Baku, Tiflis, and the Institutions of Literary Modernism in War And

CEU eTD Collection A Southern Silver Age:Baku, Tiflis, and the Institutions of Literary Modernism in Warand Revolution In partial fulfillmentIn partial forthe oftherequirements degre Second Reader: ProfessorAlfred J. Second Reader: Rieber Supervisor: Supervisor: AlexeiProfessor Miller Central EuropeanCentral University Department ofHistory Joshua NeeseJoshua Budapest, Hungary Master ofMaster Arts. Submitted to 2014 By

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CEU eTD Collection instructions such madenot be the without permissionwritten oftheAuthor. with accordance in made copies Further made. copies such any of part form must page This librarian. the from obtained be may Details Library. European Central the made be may part, by Copies Author. the with rests thesis this of text the in Copyright

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process, either in full of full in either process,

may CEU eTD Collection determined Soviet the ofearly shape cultural institutions. briefly, if decisions, those how and artists, individual of actions the informed reconstitution p opportunities the the and how state, collapsing show a in I survival of concretely circumstances material More reexamined. be must so and poets these of biographies level, broadest the At power. Bolshevik of years early the in state the and intelligentsia the between relationship the and institutions, Soviet early of building the empire, of dissolution the in states W between (Tbilisi) Tiflis provi the to metropoles imperial the from migrated poets transcendent refugee how examining more of reassessment a provides it which to extent the in to also but ability modernism, Russian its of history in the of only corner not unknown heretofore lies a illuminate story the of value the study, case good any Like wars. civil revolutio Russia’s and War World First the of age uncertain the negotiate they as literati Abstract I assert that each of those historical paradigms fall short when asked to account for the the for account to asked when short fall paradigms historical those of each that assert I In this thesis I follow the movements and activities of a group Russian’s group a of activities and movements the follow I thesis this In

orld War I War orld

n Bk, hs fot nae wt te itrcl ieaue n h connection the on literature historical the with engages effort this Baku, and

and the Russian revol Russian the and utions, the emergence and subordination of national national of subordination and emergence the utions, ii

itrcl usin. By questions. historical rovided in its in rovided ncial cities of cities ncial fin de siècle de fin ns and ns CEU eTD Collection best. year two these making for in Sighnaghi. me with home their sharing for Perdue Andrew and Popovaite Inga finally and Lekit, in family Nemetzade Gabil Baku, in Efendi Javad Caucasus: the in me after looked who friends the to indebted am I vein similar a In colleagues. American my this of themes the of some through work to able was I where Chicago in conference AATSEEL annual the to travel to funds with me providing for University European Central to Mediterr thankhere, you all Al Nadia Professors from from intoIhave rec literary studies history. also transition my eased you of Both welcome. always were criticisms pointed and patient whose Rieber Alfred Professor reader second my with conversations by augmented considerably was tr My historian. competent a of tools the with me providing and field at two years whomCEU thesiswould havethis possible. not andwithout been Acknowledgements

Lastly I would like thank my cohort in the History and History the in cohort my thank like would I Lastly Eastern for Center the and Department History the to thanks my extend to like would I the to me introducing for Miller, Alexei Professor supervisor, my foremost, and First who people of range a to gratitude my express to like would I anean Studies for generously supporting my summer research in Baku and Tbilisi, and Tbilisi, and Baku in research summer my supporting generously for Studies anean

- Bagdadi s not only academically, but socially rewarding. I wish you all the all you wish I rewarding. socially but academically, only not s , Tolga Esmer, and Karl Hall Karl and Esmer, Tolga iii eived support callofdutyeived support beyondthe above and

and his family in Masazır, the Aydinov Aydinov the Masazır, in family his and .

Medieval T hey deserve spec deserve hey aining in the department the in aining supported me during my during me supported

Studies departments Studies

ial mention ial thesis with thesis CEU eTD Collection lan the in vowel common most the represents which schwa, a symbol, This pause. reader the give may “ letter the Turkish, to identical nearly script Latin a in written is Azerbaijani While nouns. parentheses in equivalent day present the give will I reason that for and cities contemporary as identifiable majority the imperial the use to elected have I parties. interested all satisfy would which compromise a for loss a at historian the leaves which ha geography of labeling the nationalism, ascending of period a in region any with As use. in was language which on depending time by complicated half a and century A Note onNamesandT guage, ispronounced When it occurs it When last the over frequently changed have Caucasus the in places many of names The

following the first instance ofeachname. f usa la Russian of the the rfetn sit i ideology in shifts reflecting , fact that many locations have multiple renderings which were current at the the at current were which renderings multiple have locations many that fact ,

I have opte have I ransliteration /æ/ gae ore I ae consulted have I sources nguage , asin American the rendering oftheword“bad.” toponym that was current in 1917 in current was that toponym d to retain the contemporary Azerbaijani spelling of proper proper of spelling Azerbaijani contemporary the retain to d

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ə ” CEU eTD Collection Conclusion Artists: Old Chapter and 4:NewSergei of Gorodetsky Artfrom theCritique Past FromChapter 3:Baku: Natio The Chapter 2:Tiflis: Edge Emp of and Russian of Intersections the at Life Cultural Historiography Soviet Confluence: the to Lost 1: Chapter Introduction Self New Poemsfrom Pens Past fromVisitors theNorth andtheCommiCultural Life upFrom toWorkshop: Setting Studio Camp Caspian onthe andStylistic Heterogonyina State Ethnic Nationalizing Second Exodus: The IndependenceofAbandonment: ofSouth TheEmergence Caucasian States Choosing the Kruzhok - fashioning and the the fashioning and LanguageofRevolution

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CEU eTD Collection Obozrenie, 2003), 328 avant [Russian 2 1968), 336. 1 and Khlebnikov, Velimir Ivanov, Viacheslav Gorodetsky, Sergei Kruchenykh, Aleksei of time whocalleartists the with dissonance extreme in is attention as of unworthy period or Baku unfruitful somehow the of evaluation implicit The concerns. it writers the of another or one of lite of Avangard: FuturisticheskaiaRusskii Revoliutsiia,1917 the only the fact, In unexplored. completely almost remained has particular activities fascinating, though little that period a of Caucasus, history the in chapter new a began Azerbaijan independent circ growing steadily C the in been month very that decamped having troops British Republic, Democratic Azerbaijan the of capital unoccupied Introduction

Vladimir Markov, Markov, Vladimir nri Krusanov, Andrei Russian modernism Russian rary history has been dismissed in a in dismissed been has history rary Indeed, it was the observa the was it Indeed, 1968, in observation this made Markov that fact the Despite 1919 August In

in the Caucasus the in - garde, 1907 garde, aucasus since the spring of 1916 of spring the since aucasus

d citythe home ofwar the in andrevolution. years . usa Ftrs: History A Futurism: Russian usi aagr, 1907 avangard, Russkii - Kruchenykh 344. le of artists and poets who had been had who poets and artists of le

- , 1932. Vol. 2, book 2, Futurist revolution, 1917 revolution, Futurist 2, book 2, Vol. 1932.

, in Baku is confined to confined is Baku in

known episodesthe in historyofRussianfut Aleks n toto in stretched beyond the bounds of the avant the of bounds the beyond stretched

a iprat ebr f h rdcl ieay avant literary radical the of member important an , ei , tion of Professor Harsha Ram Harsha Professor of tion

Kruchenykh a rcgie b Vaii Mro a “n o te most the of “one as Markov Vladimir by recognized was - 1932

tm , ng 2, kniga 2, tom , Bree ad o Agls Uiest o Clfri Press, California of University Angeles: Los and (Berkeley w sentences as a brief interlude in the creative life life creative the in interlude brief a as sentences w ,

1 made the trip from Tiflis to Baku, the freshly freshly the Baku, to Tiflis from trip the made but until that point he had been occupied by the by occupied been had he point that until but

less than less - 1921 twenty pages in A in pages twenty

congregating in Tiflis. Hi Tiflis. in congregating uuitceki rvlusi, 1917 revoliutsiia, Futuristicheskaia . 2

More often than not,this chapter oftenthan More - that, “given the presence at the the at presence the “given that, 1921] (Moscow: Novoe Literaturnoe Novoe (Moscow: 1921]

usa émigré Russian - urism.” garde,

dedicated treatment of treatment dedicated n ta te artistic the that and the Baku period in period Baku the 1 leks

ei Krusanov’s ei stature of the of stature -

ad, had garde, r i the in art to move s - 1921

CEU eTD Collection researched 3 well extremely an provides period the during Tiflis in life cultural Russian of work the on heavily concentrate to selected have I writers of group the of activities Tiflis the of overview an provide will chapter second The chapter. first the in length at addressed be will gro theoretical the provides ultimately which historiography, documentedbetter and environment ofPetrograd Moscow. deve historical the between relationship Caucasus the wa civil Russian the of violence the from off cordoned vacuum, a in operating writ the behind motivations the explain to helps and story the for context essential provides analysis, literary or detail biographic with concerned obviously more p and whoscholars historians followedthem. literary the as period the of accounts own their in silent as often were who writers and artists togethe piecing carefully from resulted which narrative the is thesis this of contribution obvious most the Indeed 1917. of revolutions the of wake the in uprooted of home the became cities region’s as Caucasus the in occurred that explosion cultural unlikely the of subsection a chronicle project. this for impetus the as served writers,other onewonders

Harsha Ram, “Modernism onthe Periphery: Literary Live in Post revolutionary Tbilisi,” olitical and social history of the region. This aspect, which is often missing from accounts accounts from missing often is which aspect, This region. the of history social and olitical h itrly ewe ti cs suy n te agr hms f usa ad Soviet and Russian of themes larger the and study case this between interplay The larger the into narrative their integrate to attempted have I process this Throughout M utis Ti apoc hs i tr, ocd e o s qetos bu the about questions ask to me forced turn, in has, approach This ountains.

the literary historian Tat’iana Nikol’skaia, whose 2000 whose Nikol’skaia, Tat’iana historian literary the

if [a] book on Russian literary if [a]literary life onRussian order,” Bakumight book bein in which

Russian 3

lopment of the cultural field in Tiflis and Baku and the the and Baku and Tiflis in field cultural the of lopment In many ways the work that follows is an attempt to attempt an is follows that work the ways many In

2 silver age intellectuals who found themselves themselves found who intellectuals age silver

und work for the rest of the thesis, the of rest the for work und ers, who are often portrayed as portrayed often are who ers, r the activities the r on. This section draws section This on. Kritika r by the peaks of peaks the by r examination

5, 5, 2 (2004): 370. of various various the the

CEU eTD Collection City”:Cultural Russian Life inTbilisi, 1917 4 resources. secure to ability and acumen, organizational output, creative pre the in stature their Different Tiflis and Baku in communities Choosing the historiography 1920s early the in region the left actors different the which in ways the address will I chapter concluding the In (NEP). Policy Economic New the and reconstruction of era the to shift the and war civil end the by engendered environment changing the to reacted Gorodetsky, Sergei editor chief journal’s the particular in and institutions, cultural Baku the how on light sheds apparatus, importan an during E Iskusstvo cultura Soviet of infrastructure integration subsequent city’s the and Army Red the of arrival the to reacted Baku to poets Tiflis the of relocation the to devoted most the of consists which chapter, third The war. civil Russian the and WWI of rivalry power great the in Caucasus South the of place the understand better to seeks which scholarship of body growing the to recourse by account this contextualize to tried study. such any for point starting the forms necessarily that base source and chronology

nlightenment a’aa Nikol’skaia, Tat’iana In light of the panoply of cultural figures who moved through the displaced displaced the through moved who figures cultural of panoply the of light In te fiil ra o te rs eto o te zrajn Cmisra of Commissariat Azerbaijani the of Section Arts the of organ official the , people were of differing importance at different times. Their centrality depended on depended centrality Their times. different at importance differing of were people n hw hi soy elcs n h mi curr main the on reflects story their how and . Kruzhok

Nropo) Ti junl wih a pbihd vr h cus o 1921 of course the over published was which journal, This (Narkompros).

pro o rognzto ad etaiain ihn h Sve cultural Soviet the within centralization and reorganization of period t “Fantas -

war cultural world, but also their position in Tiflis, a product of their their of product a Tiflis, in position their also but world, cultural war

ihsi grd: usaa u’uni zin v bls, 1917 Tbilisi, v zhizn’ kul’turnaia Russkaia gorod”: ticheskii

l institutions. This is followed by a close reading of the journal the of reading close a by followed is This institutions. l ,

t s ifcl t dsigih h cnrl cos f h period. the of actors central the distinguish to difficult is it - 21] (Moscow: Piataia strana, 2000). 3

. Here I engage I Here . substantial original research, is research, original substantial ents of Russian and Soviet Soviet and Russian of ents

the ways in which in ways the

While aesthetic school aesthetic While into the into - 1921

emerging emerging [“Fantastic 4

I have I of the of artists s

CEU eTD Collection Press, 1995). 5 of émigré world cultural revolutionary Baku andTiflis. reference of point first the be should It details. further seeking those for bibliography extensive an along figures, minor period’s the of many of works and life the about details unrivaledwith collection Stravinsky. Sudenkin Vera of album salon the of edition annotated Bowlt’s John on heavily relied have narrative tha the in roles central less play obvious, most the only name to Khlebnikov Velimir and Ivanov, Viacheslav Kamensky, Vasily time, the at present were who celebrities literary certain result, complet those while appeared, they as suddenly as region the from disappearing broader ephemeral, most the the were history literary in of context figures noteworthy most the Oftentimes states. of and soldiers of refugees, intervention. Soviet divid the across presence continued their as well as Tiflis, and Baku both in life literary the an than More Caucasus.the in reproduced not were arts formalist and left, Futurist, of labels the to pejorative, meaning political sharp such attached that conditions the that note to important ar that assert to wrong be would It of dislocation. experience common the in dissolved have to seems war the before years the in Moscow and Petrograd in developed had that factionalism the of much association, dictated occasionally

on . ol, d ad trans., and ed. Bowlt, E. John In search of the biographies behind many of the names I encountered in my research, I research, my in encountered I names the of many behind biographies the of search In re a foremost and first were Caucasus South The

for any scholar dealing with the intricate social networks which developed in the the in developed which networks social intricate the with dealing scholar any for

t follows than mightt followsthan beexpected. While Bowlt occasionally confus occasionally Bowlt While ything, what links together the cast I have assembled is their active participation in active assembledhaveis their cast I whattogether the links ything,

The Salon Album of Vera Sudeikin Vera of Album Salon The

ely unknown in other contexts show up show contexts other in unknown ely

es the political chronology, he has supplied this supplied has he chronology, political the es 4

itc tls odd no ah te, u i is it but other, each into folded styles tistic

- Stravinsky in f rni, f eore and resources of transit, of gion

Pictn Prince (Princeton: repeatedly s pstv or positive , ton University ton . As a As . e of e - CEU eTD Collection and M. 1913 Matiushinu, 6 thi half, a and decade last the For again. back and fronts to factories from territory Russian the across caroming refugees and prisoners, soldiers, set retreat and advance military with combined mobilization troop began, war the once and cities, countryside the from yearspopulations large brought industrialization war, the the to up leading In empire. the of makeup demographic the altered radically and society Russian Petrograd. in coup October their staged had Bolsheviks the after years half a and two almost institutions, 1920 of spring newly the states of Caucasian South capitals independent Baku, and Tiflis to then and Anatolia, occupied in railroad military Russian the on draftsman a as work to first repeatedly, move would Kruchenykh war, civil A mobilized. being from himself keep to way isolated if feasible, a was 20,000 of shy just population a with town small a in teacher a as job this least, at being time the for and draft, the about worry to have to enough young still was Kruchenykh Cherkessk. day present Batalpashinsk, of town Caucasian North the in girls for school a at instructor drawing a become to capital Russian the left and things andSoviet Historiography Russian Chapter

lxi Kruchenykh, Alexei

V. MatiV. Kr Aug In ceyhs tr i nt nqe Te is Wrd a dsoae vs scin of sections vast dislocated War World First The unique. not is story uchenykh’s

1: Lost to the Confluence: Confluence: the to Lost 1: ushin, 1913 ust 1915, Aleks 1915, ust - , 1921

ht rceyh ol cm i cnat ih h dvlpn Sve cultural Soviet developing the with contact in come would Kruchenykh that Mr arsci, glv mi uh iran” Psm A. Pis’ma izriadno”: g already head’s my but uzhe brink, the on world’s [“The moia golova a zatreshchit, “Mir - 1921], ed. Andrei Krusanov (Moscow: Gileia, 2012), 27

ei Kruchenykh, Russian Futurism’s Russian Kruchenykh, ei

of Georgia and Azerbaijan. It was only in Baku, in the the in Baku, in only was It Azerbaijan. and Georgia of

5 Cultural Life at the Intersections of of Intersections the at Life Cultural

s war bled into revolution and again into again and revolution into bled war s s movement and displacement has been has displacement and movement s one over”: Letters to A. A. Shem A. A. to Letters over”: one 6 enfant terrible enfant

t h ae f twen of age the At - 28.

. hmhrn i Shemshurinu A.

packed up his up packed

ty into the into

- M. nine, hurin hurin

V. V. CEU eTD Collection Russia, 1914 9 JournalThe of Modern History 8 University Press, 1999). 7 begin to tend period, interwar the in Europe in society émigré Russian of examinations as such intelligentsia, cultural the of displacement the with concerned waysfar ranging it th obscures and phenomenon the oversimplifies displacement of stratum vulnerable schools. art local at enrolment swelling and auction, accounti market, cultural wartime the stimulating in role large a played capital Russian the in refugees out, points Cohen Aaron As war. of vicissitudes the by uprooted elites regional constituted rather but peasants, impoverished not were mobile part oftheSouthKruchenykh, acentral Caucasian milieu cultural in BakuandTiflis. for correspondent war a as front Ottoman the to off ran patriotism of fit a in who Gorodetsky, Sergei poet the like intelligentsia the of others.” of range we […] populations as But disadvantaged.” cleansed ethnically and refugees civilian like the migrants “disadvantaged say, to on goes on Sanborn attention their focus to scholars migration of predilection effectmiddle onthe strataofRussianand society cultural elite on the in particular. attention.scholarly fruitful extremelyof object the

Joshua Sanborn, “Unsettling the Empire: Violent Migr Violent Empire: the “Unsettling Sanborn, Joshua Aaron J. Cohen, J. Aaron e, ee Gatrell, Peter See, In an instructive instance of this gap, even studies one would imagine to be explicitly be to imagine would one studies even gap, this of instance instructive an In hom themselves found who civilians the of many that noted be also should It may this for explanation One - 1917

(Lincoln: University Imagining the Unimaginable: World War, Modern Art, and the Politics of Public Culture in Culture Public of Politics the and Art, Modern War, World Unimaginable: the Imagining 8

A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War I War World during Russia in Refugees Walking: Empire Whole A These included draft dodgers like Kruchenykh, but also mobilized members mobilized also but Kruchenykh, like dodgers draft included These affected

re not the only ones on the move […] during the war. So too were a wide a were too So war. the during […] move the on ones only the not re

77, no. 2 (2005): 294.

