My learners are quite competent at doing 20 science investigations 1 2 3 4 5 with little guidance from me The management of my school could do more to support me in 21 1 2 3 4 5 implementing the . investigative approach to practical work Most learners are capable of formulating a 22 1 2 3 4 5 hypothesis for an investigation NEVER: 1 SELDOM: 2 SOMETIMES: 3 OFTEN: 4 VERY OFTEN: 5 Very Never Seldom Sometimes Often Often 24 My learners enjoy practical work 1 2 3 4 5 I try the practical work myself 25 1 2 3 4 5 when preparing for the lesson My learners do science 26 1 2 3 4 5 investigations/inquiry My learners know how to 27 identify variables in a science 1 2 3 4 5 investigation 298 My learners use practical lessons as an opportunity to 28 1 2 3 4 5 engage in casual chat on sornethino unrelated to science 29 My learners follow my lab rules 1 2 3 4 5 I borrow apparatus from other 30 1 2 3 4 5 schools The lesson time allocated is 31 adequate for my learners to do 1 2 3 4 5 practical work 32 I do practical demonstrations 1 2 3 4 5 My learners take a lot of time to 33 settle down before starting with 1 2 3 4 5 the practical work I give learners a worksheet with 34 instructions to follow when they 1 2 3 4 5 do practical work I have discipline problems 35 1 2 3 4 5 during practical work My learners conduct science - investigations (Note: Conduct 36 means they follow a procedure, 1 2 3 4 5 and manipulate apparatus to collect data) When I need lab equipment and chemicals the management of 37 my school makes funds 1 2 3 4 5' available for the purchase of these I give learners the experimental data and ask them to analyze it 38 1 2 3 4 5 rather than asking them to do the practical themselves My learners are willing to come 39 and complete a practical during 1 2 3 4 5 the lunch break or after school With the new curriculum, I now 40 include more practical activities 1 2 3 4 5 in my teachino I give my learners research 41 projects involving practical work 1 2 3 4 5 to do at home I have learners working in 42 1 2 3 4 5 groups during practical work If my learners need more time to complete a practical, another 43 1 2 3 4 5 teacher grants me the extra time from his/her lesson 44 The length of the lesson makes 1 2 3 4 5 299 it difficult for My learners are well behaved when they are doing practical 45 1 2 3 4 5 work my learners to do practical work in class It is more effective for the teacher to explain a concept 46 rather than having learners gain 1 2 3 4 5 understanding of the concept through practical Section E The following items relate to indigenous knowledge in Life Sciences. Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) in the South African context refers to a body of knowledge embedded in African philosophical thinking and social practices that have evolved over thousands of years. For example, there exists indigenous knowledge on the medicinal use of plants by cultural groups. Mark your response by placing a cross in the appropriate block. STRONGLY DISAGREE: 1 DISAGREE: 2 AGREE: 3 STRONGLY AGREE:4 UNCERTAIN: 5 Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree Uncertain Disagree Agree The indigenous 1 knowledge of people 1 2 3 4 5 needs to be recognized Indigenous knowledge 2 can be related to some 1 2 3 4 5 of the topics I teach My learners are Willing to 3 talk about their customs 1 2 3 4 5 and traditions Discussions on 4 indigenous knowledge 1 2 3 4 5 take up too much time By referring to indigenous knowledge 5 1 2 3 4 5 science becomes more relevant to my learners My learners are willing to 6 relate their customs and 1 2 3 4 5 traditions to the concept 300 being taught Indigenous knowledge that my learners 7 2 3 4 5 possess interferes with 1 . the learning of science I welcome any new 8 views on science 1 2 3 4 5 phenomena Learners do not understand science 9 concepts because they 1 2 3 4 5 want to cling to their indiqenous Science explains all 10 natural phenomena 1 2 3 4 5 completely People from all cultures 11 contribute to scientific 1 2 3 4 5 knowledge I prefer my learners not to have any existing 12 1 2 3 4 5 beliefs when I introduce a new concept Learners points of view 13 1 2 3 4 5 must be respected Science is an integral .~ 14 part of social and '1 2 3 4 5 cultural exaggerated The importance of 15 indigenous knowledge is 1 2 3 4 5 exaqqerated There is little connection between indigenous 16 1 2 3 4 5 knowledge and western science Ideas for science 17 research come from 1 2 3 4 5 indiqenous knowledge I understand what is 18 meant by indigenous 1 2 3 4 5 knowledge Indigenous knowledge is 19 often in conflict with 1 2 3 4 5 western science I have sufficient knowledge on 20 1 2 3 4 5 indigenous knowledge systems to incorporate 301 UIhis inlo my lessons 1 I----l.-- Please use the space below or attach a separate sheet of paper to comment on the new Life Sciences curriculum. PLEASE WRITE YOUR DETAILS AND NAME OF YOUR SCHOOL IN THE SPACE PROVIDED, SHOULD YOU WISH TO RECEIVE THE MACMILLAN SUPPORT MATERIAL NAME OF EDUCATOR: TELEPHONE NUMBER: 1. HOME _ 2. WORK ------SCHOOL:, _ SHOULD I HAVE ANY FOLLOW-UP QUESTIONS WILL YOU BE AVAILABLE FOR AN INTERVIEW? IYES I_N_O _ Thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire! 302 APPENDIX G: SCRIPT ANALYSIS Key-Codes Cognitive Levels Misconceptions Mp: Metaphysical K: Knowledge An: Analogical P: Practical C:Comprehension Ap: Antllropomorphic Pr: Problem Based A: Application F: Functional Ra: Rational E:Evaluation G:Genetic Re: Relational M: Mechanical To: Tautological Mo: Model Based Te: Teleological Life Sciences: ScriptAnalysis Question nr Cognitive level :_4.3, _ -;: V OJ ~ '"c ~ ::> ~ .l!1 .~ .... ::: .!?" c: :>... Q.I '"01 c:: s, Q.I ->< ~ ~ .... Q.I c: Ol .~ 0 v c: .c Ol c: '- ..!!:! ~ .2 ~ ..Q '"Ol Q. .Q ~ Q.I ~ "'0 .... 0 '"Q.I .2 Q.I 0 c: .S .c: c: OJ ....0 VI c:: E Ol ->< ~ ·S .c (5 01 .;:;0 Q.I c: ... ;: .2 0 Q:; .2 0 :;: E Ol 0 a 0. E g. c, ..... ::> ~ 0 0 ~ ~ t- ... :>...... Q 01 .0 .S ~ c: 0. Q.I Q.I ... c:: e 0 c: c: c: ->< 0 v .... Ol -s: ::J "'0 '- E 0 Q.I '" ...... sQ.I .!:! 0.. <:> 0 c: c: .... ~ .... ~ E .... c '0' '0' a '0' '0' a 0 "t:> a ~ ... v c: .S c: '0' Q.I Q.I E .S!- ~ ~ v .~ ->c '- ::J i3 i3 .~ i3 i3 c: .~ .~ c: v 0 .c 0 ... ~ 0 0 0 0 0 .§ 0 <:> .... I.J ~ .;r' b\ ...... ~ ...... I.J ~ ~ -J I.J -J ~ ~ Q 6E+05 E 2 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM . 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 2E+06 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 303 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6169 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.1NT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 1E+06 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 1E+06 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM G.EX 6E+05 E 5 KA CH INT M 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 2 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM -. 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 2E+06 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 2 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM G.EX 6E+05 E 4 KA CH INT M 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 2E+06 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM G.EX 6E+05 E 3 KA CH INT M 2E+06 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 304 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 A. 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 A 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 A 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 A 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 305 APPENDIX H: LETTER TO LIMPOPO PROVINCE ATTENTJON MS CHARITY MASILA Euq: Mothwa M.M. Box 1435 Tel: 015355 47(}] LENYENYE Cell: 0828587116 0857 14 October 2009 The Superintendent General Department of Education Private Bag X 9498 POLOKWANE 0700 Sir/ Madam RE - SUBMISSION Our telephone conversation in connection with Mrs Mothwa M.M requesting for authorization to conduct research for a Masters degree on 13/10/2009, 13HI0 refers: Application should immediately be rc-Iaxcd to you at 08605549269 for your attention in order to receive prompt attcntipn. { Kindly fax back the response to 015 3554302 or email to moth".amm'awchmail.co.za truly, J ,~IQj . r aophala M.H. (Science Department) PHUSELA HIGH SCHOOL Enq: Mothwa M.M Box 1435 Tel: 015 355 4763 LENYENYE Fax: 0153553897 0857 5 August 2009 The Superintendent General Department of Education Private Bag X 9498 POLOKWANE 0700 SirlMadam PERMISSION TO DO RESEARCH IN MOPANI DISTRICT. I, Mothwa M.M Id no. 630412 0351085 and persal no. 81367341 is registered with the University of Johannesburg. The student number is 920213124. I am pursuing a masters degree in the department ofMathematics, Science, Technology and Computer Education. My supervisor is Dr J. de Beer. I am going to do a qualitative research on Indigenous Knowledge as the Life Sciences policy requires us to incorporate it in our teaching. I want to find out more about teachers' experience of Indigenous Knowledge claims and problems that they come across in incorporating indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classrooms. I would like to use the schools and circuits as follows: .:. Tbabina: Seboye and Mafutsane• •:. Shiluvane: Bessie Maake and Mabushe• •:. Makhutswe: Seagotle and Rakgolokwane• •:. Khujwana: Mokgapa and Serurubele, I would like to do Interviews with the teachers after hours and during weekends. I hereby ask for permission to conduct interviews with Life Science and Natural Science educators in the above district I will do everything possihle to ensure that I do not adversely affect the academic programme in the said schools. Thanking you in anticipation. Yours faithfully a~~.~. MothwaM.M Life Science educator /f'-. . I • co' 2. ~ e-f'/\l\ll.. : rf'o{h"",Q""""~""e.b,,,q, 307 APPENDIX f: RESPONSE FRON LIMPOPO DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION LIMPOPO --PRovINciALGOVERNMENT····· REPUBLIC Of SOUTH AfRICA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Ref : 81367341 Enq : Mabunda NS Tel: 015 8117724 Date : 2011 .11.10 The Head of Department Department of Education Private Bag X9489 POLOKWANE 0700 RECOMMENDATION FOR PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN SCHOOLS UNDER MOPANI DISTRICT: MOTHWA M.M. 1. The above matter refers. 2. Mr Mothwa M.M is an educator attached to Phusela Secondary School under Thabina Circuit and has registered with university of Johannesburg to persue a master's degree. 3. He is supposed to do a qualitative research on indigenous knowledge. The research entails finding more about teachers' experience of indigenous knowledge in the life science class. 4. Mr Mothwa M.M would like to interview teachers after hours and during weekends and promises that the Interviews will not affect the academic programmes of the school. 5. We recommend that Mr Mothwa be granted permission to conduct the research at the schools indicated in his letter. 6. Submitted for your approval and further directives. DI=:;sfti;:N~:ER / \ _____._...... \L _ 308 APPENDIX J: LETTER TO MOPANI DISTRICT Enq: Mothwa M.M Box 1435 Tel: 015 355 4763 LENYENYE Cell: 0828587116 0857 08 June 2011 District Senior Manager Mopani District Office Private BagX 578 GIVANI 0826 Dear Sir/Madam PERMISSION TO DO RESEARCH IN MOPANI DISTRICT. I, Mothwa M.M Id no. 6304120351085 and persal no. 81367341 is registered with the University of Johannesburg. The student number is 920213124. I am pursuing a masters degree in the Department of Mathematics, Science,Technology and Computer Education. My supervisor is Dr J. De Beer. I am going to do a qualitative research on Indigenous Knowledge as the Life Sciences policy requires us to incorporate it in our teaching. I want to find out more about teachers' experiences of Indigenous Knowledge in the Life Sciences classrooms. I would like to use the schools and circuits as follows: .:. Thabina: Seboye, Phusela, Sekaba and Mafutsane. •:. Shiluvane: Bessie Maake and Mokwana. •:. Khujwana: Mokgapa, Mahlane and Serurubele. I would like to do interviews with the teachers after hours and during weekends. I hereby ask for permission to conduct interviews with Life Sciences and Natural Sciences educators in the above district. I will do everything possible to ensure that I do not adversely affect the academic programme in the said schools. My fax is 015 355 3897. Email:[email protected] Thanking you in anticipation. Yo~rs faithfully I. ~ ~'\ "('-< r" '-' Mothwa M.M(Life Sciences educator) 309 APPENDI'S K: RESPONSE FROM MOPANI DISTRICT -_..