Russian

of NebraskaPress, 2008), 93 society. e ht oha abr hs ald te og standing long “the called has Sanborn Joshua what be

ations and Social Disaster in Russia during World War I,” War World during Russia in Disaster Social and ations 6

uso Slovo Russkoe Very little, however, has been said about its about said been has however, little, Very 9 - ng for sizeable portion of art sales at sales art of portion sizeable for ng

94. The consistent focus on the most most the on focus consistent The

, eventually becoming, like like becoming, eventually , with the moment when the the when moment the with

Bomntn Indiana (Bloomington:

e many and and many e

eless and eless

cover cover CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1989). eds. Revolution, Russian 12 the (Bloomington: in Indiana University Press,1985), 57 Order and Experiment 11 the RussianEmigration, 1919 World 10 First the includes also that timeline a within understood best perhaps is war civil the life.Russian and Soviet cul the across conflict the of effects the reassess to began historians mind, in this With society. Russian throughout broadly but politics, party in only not manifest War of t over policies which in way the to so the prefigured Communism confined was observation this first at Although dee had war crumbling from empire, western the Pacificborderlands to the Ocean. history, Russian of course the eff understanding to paramount as settings and characters of cast small a foregrounds populations mercurial such of time a at centers urban large privileges t the at many for that fact the obscures it perspective, this of merits fundamental Whatever inevitable. as them, delineated that borders the and lands, Russian of reconstitution the portrays which narrative topography social of changes empire disintegrating the of borders the crossed abroad,” “Russia up made who civilians million three nearly the and generals, White writers, capitalists, nobles,

Marc Raeff’s study can be considered representative in this regard, Raeff, regard, this in representative considered be can study Raeff’s Marc For a representative volume representative a For o a umr, e Sel Fitzp Sheila see summary, a For ectively excluding a range of diffuse forces which spread across the territory of the the of territory the across spread which forces diffuse of range a excluding ectively at, tt, n Scey n h Rsin ii Wr Epoain i Sca History Social in Explorations War: Civil Russian the in Society and State, Party, he following decade it became increasingly accepted that the legacy of the civil war was war civil the of legacy the that accepted increasingly became it decade following he Since the beginning of the 2000s, this trend has been coupled with the realization that realization the with coupled been has trend this 2000s, the of beginning the Since Already in the mid the in Already l cniind ay f h dvlpet wti te on Sve state. Soviet young the within developments the of many conditioned ply m, ils emd s a aa fo Mso a Paris. as Moscow from away far as seemed Tiflis ime,

12 -

1939

of this trend, see Diane P. Koenker, William G. Rosenberg, and Ronald G. Suny, G. Ronald and Rosenberg, G. William Koenker, P. Diane see trend, this of - 1980s it was obvious to many historians that the realities of civil civil of realities the that historians many to obvious was it 1980s

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990). tik “h Cvl a a a omtv Eprec, in Experience,” Formative a as War Civil “The atrick, - within called great retreat initiated by Stalin towards the end of NEP, NEP, of end the towards Stalin by initiated retreat great called Russia - 76.

trioy is territory n 7 Stites Richard and Kenez, Peter Gleason, Abbot ed.

h pout f n vr determined over an of product the Russia Abroad: A Cultural History of History Cultural A Abroad: Russia

tural and social spheres of spheres social and tural . 10

hs iec a t the to as silence This

Bomntn Indiana (Bloomington:

osei Culture: Bolshevik h soy that story The 11

CEU eTD Collection 267. 1922 Policy, Cultural Soviet Enemies: Its and culture on Line ‘Soft’ “The non on 17 Public Sphere 16 Revolutionary Russia 15 Press, 2014). Earl the in Ideology and Art Anarchy: of Aesthetics 14 MA: Harvard University Press, 2002). 13 dominatedperiod bywhatSheilaFitzpatrickin plura the by followed as depicted is war civil the of pause cultural the coercion, poems.” and half that believe to seemshard years, it first in the Russia Soviet to […] back thinks one “When recalled: b up summed neatly in position revolution. the of conditions material desperate the amid private in pursuits cultural their with on carry steadfastly to opting instead administration, Bolshevik a commonly is it intelligentsia, the of section larger The who avant radical artists the notably most were regime, the there with cooperated while that, asserted frequently is it and war civil the of analyses in Russian of study history.cultural the to framework that extend to begun historians have however recently chronology a War,

Fitzpatrick defined the ‘soft’ line as “the product of a policy of expedient of policya productof “the as linethe‘soft’ defined Fitzpatrick Peter Holquist, Peter o to xmls f hs e drcin e, Cohen, see, direction new this of examples two For utd n tat Finkel, Stuart in Quoted itih eru “rkn dniis Te nelgnsa n eouinr Rsi, in Russia,” Revolutionary in Intelligentsia The Identities: “Broken Beyrau, Dietrich

unheated rooms, to debate philosophical problems for three or four hours and listen to to listen and hours four or three for problems philosophical debate to rooms, unheated - negotiable terms laid down by the party leadership and without institutional decrees.” Sheila Fitzpatrick, Sheila decrees.” institutional without and leadership party the by down laid terms negotiable This image of intellectuals as somehow beyond this historical momenthistorical thisis equall somehowasimage beyond intellectuals This of 16 - starving men could assemble in great numbers several times a week in badly lighted badly in week a times several numbers great in assemble could men starving

n epn wt a narrative a with keeping In

(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 89. Making War and Forging R Forging and War Making 14

, ed. Madhavan K.Palat (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2001

ht ee Hlus hs ubd usas cnium f crisis.” of “continuum Russia’s dubbed has Holquist Peter that n h Ielgcl rn: h Rsin nelgnsa n te aig f h Soviet the of Making the and Intelligentsia Russian The Front: Ideological the On

y the philosopher and sociologist Fyodor Stepun, who in 1934, in who Stepun, Fyodor sociologist and philosopher the y

evolution: Russia’s Continuum of Crisis, 1914 Crisis, of Continuum Russia’s evolution: raie aon the around organized Rsin Avant Russian y 8 1974 mgnn te Unimaginable the Imagining

identified “softas the lineonculture.” - sserted, refused to engage with the the with engage to refused sserted, Garde - garde, they were in the minority. the in were they garde, - 1927,” accommodation with the intelligentsia,theaccommodation with bs n fos f Communist of flows and ebbs Bree: nvriy f California of University (Berkeley: ), The romantic image of this this of image romantic The

147. Slavic Review Slavic

ad ia Gurianova, Nina and ; Social Identities in in Identities Social - 1921 lism of NEP, a a NEP, of lism

33, no. 33, (Cambridge, y present 13 2 (1974): 2

Only 17 The

CEU eTD Collection 1915 22 21 20 19 AlexanderRabinowitch, and Richard Stites (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,1991), 210 in Life,” Intellectual Communism to Tsarism 18 avant the of trend. this of evolution the of avant analysis though most the the provide of politics the on article Wood’s of Paul creation trend. the historiographic encouraged has state Soviet the with engagement enthusiastic and early whose writers and artists of group defined loosely a was This narrative. this to point and coercive withinthe potential cultural sphere. centralization increased an with hand in hand went institutions Soviet new of development the paradigm new this since, years the In organiz greater by arbitrariness of replacement the rather [but] relaxation by followed attack of one not was culture in periods NEP and war civil the between difference essential be foundinintellectua Realism. Socialist to ‘pluralism’ of “elements were there while that: of assertions the on predicated was reevaluation domination total the towards march steady a by conditioned which favo Organizations” in organizations Artistic artistic and independent Literary of Restructuring the “On decree 1932 the and revolution, cultural the Stalinization, of processes later with comparison implicit interpretation this that clear became it Clark, Katarina and

See Read, Clark, “The‘Quiet Revolution,’” 210. al od “h Pltc o te Avant the of Politics “The Wood, Paul hitpe Read, Christopher - 1932 Finkel, Culture and Power The hi The Read Christopher of work of result a as notably most however, 1990s, the in Starting

(New York: Guggenheim Museum Publications, 1992), 1 Onthe Ideological Front - garde has been by turns interpreted as the sto the as interpreted turns by been has garde story of Russia’s avant Russia’s of story Russia in the in Russia utr ad oe i Rvltoay usa Te nelgnsa n te rniin from Transition the and Intelligentsia The Russia: Revolutionary in Power and Culture l life definingofthetimes,” duringNEP[...] theywerenot Lno: amla, 90; aaia lr, Te Qit eouin i Soviet in Revolution’ ‘Quiet “The Clark, Katarina 1990); Macmillan, (London: , 168.

Era of NEP: Explorations in Soviet Society and Culture and Society Soviet in Explorations NEP: of Era

- ad, in Garde,” - garde, on the other hand, has provided a constant counter constant a provided has hand, other the on garde,

has led to the assertion the to led has o r h Get Utopia: Great The 9 te etaie writers centralized the f

- 24. ry of naïve utopians caught up in the in up caught utopians naïve of ry

that NEP was a period in which in period a was NEP that f NEP of h Rsin n Sve Avant Soviet and Russian The 22

Wood argues that the history the that argues Wood a haiy ein an reliant heavily was ’

union: - , ed. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Sheila ed. , to continues garde - 230. 19

a continuum continuum a and that “theand that

separate a liquidated ation.” 18 - Garde,

This 20

CEU eTD Collection 26 Politi 25 Dictatorship and Beyond 24 23 attentioncritical leveled otheraspectsoftheSovietat regime. avant the excuse to tendency a was there totalitarianism, monolithic freedom.” individual of virtues attendant the and a an is twentieth in currency gained gradually that art of notion ‘rosy’ and naive rather “a called Groys Boris what of product the been also has this that f repression real very the of recognition the speaking, politically is som it as history treated generally intellectual of field the within even and studies, Soviet of framework broader manifestations. later its and revolution conn the to attitudes as well as regime, avant the Bolshevik the t form ultimate the and of project, years initial the of legacy the culture, Russian prerevolutionary between Union, astheand obvious complicit pre dearth”; economic and people, backwards the monolithic party, “the by down brought revolutionaries artistic committed revolution; of turmoil

Groys, Ibid., 5. Iva Glisic, “CaffeinatedAvant Glisic, Iva h lte ws ot togy rud i argued strongly most was latter The cs and History ection, there has been a reluctance to integrate an understanding of the of understanding an integrate to reluctance a been has there ection, ctivity that is independent of power and seeks to assert the autonomy of the individual the of autonomy the assert to seeks and power of independent is that ctivity Previously it could be said that this tendency reflected both limited archival access and and access archival limited both reflected tendency this that said be could it Previously avant Soviet the of politics the of question The Total Art of Stalinism

- garde has been closely related to the fluctuations in temperament towards the Soviet the towards temperament in fluctuations the to related closely been has garde

58, no. 3 (2012): 355.

marginal, “littlemore daydreaming the than utopian ofyoungartists.”

(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).

hw apart. ehow , 7. - Garde: FuturismGarde:

aken by Stalinism. by aken

Brs Groys, Boris n

hs is This cursor totalitarian Socialist Realism. during aced my many radical artists. But it should be noted noted be should it But artists. radical many my aced ehp te eut f f a of result the perhaps 1

0 the Russian Civil War: 1917 CivilWar: Russian the -

century aesthetics. According to this view, art view, this to According aesthetics. century h Ttl r o Saiim Avant Stalinism: of Art Total The In this sense, the history of interpretation of interpretation of history the sense, this In 26 -

23 garde is at its root an issue of continuity continuity of issue an root its at is garde n hr, s h poeba fi t a to foil proverbial the as short, In

n atr h clas o te Soviet the of collapse the after and

- eig ht hs r was art this that eeling ad from garde - 1921, avant 24

Australian Journal ofJournalAustralian - - ad, Aesthetic Garde,

garde ept this Despite

h tp of type the

into the into 25

, CEU eTD Collection University Press, 2007); 121 2007), Press, Pindar (London: Kazimir of Anniversary 125th the of Celebration Avant the of Survival the and P in 29 University Press, 1970). 1917 October Lunacharsky, under Arts the and Education of Organization Soviet 28 2008). Kiaer, spec Factography,” “Soviet ed., Fore, Deven 2005); Press, California of 27 o margins Soviet early cultural institutions. mislea a are principals aesthetic that suggests modernists radical by dominated not were early institutions Caucasus, cultural South Soviet the in that fact The reach. within been before never had that power situationally Moscow, in extent lesser a to and socio the of margins the in exist to abs an in rooted was contingency.historical to opposed as congruency, relationship that which to has extent however scholarship the Recent challenged state. Soviet ar the with collaboration contemporaneous early vaunted of much significance potential the developments ignored largely has history state. Soviet the of foundation the of context avant the gover of proximity the with terms to come to effort the furthered

For example, Maria Gouch, Mariaexample, For This is further supported by recent studies which have shown the multiform development of cultural institutions cultural of developmentmultiform the shown have which studies recent by supported further is This As Wood also notes, the most significant exception is Sheila Fitzpatrick, Sheila is exception significant most the notes, also Wood As etrograd, Vitebsk, and Moscow. See respectively Pamela Kachurin, “Malevich as Soviet Bureaucrat: Ginkhik Bureaucrat: Soviet as “Malevich Kachurin, Pamela respectively See Moscow. and Vitebsk, etrograd,

nment, they have mostly fallen short of placing these developments within the broader broader the within developments these placing of short fallen mostly have they nment, mgn N Psesos Te oils Ojcs f usa Constructivism Russian of Objects Socialist The Possessions: No Imagine The story of Russian modernism in the Caucasian borderlands is one that exists on the on exists that one is borderlands Caucasian the in modernism Russian of story The have studies several essay, Wood’s of publication the since time the in Although, te itrcl artvs out narratives historical the f . 28

h avant The

and ding category under which to organize a history of the construction of of construction the of history a organize to which under category ding

Gurianova,

The Artist as Producer: Russian Constructivism in RevolutionConstructivismRussianin Producer: as Artist The - - ad, 1924 Garde, ad hs trce ti tp o dbt seiial bcue f its of because specifically debate of type this attracted has garde

- 3; lkada Shatskikh, Aleksandra 138; 29 Aesthetics Anarchy of

- economic field of Russian cultural life were, in Petrograd in were, life cultural Russian of field economic - 96” in 1926,” ie aoe A such, As above. lined

Malevich’s Birth Malevich’s 11

27 encouraged to seize on a type of administrative of type a on seize to encouraged ehnig aeih Poedns f Cneec in Conference a of Proceedings Malevich: Rethinking

t h sm tm, h ltrtr o political of literature the time, same the At The .

a vant ies: h Lf o Art of Life The Vitebsk: , ed. Charlotte Douglas and Christina Lodder Lodder Christina and Douglas Charlotte ed. , - garde artists who were more likely more were artistswho garde ial issue ial The Commissariat of Enlight of Commissariat The

t a rrl be addressed been rarely has it

- October (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, Press, MIT MA: (Cambridge, 1921 -

(Cambridge: Cambridge (Cambridge: ad t te Soviet the to garde

118 (2006); Christina (2006); 118 (Berkeley: University(Berkeley:

lt ideological olute Nw ae: Yale Haven: (New enment: tistic CEU eTD Collection Gurianova dokumenty i Vospominani 32 Auto/Biog 31 laterhas difficulty moving beyond its reliance on nationally framedsecondary literature. predominatel however, former, The 2013). Press, University Cambridge 1917 30 and poetslocal the and Gorodetsky, Sergei Ivanov, Viacheslav andscandalize with disputes into got Telegrap Russian [the Rosta at worked “I collection 1928 the in as terse uniformly past. the document than credentials revolutionary establish to ofSoviet intermsofauto as unremarkable practice the seen be could period the that fact the by explained be partially can This Baku. in spent he time th accounting forces. forcross regional satisfactorily of incapable historiography national a of imposition the by fractured is Caucasus sense important an In borders. national for regard without Tiflis and Baku of cities the between move to tendency their in communities these by observed inev are histories regional time, same state the At Soviet abroad. Russia the of story intothe from region reincorporated the excludes was that empire former the of part as Caucasus, the concerned actors with engage to late so was it because part in history, cultural Soviet of trajectory central the from aberration an as viewed frequently is it historians art and literary For directly.

Alexei Kruchenykh, “Avtobiografiia dichaishego” [Autobiography asavage],of in Walter Comins Walter For two important attemptsimportant two For acut o te rit tesle. rceyh fr xml rrl rmnse aot the about reminisced rarely example for Kruchenykh, themselves. artists the of accounts e

- itably placed within a national framework which is not amenable to the imperial geography geography imperial the to amenable not is which framework national a within placed itably professors.” 1921 The story is complicated further by the fa the by further complicated is story The raphy

(Moscow: Gileia, 2006), 317. (New York: Philosophical Library, 1951); and James Forsyth, Forsyth, James and 1951); Library, Philosophical York: (New

12, no. 1 (1997): 22 - Richmond, “The Polemics of Recollection: Three Russian Futurists Struggle over the Past,” the over StruggleFuturists Russian Three Recollection: of Polemics“The Richmond, 32

were not were

No less tersely, in a 1960 speech at the Central State Archives of Literature of Archives State Central the at speech 1960 a in tersely, less No Twrs hsoy f usa ftrs: eolcin ad ouet] e. Nina ed. documents], and Recollections futurism: Russian of history a [Towards

to move beyond this frame, see Firuz Kazemzadeh, Firuz see frame, this beyond move to disadvantaged enough to be considered as refugees, the territory of territory the refugees, as considered be to enough disadvantaged

- 36.

15 Years of Russian Futurism Futurism Russian of Years 15 h Agency] with Velimir Khlebnikov […] and others; and […] Khlebnikov Velimir with Agency] h 12

ct that the period is often also often is period the that ct - biography, a ,

the history history the y seeks to be a political history, while the while history, political a be to seeks y 31 The Caucasus: A History A Caucasus: The

As such, his recollections are recollections his such, As genre frequently used more The Struggle for Transcaucasia, for Struggle The of Russian émigrés in the in émigrés Russian of K istoriifuturizma: russkogo when he states simply: simply: states he when

marginalized in marginalized the state. The state. the

(Cambridge: a/b: a/b: ,

CEU eTD Collection Soviet Russia P University Avant Russian The Soviet: Modernism World,” Literary Soviet 34 (Munich: Verlag OttoSagner, 1992), 103. 33 structures. n the which from agency of centers into evolving sustenance, professional and physical of elements basic the securing beyond went even networks these Eventually times. uncertain during security political and sim of role the stressed has period Soviet early and war, civil Revolution, Russian the during intelligentsia cultural the of transformation the on scholarship recent fact, In state. Soviet emerging the of foundation the in played networks a environments, counterrevolutionary as portray would scholarship what Soviet of midst the in formed network a with associated Kruchenykh was he Azerbaijan, which in in ways ascension the obscures Bolshevik the by case this in or revolution, the by the o course over Caucasus the in established been had that poets of network a in node major a was one or simply as of period dismiss the prerevolutionarygloom. Gorodetsky), and Ivanov bourgeois the (scandalizing Futurism revolutionary of guard advance cormorants.” poiso and hunger about poems gloomy of couple a wrote I Volga. the on famine was there Rostov and Caucasus North the from approaching were Guards White The difficult. the of Art and

For variations of this argument, see Barbara Walker, “Kruzhok Culture: The Culture: “Kruzhok Walker, Barbara see argument,this of variations For Sergei M. Sukhoparov, M. Sergei This port This f WWI and the civil w civil the and WWI f 34 ress, 2013); and Gerald M. Easter, M. Gerald and 2013); ress,

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

USSR, he passed quickly over the period saying, “the international situation was was situation international “the saying, period the over quickly passed he USSR, These descriptions descriptions These rayal ignores the fact that prior to the Bolshevik seizure of Baku, Kruchenykh Baku, of seizure Bolshevik the to prior that fact the ignores rayal Contemporary European History European Contemporary Aleksei Kruchenykh: Sud’ba budetlianina Sud’ba Kruchenykh: Aleksei

ew Soviet citizenry could participate in the development of state state of development the in participate could citizenry Soviet ew

ar. By reinforcing the traditional chronology of a world b world a of chronology traditional the reinforcing By ar. - ad i te al Sve Ea 1918 Era, Soviet Early the in Garde

tep either attempt Reconstructing the State: Personal Networks and Elite Identity in Identity Elite and Networks Personal State: the Reconstructing 13 ilar networks in securing resources, privileges, privileges, resources, securing in networks ilar

11, no. 1 (2002): 107 (2002): 1 no. 11,

o mhsz te ots oiin s the as position poet’s the emphasize to

[Alexei Kruchenykh: The fate of a futurist] a of fate The Kruchenykh: [Alexei

- Meaning of Patronage in the Early the in Patronage of Meaning 1928 - 123; Pamela Kachurin, Kachurin, Pamela 123;

Easo, L Northwestern IL: (Evanston, d h rl such role the nd - on isected Making - Don, Don, n - CEU eTD Collection 37 36 Times 35 kruzhok tha argues Kachurin society. Soviet broader Rule Sovietology, early of work classic Fainsod’s Merle from revived term terms in projects artistic modernist Soviet early discusses Kachurin state. the predi was support political for return in welfare system of expanding an workers cultural offered state Soviet the whereby contract’ ‘social the of terms the dictate to intelligentsia the of capacity the the of replaced increasingly that aid distribution material the for hubs became they war, civil the during sustenance of means the respons became associations artists for survival of mechanism central the became life, cultural of business pragmatic and abstract the both promoting of purpose the for formed pursui in gathered who development. cultural and educational, enthusiasts intellectual, culture high and artists, writers, of groups small pre of extension an were Maximilian poet modernist the co of Voloshin, study her in notably most Walker, Barbara networks.

Walker, “KruzhokCulture,” 108. Merle Fainsod, Barbara Walker, Barbara .

cated on the ability of a of ability the on cated 37 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005).