-._------...... ~,1\;;~i.-:.:~'.·.~1 ~LIMPOPO PROVINCIAL GDVERNMENMENT ~ RfPU9LlC OF SOUTH AFRICA. Enq: Maake R.L DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION MOPANIDISTRICT Cell: 0828153070 0783078778 0730157656 TO WHOM IT 1\tlAY CONCERN PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN SCHOOLS IN THE MOPANI DISTRICT: MOTH\VA M.M. PERSAL NUMBER: 81367341 I hereby certify that permission is granted by the District Senior Manager (Mopani) to Mothwa M.M, an educator at Phusela Secondary School, to conduct research in our schools I for her M.Ed .degree with the University ofJohannesburg under the supervision of Dr Josefde Beer. JO J, /' .$,/7 ..... (l:~ ~.~ ?:ll./.;(.?C:~ . District Senior Manager rtfPARTr.£M ~ EDUCATION. MOPAN' DISTRICT,Private B3g X 578 GIYANI. 0826 I Tel 015 8121911 Fa. No. 015 812 3412 OR 0158123692 J' The heartland of Southern Africa - development ;s about people L ~-- ._-_..._-----_.------,_._- --~- ----_._-~...._----_.~-~_.__ ... _.~._.__.-.. -----_ ..._-_._-_.._------ 310 APPENDIX L: LETTER TOTHABINA CIRCUIT Enq: Mothwa f'vl.!vf. Bo'1435 Tel: 0153554763 LE"YE"IT 0857 17 March 200Q The Circuit Manager Thabina Circuit Private Bag. X 1411 LENYENYE 0857 Sir/Madam I'EIHnSSlON TO no RESEARCIIIN THABll"A cmcurr. The above matter hears reference. I have registered for M.Ed with the {!nihT,il\ (If Johanncshurp and have to do research in schools for my dissertation. I am attached to Phuscla High School and would like :0 visit schools under 'lhabina cluster. Thanking you in anticipation for your positive response. Yours truly. M(1.thw!) \1.\rU\lr;;) Life Sciences Fducaror 311 APPENDIX M: RESPONSE FROM THABINA CIRCUIT Private Bag x1411 LENYEI\'YE 0857 Tel no.: 0153554027 0153554529 THABINA CIRCUIT 015355 4553 Fax no.: 0153554029 Date.I 8 March 2009 Enq: Kgomo S.B.T. Cell: 079510 40]5 P.O. BOX 1435 Lcnyenye 0857 AU: Mothwa :U.M. (Mrs.) [813(j73411 I. The above matter as alluded and contained in your letter dated the IT' March 2009 ~~ hereby acknowledged and favourably considered - In other words, permission is duly granted by the Circuit Office. 2. However the Circuit Office cannot he held responsible for any matters that may be deemed to haw infringed on the righb and! or encroached unethically upon the confidentiality and protocol of individuals and institutions during (he course of your research. 3. All logistical arrangements with individuals and/ or institutions, including informing them about this permission, resides in you. 4. Finally, I take this opportunity to profoundly wish you success with your studies. II I «ntm ., D~ ?-.:._::~ ~:~~: :::t-..-:..:-: :·~-::t;?::~::::~-·:·:,~< x MOFANI DISTRICT 312 APPENDIX N: LETTER TO SHILUVANE CIRCUIT Enq: Mothwa M.M. Box 1435 Tel: 0153554763 lENYENYE 0857 24 March 2009 The Circuit Manager Shiluvana Circuit Private Bag X 1411 LENYENYE 0857 Sir/Madam PERMISSION TO DO RESEARCH IN SHILUVANA CIRCUIT. The above matter bears reference. I have registered for M.Ed with the University of Johannesburg and have to do research in schools for my dissertation I am attached to Phusela High School and would like to visit schools under Shiluvana cluster. Thanking you in anticipation for your positive response. Yours truly, Mothwa M.M (Mrs) Life Sciences Educator 313 APPENDIX 0: RESPONSE FROM SHILUVANE CIRCUIT Private Bag x1411 \ LENl'ENYE 08S'7 Td nc.: (015} 355 0";5119 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION: MOPANI DISTRICT F(L( 11oU.• (015) 355 1782 SHllUVANE CIRCUIT REF Persal No. ENQ Mbalati T Monday, April 20, 2009 TO All Principals Educators 8GB Members PERMISSION TO CONDUCT A RESEARCH IN SHILUVANE SCHOOLS 1. Be informed that Mr Mothwa has been granted permission to conduct a study in the Shiluvane Schools for the purpose of completing his senior degree. 2. However, such a study may not interfere with the normal school programs and though the researcher is allowed access to conduct his research in all sampled schools. 3. SMTs are requested to cooperate with the researcher with the notion that the information collected can only be valid for the purposes of the said study on ly. 4. In addition, the findings of the study could be shared with the Department of Education for development purposes. , ----.) . ."j e-;...-...,..,~ .":"~ ~';' . CIRCUIT MANAGER SHILUVANE MOPANI DISTRICT 314 APPENDIX P: LETTER TO KHUDJWANE CIRCUIT Eng: Mothwa ]VI.M. Box 1435 Tel: 0153554763 LENYENYE 0857 24 March 2009 The Circuit Manager Khujwana Circuit Private Bag X 1411 LENYENYE 0857 Sir/Madam PERMISSION TO DO RESEARCIIIN KHlJ,/WANA CIRCUIT. The above matter bears reference. I have registered for M.Ed with the University ofJohannesburg and have to do research in schools for my.dissertation. I am attached to Phusela High School and would like to visit schools under Thabina cluster. Thanking you in anticipation for your positive response. Yours truly. Moth\:\i"tM.M (Mrs) Life Sciences Educator 315 APPENDIX Q: RESPONSE FROM KHUDJWANE CIRCUIT Private Bag x1411 LENYENYE 0857 T..! '10. 015 3554525 0153554558 -'" Fax no.: 015 355 4029 "'''. ./ DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION: MOPANI DISTRICT Enq. Mushwana F.F 25 March 2009 REF: 2/5/6/3/1 Mothwa MM PO Box 1435 Lenyenye 0857 RE: APPROVAL TO DO RESEARCH IN KHUJWANA CIRCUIT. 1. The above refers. 2. Your request to do research in schools within Khujwana circuit is approved as long as same will 10t interfere with the day to day running of our schools. 3. Please ensure that contact time for learners and educators is respected. 4. We believe that the research 'Nil I enhance our schools. 5 Wishing success in your studies Hoping that you will find the above in order. ;JJ'lIh{1W;:;,'I\:J ...... , -,- (Circuit Manager) CC District Senior Manager 316 APPENDIX R: RESPONSE FROM PHUSELA educati<:.::>n Deparln1er"ll: Education REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA I'~ ~ ~-. i~. ~ ~.--.. ~ • - c ; irs'~" '. - t: . ;.- fIr - r- i \. - .. ! I' i I I ; 'H';,fU'i.. ~_ I '-' \A"" f)l'i l '!_..._~ ; '- J \ J•.__~• ' \ J , P_ _ ..J! -_.3'....EJL'...• . _.. rI6'-/Hr. _ sc«--.j _ Enq: Ramathoka P.J 16 March 2009 TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN This is to cert.ify that. MpTHWA M,M In NO. 6304120351 085 Per-sal No. 81367341 is an employee of the above mentioned institution under the department of Education teaching Life Sciences and Natural Sciences. She is registered with the University of Johannesburg student no 920213124doing M.Ed specialization area - Science Education. I recommend that you assist. her in doing research Yours faithfully 317 APPENDIX: S EXAMPLES OF IK THAT COULD BE USED IN CLASSROOM 1. Socio-cultural activities (a) The mopani worm (Imbrassia belina) Particular societies have cultural , economic and spiritual practices or activities that can complement the teaching of Life Sciences. One of the activities which is performed by people in Limpopo and Mpuma langa is the harvesting of mopan i worms (Imbrassia be/ina) as a source of food. From a cultural point of view the mopani worm is probably the most important insect in Southern Africa (Toms , Thogwane & Lithole, 2009) . This worm has great potentia l to be used as an icon in the teaching of indigenous knowledge, sustainable harvesting, conservation and food secu rity. Figure .1: The Imbrassia belina moth. Source : Van Wyk , 2005 . In Figure .1, the large and attractive moth can be seen, ready to lay eggs on the bark and leaves of the mopani (Colophospetmum mopane) tree. As one of the most spectacular and well-known insects, it forms part of the Big 12 of African insects. 318 Figure .2: Small mopani worms hatched from eggs Source: http://en.wikipedia .org/wiki/imbrasia-belina. In Figure .2, small worms hatched from the eggs, feed on mopani leaves and mould a few times before they reach maturity and are ready to be harvested. Figure 3: Worms not harves ted Source: http://natavillage.typad.com/shared/image.html?/photos/uncateg . In Figure 3, the worms that have not been harvested leave the tree and pupate underground. The life cycle is comp leted when the adult moth emerges from the pupae, mate and lay eggs. 319 Figure 4: Women from community carrying mopani worms after harvest Source : Adapted from www.iscanmyfood.com//hd/index.php?t=lmrasia+belina. In Figure 4, women from the comm unity are carrying mopani worms after the harvest. These worms are ready to be processed . The wo men are going to squeeze out the inner contents and make huge fire to dry the worms. These edible insects are considered a delicatessen by many South Africans. The mopani worm is also known as Mashonsha, Masonja or Amasonja. These worms form the basis of a multi-milli on rand trade in edible insects prov iding a livelihood for many harvesters, traders and their families. Masonja is a healthy and nutritious food that can be used as a source of protein in a balanced diet. 320 1- ~ Figure 5: Dried mopani worms sold by community members Source: Phillips & Rix, 1988. Community members sell mopani worms on the streets in order to qenerate an income for their families as Masonja have both nutritious and economic value. In Limpopo and Mpumalanga in particular, mopani worms contribute to economic growth. Figure 6: Protein-rich mopani worms are cooked and ready for consumption Source: Phillips & Rix,1988 . 32 1 In Figure 6, protein-rich mopani worms are cooked, delicious and ready for consumption (Phillips & Rix, 1988). The value, harvesting and uses of mopani worms therefore form part of the indigenous knowledge that can be brought into the classroom and taught to learners. The mopani worm and the associated IK could be incorporated in various sections of the Life Sciences school curriculum: as an example of a complete metamorphosis, or when discussing balanced diets as part of human nutrition curriculum. The irony is that the silk worm, which is exotic, is most often used as an example of an insect with complete metamorphosis. Yet, many South African learners will relate so much more to the mopani worm. Research conducted in the Limpopo Province by Toms, Thogwana and Lithole (2003) established that there are many people, including school science and biology teachers, who simply do not know the life cycle of the mopani worm. They find this alarming because harvesting Mashonzha without knowledge of the life cycle is like trying to farm with maize without knowing that it is necessary to plant seeds. Most of learners could not associate the worms with the butterfly. Even some of the teachers had forgotten that Mopani worms are part of the life cycle of this particular moth. Teachers in Mpumalanga or Limpopo could effectively refer to this very important economic activity in their regions when explaining, for example, metamorphosis or human nutrition. Such a constructivist approach builds on learners' prior knowledge and might make science more relevant for learners. It also addresses some of the developmental outcomes in the NeS, namely career opportunities and entrepreneurial skills. (b). The marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) and marula beer Each year from January to March, frenzied fruit picking takes place in a community of Phalaborwa in Limpopo as residents enjoy the harvest of marula fruit (Sclerocarya birrea). During the harvest time, young boys push wheelbarrows filled with marula frutt, women balance full sacks of marula on their heads and people drive bakkies loaded with marula (Babalwa, 2010). Most animals like to eat marula fruit, and it was discovered that overeating on this fruit can make them drunk. 