This account stresses the artistic specificity of the the of specificity artistic the stresses account This these of investigation the for proposed been have paradigms analytical Several In doing so doing In , was a deeply pragmatic phenomenon which became an intrinsic part of Soviet Soviet of part intrinsic an became which phenomenon pragmatic deeply a was , 36

tns ht h ntok o ptoae hc dmntd h ery oit period Soviet early the dominated which patronage of networks the that ntends Smolensk under Soviet Rule Maximilian Voloshin and the Russian Literary Circle: Culture and Survival in Survival and Culture Circle: Literary Russian the and Voloshin Maximilian ,

she stresses the continuity between the strategy of artistic groups and the and groups artistic of strategy the between continuity the stresses she

- revolutionary ible for providing not only paths to paths only not providing for ible

kruzhok kruzhok

(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958). patron to act as an intermediary between his clients and clients his between intermediary an as act to patron a monetary economy under Bolshevik rule. For Walker, For rule. Bolshevik under economy monetary a kruzhok t the Soviet network, as opposed to the silver age silver the to opposed as network, Soviet the t

culture; culture; 35

In her rendition, these groups, originally groups, these rendition, her In during kruzhok

kruzhok.

h cvl w civil the professional development, but but development, professional being a generic term for the the for term generic a being f h “aiy ice” a circle,” “family the of Smolensk under Smolensk

n otat Pamela contrast, In ar years. As these these As years. ar

Revolutionary Soviet of t CEU eTD Collection Patrio Science, University Press, 2009). Russia: Tsarist in Associations Voluntary Bradley,Joseph assumed, see commonly has been historythan Russian in moreprominentmuch organization,was 39 38 15,064.” to 10,622 from (volost) counties and 701, to 567 from (uzed) during that fact the the 1921 and 1917 between period the that out points Easter Gerald example, the to response in developed which localism increased aims fromhistorical period one tothe next. became Soviet period the in persisted only not networks informal prerevolutionary these that clear makes two writer the émigré Russian between of story The continuity periods. of line a constitute analysis under networks very the that fact This institution. artists’ an became home Crimean his how exploring str individual Voloshin’s to devoted is analysis her war civil the during pre evolving of life, theconfluencediscourse Soviet particularly as regards ofCommunism arts. andthe the in participate actively to but support, material secure to only not Bolshevism, withi artists, of ability the from rather comes Kachurin, to according specificity, literary or artistic The officialdom.

Kachurin, Easter, - parcelization

o post to — hs oe o sae ulig s n ie ih bodr ieaue ht eonzs an recognizes that literature broader a with line in is building state of model This from transition the to attention sustained directs however, renditions, these of Neither

the formal the cultural eetd y eainhp o tut ul drn te ii war civil the during build trust of relationships by cemented Reconstruc Making Modernism Soviet, - revolutionary institutions. Although Walker takes this chronology into account, account, into chronology this takes Walker Although institutions. revolutionary

of the imperial administrative structure which is at least partially reflected in reflected partially least at is which structure administrative imperial the of ig the ting this period saw an increase of provinces (guberniia) from 64 to 93, districts districts 93, to 64 from (guberniia) provinces of increase an saw period this

n the framework of these circles, to instrumentalize the language of of language the instrumentalize to circles, these of framework the n

tt, 6 Fr h agmn ta ti sr o lcls, n h fr o voluntary of form the in localism, of sort this that argument the For 76. State, institutions of the Soviet state, effectively porting both membersandSovietportingboth state,effectively institutions the of

xx.

s in Baku at the moment of Bolshevik occupation Bolshevik of moment the at Baku in s 15

im ad ii Society Civil and tism, conditions of civil war. To take just one just take To war. civil of conditions ategies of survival rather rather survival of ategies lacuna

— Cmrde M: Harvard MA: (Cambridge, 39 but often themselves themselves often but was characterized by characterized was

A similar point has point similar A

exists despite the despite exists 38

CEU eTD Collection number the to equal wit are Unimaginable mirrored they when is 1920 pattern until This decline 1905. steady for by followedregistered 1918 in below drop a by followed 41 and theCivil War,” 40 becomesmore visible. by are they as saturated capitals, the of dynamics familiar the from away moving By NEP. of program f justification the Arts the between scale of part was Proletkult, organization Culture Proletarian largest the and Narkompros the of Department the on out played which factionalism, This pass. to came to government the appe of the created ability resources monopolize The infrastructure. state a of umbrella the under work their continue to them behooved it that found networks many that suggest above cited culture Soviet organizations arts independent of number the in decrease dramatic a brought revolution Bolshevik the that seem may it Although scale small of “warlordism.” rise the and organization military regarding Sanborn Joshua by made been

Joshua Sanborn, “The Genesis of Russian Warlordism: Violence and Governance during the First World War War World First the during Governance and Violence Warlordism: Russian of Genesis “The Sanborn, Joshua h tbe poie b Chn hw daai ices i at ru i Ptrbr ad ocw n 1917, in Moscow and Petersburg in group art in increase dramatic a show Cohen by provided tables The the y seto i ta lcls ws lo h pealn tnec i te utrl sphere. cultural the in tendency prevailing the also was localism that is assertion My heavily entrenched narratives outlined above, this differentiated aspect o aspect differentiated this above, outlined narratives entrenched heavily , 189. 40

Contemporary European History or what Christopher Read among others has characterized as the centralization the as characterized has others among Read Christopher what or

, 41

eet ae tde of studies case recent rne f nt ln bfr ayhn o te ot truly sort the of anything before long unity of arance a a o 2 of lag a h

19, no. 3 (2010): 195 16

- yas n h poics Cohen, provinces. the in years 3 pcfc ntttos f ii war civil of institutions specific - 213.

mgnn the Imagining f the story story the f

CEU eTD Collection (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univers 43 42 Tiflis. and Baku of cities the in established Armenian communities large the to way their making thousands genocide; Armenian the of wake the in region the into poured who counts, some by thousand hundred three over refugees, of numbers culturaltheir development Russian throughout the civilwar. andeconomiccircumstancessame conditionedpolitical thosehow and Tiflis of city the to elites populatio iterant an brought initially revolution and war of contingencies the how show I follows what In war. of effects the from shielded wholly was area the that imagine South the that meant Anatolia Eastern Caucas into deep forces Russian of push subsequent the de the Although front. Russian a 1914, October thePeriphery of or the Center TheofEmpire Edge Tiflis: 2: Chapter

Nikol’skaia, tpe F Jones, F. Stephen s ol nt oe ne drc mltr tra utl 98 i wud e msae to mistake a be would it 1918, until threat military direct under come not would us h ms imdae hne ht onie wt te usa avne a te large the was advance Russian the with coincided that change immediate most The when Empire Russian the of provinces Caucasian the to came War World First The Fantasticheskii gorod n Ottoman naval attack transformed the imperial borderland into a second second a into borderland imperial the transformed attack naval Ottoman n oils i Goga Clr: h Erpa Ra t Sca Dmcay 1883 Democracy, Social to Road European The Colors: Georgian in Socialism

ity Press, 2005), 240.

, 142 feat of the Ottoman army at Sari at army Ottoman the of feat - 143.

Executions And now what’schasing you? It’s hard for you to chewthe fruits of revolution! Of Of searches No! You’ve grownsick offreezing apartments Or maybeOr you’re dragged down suspicion by 43 ,

Or theOr poisonous vengeance of comrades

and breadlessness h icesd pop increased The People ofRussia!Unfortunate wanders! Some secretorder? You areYou rushing likeall of us, outcasts , kamish in December 1914, and 1914, December in kamish From theRed northsouthern to lan and prisons Downevery inroad, ailing crowds, Sergei Gorodetsky, Tiflis, 1919 , resolution ...

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CEU eTD Collection Modernity,” Urban Peripheral and Waters Laghidze’s city”], “southern one 48 Indiana University Press,2013), 339. the German, Habsburg, Russian, and Ottoman Borderlands (UrmiaAstarabad): and October 1914 47 46 45 Princeton University Press, 1972), 64. 44 local intelligentsia. the of sections some among cultivated Europe towards orientation an and cosmopolitanism ty certain a on claim laid however, Each, Petersburg. and Moscow of variety and energy the of short far fell Baku and Tiflis in life cultural 1917, before indeed, and elites, cultural migrating normalCaucasus was andacceptable.” percent mortality rateamong foodof civilians dueto shortagesintheRussianregions the Ianushkevich, of of chief the staffViceroy Caucasus, tothe hadbecomeBy 1917,thesituation sostrained With frequency, conditions increasing led these to ofviolence. riotsof bread degrees varying wasrationing intro small ofethnicities theNorthCaucasus many the and Russians, Turks, Azeri Georgians, Armenians, between lines religious pre heightened of cause region the in forces military the also but refugees only not included

Peter Holquist, “F Suny, Jones, e f oent, au y ite f t boig i idsr, ils hog is particular its through Tiflis industry, oil booming its of virtue by Baku modernity, of pe See Zaur Gasimov, “Baky: Progulki vo vremeni po odnomu ‘Iuzhnom gorodu’” [Baku: Strolls in time around time in Strolls [Baku: gorodu’” ‘Iuzhnom odnomu po vremeni vo Progulki “Baky: Gasimov, Zaur See oad Suny, Ronald BakuCommune l o tee facto these of All Baku, for instance, Socialismin Georgian Colors

the repeated food shortages in the swollen urban centers. centers. urban swollen the in shortages food repeated the h Bk Cmue 1917 Commune, Baku The - xsig oil esos hc ct along cut which tensions social existing orms ofViolence during theRussian Occupation of OttomanTerritory andin Northern Persia duced inTiflis in 1915 48 b Imperio Ab , 64.

s ol se t mk te acss n niey etnto for destination unlikely an Caucasus the make to seem would rs was reportingfoodshortages already atas early 1914

(01: 303 (2011): 1

– , 240. .

December 1917” in

- 98 Cas n Ntoaiy n h Rsin Revolution Russian the in Nationality and Class 1918: 47

after thehadreserves.after city runthroughitsbread -

2; al Manning, Paul 327; that duringthe of final days theemp 18 Forum for Anthropology and Culture and Anthropology for Forum

, e Shatterzone ofEmpires:Coexistence and Violence in d. d. Omar Bartovand Eric D. Weitz (Bloomington:

expressed his that belief h cas ad rqety ethno frequently, and class, the

Te hoy f h Cf Peripheral: Café the of Theory “The constituted , hs cniin often conditions These 7 (2012): 189 (2012): 7 , 44

ire and

a at f the of part ,

“ten “ten Nikolai Nikolai (Princeton: 45 -

210; 46

- CEU eTD Collection between Manifesto 50 Literary Georgian The 49 Modernism: ‘Peripheral’ Symbolismt and Nationalism, “Decadent Ram, Harsha published be to north poetry his sending frequently before,” never “like writing time his of most spent Kruchenykh Batalpashinsk, in state sometimes and friend his to wrote hopes ofsolving until followingavailable the August,hedecided over a visit Christmas. mobilizationof cost alongwiththe and ofaccommodation travel scuttle manuscripts hewas off sending autumn tofriends throughoutthe Indeed,the andwinter. danger f managed tofindapositionstateThissituation ina school. tenuous effectivelyhim kept away beeninstitutedintheyet teacher Caucasus, Kruchenykh was exemptasa mobilization oftheRussia Specifically, inBatalpashinsk while administrative was attention monopolizedbythe increasingly localpolitics. warand capitalize ontheanonymityh having timeto write. Kruchenykh whowaslargelyconcerned earning with living a wage,avoiding and conscription, rom Moscow, where he would have been better equipped to equippedto rom wherebeenbetter look thepublication Moscow, hewouldhave after of

Ibid., 37, 39. Kruchenykh,

of indeterminacy [ indeterminacy of Upon arriving in Tiflis, Kruchenykh was unemployed for nearly two months. As he he As months. two nearly for unemployed was Kruchenykh Tiflis, in arriving Upon peripheralThe very nature of howev Caucasuswas, the

Mir zatreshchit he Avant his “service issue.” In the Caucasus, first in In theCaucasus,first in Tiflis,wasthe poet Kuban andlater the able to - garde,” 49 neopredelen

When eventually became it thattherewould benostate position clear

, 33. n army. Because in Novembern army. in Because 1915, Modernism/Modernity e wasallotted asastranger cornerin a oftheempire where

- , patron, the critic Andrei Shemshurin, “ Shemshurin, Andrei critic the patron, 50 ost’

Kruchenykh was taking ofKruchenykh wastaking advantage uneven the

] […] and that indeterminacy continues even continues indeterminacy that and […] ] . A . Mrh rwt close a to drew March s 19

, 21, no. 1 (2014): 343

in February 1916, to head south to 1916,toheadsouth in February Tiflis

er, anattractioner, forsomeone like a

second round of drafts had not round hadnot second of drafts - 359.

d to for his plans return e hrceie ie in life characterized he ,

although hehadnot although

I found myself in a in myself found I

now.” As As now.” the the in

CEU eTD Collection 55 54 53 52 51 he, 1911, in and century the of decade first the in verse of collections received well several published had He stripes. various of poet a and intelligentsia prerevolutionary the of as Caucasus, the toposting the of town Sarikamish in a letter to Shemshurin: income. dwindling his of issue the and dodger t though, Importantly hold. on put were activities the on draftsman a as work to April in departure his particular, in Kruchenykh For develop. to slow however, episodes in thehistory ofRussianfuturism.” little though fascinating, most the of “one called Markov Vladimir what constitute would o community a of core the form Futurism],” [in interested extremely were who people few “a find to managed still Kruchenykh revolution, the after become would it what of shadow mere a distraction.” of devoid and “free as Tiflis

Kruchenykh, Tat’iana, Nikol’skaia, Markov, Ibid., 39 Ibid., 39 is also military as y military is also Akimovich! Dear Andrei all goes well, I’ll serve here until thewinter. hereuntil serve I’ll well, all goes creative work etc. anddinner, lunch have T realvillage. Sarikamish slowly. is a mail extremely here Regular etc. railway, arrives Military There were, of course, other circumstances under which a Russian poet might turn up in up turn might poet Russian a which under circumstances other course, of were, There surro eventually would that community social large The he center of spir of he center - - Russian Futurism 40. 40, 43.

Mir z All the same, the work which [we] s [we] which work the same, the All time alldaywith no for andam busy asmall get salary and I serveasadraftsman the I’m to

the story of Sergei Gorodetsky demonstrates. Gorodetsky was another memberanother was Gorodetsky demonstrates. Gorodetsky Sergei of story the atreshchit Erzurum ,

Fantasticheskii gorod although I manage to read some new stuff [ stuff somenew I read manage to although itual life is the station where we where station the lifeis itual , 336. service;

ou canseemySarikami address: ou from , 45.

Military Railroad in occupied Anatolia meant that his literary literary his that meant Anatolia occupied in Railroad Military

they’re meex giving they’re

rtr hs wr ntocte n costre regimes three across and cities two in work whose writers f , 22. 51

Although at the the at Although 53

20 55 tarted in Tiflis will ripen, ripen, will Tiflis in tarted

54 emption from military service, although this service, although military from emption

e oe ovd oh i sau a a draft a as status his both solved move he , the intelligentsia, come together to come together intelligentsia, , the oeht acsial h dsrbd his described he sarcastically Somewhat

time, the literary scene in Tiflis was Tiflis in scene literary the time, sh, Kars region, Office of Erzurum Officeof region, Kars sh, nov 52

and these initial contacts would contacts initial these and en’koe und Tiflis modernism was, was, modernism Tiflis und ].

develop, and get done. If done. get and develop,

along with along

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one one

CEU eTD Collection gorodeckij you], love to want 59 and form 58 of clarity compact a with all expression. above concerned was Acmeism Symbolism, of failures perceived the to Apollon Zankevich,” 57 a of literary works lines the along more much and exclusivity about less much was period, Caucasian the in particularly group, 56 the accompanied had that devastation the with confronted was he where Van of city the in arrived Gorodetsky front, Ottoman the cover to west moving Quickly moved had who sister his of home the newspaper the for correspondent claims theancient forConstantinople, Tsargrad.” Fourteen Nineteen Year The collection patriotic hyper the as such poetry, his into over carried ultimately which themes are These Germans.” the for be will it understandable more the guns, of fire the energetic more the the present, them with at converse should one in which language the is This guns. of language the only understand Germans “The representative: are 1914, in published particu became1914, Gorodetsky a“jingopatriot.” poets hi aligning Gumilev, to friendship his and Acmeism both with ways poetov [ Workshop Poets’ original the of cofounder a been had Gumilev, Nikolai Acmeist the

Ibid Tsekh poetov Tsekh Lionid I. Strakhovsky, “Three Sojourners in the Acmeist Camp: Sergei Gorodetsky, Vladimir Narbut, Mikhail Narbut, Vladimir Gorodetsky, Sergei Camp: Acmeist the in Sojourners “Three Strakhovsky, I. Lionid oet ebra, Sre Grdtki ‘reia tba hh i plui’”[egi ooesy Amna I Armenia, Gorodetsky: [Sergei poliubit’’” ia khchu tebia ‘Armeniia, Gorodetskii: “Sergei Berberian, Robert ., 135 Nikolai Klyuev and Sergei Esenin Sergei and Klyuev Nikolai

] in Petersburg. in ] lar, fit Strakhovsky’s description quite well. Lines from article, “Love for the Germans,” Germans,” the for “Love article, from Lines well. quite description Strakhovsky’s fit lar, and practice and agt p n h wv o wr nhsam Grdtk arvd n ils s a as Tiflis in arrived Gorodetsky enthusiasm, war of wave the in up Caught in production journalistic his and period, that from work Gorodetsky’s of much Indeed - armeniya -

136. usa Review Russian hop, ameaning whichthe word

has traditionally been translated as the Poets’ Guild. However, the purpose and functioning of the of functioning and purpose the However, Guild. Poets’ the as translated been traditionally has

Kokteil - d by such poets as Osip Mandels Osip as poets such by d teby a - 56 n 13 14 163, no , xochu

At the outbreak of the First World War however, Gorodetsky parted Gorodetsky however, War World First the of outbreak the At , o 2 15) 135. (1950): 2 no. 9, - ya wih glorifies which ,

- polyubit/. Russkoe Slovo Russkoe - 0 aur 20, vial at available 2000, January 20 tsekh

. As Leonid Strakhovsky puts it rather derisively, after derisively, rather it puts Strakhovsky Leonid As .

in Russianequally invokes. there 57

ces ws ltrr sho cente school literary a was Acmeism

tam, Nikolai Gumilev, and Anna Akhmatova. As a As Akhmatova. Anna and Gumilev, Nikolai tam, 21

meo Ncoa I ad ig “h Slavofile “the sings and II Nicholas Emperor and stayed there for a brief period, period, brief a for there stayed and 58

fe mryn a iprat iy architect. city important an marrying after

ah Sreda Nasha

Ottoman massacre of the the of massacre Ottoman , sl wt te peasant the with mself

http://nashasreda.ru/sergej

only language. And And language. only e aon te journal the around red probably in probably reaction Tsekh Tsekh 59 -

CEU eTD Collection he was“nauseatedby the manifestations of enthusiasm the for war.” Gu 63 62 61 Armenian question in the 60 challenges the with faced were authority, tsarist replace to created been had which (Ozakom), in administrators Local before. The The IndependenceofAbandonment: EmergenceofSouth CaucasianStates largely be to seems image this anachronistic. however, 1917, Before borderlands. imperial southern r the to escapes to sought north Russian the of intelligentsia hungry the and cold the which in understanding of pattern established an into fits it because has it as long pothan rather likely mean state Bolshevik the by imperialist as characterization outright active its and early their stresses which multiple at effort war war the in involvement the during artists Petrograd and Moscow of Caucasus.” the to than rather period, the of account his autobiographic in it put Kruchenykh as who, intellectuals of narrative accepted generally the to counter runs it because did among war the of region

Nina Gurianova notes that fromon Kruchenykh 1914 had “consistentlyan took antimilitaristic position”andthat Cohen, Kruchenykh, “Kis See Anshavan Zakarian, “Armeniia i armianskii vopros v publitsistike Sergeia Gorodetskogo” [Armenia and the and [Armenia Gorodetskogo” Sergeia publitsistike v vopros armianskii i “ArmeniiaZakarian, Anshavan See to ’ s Armenians. By By Armenians. s The February Revolution left the Caucasus even further separate further even Caucasus the left Revolution February The on dwelling worth is effort war the with poets the of both of experience intimate The Imagining the Unimaginable down .

refugees refugees I t would ultimately find ultimately would t litical participation. litical

play torii russkogo futurizma,” 316. 61

mobilization even if, as in the case of Kruchenykh, it amounted to pragmatic amountedto it Kruchenykh,of case the in as even if, mobilization The above stories are instead more in line with Aaron Cohen’s assessment Cohen’s Aaron with line in more instead are stories above The after returnedto having publitsistika

his own account this experience this account own his

of of Sergei Gorodetsky], , 5. 63

city soviets and the the and soviets city Indeed, this narrative has probably gone unquestioned for asgoneunquestioned for narrativeprobably has this Indeed, voice in his 1917 his in voice

levels.

Tiflis. 22 62

The increasing unpopularity of the war, and war, the of unpopularity increasing The Patma

collection - banasirakan handes

fundamentally altered his perception his altered fundamentally Special Transcaucasian Committee Committee Transcaucasian Special rianova,

fight Angel of Armenia of Angel ,

Aesthetics Anarchy of “preferred to modestly retire modestly to “preferred d from Petersburg than than Petersburg from d t that memoirs were were memoirs that t 1 (2003): 89 elative calm of the the of calm elative , and work he he work and ,

, 169 - 106. -

170.