322 Figure 7: Ripe marula fruit ready for harvesting Marula fru it is used to make jam, fruit juice, body lotion and beer. It is also used as an ingredient in cakes and other recipes . A commercial alcoholic drink, Ama rula Cream, is made from the marula fruit (Van Wyk , 2005). Figure 8: Ripe marula fruit 323 One can ask the question whether sufficient credit (and compensation) has been given to the indigenous knowledge and intellectual property of local people . The answer is a definite No. Amarula has been a traditional drink for decades prior to its commercialisation. When the Amarula drink became commercialised there was no attempt to compensate indigenous people for their intellectual property. This dilemma was also illustrated by the commercialisation of Hoodia (see later). In both cases (marula and Hoodia) , various communities possess this IK. How does one decide which communities hold the intellectual property rights? These examples make it clear that there are many ethical issues assoc iated with IKS. During the months of January to March the fruit is harvested . Different cultural groups collect large quantities of ripe fruit for a variety of uses. This is an exciting time for people because they say the fruit brings life and excitement to the community for cream making. Figure 9: Ripe marula fruit ready to be used as ingredient in perfume, body lotion, beer and juice Ripe marula fruit has a light yellow colour with a tough skin enclosing white watery fibrous flesh and a large stone. The fruit is used to make products such as perfume, beer and juice. The oil extracted from the fuit is used for moking body lotion while the 324 flesh is separated from the skin before it is fermented under similar conditions as wine at Distell's cellars in Stellenbosch. The skin of the fuit can be boiled to make a delicious drink or even burnt to make homemade coffee. Figure 10: Each community brews its own brand of marula beer Men and women brew their own spec ial brand of marula beer. Women from the community are hired to be part of the Amarula Cream production line during the marula harvest season.This forms part of job creation and poverty alaviation process. In Life Sciences, anaerobic respiration is taught to learners. Teachers in Limpopo and Mpumalanga, where marula trees grow, can therefore provide learners with the opportunity to brew a marula drink, illustrating fermentation processes . A prompt sheet such as the following may be useful: Steps on how to make a traditional marula drink •Pick up ripe yellow marula fruit that have fallen from a marula tree. • Wash the fruit and peel off the hard outer cover. Put the fleshy seed in a container and stir until the flesh is separated from the seed. You will now have a thick mixture of marula flesh. 325 • Squeeze the mixture to separate the hard shells of seed from the mixture. You will now have thick juicy flesh. • Pour a little water into the container. Stir while adding water until it changes to a liquid. • Cover with a clean cloth and leave for one or two days. • Uncover the container. Take out the fleshy part that remains on top of the container while the water settles at the bottom. Put the mixture in a cool place or refrigerator to chill. The mixture is now ready to drink. • If the mixture is covered with a tight lid and left for seven days or more in a warm place, fermentation will take place and juice will turn into marula beer. This aspect could be highlighted while discussing anaerobic fermentation in the Life Sciences class. Today, Amarula Cream is enjoyed in more than 100 countries and its production is surprisingly modest and community-based. The brewing can be brought to the classroom as this is alcoholic fermentation or anaerobic respiration in operation. This aspect could also be dealt with when studying enzymes. This is the indigenous knowledge which is long known from home, and learners can be assisted to integrate this with the work done at school. Fermentation is fermentation, be it at home or at school. Many learners have observed this process at home; now the teacher can explain the fermentation process in yeast cells and how this good tasting alcoholic beverage is produced commercially. This constructivist way of teaching might illustrate to learners how science is used in our daily lives. The nuts inside the fleshy fruit can be eaten raw as they are rich in protein. They can also be crushed and added to green morogo or vegetables to make it more tasty and delicious. Extracted oils from the nuts can be used in cosmetics or as a therapeutic body massage oil. Venda people in the Limpopo province use the oil for the preservation of meat for future use. Sangomas use the bark of the marula tree for medical purposes. Medicinal ethnobotany is discussed in Paragraph 2.4.3 (a) on page 31. 