CEU eTD Collection 65 64 ho noted be should It politics. Bolshevik by posed capitals the of populations the to threat increased the and government imperial the of disappearance group later the in included being wa imperial the of members and soldiers, refugees, Armenian rural to limited been had Tiflis to newcomers the of many before, If Transcaucasia. of demography villagestheir incentr to return to soldiers deserting encouraging army, Caucasian the of disintegration the initiated power of seizure Bolshevik the 1917, of winter the in when, destabilized only was situation explo to failed fronts, other from forces divert to unable were who Ottomans, the and 1916, of course the over acquired had they advantage the press to unable were Russians the which in equilibrium of sort a created 1917 throughout to enforce. Georgia of staple cultural a was drink the but income, Caucasus. the in wine of sale the limiting at directed Jones Stephen by mentioned one as such decrees, absurd of issuing the to led This administration. imperial of aspects colonial the with inexperience of degree advan the of much saw which of scheme sharing power the by mitigated authority its was only Not help. little of was Petrograd in government provisional The rivalries. ethnic and political eff war the and infrastructuresmunicipal managing of

Charles King, Jones, The Bolshevik revolution, like the Armenian Genocide, represented a watershed for the the for watershed a represented Genocide, Armenian the like revolution, Bolshevik The managemen weak the noted, rightly has King Charles As Socialismin Georgian Colors

The The Ghost Freedom: of A History of the Caucasus al Russia.

Not only did wine sales account for a significant portion of peasant peasant of portion significant a for account sales wine did only Not

tage go to the city soviets, but its administrators showed a great a showed administrators its but soviets, city the to go tage

, 258.

—

h seai ws o tasomd y h final the by transformed now was scenario the 23

t h pltcl rss n Petrograd. in crises political the it ort ,

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 160. rendering the decree nearly impossible impossible nearly decree the rendering ,

while trying to mediate between tense between mediate to trying while wever that it was actually the fall of fall the actually was it that wever dvoevlastie apparatus r o te acsa front Caucasian the of t

— da power), (dual Kruchenykh 65

This

CEU eTD Collection 1918 69 68 67 66 stopgap. necessary, a as institution the viewed on (Zakavkom) Commissariat Transcaucasian that regret even and uncertainty of deal great a with was it line, front Ottoman the on war at still and control, their All the promised of election the until body political interim an create to Soviet forced was new Ozakom the the of government, validity the rejected having after predicament: unenviable an in region the to transferred been had Transcaucasia cultural sphere. on the the of virtue by whi governments then local of weakness and revolution February the to South loyalty continued the by in first prolonged Caucasus, was government provisional the by created environment cultural While independent allowed regime political empire the army September in Riga

Ibid., 189. Cohen, Read, Michael Reynolds, Michael

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 193. , that

this process seems to have been reversed i reversed been have to seems process this Culture and Power fe te biain f sr ihls II, Nicholas Tsar of abdication the After Over Imagining the Unim

set intellectualsset runningforcountryside. the ,

but the February Revolution had accelerated the process dramatically as th as dramatically process the accelerated had Revolution February the but all, the war years had seen an increase in the number of artistic of number the in increase an seen had years war the all, - Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, 1908 Empires, Russian and Ottoman the of Collapse and Clash The Empires: Shattering Russian Constituent Assembly. Cut off Cut Assembly. Constituent Russian 69 ,

hc bogt erga wti rah f h rapi the of reach within Petrograd brought which

68 , 45

aginable -

46. show of independence, rather rather independence, of show

, 169. ch lacked the resources and will to effectively impose itself itself impose effectively to will and resources the lacked ch

institutions to organize their without state interference. state without their organize to institutions Ozakom 24

Nov

n areas that came under Bolshevik control, the control, Bolshevik under came that areas n

, ,

but with increasingly few troops to hold the the hold to troops few increasingly with but but the Bolshevik Bolshevik the but me 1, 97 Fw i ay a te time the at any, if Few, 1917. 18, ember 66

nominal administrative authority in in authority administrative nominal it was seen as seen was it

from Petrograd the the coup in Petrograd left Petrograd in coup Ozakom l avnig German advancing dly an unfortunate, though though unfortunate, an

by events outside of outside events by

groups throughout groups

established the established e new e

the 67 -

CEU eTD Collection 72 Community 71 70 the even not and policies, they before on insisted Ottomans the which different state, Transcaucasian independent an of declaration pursuing all were Turks Caucasian and Georgians, oth little very did delegation Transcaucasian of half Trabzon. in Ottomans the with talks peace conduct to left delegation Seim, Transcaucasia in authority effective for need immediate an created countryside Anatolian the across army Ottoman the of advance rapid The Russian former the of territories the with hostilities resumed Germans and Ottomans Transcaucasian Seim.the g the was This Ottomans. the with peace lasting a negotiating of things, other among capable, body permanent more a convene year. the of beginning the at once just Constitu the of disillusion Sovnarkom’s the January of end the in culminated dissention This Petrograd. soviet rampant still was populations local and groups militia Armenian between violence irregular this, of spite armist

Reynolds, Ibid, 193 aes Swietochovsky, Tadeusz , ice with the Ottoman Empire in late December that put an end to official hostilities. In hostilities. official to end an put that December late in Empire Ottoman the with ice which could muster little more than a confused sort confused a than more little muster could which

with olwn te islto o te ec tls n Brest in talks peace the of dissolution the Following short the Although

in Anatolia in -

negotiation, during which the Ottoman military continued its advance, the the advance, its continued military Ottoman the which during negotiation, 194. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 108. Shattering Empires

its strong its

. 70 Bolshevik

au oee,rmie sprt rmtee dev these from separate remained however, Baku, usa Aebia, 1905 Azerbaijan, Russian

- , 196. lived Commissariat was largely ineffective, largely was Commissariat lived

contingent enesis of the parliamentary structure that became known as known became that structure parliamentary the of enesis 71

h sm ocrec pope te aakm to Zakavkom the prompted occurrence same The ,

. n Asml, hc hd en loe t gather to allowed been had which Assembly, ent

had not joined with Tiflis in rejecting the coup in coup the rejecting in Tiflis with joined not had This, however, was beyond the capabilities of the of capabilities the beyond was however, This, 25 - r hn xoe t on rcue. Armenians, fractures. own its expose than er 90 Te hpn o Ntoa Iett i a Muslim a in Identity National of Shaping The 1920:

of diplomacy of

when the when - ios i ery eray the February, early in Litovsk

Over nearly Over

soviet voted to recognize recognize to voted soviet it

did manage to sign an an sign to manage did when elopments. The city The elopments.

in mid in

a month and a and month a

Empire. - March a March 72

CEU eTD Collection 76 75 the of terms in couched misfortune also was independence Azerbaijan’s affairs; administrative and political temporarily of to charge need the take of spoke declaration Armenian The Georgia”; protect to obligation its fulfill to inability 74 73 retreat military general the of part as circumstances similar under Tiflis to back way his made Railway. Sea Black Georgian the of line construction the on clerk office post a as worked Kruchenykh 1919, July together come have not to seems arrangement This service.” new about immediately think to terrible [was] it now and organization war the in years two served had “he that contended he explanation of way By that.” on freely “live could Shem to wrote he and money for do would he what know didn’t he time the at that seems It Moscow. or Tiflis plannedliveeither JanuarytoinFebruary,or by and be“free” would believed he he friends that retur and occupation wartime his abandon to ways for look to started Kruchenykh 1917, of end the at dissolve to began government provisional Buil Second Exodus: rapidly in a politicalunraveling environment. desperation of out contrary, the on but enthusiasm, national of crescendo in not Azerbaijan, and wa of press continued the under May, late In irreconcilable. proved ultimately unwieldy so talks ineffective equally proved however, statehood, a of terms the negotiate would

Sukhoparov, Kruchenykh, Ibid., 205. hs a b se i te agae f h idpnec dcaain: eri’ ws passive, was Georgia’s declarations: independence the of language the in seen be can This r and regional crisis, regional and r As the Russian military structures that had been tentatively held together by the the by together held tentatively been had that structures military Russian the As of Russia’s collapse. Reynolds,

Sud’ba budetlianina Mir zatreshchit shurin 76

ding Parisin the SouthCaucasus Gorodetsky, who was by this time covering the war the covering time this by was who Gorodetsky, questing 100 questing

, 111. the union dissolved into the independent states of Georgia, Armenia, Georgia, of states independent the into dissolved union the , 103.

ec, a a nnmu decision. unanimous a was peace,

Shattering Empires - 150 rubles a month for four or five months, saying that he that saying months, five or four for month a rubles 150 74 26

, as the as ,

, 212 ,

t prl ltrr prut. e rt to wrote He pursuits. literary purely to n and from February 1918, until the end of of end the until 1918, February from and

split interests that had made the Trabzon the made had that interests split - 213.

hs i a independent at bid This

from northern Iran, northern from

iig “Russia’s citing ures 75

CEU eTD Collection extensiv from thefamily archive, isavailable onlineat http://degen.ru/?page_id=218. includes which collection, The Aleksandr. grandson Degen’s Aleks 79 on Degenand Vechorka, see respectively Bowlt, “Three Strakhovsky, 1918. in independence 78 of declaration 1917 states the with Shklovsky, Viktor see retreat, Persian the of power description a For 136. Sojourners,” to came which Georgia increasinglynationaland Menshevik the bothered hardlyhave sentimentswould anti own his promoting merely found not have I possibility, of realm 1959), the of out completely not is this While Caucasus. North the in based was army volunteer whose Denikin, General literatury, Strakhov khudozhestvennoi http://www.detskiysad.ru/raznlit/avtobiografia_gorodeckiy.html. izdatel’stvo Autobio 77 a amonghis it lived, time the of luminaries the of many count short could he and modernism Russian to Degen connected was group the Although Ivanov. Georgii and Adamivich Georgii Acmeists join and scene literary the into fell immediately Degen that seems it years, two even capital the in been have not could 191 in but city, the in Russo the during 1896 in Warsaw in born was Degen Iurii homecoming. Tat and Degen pre the articlespublishing in the newspaper w find to managed sister, his of support the as well as resources of level different a with operating perhaps however, He, region. the from

Tatiana Vechorka is the is Vechorka Tatiana Sergei Gorodetsky, “Moi Put’” [My path], in path], [My Put’” “Moi Gorodetsky, Sergei Olga Kusnetsova, “Odisseia sta “Odisseia Kusnetsova, Olga - 1922 andr Degen, 8. This comes from a biographical sketch of the poet with appears in a collection assembled by assembled collection a in appears with poet the of sketch biographical a from comes This 8. Degen, andr rpis n w vlms, dtd y . a Bann ad . . iiia Mso: Gosudarstvennoe (Moscow: Nikitina F. E. and Brainina Ia. B. by edited volumes], two in graphies - At the same time same the At sky makes the claim that, during his time in Tiflis, Gorodetsky was working for the propaganda offices of propagandaoffices the for working was Gorodetsky Tiflis, in timehis during that, claimthe makessky war cultural elite, began to appear in Tiflis. Among thes Among Tiflis. in appear to began elite, cultural war

(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1917). ssociates, including Vladimir Mayakovsky, Sergei Esenin, and most importantly for most Vladimirimportantly Esenin, Sergei and including ssociates, Mayakovsky, ’ - aa Vechorka. iana Japanese

6 he was admitted to Petrograd U Petrograd to admitted was he 6 penname of Tatiana Vladimirovna Tatiana of penname d n fsot f h oiia Pes Wrso wih a rn y the by run was which Workshop Poets’ original the of offshoot an ed

large numbers of refugees, many of them from the middle class and class middle the from them of many refugees, of numbers large

- war, he moved with his with moved he war, osei ves n h pgs f h svrl esaes e okd o. Such for. worked he newspapers several the of pages the in views Bolshevik rshego shtupmana” [Odyssey of a senior navigator], in navigator], senior a of [Odyssey shtupmana” rshego

78 reference to it anywhere else and it seems more likely that the poet was poet the that likely more seems it and else anywhere it to reference

o bt o te ot te oe ot ws sr of sort a was south move the poets the of both For Kavkazskoe Kavkazskoe Slovo SalonAlbum Sovetskie pisateli: Avtobiografii v dvukh tomakh dvukh v Avtobiografii pisateli: Sovetskie

r tahn ore a lclcnevtr and conservatory local a at courses teaching ork 27

, 21and 58.

mother to Tiflis. Degen spent his childhood his spent Degen Tiflis. to mother Tolstoi (born Efimova). For biographic information biographic For Efimova). (born Tolstoi 1:320

. 77 ,

but after his father was killed in 1905 in killed was father his after but -

niversity to study law. study to niversity 31. fciie erdcin o manuscripts of reproductions facsimile e

e were the modernist poets Iurii poets modernist the were e vial at Available minded government of republicanmindedgovernmentof A Sentimental Journey: Memoirs, Journey: Sentimental A Iurii Degen Iurii 79 esi sad.ru Detskii

[Soviet writers: writers: [Soviet Although he Although , edited by by edited , , ,

CEU eTD Collection respectively Bowlt, 83 Tolstoi, Tatiana 1951. in pension Avtobiografiia state a for application her on herself Vechorka by written explanation the was 82 Alexandr Parnis (Moscow: Dom vospominania zapisi, dnevnikovye, stat’i, 81 80 workshops. writers’ as schools, stylistic much so not represented, they that in societies literary S literary based groupsof period, the the Syndicate of Futurists. Kirill. by poems, of series long a publishing been had 1917, February or January around centered artists and poets of group literary hadalreadybeendeveloping ventures for some time. Caucasus. the to back moved all brother her g or food shortages fleeing famous Petrograd’s Dog, Stray the attended regularly 1913. in there school attend Dege than earlier even Petersburg to way her find to literary life of city. the in Ti arrived Keseniia wife his and he sorts. when stead of good in mentor was Degen a that meant as associations acted who Kuzmin, Mikhail development, poetic own his

ovietization Kusnetsova, “Odisseia starshego shtupmana,”9. Lidiia Libedinskaia, “Vmesto Vstupleniia” [Instead of an introduction] in introduction] an of [Instead Vstupleniia” “Vmesto Libedinskaia, Lidiia The first is the explanation given by her d her by given explanation the is first The flis in the autumn of 1917. Almost immediately he became a central part of the bourgeoning bourgeoning the of part central a became he immediately Almost 1917. of autumn the in flis Nikol’skaia, The various poetry collectives that were formed in Tiflis and Baku prior to the the to prior Baku and Tiflis in formed were that collectives poetry various The Tr the in arrived had he since Ever Tat 83 ’

This tr This iana Vechorka, born in Baku in 1892, had also grown up in Tiflis and had managed had and Tiflis in up grown also had 1892, in Baku in born Vechorka, iana

in Vechorka,

atsihsi gor Fantasticheskii of the Caucasus the of SalonAlbum io formed the core of what would eventually become one of the earliest Tiflis earliest the of one become eventually would what of core the formed io

Portrety

oing to take care of her sick grandmother, Vechorka, her mother, and mother, her Vechorka, grandmother, sick her of care take to oing - , 55and 57. Muzei MarinyTsvetaevoi, 2007), 6. 81

od , 18. overwhelmingly followed the model of early nineteenth century nineteenth early of model the followed overwhelmingly

hl i te capital the in While , 223. For biographies of the Zdanevich brothers, Kirill and Ilia, see see Ilia, and Kirill brothers, Zdanevich the of biographies For 223. ,

[Portraits without retouching: Poetry, articles, diaries, recollections], ed. recollections], diaries, articles, Poetry, retouching: without [Portraits

aughter: Lidiia Libedinskaia, “Vmesto Vstupleniia”, 6. The second The 6. Vstupleniia”, “Vmesto Libedinskaia, Lidiia aughter:

anscaucasia Kiril 82 28

hn h arrived she When

n la Zdanevich Ilia and , n, moving with her mother and brother to brother and mother her with moving n,

artists’ ehra tre pbihn per and poetry publishing started Vechorka ,

Kruchenykh had been meeting with a with meeting been had Kruchenykh

cabaret. In September 1917, either 1917, September In cabaret.

Portrety bez Portrety ,

h fud ct i which in city a found she ,

n einn n either in beginning and 1918

retushi: , with illustrations with ,

Stikhotvoreniia, 80

These

CEU eTD Collection 84 are many though abroad, or Union Soviet the remembered solely asan list entry in a of namesof attendees. in either themselves, for name a made them of Some aspirations. literary with those simply or Horns, Blue the symbolists such movements, literary preexisting of part either were who women m and men also were These were attended. who locals there speaking Russian community, émigré Russian the from were workshops literary the in participants the of many press, local the in printed often attendees of lists the from judging p local introduce of ethos: the cre the marked the group, Vechorka’s which letter, editorial an of The form years. the Caucasian in the announcement, during repeated be should form the that surprising not particularly is it reason this For other. each with contact in of come first had world Baku and Tiflis social in active the in role important Russian the of many an that meetings their through was it and served Petersburg prerevolutionary had groups these of Both members. Ac Peter siècle de fin famous the on modeled large, and by were, They

Nikol’skaia, dm o Vre n te ot Wrso, f hc mn o te atcpns a been had participants the of many which of Workshop, Poets the and Verse of ademy to] the discussion of selected topics, essays, translations, joint work, mutual criticism, and and criticism, mutual committee. the executive consideredby afterbeing you to returned be will which poems work, joint translations, grou essays, by topics, readings selected of discussion the to] [devoted be will week, a once meets which circle, the of work The paths. poetic new for search and development the is purpose Its fellowship. Importantly, this didactic mode of literary association also provided a forum to to forum a provided also association literary of mode didactic this Importantly,

Fantasticheskii gorod The circle which I propose to to propose I which circle The oets to the literary innovations that had developed in the capitals. Although capitals. the in developed had that innovations literary the to oets druzhestvo p members. […] In order to become a full member, you must submit five five submit must you member, full a become to order In […] members. p

, 223.

(friendly society) Al’fa society) (friendly

s rgl Robakidze Grigol as form 29

support (non support s bac o a erga literary Petrograd a of branch a is - Lira, can be taken as representative as taken be can Lira,

- material) of young talents, and the the and talents, young of material)

n hs ru o Georgian of group his and sburg groups, sburg to o Tat of ation

such as the as such

eventually - scholarly 84

poets ’ iana any any ’

CEU eTD Collection 88 87 86 85 traditional had who Vechorka and Clarism, Kuzmin’s and Acmeism of highbred a practiced who Degen, Both society. limited such in and town small a such in place took inevitably that intermingling constant the from resulted largely life of banality the against fight the in weapon potent a was movement the that believed F A futurism. with relationship interesting an had Gorodetsky be potential as sees he what lamenting Ho smoking. [ “ Degen’s called he what antics, these to exception took also Gorodetsky newspaper eva criticalparticularly One performances. sense typical the recount most but mixed, were Reactions co Futurism’ of ‘Night a of 1917, 20, November andStylistic Ethnic Heterogonyin a Nationalizing State ieatki boltovnia diletantskaia

uturists for their triviality and what he saw as their hackneyed public scandals, he also also he scandals, public hackneyed their as saw he what and triviality their for uturists Ibid., 139 Ibid., 29. Ibid., 28. Ibid., 27. . 88

An ambiguous relationship to any particular poetic school school poetic particular any to relationship ambiguous An wi there end the in that and value’ intrinsic an has it rather but insane, not it’s stupidity, not cigarette is ‘futurism a that on puffing while explaining, began read, had he poems the on deliberating Degen, this audience, the by ridiculed be to duty his is it that reason some for believes movement this of part be to themselves considers who “everyone activitie Tbilisi the of phase public The

- 140. Tifliskii listok wever, Gorodetsky’s words are more chastising and less shocked. He seems to be be to seems He shocked. less and chastising more are words Gorodetsky’s wever,

ll be a time when they will teach futurism in high schools.” high in teach will futurism they atimewhen ll be ad i “neesr, “nrgnl” rd, osae cigarette onstage “rude,” “unoriginal,” “unnecessary,” his and ] . The critic complained that:. Thecritic

ing wasted on such trivial bull baiting of the crowd the of baiting bull trivial such on wasted ing luation was voiced in a review which appeared in thein appeared which review a in voiced was luation y rte a ot f eaet es, ecie by described verse, decadent of sort a written ly 30

s was announced by the appearance on on appearance the by announced was s -

raie b Dgn n Kruchenykh. and Degen by organized is probably the reason why the lyric poet Iu. Iu. poet lyric the why reason the probably is

of scandal associated with F with associated scandal of tog h otn critique often he lthough was typical of the time and and time the of typical was 86

dilettantish

everyday

chatter” chatter” uturist the d . 87 85 ,

CEU eTD Collection Hovannisian, G. Richard 92 91 [ ‘indefinite’ Transrational Poetry of Russian Futurism is meaning whose language or Kuzmin. Mikhail of practice poetic and personality 90 89 one lens re depict the tendency the to cosmopolitan that ofrefuge.My assertion is or whichcharacterize period theof accounts in present dissonance the by relief sharp into thrown is quality This states. and nationalizing Armenia, as Azerbaijan Georgia, of character the namely statehood, independent of period brief the collection that combined with Russian, color illustration texts in Georgian, andArmenian. confluence, that almanac ambitious most the and pub] [little Kabachok Fantastic the the café in artists’ developed that work the in represented best perhaps was exchange and mixing This coin are words “which unclear increasingly becomes it as analyst” the for challenge new a presents and dimension fresh a poetry his “gives that Armenian and Georgian of palate phonetic new poin Janecek and environs, forms,new poetic of result as a likely intellectual pollination.cross conve a represented never drawing [the] d backstage with “filled as Markov

Ibid., 223. Markov, he txs hc dvt sgiiat teto t te ainl set n fr a ot o sort a form and aspect national the to attention significant devote which texts Three Cla ages, and which are borrowed from other languages Kruchenykh picked up on the street.” the on up picked Kruchenykh languages other from borrowed are which and ages, im ee bcm a oeet s such as movement a became never rism This heterogony brings us to a largely unexplored aspect of the Sou the of aspect unexplored largely a to us brings heterogony This theirnew of influence the whocameunder poets only not the were Vechorka and Degen

or significantlythe other thestory distorts ofémigré Tiflis society in andBaku. Russian Futurism

- room atmosphere,” room Sofii Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918 Independence, to Road the on Armenia

, 364.