326 (c) Sorghum beer At cultural or traditional festivities like rain-making ceremonies , first fruit festiv ities and weddings traditional beer made from sorghum , millet and, more recently , mealies are served. Beer is deeply interwoven with African cultural life. Most Africans use it during their yearly rituals and say it is very nutritious and healthy for the body. The sorghum plant (Sorghum bicolor) (family Poaceae) is an example of a monocotyledonous plant, and this indigenous plant is normally used for the making of porridge and other cereals. This plant is also used in African beer making and can be brought to the class because most learners know it well from their homes . Figure 11: The sorghum plant falls under monocotyledonous plants Source: Wittenborn, 2010 . Sorghum falls under the monocotyledon ous plants, and is used as staple food by South Africans in their everyday life. Ripe sorghum is put in water for few days, taken out and put in a warm place for a few days to start germinating. It is then put in the sun to dry and is eventually used to make umthombo mmila or mohlaba (grainded sorghum granules) which is used to make African beer. 327 Steps in making African beer • Grind the dried sorgham grains until it becomes a powder known as umthombo mmila or mohlaba. • Mix the mmila with luke warm water and a little mealie meal. Close the container tightly and leave for three days. • Cook in a cast-iron pot in an open fire until ripe. It will now look like soft porridge called leseleba and left to cool. • Mix again with mohlaba or umthombo mmila and a little warm water and then store in a covered container. • Leave for two to three days to ferment, i.e sugar will be converted into alcohol and corbon dioxide. • Wait until turns sour, makes bubbles and changes into liquid. • The liguid is drained or filtered to remove mmila and any solids. It is now ready to drink. The beer has a creamy colur and only 2 % alcohol. It is believed that the beer is rich in nutrients and is good for diabetes and high blood pressure. This home industry provides an income to millions of African women. A study conducted in South Africa found that plus or minus 80 % of rural women brewed the beer and 50 % of them brewed for sale at some point in their lives. As already mentioned, anaerobic fermentation is taught in the Life Sciences curriculum. A teacher can start with this indigenous knowledge as the foundation in class as learners' prior knowledge serves as a good starting point for abstract curriculum work. Ask learners about the methods used at home; each one will probably give a different view and describe different methods used at home. In education it is said that teachers should start with the known and progress towards the unknown. The inclusion of indigenous knowledge on can stimulate learners' interest in the topic (respiration). 328 Figure 12: Ripe sorghum is picked from the fields for home use Source: Dave Wittenborn , 2010. Practical applications of knowledge in the local community, where IKS is rationalised and strategically employed, should take centre stage in the school curriculum planning. Experiences that learners bring to the classroom are an important component of the learning equation. (e) Indigenous trees South Africa is blessed with rich and diverse flora. Indigenous trees species are widely spread thrugh the country . Examples include the wild fig, Mopani tree, marula tree,etc. the trees are normally used by Africans for food , medical purposes, wood, development and farms. 329 Figure 13: Clusters of mopani trees (Colophospermum) in the Phalaborwa part of Limpopo Source: Phillips & Rix, 1988. The mopani tree is an indigenous plant from which people normally harvest mopani worms. This is one of the big trees that can be found in Botswana, the northern parts of South Africa and Namibia. The trees are well adapted to bushy, rocky areas and are normally interspersed with other trees like the baobab (Van Wyk & Nigel, 2003). In arid (dry) regions, the tree grows to the size of a bush but when water is abundant it can reach heights of 25 meters. Mopani trees are characterised by their butterfly shaped leaves which are bright green at first and then turn into a beautiful kaleidoscope of autumn co lours (Van Wyk et a/., 2000). 330 From December to January, the tree bears inconspicuous small yellow-green flowers in pendent clusters near twig terminals. Flattened and leathery pods which are almost kidney-shaped are produced by the tree. The fruits are green while young and contain one wrinkle flat dotted with sticky resin glands (Van Wyk, 2003). Fruiting occurs from April to June. The fruits retain their nutritional value after they have fallen to the ground. Both leaves and fruits are rich in proteins and are enjoyed by elephants fond of all the parts of the tree. The tree is regarded as the host of mopani worms (Imbresia belina) and the larvae of the mopani moths (Gonimbrasia be/ina) which feed on the leaves. It is also used for metaphysical (magical) practices, which form part of traditional healing among many communities. During an interview with the researcher, a female traditional healer, Raesetja, said: "The tree is very much important to us as it supplies us with masonja / amasonja (mopani worms) for our families to survive. We normally use the barks and the roots for medicinal purposes. The young bark is lightly to dark grey in colour with very prominent longitudinal fissures while old stems are very light-grey. They are normally used to strengthen the households traditionally. In the African tradition during specific months as a traditional healer I .