Georgievne Georgievne rsion of poetic practice, but rather an openness to experimenting with experimenting to openness an rather but practice, poetic of rsion ts out how the multilingualism of Tiflis provided Kruchenykh with a with Kruchenykh provided Tiflis of multilingualism the how out ts

(San Diego: S

began to bring elements of elements bring to began ressing enkv’ Fnatc Kabachok Fantastic Melnikova’s neopre

u ws ahr vrain f A of variation a rather was but Zaum - om mgs … i te Ego the in […] images room delennoe 31 an

“is a Russian Futurist neologism used to describe words describe to used neologism Futurist Russian a “is

D iego the region as either one of national struggle national oneof either regiontheas o idtriae” ead Janecek, Gerald indeterminate.” or ] S tate U (Berkeley: University of California Press, California of University (Berkeley: niversity zaum

Press, 1996), 1.

mim soitd ih the with associated cmeism into their poetry. their into ,

- gion strictlythroughgion F a richly produced produced richly a th Caucasus during during Caucasus th trs taiin of tradition uturist rgoa tioy are trilogy regional f

produced in produced am The Zaum: 92 90

This 91

CEU eTD Collection the Caucasus, 1919 95 of theFirst WorldWar 94 93 Swietochovsky, Suny, Ronald 1967); the by demonstrated well is another one off powers regional playing by forces these negotiated stra imperial former the of position the threatened local institutions, cultural imperial increasingly fields these of the nationalization the expertise, technical of areas within and administration, positions in representation high their of same the at but conflicts, intercommunal the of many above stood they that sense remains poets, modernist the Cauca the ethnic chauvinism. as many by characterized what avoid and institutions, national new the by promised mobility to sought populations as migration encourage building. state nation to obstacle distinct a produced fact this and homogenous ethnically not were Caucasus points Rieber Alfred as because, particularly process, uncontested reform university church, Georgian the of autocephaly the involving cultural,” was revival national Georgian’ “the it have would Jones Stephen As credentials. ethnic than rather socialist on based was authority whose Zhordania, Noe politician Menshevik the by run was it that fact the

Jones, This is a is This Alfred Rieber, Alfred ,

The particular relationship of ascendant nationalism to the russophonic populations of populations russophonic the to nationalism ascendant of relationship particular The st Georgian The Socialismin Georgian Colors and the “joyous process of changing street names.” street changing of process “joyous the and

charge frequently leveled against the Georgian authorities by C. E. Bechhofer, E. C. by authorities Georgian the against leveled frequently charge sus, Rus a The Struggle for the Eurasian Borderlands: From the Rise of Early Modern Empires to the End the to Empires Modern Early of Rise the From Borderlands: Eurasian the for Struggle The 94 diverse category drawn from across the former empire and one which included included which one and empire former the across from drawn category diverse -

sianAzerbaijan 1920 (London: CollinsW. and Sons, 1921), 227 h pesrs xre b te ainl eie o ppltos evd to served populations on regimes national the by exerted pressures The h Mkn o te erin Nation Georgian the of Making The 95

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 592.

ate is typically distinguished from Armenia and Azerbaijan by virtue of virtue by Azerbaijan and Armenia from distinguished typically is ate

, .

y n large and by , 260.

nxlrd Ter oiin a piiee i the in privileged was position Their unexplored. 32 take advantage of the opportunities for social social for opportunities the of advantage take

Bomntn Idaa nvriy rs, 98; and 1988); Press, University Indiana (Bloomington: u o society. of tum - 253. 93

This however, was far from an an from far was however, This

out, the urban centers of the the of centers urban the out,

The ways in which they they which in ways The

In Denikin’s Russia and Russia Denikin’s In

time, because because time, s own s -

CEU eTD Collection 98 97 Baku State University] (Baku: Universiteti N 96 interethnic much was there modernism Tiflis of societies café private the among that indication t seem this like Instances Tiflis. of out” them “chasing for government Georgian the blamed they later years several it remembering when and mouth, their in taste bitter a left affair the faculty, speaking Russian the when theymovedinSeptember 1919. institution Georgian the into absorbed was which campus Tifils the from materials the of any resources necessary 1919 Yerevan of cities Caucasian G a alongside Tiflis in patronage state on survive to university Russian a for way no is there that clear become has “it that write to him prompting Tiflis, in founded was university Georgian a October in situati when Razumovskii The funding. its supplied point that until had which Federation Transcaucasian the dissolving declared, were republics national the May in Russ of mixture [Azerbaijanis].”Turks and Armenians, “a Caucasus, South the of character multiethnic specific the reflected which institution language Russian a itself declaring doors, its opened University to central the Bakuartists. o case

Lidia Ivanova, Ibid., 76. Aslan Atakişiyev, Aslan ,

f the Transcaucasian University, an institution, which, after moving to Baku, became became Baku, to moving after which, institution, an University, Transcaucasian the f n eetal i ws eie ta te zrajn atoiis ol provide would authorities Azerbaijani the that decided was it eventually and Although this process involved bargaining which bargaining involved process this Although I n the beginning of 1918, under the direction of Vasili Razumovskii, the Transcaucasian Transcaucasian the Razumovskii, Vasili of direction the under 1918, of beginning the n

Vospominania: Kniga obotse M. Ə. R Ə. M. for the university to relocate to university the for ə silzad

hv be lrey iie t pbi isiuin ad hr i little is there and institutions public to limited largely been have o

and Baku for support. for Baku and ə

adına Bakı Dövl Bakı adına oga oe” s rsl h bgn o un to turn to began he result a As one.” eorgian ə

şriyyatı, 1991), 75. 96 [Recollections: A boo

The institution quickly ran into trouble however, whenhowever, trouble into ran quickly institution The ə t Universitetinin Tarixi Universitetinin t 33

, although the staff were not allowed to retain retain to allowed not were staff the although , 97

Negotiations continued into the summer of summer the into continued Negotiations

n eae l the all became on ultimately was profitable for much of of much for profitable was ultimately k aboutk father] (Paris: Atheneum, 1990), 91.

[The history of the M. the of history [The

more ian, Georgians, Georgians, ian,

A ain for salient

. h other the

Rasulzade the the 98

CEU eTD Collection 100 99 toBakuin1919.relocate to poets Tiflis the of section a of decision the for cause a as dismissed easily so not is it and memoirists other by up picked trope a is state, the of representatives always not if nationalists, betwee tension a Nonetheless, chapter. later a in detail greater short in This, power. Soviet of forces the of ally an as implicitly and government, Menshevik Georgian career successfully after 50s late the in account this penned who Gorodetsky, of case t of prism through understood or Metekhskaia prison abroad.” This,Gorodetsky asserts presented who epic Rustaveli a of fresco [ character “some from visit night late the prompted this poet the to According worker. a by milked being was which goat a of body the on president Georgian the 1919 in when, home driven was point Gorodetsky This government. Georgian the of critical was consu broader for published was that work to extend necessarily literature. ethnic to devoted house publishing a establish Skin Panther’s ethnographic contain often period di the from journals Russian opposite, the Much rancor.

Evelyn Bristol, csin o Cuain utrs r rnltos f h Goga epic Georgian the of translations or cultures Caucasian of scussions

Nikol’skaia, as a Soviet writer, Soviet a as hl ti tp o itrcin s a fo ipasbe tee eolcin ne t be to need recollections these implausible, from far is interaction of type this While ,

should be read as a part of a process of self fashioning which will be explored in in explored be will which fashioning self of process a of part a as read be should

came under pressure after publishing a satirical journal w journal satirical a publishing after pressure under came Fantasticheskii gorod A History of Russian Poetry . In 1916, Sergei Gorodetsky Gorodetsky Sergei 1916, In .

there was a clear a was there

he political circumstances under which they were written. In the the In written. were they which under circumstances political he , 134 - 135.

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 221.

interest in positioning himself in opposition to opposition in himself positioning in interest [ 34 i] ih n lentv: leave. alternative: an with him] and

lke Rmzv vn et o a a to as far so went even Remizov Aleksei ,

was impetusthe move to Baku. to 99

hs pnes however, openness This mption, particularly it seems if seems it particularly mption, Rsin mgé ad local and émigrés Russian n krasavets hich featured the head of head the featured hich h Kih i the in Knight The

] straight out of a of out straight ] transitioning to a to transitioning

E te t the to ither i not did 100

the

CEU eTD Collection History Social in Explorations War: Civil Rosenberg, and Ronald Russian Grigor Suny (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1989), 81 the in Society and 104 103 102 101 and landscape the on effects devastating with often over, fighting worth considered prize a were violence, Russia, Di broader socio by the conditioned course of were these but circumstance, individual towards point to tends contrast Iran. via emigrationmightaid city the presencein a British that belief capital Azerbaijani the in conditions material better the to vaguely attributed is move the in described conditions cha nationalizing previous the Although Baku. to relocate to began many 1919, of summer the of end the at why, of question the address to difficult is it period, Tiflis Cha

n Kekr “a ae] for haven] “[a Koenker, ane Bowlt, GeraldJanecek, Iurii Degen, “Literaturnoe Baku” [Literary Baku], in Diane Koenker, “Urbanization and Deurbanization in the Russian Revolution and Civil War” in War” Civil and Revolution Russian the in Deurbanization and “Urbanization Koenker, Diane pter 3: Baku: From Nation to Empire and Bohemia toBureaucracy Bohemia Empire and to Baku:FromNation pter 3: ” If in the two years following the October revolution, Tiflis had become, in the words of words the in become, had Tiflis revolution, October the following years two the in If pro of level high the Given

Salon Album h sm cno b si aot Baku. about said be cannot same the Baku’s tr rvd sm isgt we adesd tal n h scnayltrtr, the literature, secondary the in all at addressed when insight, some provide pter .

Zaum

oil reserves, which had sparked sparked had which reserves, oil , xxiii - , 105. political contexts play. at -

xxiv.

eues rm h dsiuin n c and destitution the from refugees force it tohear and heedtheir voices freshly arrived whichsu literature. […] This isa specifically Bakuvianindifference toliterature even a newcomer the to city suddenly ceases tofeel the need for particularsort of literary fuel [ some shortcoming inthe very manner ofli all and this isn’t from alack of literary force. Rather, there is simply No, itseems thatthereisn’t even onecity less literary than Baku. And ductivity most of the poets recall as characteristic of the the of characteristic as recall poets the of most ductivity cceeds, little little, by in killing off all literary life.It is only the

35 Yurii Degen and the novices 104

the city’s the hl Tfi hd en spared been had Tiflis While , 927 literaturnaia pruzhinka -

who tryto shake, to wake the city, and 929. urban development in development urban e. Dian ed. ,

, allin vain 103 fe in Baku, it ismissing some nlc o revolutionary of onflict

P Kekr Wlim G. William Koenker, P. e Bio . - 101 I 82. u graphic material, in graphic rii Degen

], andas aresult, ag scale large , ca. 1920 population the 1870s, 1870s, the Party, State, Party, 102

or the or - 21

CEU eTD Collection 107 119. 106 and violence 105 of wave another by accompanied was operation the September, in armies whe and experiment lived short a ultimately was know, be to came period this as Commune, Baku intelligentsia. local the by aside brushed been have to seem madewere declarations what cou hostile largely a from food with city the supplying and industry, oil the nationalizing revolution, counter battling with were c which pogroms ethnic of days several into spiraled quickly that action paramilitary Bolsheviks a ignited Baku the party, revolutionary nationalist Armenian armed well and influential M Muslim popular the representation exclude to decision the of because compe by surrounded Bolshevism of island anomalous an Baku left decision government.This Lenin’s behind support its thrown had contrast by soviet Baku the existed, longer no which Petrograd 1918, city. the in power of position a into maneuver to managed had army, Shaumian, Stepan soviet, city the in ame Days. beknownasthe to March

Suny, See Suny, For a balanced account of this divisive event in Baku’s history, see Swietochovsky, see history, Baku’s in event divisive this of account balanced a For

n the city was taken by the combined forces of the Ottoman and independent Azerbaijani independent and Ottoman the of forces combined the by taken was city the n

when Tiflis was in a sov a in was Tiflis when ting socialist, and socialist, liberal, increasinglyting national politics. so more the all best, at tenuous was city the over control soviet’s the 1918, early In sway held Party Democratic Socialist the of faction Menshevik the where Tiflis, Unlike BakuCommune Even after this bloodletting, soviet rule remained poorly integrated. Occupied as they they as Occupied integrated. poorly remained rule soviet bloodletting, this after Even BakuCommune .

In a bi a In

and in part thanks to good representation among the disintegrating Russian disintegrating the among representation good to thanks part in and au a a tog contingen strong a had Baku , 255. d to consolidate power through an alliance with the Dashnak the with alliance an through power consolidate to d .

ereign limbo due to due limbo ereign ntryside, there was little attention paid to cultural activities and and activities cultural to paid attention little was there ntryside, 106

o Blhvk wo udr h laesi of leadership the under who, Bolsheviks of t its

declaration

of üsavat loyalty to a government in government a to loyalty 105

party party Russian Azerbaijan Russian

At the beginning of beginning the At from political political from t sut y 107 un, the the un, , 112 ,

The - CEU eTD Collection 111 Atheneum, 1968), 199. 110 109 Press, 1992), 93. 108 Elizavetpol of city western the of out operating increasingly dimension. ethnic an on took times, the of spirit the following that, actions in hoarders grain for city the comb would gangs requisition organized locally cases some in and protests prompted w civil the throughout continue would that pattern a in regions agricultural Caucasian North the from off Caucasus, South the of rest the and city, the cut effectively line d [grain] 1914 in already that meant requisition Military author city Tiflis, in as from Thompson government the Azerbaijan. to ofindependent transferred was administration city the Tiflis, from relocating was Kruchenykh when pseudo Baku the along oil of transportation regular maintaining were they Azerbaijan. independent M. W. General C Peace Major Paris the of until Thompson administration British the under came Baku 1918, 30, October destruction ofthefurther landscape. urban contribut and displaced, thousands of tens dead, thousands left again that destruction

Suny, Suny, Audrey Altstadt, Audrey ihr Pipes, Richard - Under such circumstances, Baku’s circumstances, such Under on armistice Mudros the of signing the after army Ottoman the of withdrawal the With BakuCommune BakuCommune mandate eliveries.”

was, however, relatively short lived and in August 1919, at precisely the time the precisely at 1919, August in and lived short relatively however, was, omto o te oit no: omns ad Nationalism, and Communism Union: Soviet the of Formation The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule Russian under Identity and Power Turks: Azerbaijani The 111 109

, 111. , 64. I

n June 1918, the Azerbaijani gover Azerbaijani the 1918, June n In January 1918, fighting in Daghestan along the Baku the along Daghestan in fighting 1918, January In te cniuly tuge t secure to struggled continually ities

108

h Biih rsne rvdd sne f euiy cmitd as committed security, of sense a provided presence British The

onference could come to a decision regarding the status of status the regarding decision a to come could onference

“air of luxury” must have been highly relative. Much relative. highly been have must luxury” of “air 37 ,

there were reports of “serious dislocations in dislocations “serious of reports were there ’

(G ə nc

nment, which for the time being was being time the for which nment, ə , rhbtd h epr o cereals, of export the prohibited ),

food supplies for the population. population. the for supplies food - Tiflis

(Stanford: Hoover Institution Hoover (Stanford:

- 1917 Batum railway. This railway. Batum - Vladikavkaz rail Vladikavkaz - 1922 ar. 110

Nw York: (New Shortages ed to the the to ed CEU eTD Collection 118 117 116 115 114 113 no. 1 (2009): 46. 112 t of effect immediate most the Perhaps Kabachok. Fantasticheskii the of days heady the with comparison Grandozar Kruchenykh Aleksei Roz Ozhirenie journal journal Degen’s Iurii 1919, January in Already cities. amount certain a of indicative as understood capital. Azerbaijani the to moved they together and Baku, in notary a of son the Tolstoi, Boris to married was she summer late In definite. more even 1919. July of end the in office post railway Georgian the common a were houses sight.” gutted and Ruined violence. Armenian and [Azerbaijani], Tatar Bolshevi of signs were there street every nearly “in 1920, in recalled Bechhofer Iran. expor grain and abandoned were policies requisition improving, was situation the however, 1919, August By Eastern in land cultivated w however region the of sufficiency county. the for food secure to attempt an in textiles and livestock, meat, bread,

Nikol Vechorka, Sukhoparov, Bechhofer, Yilmaz “Unexpected Peace,” 46. Suny, Harun Yilmaz, “An Unexpected Peace: Azerbaijani Peace: Unexpected “An Yilmaz, Harun 114 115

’ Kruchenykh’s decision to move to decision Kruchenykh’s The revolution, however, had left its mark on the city, and as the British journalist C. E. C. journalist British the as and city, the on mark its left had however, revolution, The BakuCommune skaia, Parus

e e crusacs ol b a osldto o ltrr gop. n Baku, In groups. literary of consolidation a be would circumstances new he Avtobiografiia Denikin’s Russia Fantasticheskii gorod Sud’ba budetlianina

ad n a, h sm j same the May, in and ,

(pro s eue, atal de o h roinain f rd twrs mot from imports towards trade of reorientation the to due partially resumed, ts bably authored by Kruchenykh under a pseudonym) and Igor Terentev’s Terentev’s Igor and pseudonym) a under Kruchenykh by authored bably , 207. , 19.

, Transcaucasia

307.

, 103.