- sprinkle and bury some medicines mixed with the barks around the yard and the house with an aim of keeping bad spells away. Every year during that specific month the traditional man comes again to revise or update what he has done the previous year. The reason why we do it annually is because we think the evil-doers might have come up with another plan. People try to remain ahead of the witches. The idea is that when those people come during the night with their miracles, they should either get hurt or lost". This, of course, poses a challenge to the Life Sciences teacher. As a result of these metaphysical properties, IK and traditional healing are often marginalised as pseudo science. It is important for teachers to clearly distinguish between herbalism (and scientific evidence for it) and "paljas" or magic. Exploitation of such plants should be avoided at all costs as it will affect the abundance of mopani worms. If the exploitation should continue this tree might 33\ become extinct. This should be emphasised to learners in class as some of them probably helped their parents with harvesting and processing . The marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) species caffera is one of Africa's botanical treasures that bear fruits and nuts that can be eaten by all herbivores and that are rich in vitamin C and minerals. Most trees form a component of the mixed vegetat ion of the savannah or bush that covers the lower slopes of the plateau and lowveld of Mpumalanga and Limpopo , including the Kruger National Park (Van Wyk et a/., 2000). The tree can grow 18 to 20 meters tall and is adapted to grow on sandy loam soils. It produces its flowers from September to November while bearing fruits from January to March (Van Wyk, 2003). The tree is normally dioecious , i.e. have a specific gender. Both fruits and leaves are enjoyed by wild animals such as waterbuck, giraffe, kudu, warthog and elephants. Figure 14: A marula tree Source: Photographic Trees of Southern Africa, Van Wyk B et al. 332 The marula tree also has uses in traditional practices, as described by the female traditional healer, Raesetja: "The stem of the marula tree is used for the carving of sculptures, making mahudu, mose used for grinding mealies at home and other wooden utensils. It can also be used to make fire as it can retain heat for a longer period during winter months when cooking winter dishes like stamp, dikgobe (mixture of cowpeas and beans) and other dishes. The bark facing the eastern side is used to cure makgoma (the swelling of the stomach after a person has entered the room were the corpse was placed before the funeral). During the interviews for this study, an elderly man, Lefoke, added: "The inner side of the bark is used to make rope to tie wood, pieces of medicine, muti and other substances while the other parts are used for medicinal purposes." The old man further said: "As it contains antihistamines it is used for cleansing by putting the plant material, i.e. the inner parts, in boiling water and inhaling the steam. A piece of the bark can be crushed into a pulp, mixed with cold water and swallowed for the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea. It can also be used as malaria prophylactic as our place is liked by mosquitoes that causes it. Some people combine the barks, bulb of other tuberous plants and give to a woman to change the sex of the coming baby." Another interviewee, Mmola, added that "there is a belief among Venda people that the bark infusions can be used to determine the gender of an unborn child. Grinded bark from the male tree to form powder is used if a woman is in need of a son and female tree for a daughter. If it happens that the child of the opposite gender be born, that child is said to be very special as it was able to defy the spirits. Sex of the tree can be easily determined when the tree loses its leaves during winter, exposing its stubby, finger-like branch tips." The prevention of deforestation and the conservation of these indigenous trees and plants will help to preserve them for generations to come. The marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) can live up to 100 years. Hence, it is held with much regard in the community. Members of the community enjoy sitting under the tree and normally 333 hold their important gatherings, like kgoro (imbizo) or court meetings, under these trees, with the traditional leader acting as a judge. The marula tree is valued by all people in the community and if one sees a tree being cut down it is an indication that the community is under pressure. (f) Indigenous greens, leaves and wild fruits as nutritious food One of South Africa's most popular and useful herbaceous plants is the African potato (Hypoxis hemerocalidea) which is hairy, purple in colour, and bears a bulbous corm. It is an indigenous plant which is used by indigenous people as a laxative and as a way to increase the body's natural resistance to diseases. It is believed to help heal many diseases because of the sterol extracted from it and used to boost the body's immune system by stimulating the T-cells which act as fighters against diseases. In Africa, an estimated 70% of edible plants are used either as food or as medication (Nesamvuni, 2000). Different wild plants and cultivated traditional crops provide edible leaves, seeds, fruits, flower, roots and tubers that enrich a starch-based diet with important nutrients. As food production tradition, multi-cropping is a common practice that includes various leafy vegetables. Food plants that are used mainly for their leaves are collectively referred as morogo in Sepedi/Setswana and may either be indigenous or naturalised in their growing areas. A variety of these plants that are utilised as morogo are found mainly in the Limpopo and North West provinces of South Africa. The distribution of the variety of wild merogo (plural of morogo) is largely dictated by the geographical climate and seems to playa role in the cultural taste preferences for particular vegetables (Science for South Africa Quest 6(2), 2010). This is also the indigenous knowledge which needs to be transferred to learners in class. Certain micronutrient deficiencies are common in South African diets. Mothers and grandmothers know best when they tell their children to eat their veggies (Nesamvuni & Steyn, 2000). Two recent research studies undertaken in the Limpopo province proved this wisdom. Nesamvuni's research and the University of Limpopo's Indigenous Edible Plant Programme found that wild green leafy vegetables are rich sources of the vitamins and minerals that our bodies need. Certain cultures have a 334 great knowledge of indigenous plants that can also be brought to