, 86. . 118

ht en si, h Bk pro i mn wy pld in paled ways many in period Baku the said, being That s rpld y h fc ta i 11 te oa aon of amount total the 1919 in that fact the by crippled as

seems to have been precipitated by the loss of his job at job his of loss the by precipitated been have to seems unl are a eiw f w F two of review a carried ournal

was less than a fourth of what it had been in 1914. in been had it what of fourth a than less was

of fluidity that existed cultural spheres of the two the of spheres cultural existed that fluidity of 38 - Georgian Relations, 1918 Relations, Georgian

Feniks 116 117

These moves however should be should however moves These had been mentioned in the Baku Baku the in mentioned been had e case of Tat of case e - 20,” Revolutionary Russia Revolutionary trs publications, uturist ’ iana Vechorka is Vechorka iana 112 st, Turkish, Turkish, st,

h self The

22, 113 -

CEU eTD Collection 120 119 the between daily almost running trains were there result, a As markets. European to oil Baku’s transporting for outlet the provided they as period the during priority consistent a been had Tiflis. from guests as come had or time full Baku in living were they whether decide to difficult is in as listed are Gorodetsky the by Sergei and Degen Iurii both 3, October on held meeting general talks the of time the By participants. prepared included often which work theoretical and practical of combination architectonics faktura, orchestration rhythm, of examination “systematic the task its as took subsection The 17. August on starting Sunday each met which section versification a opened quickly studio changing 7, November until continued on they place and 1919, took 8, meeting August open first The Press. Friday Baku weekly the in held announced Studio were The which group. meetings the in part take actively to able was Kruchenykh th over accommodating more become have to seems futurism, toward stance combative a taken previously had who Gellershtein, creation. poetic of aspects technical the on systematically working of purpose expressed the with formed was Studio, Poets’ the From Studio toWorkshop: SettingontheCaspian upCamp Poets’ the of Workshop. branch Baku the into transitioned fully almost later which and Studio Poets’ fir was which society literary single a in concentrated be would Tiflis from moving takeove Soviet the before months the in particularly

“B studii poetov” [Inthe poets’ studio], “K otkrytiiu‘studii poetov’” the[On opening of the“poets’studio”], 120 In the beginning of August 1919, on the initiative of M. Gellershtein, a literary g literary a Gellershtein, M. of initiative the on 1919, August of beginning the In

This

later option option later ,

ocp, content, concept, is not out of the realm of possibility. Keeping the railways running railways the Keeping possibility. of realm the of out not is attendance, although because they are not noted as full members, it it members, full as noted not are they because although attendance,

Azerbaidzhan

n symbol.” and 39 , no. 204, September 24, 1919.

r, the mottled artistic groups of groups artistic mottled the r, 119 Azerbaidzhan

h meig cnitd f a of consisted meetings The

oain eea ie. The times. several location , no. 159, July 30, 191

peiu yas and years, previous e st called the the called st

the writers writers the , emotion, 9. roup,

CEU eTD Collection Gellershtein wasmade the Workshop’s secretary. Krusanov, 124 123 122 121 of building Baku State University. the in place take would decided, was it Meetings, others. some and Kruchenykh with along organization, the of heads as named are they that fact the by evidenced as Baku in living all are Gorodetsky Degen, Vechorka, that clear is it time this By Workshop. Poets’ the of chapter Baku a into reorganized and dissolved was Studio Poets’ of was futurism,” event not particularl the truth the admit already perhaps may one that agreed and [poetry], his to listened readily applause, noisy with him honored audience “the that fact the despite noted, journalist one As evidenced in excerpt this from speech: Kamensky’s the Kamensky. by poems of reading “cabaret Evreinov’s Baku,” in Live Must by lecture a included OctoberKamensky early 1919. in Vasily and Evreinov Nikolai by made tour theater the as such Baku to excursions temporary of instances were certainly there case, the Whatever cities. two

Ibid., 332. Krusanov, For biographical information ofEvreinov, see Bowlt, h fl ls o has inc heads of list full The épater le le épater On November 30, there was a meeting in the apartment of Mikhail Struve Mikhail of apartment the in meeting a was there 30, November On live must mustwe creat We spirit. mighty w the on its revealing from away [ bleak shy we down sun yet the pull much we and joyfully, victoriously, East, the are We Kame

Futuristicheskaia revoliutsiia nsky’s stint in Baku opened on October 8 October on opened Baku in stint nsky’s neuiutny bourgeois alls, s alls, e the youth of world. anew youth e the ing from the balconies, perform in the squares. We must dress brightly, in a in brightly, dress must We squares. the in perform balconies, the from ing ], like a stage without a set [ set a without stage a like ],

Evreinov, ‘Theater of the Future,” a speech by Kamensky, “How One One “How Kamensky, by speech a Future,” the of ‘Theater Evreinov,

ue G Lbra, . Melik A. Liberman, G. luded

abe r rabble

121

124 uig n mgt xet rm F a from expect might one ousing

, 331. The performance was well received and consisted of all of all of consisted and received well was performance The

y well attended.

- monster” “the Musical Grimace,” and finally a a finally and Grimace,” Musical “the monster” 122 40 SalonAlbum

kak stsena kak

- Futuristicheskaia revoliutsiia Shakh, Ia. Glakhengauz, and A. Selikhanovich. M. M. Selikhanovich. A. and Glakhengauz, Ia. Shakh,

123 , to the earth, sear it into our souls which are which souls our into it sear earth, the to ,

at the State Theater with a program that that program a with Theater State the at and —

, 60 bez zadnei steny zadnei bez the Georgian symbolist Robakidze Robakidze symbolist Georgian the - 61.

the Tbilisi crowd making making crowd Tbilisi the trs eeig a is as evening, uturist ]. We must write poetry poetry write must We ]. , 333.

at which the which at word;

CEU eTD Collection 128 Mukhambazi: Genre Wars on theEdges of theRussian Empire,” 127 126 poets’ (Baku), no. 54, Decembe [The poetov” “Tsekh poets. Muslim the names workshop], neither words, different slightly in summery the phrase 125 universityauditoriumthat the full. wasalmost calleda newjournalhewasediting for members Workshop the from submissions solicit to opportunity the used attendance, in also Robakidze with ended sonnet the form. about papers read both Robakidze and Vechorka where Sonnets” of Night “the Decem on example, For members. the of Tiflis. in colleagues their with ties maintaining by sphere cultural Transcaucasian larger a to activities of life cultural the on claim a staking about both serious, were absent. Sergei Baku.” in poets Muslim of “circle unnamed an to as well as Horns, Blue the symbolists, Georgian Robakidze’s cr group and readings by followed then was which Meaning,” speech Its a and Workshop delivered Poets’ “The who entitled Gorodetsky Sergei by opened was event The 1919. 5, December

Kru Nikol This announcement was made in two Baku publications, Baku two in made was announcement This For a discussion of the role of the sonnet in Tiflis modernism, see Harsha Ram, “The Sonnet and the the and Sonnet “The Ram, Harsha see modernism, Tiflis in sonnet the of role the of discussion a For 127 sanov,

126 ’ The meetings of the Baku Poets’ Workshop were often themed or otherwise led by one one by led otherwise or themed often were Workshop Poets’ Baku the of meetings The on place took Workshop Poets’ founded newly the of meeting public first The aaoih fe te eatr o Grdtk ad ee, oee, s noticeably is however, Degen, and Gorodetsky of departure the after Rafalovich

skaia, itiques. More interesting perhaps, is the fact that the group sent letters of greeting to greeting of letters sent group the that fact the is perhaps, interesting More itiques. hs peettos ee olwd a uul b gop rtcs. h ngt finally night The criticism. group by usual, as followed, were presentations These

Azerbaidzhan The attention paid to the ceremony of the opening meeting suggests that the poets the that suggests meeting opening the of ceremony the to paid attention The Futuristicheskaia revoliutsiia Fantasticheskii gorod 125

h Tfi Pes Wrso, h leadersh the Workshop, Poets’ Tiflis The r 9,1919. n. 6, eebr , 99 “sk peo” Te ot’ workshop], poets’ [The poetov” “Tsekh 1919; 9, December 266, no. , ’s

recitation of his poems in the original Georgian. Gorodetsky, who was was who Gorodetsky, Georgian. original the in poems his of recitation

, 177. Menady

, 334.

ber 26, there was a special session held under the title the under held session special a was there 26, ber . The midnight lastedit until event and wasrepor 128 41

Azerbaidzhan PMLA

122, no. 5 (2007): 1548

and and p f hc was which of ip Golos Rossii Golos au ad oncig their connecting and Baku, , and although the two the although and , - 1570. ae oe by over taken oo Rossii Golos

ted ted CEU eTD Collection 130 129 b had that press” the of freedom style actions oftheAzerbaijaniCommissariat Revolutionary (Azrevkom) the “British dissolve was to first the of one and trend, this from depart not did Azerbaijan of Sovietization The concerned. t not was this arts, the from aloof relatively stayed committee central the Although conditions. material strained by and policy governmental by both ways, Cultural Life and city. the by in life interrupted cultural of forms the change dramatically would which were Army, Red the of Baku in arrival activities their that, After 23. April on held was group the of meeting understand become has] it where level a [to down come little generally was earlier which Futurism, Russian […] poets. talented many producing are workers The growth. exceptional of period a experiencing currently is Russia in s the described he As revolution. October the since Russian in place taken had that developments poetic the of news with society Baku the to came Roshal Russia. Soviet the from Vladimir of outputpersonalityandcreative on the speech meetinga thisdelivered Kruchenykh At Futurism. of theme the to devoted and Kruchenykh by headed was which 1920, 9, January of meeting gain to wished who groups other for city the in contact of point a also but Tiflis, from east moved had who writers

Sobraniia [Meetings], tsekh“V poetov” [Inthe poets’ workshop], Cultural life under the Bolsheviks during the civil war was regulated in a number of of number a in regulated was war civil the during Bolsheviks the under life Cultural of group small the of center the only not became Workshop Poets’ the way this In 130

Mayakovsky and introduced a guest speaker, the poet G. Roshal who was visiting was who Roshal G. poet the speaker, guest a introduced and Mayakovsky the Commissars Azerbaidzhan entré

into the cultural world of Baku. One example of this was the the was this of example One Baku. of world cultural the into

, no. 80, April 23, 1920.

Azerbaidzhan e te ue ne te zrajn Democratic Azerbaijani the under rule the een 42

, no. 15, January 23,1920.

able to the masses.” the to able e ae hr te rs was press the where case he

129

- The last official last The understood, has understood, ituation, “art ituation, CEU eTD Collection 134 Cambridge University Press, 1985). 133 132 http://www.armin.am/images/menus/1427/A_Gharib Institute of ArmenianStudies, Yere 1919, 29, September Azerbaijan], in situation the on Moscow in report oral Narimanov’s N. of records the [From 131 most painters, and poets of large talents the employed which posters propaganda political of amounts Rosta, Windows of name the under and, countryside, the toured which agitboats and journals satirical and literary newspapers, as such material wide agitational of variety a produced agency the and jurisdiction Rosta under fell quickly services information telegrap Agency Russian Telegraph (Rosta) associatio bednota, newspapers Azerbaidzhan the for worked have to seems instance, for Kruchenykh, diverse. Komsomol. fullyde only was however, and unions, trade government, party, Soviet the important as each such for institution newspapers local and provincial, national, separate often were integrate frequently were networks press noted has Kenez Peter As aesthetics. than rather politics to restricted mostly was censorship Azrevkomthe moved na to that 24, May until wasn’t it contrast, of way By Baku. in issued be to kind its of first the was Republic.

N. A. Bryliakov, Altstadt, Nariman Narimonov, “Iz zapisi ustnogo soobshcheniiaNarimanozapisiustnogo “Iz N. NarimanNarimonov, Peter Kenez, Peter ot hd en rae i Spebr 98 a pr o cnoiaig h Petrograd the consolidating of part as 1918, September in created been had Rosta stage early this at immediate, was newspapers over control Bolshevik Although h agency and the press bureau into a single news organization. news single a into bureau press the and agency h 131 n with new institutions of the party the of institutions new with n Azerbaijani Turks

The May 8, 1920, decree nationalizing all polygraph and typographic machinery typographic and polygraph all nationalizing decree 1920, 8, May The The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization,Mass1917 Methods of SovietPropaganda theState: of Birth The Rossiiskoe Telegrafnoe and

, 112. tionalize the all tionalize theall important oil industry. veloped in the years after the civil war and initially it was even more even was it initially and war civil the afteryears the in veloped aisi rabochii Bakinskii van State University,

emerged

(Mos cow: Mysl’, 1976), 8. d both vertically and horizontally, meaning that there that meaning horizontally, and vertically both d yan_adrbejan_skzbnaxbyur.pdf.

as a rallying point for rallying as a ,

43 government

, each each ,

f hc hd en ucl cetd in created quickly been had which of , and military and ,

v v Moskve o polozhenii v Azerbaidzhane”polozheniiv o Moskve v v 132 the the

artists.

134 . In Baku, however, the however, Baku, In .

However, more than more However, 133

- 1929 This network, network, This , the agittrains the , Kommunist, (Cambridge: CEU eTD Collection 138 137 Elm, 2008), 6:192 136 135 the to visit Roshal’s by evidenced As organize. to began Rosta as such institutions as occurred section. literary university’s the in position a held who Degen Iurii by facilitated been have may which privilege a auditorium, university’s the of use the from benefitted Workshop Poets’ the above, Colle Commercial Kalantarova A. M. the unexpectedly suddenly might who administrators level low of whims the on rely to had they Instead rule. t was this University, State Baku with association their through did they as benefited, occasionally émigrés Russian the While limited. was scope their initiatives, (TurkeyEast andIran), as the of countries neighboring the to literature revolutionary export to expected also was city The city’s diverse the to only not material, agitational supplying for responsible were they that fact the corr received likely most and importance, branc Baku the up from set in to Moscow brought was Bogdat’ev Ia. S. Bolshevik old the 1920, May in and 1919, of spring masses.to the famously

Nikol’skaia, Krusanov, Ibid., 46. C ə mal Quliyev, ed., Quliyev, mal Thi Although the in beginning territory held Soviet in operation began Rosta of offices Regional 138 population, but to the as yet unoccupied Caucasian countries of Georgia and Armenia. and Georgia of countries Caucasian unoccupied yet as the to but population, Vladimir

ivleet hwvr pld n oprsn o h epoin f potnt that opportunity of explosion the to comparison in paled however, involvement, s Russkii avangard Fantasticheskii gorod withdraw their support their withdraw

- 193.

the Azerbaijani Republican government had supported several cultural cultural several supported had government Republican Azerbaijani the

Mayakovsky, to create compelling image compelling create to Mayakovsky, Az ə rbaycan Tarixi rbaycan

, 333. the the

Azrevkommade Augustin an clear 18,1920,

, 151. o te organization. the of h

, [The History of Azerbaijan], of History [The

as was the case when they were forced to stop meeting at at meeting stop to forced were they when case the was as esponding resources. Their status derived status Their resources. esponding e i te neet f col hygiene.” school of interest the “in ge 44

135

s and captions to spread revolution spread to captions and s The Baku offices took on special special on took offices Baku The vol. 6 vol. , he exception rather than the than rather exception he

Aprel 1920 Aprel

directive. –

İyun 1941 İyun 137

by virtue of virtue by 136

s noted As

(Baku: and CEU eTD Collection State Museum](Moscow, Gosudarstvennii Mus Maiakovskogo V. Mus 140 Telingater, and Emmanuel Mané 139 fromcircle modernism prerevolutionary the of years Russianin Petersburg and Moscow. F the Viachesla symbolist venerable the Baku: in arrived milieu literary the to additions favorable more of search in south way their make to sought capitals, the in hunger of years two through struggling after In Baku. in them kept centers urban Russia’s in prevailing conditions ti the for Moscow, and Petrograd to return could Caucasus the in émigrés Russian that meant this theory in While 1918. of autumn the in Army Volunteer Denikin’s the of regrouping the since interior Russian the from region the separated Visitors from North the F 41 mark the under books printed hand mostly twenty, in appearing as well as poetry of books released Vechorka and Degen both Baku, in While available. medium creative only city. the entered army im almost (BakKavRosta) Rosta of branch Caucasian of offices Baku the in work found quickly all others, among Vechorka, and Kruchenykh, Gorodetsky, state. Soviet the and artists between cooperation the of aware well were writers Baku colleague the capitals, their with correspondence as well as 1920, January in Workshop Poets’ uturist collectives Tiflis.uturist in

Other artists working in the offices included Me included offices the in working artists Other For the tabulation of Kruchenykh’s literary production throughout the Caucasian period see: Gosudarstvennii see: period Caucasian the throughout production literary Kruchenykh’s of tabulation the For ei V. ei uturist poet Velimir Khlebnikov. Both of these figures had deep connections to the Bak the to connections deep had figures these of Both Khlebnikov. Velimir poet uturist When the Red Army crossed crossed Army Red the When

V. Maiakovskii, V.

[Books from[BooksA. Knigi A. Knigi 139

hs hud o hwvr ie h ipeso ta aipo ws the was agitprop that impression the give however not should This climates. As part of this trend, in trend, this of part As climates. - Katz. Krusanov,

140 E. Kruchenykh’s Caucasian period from the collection of the V. the of collection the fromperiodKruchenykh’sCaucasian E.

E. Kruchenykh kavkazskogo perioda iz kollektsii Gocudarstbennogo muzeia V. muzeia Gocudarstbennogo kollektsii iz perioda kavkazskogo Kruchenykh E.

collections

no h Suh acss hy erase they Caucasus South the into ei V Futuristicheskaia revoliutsiia chislav Dobrokovskii, F. Konstantinov, B. Shatsman, Solomon Shatsman, B. Konstantinov, F. Dobrokovskii, chislav

.V. Maiakovskii, 2001), 17. n Kru and 45

hnk self chenykh e en nw o te ifcl material difficult the of news being me ° , which h which , October 1920, two new important new two 1920, October ad been the name of one of his his of one of name the been ad - , 336.

ulse a eis f nearly of series a published mediately after the Soviet the after mediately stead

a are ta had that barrier a d ,

many intellectuals, many

V. MayakovskyV. v Ivanov and Ivanov v i the in s

CEU eTD Collection 143 142 Wisconsin 141 seems it however, there, stayed they months two the Throughout University. State Kuban the establish to salon), Ivanov’s of attendee former (another Lunacharsky Anatoly Enlightenment, North the in sanatorium a o at town Caucasian stay to leave received had family the 1920, August in first, At Shvarsalon. Vere wife, third his of death recent the from stemming grief the and Moscow of “consisted mainly Gorodetsky to andLidia.” ofpoems dedicated Horae crea the kindling in poet. young the of seduction sexual his describing letters Lidia wife his sending begun had Ivanov 1906, writers’ Caucasian various the to precursors collectives. obvious most the of one was fact, in later, The Verse. of Academy the workshop, his or Tower, the salon, literary famous his attended c Baku the up made who writers the of most to connected closely Bely.” Andrei and Blok, Alexander Ivanov, included which poets, symbolist of wave new the of harbinger first the was It history. literary Russian in event pivotal a was 1902, collection debut Ivanov’s of publication “the out, points Bird Robert

Ibid., 20. Ibid., 19. Robert Bird, Robert

imprint Ivanov came to Baku with his two his with Baku to came Ivanov intim particularly was connection This As symbolism. Russian in figures important most the of one is Ivanov Viacheslav

Press, 2006), 9.

142

The Russian Prospero: The Creative Universe of Viacheslav Ivanov Viacheslav of Universe Creative The Prospero: Russian The

and , This triangular love affair eventually fell apart, but in the meantime it succeeded it meantime the in but apart, fell eventually affair love triangular This f Kislovodsk as part of a project concocted by the People’s Commissar of of Commissar People’s the by concocted project a of part as Kislovodsk f

tive output of both poets. Gorodetsky was published under Ivanov’s own Ivanov’s under published was Gorodetsky poets. both of output tive n aur 1907 January in

Iao hmef ulse te collection the published himself Ivanov ,

children in an attempt to flee from both the privation the both from flee to attempt an in children 46 t i te ae f egi ooesy I July In Gorodetsky. Sergei of case the in ate

143

ircle, many of whom had had whom of many ircle,

(Madison, WA: University of University WA: (Madison, Pilot Stars Pilot

at t at Eros 141 he end of of end he

, which which , e was He

CEU eTD Collection Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968), 457. 148 147 146 145 144 uni the between contact little was there point, that at it, remembersIvanova Lidia As by. drop to writers and friends, students, encouraged even have may hallways, university sal the diminish to little did however, inconvenience, That room. smoking university’s the in lodged was he Novemberlate hehadbeengivena pos family. his and Ivanov of care took immediately which of faculty the University, State Baku to directed was he where from issues, cultural other most and Educati education for responsible of Commissariat Baku the visited Ivanov lived. wife his and he where building apartment the of hallway the in up children his and Ivanov put to managedwho Gorodetsky into ran Ivanov train, by Baku in hours just Fortunately, city. the in writers émigré Russian of concentration the of unaware even was poet the Perhaps there. do would they what or live would they where crosswe couldmanage to it.’” maybe said.]‘Who [he by,’knows, border is close the south, and inthe of‘It’s choiceBaku. his in firm was “Viacheslav decision: father’s her explain to on goes She Baku. or Russia, central mov be would they where of choice a given were patients the all and closing was sanatorium the that announced was it recalls, Lidia daughter Ivanov’s as October, pretense. a merely was suggests Bird which project, the fulfill to little did Ivanov that

Bird, Ibid., 91. Ivanova, Ibid., 34. oet oi Jcsn n Lwy esn Jr Nelson, Lowry and Jackson Louis Robert

Russian Prospero Ivanov’s living situation was a good deal less luxurious than in his Petersburg days and days Petersburg his in than luxurious less deal good a was situation living Ivanov’s Wh

Vospominania en the Ivanovs arrived in Baku in October 1920, October seem arrived inBakuthey hadlittle senseof Ivanovs en the tohave on atmosphere of his quarters. In fact, the room’s location, just off one of the of one off just location, room’s the fact, In quarters. his of atmosphere on , 34. , 88.