learners. Researchers acknowledged that Venda people have a wealth of knowledge about various types of indigenous plants commonly known as green leafy vegetables (miroho) that are used extensively. Wild plants are very rich in carotene, from which vitamin A is derived. Even the poorest can use these plants and benefit from their micronutrients. According to research findings, wild plants are a rich source of micronutrients and a powerful weapon against malnutrition. Most of the learners know plants from home but cannot necessarily connect this knowledge to lessons about nutrition in their Life Sciences classroom. This needs to be addressed in the Life Sciences classroom. (g) Well-known leafy vegetables or morogo Cowpea or dinawa (Vigna unguiculata) is one of the most cultivated vegetables in South Africa. It can be used as both leafy vegetable and pulse crop (sometimes with seeds growing in pods! pod-bearing crop !Iegume). The plant is known to have low water requirements and is found in semi-humid to warm areas where water is scarce and only ash from fires or kraal manure is used to enrich the soil. It can also act as a. natural fertiliser with the aid of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in its root system. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are bacteria that absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere and chemically change it into a form that can be used by plants as a nutrient. It enriches the soil with "originally produced" nitrogen to enhance the productivity of other vegetables or grain when grown together (Science for South Africa Quest 6(2), 2010). Once again, when the Life Sciences teacher teaches the nitrogen cycle, this can be a very useful example to use. Dry cowpea seeds are also stored and are popular in cooked dishes like dikgobe in winter. 335 Figure 15: Thebe (Amaranthus hydrides), a popular green leafy vegetable Source: Van Wyk, 2005. Corchorus tridens (kushe, a Pedi name) or delele lupfumo (a Venda name ) is rich in proteins and is harvested in summer by picking only green leaves . It has a slimy texture when cooked and the leaves are rich in betacarotine, iron, calcium and vitamin C. Figure 16: Corchorus tridens ready to be picked from the garden Source : Schippers , 2008 . 336 Another well-known leafy vegetable that can be found in the wild , but which may be grown as a crop in home gardens , is lerotho or spider flower (Cleome gynandra) . Its leaves and flowers are cooked with other vegetables to reduce the plant's bitter taste. Lerotho is an African traditional vegetable. Cleome gyndra - which is commonly known as African cabbage , spider wisp (English), oorpeultje or snotbelletjies (Afrikaans). Morotho (Pedi) or Moruthu (Venda) - is a good source of beta-carotene, potassium and zinc. Many people like to eat African cabbage, and women normally sell it on the street for a profit. It is used as a vegetable to add important nutreints to the diet of people in the rural areas of Southern Africa. Figure 17: Cleome gyndra is picked to consume or to sell Source: Science for South Africa Quest 6(2),2010. 337 Table 1: Wild nutritious plants commonly eaten by people in the Limpopo area Scientific name African plant name Edible parts Type Amaranthus The/e/e, De/e/e, Leaves, flowers Weedy, natural escu/entus Ligusha flora Amaranthus hybridus Thepe, Thebe Leaves, flowers Weedy, natural flora Amaranthus Vowa Leaves Weedy, natural stand/eyanus flora Bidens pi/osa Moshitsi, Mushidzhi Leavea, flowers Weedy Citrullus /anatus Mochacha, Leaves Crop Makataan C/eome gynandra Murudi, Lerotho Leaves, flowers Weedy, natural flora, crop C/eome monophyll Mutohotoho Leaves Weedy C/eome maxima Thaga, Phuri Leaves, flower, Crop fruit Corchorus tridens Lekushe, De/e/e Leaves, flowers, Crop /upfumo fruits Curcurbita sp Dithaka, Thanga Leaves, flowers, Crop fruits Momordica foetida Nku, Nngu Leaves Weedy, natural flora So/anum retroflexum Muxe Leaves Weedy Source: Adapted from Archemedes 43(1) 2001/23 and Science for South Africa Quest 6(2) 2010. Wild figs (Figus p/atypoda) are edible fruit eaten as "bushfood" or "veldkos". They are extremely important food resources for wildlife and are also of paramount cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects for worship and for their many practical uses. Important meetings and cours are held under fig trees. This is also 338 where elderly people can sit, relax and share knowledge. Fig trees have also profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. It is an indigenous species of the rain forest and a key resource for wild animals. Figure 18: Wild ripe fig fruit ready to be eaten Source: Van Wyk, 2005. The nutritious wild prickle pear (Opuntia) can be brought to class and form part of the learning content. The fruit contain betalatin antioxidants and is rich in glucose. The fruit is obtained from the prickle pear plant (Opuntia phaeca ntha) which is also known as nopales or paddle cactus, which is a genus in the cactus family, Cactaceae. The plant normally grows into a dense, tangled structure that has flat, round platyclades that are characterised by two different types of spines: large and smooth 339 fixed spines and small , hair-like prickles called glochids . Small prickles can easily penetrate into the skin and detach from the main plant. Figure 19: The prickly pear with its fleshy leaves and thorns Source: Adap ted from http://en.Wikipedia.org/file. With the present crises in food production in Africa there is a clear need to build IK into the curriculum, and to empower peop le to make sustainable use of their natural environment. A different culture in education can use its experiences to form an important comp onent of the learning equation. The importance of traditional knowledge for the protection of biodiversity and sustainable development is slowly being recognised internationally (Semeli & Kincheloe, 1999). 340