145

ition ition as aprofessorofclassical philologyand poetics. . eds., , 47 ycelv vnv Pe, rtc n Philosopher and Critic Poet, Ivanov: Vyacheslav

n Nropo) te oit agency Soviet the (Narkompros), on 146 ed: Moscow, two towns in towns two Moscow, ed:

In the days that followed, that days the In a fter

versity and the and versity having arrived arrived having 147 144 (New (New

148

By In

CEU eTD Collection 154 153 retushi Khlebnikov “Velimir Parnis, them: of several reconstruct to managed 152 Gosudarstvennogo U professor], University Baku Ivanov“Viach. Kotrelev, University.the at professors 151 150 149 Street however, Eventually BakK of offices the li he first At housing. securing in difficulty a was there time, the at Baku in many Volga the of Department Education Political the posters. newspaper wall the for writing p for government local the petition resources. to reputation his mobilize to able was he less the none the of dean become to nominated cinema.” and theater the of organization the […] and commission, housing the of] [administration equipments, of purchase the library, of selection “the including life university of aspects all in participated community, this of part as Ivanov, institution. the up made who students and professors the among loyalty of sense strong a bred insulation This government. central oet Velimir Khlebnikov was starting his work at Rosta, where he had quickly been put to work to quicklyputbeen had he whereat work Rosta, his starting Velimirwas Khlebnikov oet

Ibid. Krusanov, Ibid., 459. Ibid., 458. None of the posters with Khlebnikov’s captions seem to have survived, but the scholar Aleksandr Parnis has Parnis Aleksandr scholar the but survived, have to seem captions Khlebnikov’s with posters the of None N. V. Kotrelev reproduces a request to the Azrevkom the to request a reproduces Kotrelev V. N. , 227.

where he shared where heshared a roomwith thegraphic artist Dobrokovskii. At the same time as Viacheslav Ivanov was gett was Ivanov Viacheslav as time same the At 152 151

Beyond that he also managed to secure a lecture (October lecture a secure to managed also he that Beyond

Futuristicheskaia revoliutsiia

niversiteta avRosta, sleeping at night on the on night at sleeping avRosta,

he had the opportunity to move to the sailors’ dormitory on Bailovskaia on dormitory sailors’ the to move to opportunity the had he Trudy russkoi i slavianskoi filologii, literaturovedenie, Uchenye literaturovedenie, filologii, slavianskoi i russkoi Trudy

11, no.209 (1968): 332

university, a position he ultimately declined. ultimately he position a university, akzki kommuna Kavkazskaia , 337.

149

— o ep a hs novmn ta h ws even was he that involvement his was deep So - 48 professor Bakinskogo Universiteta” [Viacheslav IvanovUniversiteta”[ViacheslavBakinskogo professor 333.

filed by Ivanov to improve the housing conditions for conditions housing the improve to Ivanov by filed -

apa Flotilla. Caspian scholarly personnel, the organization of the the of organization the personnel, scholarly

same table they used for work each day each work for used they table same ing settled at Baku State, the F the State, Baku at settled ing

v Baku v 1920 v Baku v n pouig ie fr agitprop for lines producing and 154 153

) at the s the at ) o Klbio, s for as Khlebnikov, For - 1921 gg.,” in gg.,” 1921

150 zapisk chool library of library chool

It seems that seems It ved right in right ved i Tartuskogo i Portrety bez Portrety uturist uturist — .

CEU eTD Collection Khlebnikove” [Recollections of Khlebnikov] in Caucasus], the in [Poet Kavkaze” na “Poet Samorodova, in Ol’ga in appear life social Khlebnikov’s of accounts balanced more 205; Khlebnikov,” “Velimir Gorodetsky, vospominania Sergei ocherki, 1985; 13, November (Moscow), 156 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Pre 155 the of part as enlist to poet the led eventually Asia, to attraction romantic a as well as work, the with dissatisfaction his same, the All revolution. the of wake the in up sprung had which colleges workers hoc ad the at lecturing culture, state of institutions new hi Khlebnikov Kharkovthe VasilyErmilov: painter between u point sticking a was This print. into theories his getting in success, little with energy, much invested he and priority second took poetry set, mas of type the avoid so and future, the predict could one that convinced was he hand, in these With history. of patterns numerical repeating essential, the construct to as so categories differing of events historical a had he that belief his by from derived been had laws These absorbed Time.” of Laws fundamental “the called he what discovered wholly almost was streak, mystical strong a shown ltimately led to his living somewhat apart from them. As he tellingly puts it in a letter a friend, a letter a in it puts tellingly he As fromthem. apart somewhat living his to led ltimately s manuscripts. s

great deal great eii Khlebnikov, Velimir e Mie A’mn “z oo ct vpmio’ [rm ht hc i remembered], is which that [From vspomnilos’” chto togo, “Iz Al’tman, Moisei See human beings and to aid governments that still aid that governments to and human beings income: of source supplementary another riding, besides willbe men. of Horses agovernment scientists than more gifted localthink among Baku, already that future (and has the predicting my artof tolearn want don’t If people eor o te eid vrhligy ocnrt o te on rde apc of aspect trodden down the on concentrate overwhelmingly period the of Memoirs Kh Baku, in stay his Throughout ’

s appearance, his matted hair, his torn cloths, the sack in which he carried around carried he which in sack the cloths, torn his hair, matted his appearance, s of mathematical work the poet had investe had poet the work mathematical of Zvezda 156

[An indomita [An At the same time however, Khlebnikov was actively trying to engage the engage to trying actively was Khlebnikov however, time same the At h Cletd ok o Vlmr Khlebnikov Velimir of Works Collected The (1972) 6 s suffering that had occurred during the First World War. In this mind this In War. World First the during occurred had that suffering s

http://ka2.ru/hadisy/olga.html , ers), I shall teach it to horses. A government of of government horses.A it to teach ers), Ishall

ble life: Essays, sketches, recollections] (Moscow: Sovremenik, 1984), 203 1984), Sovremenik, (Moscow: recollections] sketches, Essays, life: ble ss, 1987), 127.

Portrety bez l e nkv woe ok a work whose bnikov, 49

retushi have ears to hear. earshave to ad Ta and ; , 233 d in calculating the intervals between intervals the calculating in d

, vol. 1, 1, vol. , they will be able to predict th predict to able be will they i and him - 251. in Vcok, Vsoiaia o “Vospominaniia Vechorka, tiana

grateful to me. They will have, have, will They me. to grateful etr ad hoeia Writings Theoretical and Letters nd personality had always always had personality nd 155 the Baku writers writers Baku the

hz’ ekoiaa Stat’i neukrotimaia: Zhizn’

reception of his new new his of reception oss a tr out turn may horses ieauni gazeta Literaturnaia

apnd in happened e fate of of fate e which - ,

CEU eTD Collection 163 162 161 160 Bakinskii rabochi 159 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,2014), 187. 158 Republic of Iran, 1920 2007) Gvardiia, Parnis, http://echo.msk.ru/programs/time/1052594 Aleksandr dervishes], 157 bureaucra cultural the of reshuffling same capital, the of energy creative a hunger?!” the of afraid I’m but Peter, to move to much very like would I […] news? the what’s living, in up set to possible it’s if know li me to Petrograd, “let friend: a asks he 1921 March In issue. the on to Workshop. Poets’ old the as schema same the less or more under operated and Fridays met which studio ho faci the to access writers the allowed State Baku at appointment return to Baku July until 1921,andthenonlybriefly. post of episode an of part as Persia to boat a on was he 1921 April In Army. Red the of office political big rush big rush to return tothe capital!”

sted regular, well attended lectures attended well regular, sted Janecek, Ibid., 150. Kruchenykh, Krusanov, Russia o tee etrs cainly ee eiw n h pes M D, Lksi o lk” A etr o Blok], on lecture [A Bloke” o “Lektsiia D., M. press: the in review were occasionally lectures these For Asia, in Futurist Russian “A Vroon, Ronald o frhr nomto aot henkvs ie n rn se . otrn “usi drih” [Russian dervishi” “Russkie Kosterin, A. see Iran, in time Khlebnikov’s about information further For - While it’s true that, as Janecek observes, Baku may have seemed isolated from the the from isolated seemed have may Baku observes, Janecek as that, true it’s While Ivanov’s Viacheslav continued. Baku in life literary vicissitudes, these Throughout war Soviet adventurism to help e help to adventurism Soviet war , which had for years seemed inaccessible. Kruchenykh specifically seems to oscillate to seems specifically Kruchenykh inaccessible. seemed years for had which , 161 Moskva Zaum 160

Futuristicheskaia revoliutsiia

, 256 ,

Whereas in June he writes: “I’m working a lot here [Baku]here alot “I’mworking hewrites: in June Whereas Mir zatreshchit However, despite these su these despite However, , no. 194, August 2 , 291. e ma. o mn mlin d yu ed mnh Wie e o you’re how me Write month? a need you do millions many How mean. I ve - (96: 216 (1966): 9 264. For the history of the Soviet actions in Iran, see Cosroe Chaqueri, The Soviet Socialist Soviet The Chaqueri, Cosroe see Iran, in actions Soviet the of history the For 264. –

1921: Birthof the Trauma (Pittsburgh and London: University of PittsburghPress, 1994). ersese vremia: Neproshedshee

, 149.

- 5, 5, 1921. 163 2; “Kli 221;

it also seems that Kruchenykh’s departure was departure Kruchenykh’s that seems also it 162 - , 338. co; and echo/;

159 ci Klbiou [h ky t Klbio] itriw with interview Khlebnikov], to keys [The Khlebnikovu” k uchi

ccesses, several of the poets were considering a return return a considering were poets the of several ccesses,

In addition, Kruchenykh had established a new literarynew a established had Kruchenykh addition, In in ” stablish a Communist state in Iran. in state Communist a stablish

y ht a psig i avant his pushing was that cy

rtn Tae i Cnrl sa History Asian Central in Travel Writing oia Starkina, Sofiia 50

ai Eh Moskvy Ekho Radio 158

eii Khlebnikov Velimir lities there, and the university the and there, lities — Arl , 2013, 4, April , that’s why I’mwhy in that’s not - ad clege in colleagues garde 157 Mso: Molodaia (Moscow:

, ed. Nile Green Green Nile ed. , He would not would He linked to linked the

CEU eTD Collection Sovietthe culturalsphere will be ofthe the topic next chapter. strategies the and BakKavRosta, organizer ofits by employed offices the in out played forces these which in ways The revolution. the of aftermath the in occupied had they power of positions the from Moscow

Sergei Gorodetsky in an effort to position himself favorably within favorably himself position to effort an in Gorodetsky Sergei 51

CEU eTD Collection 165 164 unt which Narkompros the of section (artistic) avant the of reduction the with 1918 in already occurred had change structure institution. the burgeoning Rosta into incorporated to were studios networks pedagogical prerevolutionary how various demonstrates attaching for penchant the Finally, subdivisions. f affair the in role central His infrastructure. cultural the within success Gorodetsky’s of extent 1920 of course the over poets Caucasian the of most employ to ability Gorodetsky. like actors local of acumen organizational and energy the on dependent frequently was success their young state, Soviet the of institutions the of many to attached were departments agitational and literary of charges the w efforts centralization the accompanied parallelismthat clarifying in way long a goes and institutions, Soviet early of development Narkompros. of authority illustrator Ə satirical the and Gorodetsky of leadership the Under organization. idiosyncratic the Past of Critique the and Gorodetsky Sergei Artists: Old from Art New 4: Chapter rhr ouetd y i position his by documented urther min Əminzad min

Quliyev, Review By 1921, however, support for this brand localism was in decline. decline. in was localism brand this for support however, 1921, By and autonomous relatively a been had BakKavRosta of Offices Arts’ the 1920, In

Az Stikhi ə rbaycan Tarixi ə

, it had taken on responsibilities that in other areas would have fall have would areas other in that responsibilities on taken had it , [poems]

, bk. 2 bk.

, 6:221. 165

, 1916 In that sense, it is a clear example of the local specificity of the of specificity local the of example clear a is it sense, that In

The productivity of the arts department of department arts the of productivity The as curious material forthe historian ofliterature. corruption might be, they are all marked as outcasts,they areall stamped by All thesong

- 1920

, byKlara Arseneva, as the head of the organization’s many and sundry sundry and many organization’s the of head the as . These documents of asolitary life acage in will [however] serve s

sungin the Menshevik 52 il then had managed to largely dictate the shape the dictate largely to managed had then il

Iskusstvo hich characterized the 1920s. Although 1920s. the characterized hich paradise,matter no how beautiful they 1 (1921): 39. - 21 is a testament to testament a is 21 164 - garde dominated IZO IZO dominated garde The

BakKavRosta

first signs of this of signs first Sergei Gorodetsky en under the under en

and its and of the the of the the

CEU eTD Collection 169 California Press,1990), 34. 168 proletarian culture througheducation and engagement with workers. dedica war civil the during organization independent funded Narkompros a was 167 166 Narkompros the over taken reorganization. had which Committee) Education under the it bring and Rosta from department Na the of reorganization 1921, February Georgia and Armenia into Army Red the of intervention the With distrib the as position privileged Azerbaijan because Further, forces. armed the of branch a from autonomously exist to Caucasus South ofone was BakKavRosta 1920, May in established resources. scarce increasingly for themselves amongst competing were which and war, civil the during or frequ redundancy had which and institutions wastefulness Soviet among combat “parallelism” to attempt larger a of part also however, was, It so the and Proletkult the between struggle of reorganization ofthe 1921, withthe Narkompros. of funded government

Ibid., 236. Gurianova, Lynn Mally, Lynn Sheila Fitzpatrick, Sheila hs restructuring This 168

Aesthetics Anarchy of a held organization Baku the region, the in outpost Bolshevik first the was

BakKavRosta, as noted above, noted wasaprime as ofthis. BakKavRosta, example Culture of the Future: The Proletkult Movement in Revolutionary Russia Revolutionary in Movement Proletkult The Future: the of Culture 169

respectively, Baku surrendered its monopoly on agitational work. The The work. agitational on monopoly its surrendered Baku respectively, Commissariat of Enlightenment of Commissariat

cultural work. cultural

kmrs a ue a a opruiy o xie ooesys art Gorodetsky’s excise to opportunity an as used was rkompros a esnily rsos o te eta Co Central the of response a essentially was

, 235. ution point for much of the propaganda for the South Caucasus. South the for propaganda the of formuch point ution

166

The definitive momentThe definitive - called Futurist camp for influence and resources. and influence for camp Futurist called : 162 : 53 the control of Glavpolitprosvet (Central Political Political (Central Glavpolitprosvet of control the

- 187. The Proletkult (Proletarian Culture) organization Culture) (Proletarian Proletkult The 187. the few such agitational organizations in the the in organizations agitational such few the

nl dvlpd n hpaad way haphazard a in developed ently ,

however ted to the development of a new a of development the to ted n eebr 90 and 1920, December in ,

came beginning inthe hn t was it When mte t a power a to mmittee rs etos after sections arts (Berkeley: University of University (Berkeley: 167

CEU eTD Collection 174 Pinakoteka, 2000), 127. 19 iskusstve izobrazitel’nom 173 forty 172 for ran and Iskusstvo 27 January on beganimpending which reviewed, series theater 171 renderedas the 170 p taking was which shift a demonstrate also They time. the at artists Baku occupied that debates salient the of many ways different in expose all journal the of decisions editorial financ receiving idiosyncratic, notautonomous, if organization. BakKavRosta of section th within hierarchy the of Gorodetsky by made illustration an in out laid divisions education. cultural of forms various for studios of series whole a graphic sculpture, had Baku, satir a archives, on museum with studio Narkompros central a established march Army’s Red the since year a than less in relates, he as which, organs th of part as this portrayed editor, chief as NEP. of beginning the at institutions cultural Baku of restructuring total a been have to seems what to reorganization Narkompros the from period the covers October, in again issues two for ran which journal, of issue first the

Khronika [Chronicle], Sergei Gorodetsky, “Nashi zadachi” [Our goals], A The first issue of the journal doesn’t specify the month but this estimate represents the period between the last the between period the represents estimate this but month the specify doesn’t journal the of issue first The This undated drawing was obviously composed pri composed obviously was drawing undated This zerbaijani Soviet SocialistRepublic, sometimes abbreviatedas AzSSR. Azerbaijani In sources, Narkompros is By the final issue however, it is clear that many of the artistic subsections had stopped stopped had subsections artistic the of many that clear is it however, issue final the By for impetus the likely was such, as mentioned explicitly not although restructuring, This

1 (1921): 37.

cycleperformances, of slated to beginon March 26. “Svobodnyi satiragit XalqMaarif Komissarlığı a spot n wr i te rcs o closing. of process the in were and support ial Iskusstvo

rts, and posters, as well as a stencil workshop, […] poets’ workshop, and a and workshop, poets’ […] workshop, stencil a as well as posters, and rts, Iskusstvo -

20 vekov 20

emphasizing the degree to which to degree the emphasizing [Art], the organ of the Arts’ Office of the ASSR Narkompros. ASSR the of Office Arts’ the of organ the [Art],

- 3 (1921): 77.

[Three fires: Baku in the graphic art of the 19 the of art graphic the in Baku fires: [Three ş and

was first published in late Febr late in published first was

Iskusstvo e positive development and expansion of the arts’ the of expansion and development positive e or to the incorporation into Narkompros. into incorporation the to or 173 54

1 (1921): 5 the poet had imagined Rosta as an as Rosta imagined had poet the - 6.

172 - ie efracs ad h earliest the and performances, nine 174

This tally closely mirrors the mirrors closely tally This

The articles, reviews, and and reviews, articles, The - - teatr” satir [Free uary or March and then then and March or uary agit theater, sections for sections theater, agit - 20th centuries] (Moscow: centuries] 20th 171 Tri ognia: Baku v Baku ognia: Tri

Gorodetsky, - agit theater], lace from lace e artistic artistic e 170

This CEU eTD Collection 175 am “Theater Akhundov’s [ art” coming “The treatise, theoretical Chichkanov’s P. from range These issue. the in essays the of rest the for grist the up make each, fruitfulsoilfordevelopmentthe the Baku ofartin andAzerbaijan.” create which these of all is It […] west. the in forgotten been already have which art of forms East, The significance. special on take Russia, East Baku in Azerbaijan, “in that asserts Gorodetsky not editorial his In Baku. in available traditions artistic Eastern the to art new of relationship the on overwhelmingly focuses instance, for issue, February/March The correctly to therevolution. responding as seen not are who artists against criticism level or art,” “new a defined for vaguely call which essays to over pages its of most giving instead prose, and poetry of works generating than rather poetry dev and journal the words, other In output. creative concrete art of subject the to approach critical and prescriptive post of development of direction the of question New Past from Pens Poems andcontemporarydebate developments. political Baku

Gorodetsk — - pcfc usin t all to questions specific all the grandiose goals of the new art that have been determined and supplied in Soviet in supplied and determined been have that art new the of goals grandiose the all h rltosi bten at n Ws, ol West, and East between relationship The post of concept The of theme arching over an be to said be could there If y, “Nashi zadachi,” 5.

n te ulm” [ Muslims” the ong -

revolutionary art is approached variously throughout the journal. the throughout variously approached is art revolutionary

- no atsi ise, s el s h itrly ewe artistic between interplay the as well as issues, artistic Union Griadushchee iskusstvo Griadushchee 55 h ge o t cned “tl kos h old the knows “still contend, to on goes he ” —

et u musul’man u Teatr - that advance stronghold of the revolutionary the of stronghold advance that eouinr at Ti gnrly nald a entailed generally This art. revolutionary d and new art, and the characteristics of of characteristics the and art, new and d otes relatively little space to publishing to space little relatively otes Iskusstvo ] to documentary pieces like A. like pieces documentary to ] 175

, it would h would it , ] and V. Tsilossani’s Tsilossani’s V. and ] e, “Our goals,” Sergei Sergei goals,” “Our e, ave to be the be to ave CEU eTD Collection is in attitude Taste,” Public This of Face the in Slap classics. “A See Modernity.” of realistShip the from overboard etc. particularlyetc., Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, past, the of art the exemplifiedFuturisin the1912 towards orientation destructive and negative 178 177 Azerbaijan], 176 Tomashevskii’s Konstantin like them, of some and line traditional more much a tow others The foundries the [ Tale” Fairy Mikhail “Iron Danilov’s poem, one Only issue. the in featured is that poetry the by highlighted is dilemma it that namely discourses, such beingwithout iconoclastic. content.” with identical be will “form which in art an forging Futurism “Cubism, of decadence capitalist spent frescoes manuscripts, “miniatures, of traditions cultivated and sections language adapting standard systems notationtolocal instruments. of native offering by system conservatory western a into in instruments Education Musical of Tasks trad “The and students Muslim integrating of methods addresses Hajibeyov Here article, Azerbaijan.” Hajibeyov’s Uzeyir in clearly most seen c the as well as Azerbaijan, and Persia, Turkey, in theater of shortcomings and achievements the to readers town”[ Baku’s old of“Monuments

Words in Revolution: Russian Futurist Manifestos, 1912 P. Chichkanov,P. “Griadushchee iskusstvo” [Thecoming art], Iconoclasm is a term used both at the time and in contemporary historiography of the avant the of historiography contemporary in and time the at both used term a is Iconoclasm zyr aieo, “Muzykal’no Hajibeyov, Uzeyir hs htrc f h new the of rhetoric This be to need traditions artistic Eastern that is articles the among consensus general The

with reference to the development of European art. The new art should refine the rich rich the refine should art new The art. European ofdevelopment the withreference to Iskusstvo ultural heritage of the city. There is also a concrete prescriptive angle which can be can which angle prescriptive concrete a also is There city. the of heritage ultural of an iron works, can be characterized as having a notably revolutionary theme. revolutionary notably a having as characterized be can works, iron an of

1 (1921): 25

t manifesto,t Publicin theFace Slap Taste,” “A of 178 -

28.

Zheleznaia skazka Zheleznaia - rseie’y zdci zradaa [h tss f uia euain in education musical of tasks [The Azerbaidjana” zadachi Prosvetitel’nye

s air o al o smtig e ta t cet i. This it. create to than new something for call to easier is f course of Pamiatniki stariny g. Bakug. starinyPamiatniki ,

presents an immediate problem shared by many many by shared problem immediate an presents 56 , carpets, and carpets, , ], which sketches a picture of romance among romance of picture a sketches which ], -

19 Suprematism , 28 Iskusstvo , (Washington DC: New Academia, 2005), 151. 176

1 (1921): 13, 15. engravings,” while eschewing the the eschewing while engravings,” ] which seek to introduce Russianintroduceto seek ] which 177

The outlook is future oriented future is outlook The etc. ,

whichdeclared: “ThrowPushkin, al w all ”

ith the goal of of goal the ith - garde to signal a signal to garde itional itional

CEU eTD Collection 181 180 the Russianedition. Gorodetsky, “Moi put’ cont content its how unclear remains it and version Azeri the to citations found never have I repeated, 179 Workshop, Poets’ Tiflis the of charge took even Rafalovich Baku, for left Gorodetsky Once co was and Georgia Mediator] [Caucasian house publishing the created Workshop, Poets’ the of branch Tiflis the by found poems poet the helped He Tiflis. collaboratorsin closest Gorodetsky’s of one Rafalovich, Sergei 1919 of handful a to attention his turns Gorodetsky issue, the in earlier featured poets the of one Kremlev, Il’ia by manuscript a of publication the for calling After journal. in produced small atapublishing toinTiflis. had runs houseGorodetsky ties only were review under chapbooks the of several that fact the by bolstered further is attribution to similarities stylistic notable of because importantly, more and, editor, chief as position his of virtue by Gorodetsky of work negativ are the are they that assume them to safe is it signed, not are reviews the of Although language. ideological All 1920. in Baku in one and 1920, and 1916 between Tiflis in published were two journal, the of section Bibliography the in reviewed works five the Of way. different a in appearance their make however, do, years Caucasian The f are revolution the before Baku and Tiflis in Gorodetsky with worked had who poets them, noting,by isworth written are it AzerbaijaniMuslim or authors. [ “Milestone”

For biographical details on Rafalovich, see Bowlt, The publishing house inquestion was Kavkazkii Posrednik, referredto below. ooesy set ta te ora ws u ot n oh zrajn ad usa, n wie hs s often is this while and Russian, and Azerbaijani both in out put was journal the that asserts Gorodetsky These reviews con the of none that fact the for notable most perhaps is journal the of selection poetry The Etapka - edited with Gorodetsky and the Georgian noble, Salomea Andronikova. Salomea noble, Georgian the and Gorodetsky with edited ae vn ae ln bfr te eouin 11 i ti case. this in 1912 revolution, the before long dated even are ] , and ran the journal journal the ran and ,

stitute perhaps the most of perhapsthestitute unremarkable strikingsection anotherwise

ind eiw i te olwn ise f h junl This journal. the of issue following the in reviews signed . ”

Salon Album Orion 57

hc crnce li chronicled which , 11 - 12.

l rvee uig heavily using reviewed ely

179 eay eeomns in developments terary

Kavkazkii Posrednik Posrednik Kavkazkii 180

rasted with rasted oe of None eatured. 181

CEU eTD Collection 185 184 183 182 “tal the that hoping and acumen poetic their praising by review the ends he cases both In art. new of cause the to over come to authors towardsThe same Georgiaexists of belligerence in review AkaraArseneva:Gorodetsky’s fault with: finds Gorodetsky that environment the as content, the even or poet, the much so not is it that clear becomes it however, on Further cannon. symbolist the within well fit fate, and mortality contri own Gorodetsky’s that and Ivanov, Viacheslav to first very the lines: from work his attacking poet, the towards sympathy no show Gorodetsky however, review his Georg in Writers Russian of Union the into it reforming

R Ibid. Rev Nikol Iskusstvo eview of iew of recent works by Sergei Rafalovich,

’ of Menshevik Georgia that one one that Georgia Menshevik of only is It psyche. collective the of representation the become has poet same, the all But poems. these those for pleasant remain dusha will they Though books. these a for poetry searching reader series be, they are all marked as outcasts, they are all stamped by corruption material ascurious in serve life acagewill[however] solitary by stamped all are they outcasts, as marked all are they be, song the All […] Tiflis. Menshe in existed poets all where swamp same the is that all And live. now all we which in that about not but cozy, is which that about peacocks, pheasants, bananas, gazelles, of Nineveh, y great the by Marked stikhi kaketi okamenelost’, The reviews also share another aspect of Gorodetsky’s polemics, namely a call for the the for call a namely polemics, Gorodetsky’s of aspect another share also reviews The true It’s contributions the of three that fact the given criticism surprising a is this ways some In a released has versifier, experienced an and school symbolist the of poet a Rafalovich, Sergei skaia,

Stikhi

s oty eto cm fo Grdtk’ mno, h poiet symbolist prominent the mentor, Gorodetsky’s from came section poetry ’s ]. of small books in an old style reminiscent of parts of Blok or Sologub. The contemporary contemporary The Sologub. or Blok of parts of reminiscent style old an in books small of Fatasticheskii Gorod 183 that the Georgian landscape, which the author has real feeling for, somewhat redeems redeems somewhat for, feeling real has author the which landscape, Georgian the that

, 39.

ears of our age, [these poems] talk about cranberries, red foxes, of of foxes, red cranberries, about talk poems] [these age, our of ears s

, 177. sung in the Menshevik paradise, no matter how beautiful they might might they beautiful how matter no paradise, Menshevik the in sung ]. 184

reflection of actual occurrences will in no sense be satisfied by satisfied be sense no in will occurrences actual of reflection

they are they

ented author would soon begin to breath with a new life, life, new a with breath to begin soon would author ented ol peev sc cliid om [ poems calcified such preserve could Iskusstvo

strange to read in these days when the specific job of the of job specific the when days these in read to strange 58

1 (1921): 39. b utions to the journal, two medi two journal, the to utions ia after the Sovietization of Tiflis. of Sovietization the after ia

for the historian ofliterature. historian the for with with moth in the isolated conditions conditions isolated the in . - These documents of a of documents These eate sokhranit’sia takaia takaia sokhranit’sia sus [ souls n t at vetkhaia vetkhaia ions on ions

182 185 vik vik

In CEU eTD Collection Language,” in 188 187 186 which declaration, colleagues. Tiflis erstwhile his to shown treatment of sort of “Declaration Kruchenykh’s Aleksei publish both to decision journal’s the by addressed is dilemma This publishing worth considered was what of scope the Baku’s outside were that resources meant literary greatest course, of This, art.” “proletarian of term relevant politically more the the in what, of vision particular his to subscribe years previous the over with working been had Gorodetsky poets against offensive Soviet the of start the indep of two or week a within been have must which publication its of time the of result a was this that likely seems It issue. this to limited however, dilettante is, This new art. the ofpoets andbecomeproductive light the see can thrall their still under authors tr literary recent of dismissal a combines It issue. next the of tone the delights oftheMarquis de Sade.” ph and work “Komsomol [ “nothingist” a gifts.” technical and natural his match to verse needed much and new creating

Review of Ibid. For an English translation of Kruchenykh’s manifesto, see Alexei Kruchenykh Alexei see manifesto, Kruchenykh’s of translation English an For perhaps endent Geo

This attitude, however, seems to be complicated by the fact that almost none of the the of none almost that fact the by complicated be to seems however, attitude, This dominate will which iconoclasm limited a developing is Gorodetsky reviews, these In

o ad arig ot f h re the of poet carrying card to Nichevoka Words in Revolution nupiigy a ecito o Grdtk’ on rjcoy rm symbolist from trajectory own Gorodetsky’s of description a unsurprisingly, Zaum rgia whichoccurredrgia nichevok Gerald Janecek Gerald

[Nothingist] Riurik by Rok,

following issue, is dubbed “labor poetry,” a handle which notably avoids notably which handle a poetry,” “labor dubbed is issue, following

Language” and to devote space to subjecting Kruchenykh to the same the to Kruchenykh subjecting to space devote to and Language”

pe fo Rso, ooesy vn rsrbs rgmn of regimen a prescribes even Gorodetsky Rostov, from poet ] ysical labor” that might quickly save the young man “from the the “from man young the save quickly might that labor” ysical , 182

187 - 183.

has noted reads like an attempt “to rationalize the irrational, the rationalize “to attempt an like reads noted has

throughout Februaryand 1921.throughout March,

ouin Te pcfc r rsre fr eri is, Georgia for reserved ire specific The volution. Iskustvo 59

1 (1921): 40. 188

At first Gorodet first At , “Declaration of Transrational of “Declaration , ends with the belief that belief the with ends

186 sky refers to the to refers sky

In the case of case the In . CEU eTD Collection 192 191 190 189 itseemsthough again thatitis whichreaffirms Gorodetsky’s hand, likely that: e the from notes the encounters reader the Nikolai Makridin, by art proletarian on tract a and architecture Baku on articles documentary After several clear. made is intention the that however, issue the in later much until not is It poets. Man time This Kruchenykh. and Degen, Osip Rafalovich, Kuzmin, Mikhail Petrograd: prerevolutionary in and there both circle, Gorodetsky’s from familiar are authors the and years, previous the Cauca the in developed had that atmosphere literary heterogeneous the reflects styles of range broad The Futurism. and Clarism, Acmeism, Symbolism, poetry, Labor school: poetic of issue second passion this for a with exercise booklets, printed hand published that say to on goes of application of all of study philological the of usefulness the contest of Poetry the ‘On article his in had of place the out spell to

Ibid. Ibid. Review of Janecek,

back handed complement: “The descriptions […] are bright and vital. It just seems that that seems just It vital. and bright are […] descriptions “The complement: handed back contemporary art should be given over to the c the journal to over given be should art contemporary the of editors The This tactic of publishing work along with its condemnation is practiced more fully in the the fully in its condemnation morealongis practiced oftactic with work publishing This

n h suy of study the in Zaum Miatezh , 268. zaum zaum I skusstvo

[Mutiny] by Aleksei Kruchenykh,

the poetic work in question, in work poetic the

in literature and even in everyday life [ life everyday in even and literature in strongly distorts the author’s work.”strongly distortsthe

. Here the poetry section extends for sixteen pages and is organized by organized is and pages sixteen for extends section poetry the Here . zaum onomatopoeia.

in poetry in much the same way as [Viktor] Shklovsky already Shklovsky [Viktor] as way same the much in poetry in 190 Iskusstvo

Zaum s uees n rdclu. t a meaning has It ridiculous. and “useless is ” 191

Langua stand by the point of view that all the powers of of powers the all that view of point the by stand ne gi, ooesy ons u hs criticism his out rounds Gorodetsky again, Once 60 Iskusstvo

Gorodetsky reation of labor poetry whose form should reflect reflect should form whose poetry labor of reation Mutiny ge,’” ditor. Here we find a note, signed “Ed.” signed note, a find we Here ditor.

1 (1921): 40. 189

these cases. But cases. these 192 [

Miatezh with the statement that statement the with

includes himself includes byt’ dels ] remains doubtful.” He then then He doubtful.” remains ]

a, henkv Ivanov, Khlebnikov, tam, ],

one of Kruchenykh’s self Kruchenykh’s of one the possibility of the of possibility the

among the labor the among

ny as only “one can’t “one sus over sus an CEU eTD Collection 195 Inapress, 1995), 63. 194 193 are friends author’s the and on events political larger attacks with criticisms these of the resonance the Instead, why striking. is which with, himself associate to chose he who on little Tsar the in that he wrote 1915 pro present his [that] and he that say to on goes he though Baku in Gorodetsky with met he when heart.” human the of palpitations sincer his believe doesn’t Whoever Bolshevik. out tail calf, 1921 In und Bolshevik a maybe though Bolshevik, a now is “Gorodetsky that description clear. less is sort committed a what point of this though by Communist, was Gorodetsky own, his including accounts, all By reviews. Self working the class. of ideals proletarian the of face the in literature “bourgeois” of comings short the emphasizing issue, previous the as model same the of reviews book several by followed then is note This

Bachhofer, “Ot redaktsii” [From theeditors], M - ie Al’tman, oisei fashioning andt bet o suy n cmaio. n hs a i cn e osdrd prpit t remind to extent appropriate considerable a considered to be which past, can today. recent it the of way schools this poetic In of ourselves comparison. and study of objects t need was there that felt section poetry the of editors the issue current of the in sections same, the All the journal. the of all by held opinion the is This class. working the of ideology the clarify and n h ps, oee, ooesys oiia ad vn aes even and political Gorodetsky’s however, past, the In Gorodetsky’s of polemics sharp the from away take to what know to difficult is It Denikin’s Russia tece, oig onlsl. uh s ooesy Ad e s bouey true a absolutely is he And Gorodetsky. is Such pointlessly. mooing stretched, 193 peet bsd lbr oty te raie om o ohr ieay col o per as poetry of schools literary other of forms creative the poetry, labor beside present, o

agvr s iceao Ivanovym Viachelavom s Razgovory

he Language of Revolution he Language of

- Bolshevism seemed only to balance a curiously bad poem celebrating poem bad curiously a balance to only seemed Bolshevism , 311 , -

Iskusstvo or 1916.” 312. 194

had “never taken Gorodetsky’s political opinions seriously, opinions political Gorodetsky’s taken “never had

This seems to reinforce the evaluation of C. E. Bechhofer E. C. of evaluation the reinforce to seems This

- in 1920 in 195 3 (1921): 59.

61 . He found the poet “an ardent pro ardent “an poet the found He .

Cnestos ih icelv vnv (Petersburg: Ivanov] Viacheslav with [Conversations ity doesn’t know enough of man and the the and man of enough know doesn’t ity

Mo is ei htc ovcin hd born had convictions thetic

lta rcle Ivanov recalled Al'tman er the sign of a of sign the er

- are still alive alive still are Bolshevist,” CEU eTD Collection thisAs had beena double issue (2 198 a with imbued is such as and 197 faction, Bolshevik the of noticeable leadership political sharpne the for Lenin with competitor early an was whoBogdanov, members,Alexander movement’sfounding the of one from name its takes It Proletkult. the within 196 of figure leading a was Gumilev Gumilev. Nikolai poet the of obituary his in starkly more even Georgia”butout comeson “Menshevik attacks it enough fromthe apparent This is regime.new biograph own his of aspects from himself distancing whether as to w for paid being stopped had salaries as pressing more the all became which somethingduties, administrativenew on take to position IZO. of members radical more by ruled 19 in museums Soviet organizing for Kandinsky Vasily by proposed been had model similar very A novel. entirely fact in not was study, of objects as masters old maintaining time same the at while past the with break a for calls which one take, positio moderate relatively The opinion. official shifting the of aware well been have would Gorodetsky restructuring, the during section arts’ Baku the of head the at position th to connections Bogdanovists, most the remove to designed partially least at regard in this aboutthe neologism poetry”andthe of“labor pseudo said be to something also is There Georgia. of invasion the to regard with case the be to seems ulterio of sense the give biography own

Pamela Kachurin, “Futurist Museology,” Iskusstvo h tr Bgaoit eae n pte lvld y h rgm aant h ms uncompromising most the against regime the by leveled epithet an became Bogdanovist term The There was also a personal element to Gorodetsky’s posturing which entailed strongly entailed which posturing Gorodetsky’s to element personal a also was There o reorganization The 2 - 3 (1920): 71. In the back matter it is mentioned that the journal was only slated to run three issues three run to slated only was journal the that mentioned is it matter back the In 71. (1920): 3 the the

rm h Nropo ad h Poekl organizations. Proletkult the and Narkompros the from e Petrograd intelligentsia, which he reinforced during a visit in 1919, and his and 1919, in visit a during reinforced he which intelligentsia, Petrograd e journal itself would able be tocontinue. ss. Fitzpatrick,

- f the Narkompros which had been approved in February 1921, was was 1921, February in approved been had which Narkompros the f 3) it was unclear if the contract would be renewed. Indeed itwasn’t. Ibid., 77.

Commissariat of Enlightenment Modernism/modernity ork in the agit the in ork 197 mtvs eod otc ovcin Ti certainly This conviction. poetic beyond motives r

uhasac ol ae u i n favorable a in him put have would stance a Such 62

xrm ioolsi eeet, F elements, iconoclastic extreme - poster department and there were questions were there and department poster y that could be seen as problematic by the by problematic as seen be could that y

10, no. 2 (2003): 327 198 8 atog a te ie t a over was it time the at although 18,

, 238.

- iconoclastic line. - 348. 196

eas o his of Because n he seems to seems he n trss and uturists

elements

. CEU eTD Collection 201 200 “Sergeevich.” It isactually Stepanovich. Have (New Terras Victor ed. 199 mentioned. never is orientation class its theater,” totasktaken in newspaper party the of pages the fromexample one just take To period. the of discourse dominant the as it understand to mistake Gumilev, down poet,almost the his or butnever poetry excusing the aesthetics heendorsed. dragging for forces external blames Gorodetsky reviews, earlier his in As years: later Gumilev’s of assessment his begins Gorodetsky Workshop, Poets’ the in involvement career early Gumilev’s to lines few a devoting intelligent Petrograd counter “the that asserting colleagues, Tiflis his against 191 as in Gumilev, with associated closely Bolsheviks was part his the for Gorodetsky of intellectuals. targeting violently instances visible and early most the of one was activities revolutionary intelligen age silver the

Per Baot,“‘Grotesk’ Sergei Gorodetsky, “Nikolai Gumilev, 1887 For biographical details, see “Gumilyov, Nikolai Sergeevich (1886 Sergeevich Nikolai “Gumilyov, see details, biographical For

h sho o Amim wih a gvn s aetd ot sc a Mnesa, but Mandelstam, as wit along departs of bourgeoisie the singer The physically. such killed been has too he now and ago, long poets died into creations His him adventurism. of drew bit forces this talented accursed these of all and us Christian, Orthodox an to given European sarcastic a has which revolutio the felt nor saw neither He future. Acmeism, the to path his closed academicism of school the A hl Grdtk’ reoi rfet apcs f otmoay oiis i wud b would it politics, contemporary of aspects reflects rhetoric Gorodetsky’s While deployed he which that to similar argument of form a pursues Gorodetsky first At 1 they first Workshop hadfoundedthe Poets’ inPetersburg. soulless formal aesthetic of the aristocracy tightened around him even more. […] He founded founded He […] more. even him around tightened aristocracy the of aesthetic formal soulless

a review a review dangerousfor “starting the decline – i a rie te usadn aet fa ogd ieay okr” After worker.” literary dogged a of talent outstanding the ruined had sia

2 - oi tsikl” [“Gortsek”

: ae nvriy rs, 1985): Press, University Yale n: tsia and his execution by the Soviet government for counter counter for government Soviet the by execution his and tsia

Bakinskii Rabochi Bakinskii - 1921,” –

the 2nd Iskusstvo 63 cycle],

201 , h him.h

huh tpig hr o mninn any mentioning of short stopping though

Similarly, when a week later the reviewer the later week a when Similarly, , while the theater collecti theater the while ,

2 Bakinskii Rabochi 188 - 3 (1921): 59. 200 -

- 189. 1921),” in 1921),” towards the mediocrity ofminiaturetowards mediocrity the - eouinr swa revolutionary

uie’ ptoyi i msttd at misstated is patronymic Gumilev’s

Handbook of Russian Literature Russian of Handbook 199 , no. 197, August 30, 1921.

n, he turned from from turned he n, ve Grotesque is Grotesque ve m ta i the is that p e a a e

, CEU eTD Collection 202 pre their over gloss activities. often, more or excuse, justify, to sought they as period the through lived who poets the by employed frequently one advancement, professional of tool effective also was an it butbelief, ideological naïve if onreal, part in predicatedleast at strategy a been have to seems this Gorodetsky, of case the In example. prime the or is himself he which Tiflis Menshevik of environment co the as Petrograd repudiating contemporary by war, the during published he anti and tsarist the deny to him for difficult be would it While reflexive. Goro that suggest would I Tiflis. and Baku counter reactionary as portrayed increasingly are what to relationship of rejection its for is it [ repertoire, new collective’s the praises kafeshantannost’

Per Baot,“‘Grotesk’ hs elzto frhr tess h seiiiy f ooesys iuto ad his and situation Gorodetsky’s of specificity the stresses further realization This

] rather forcham than –

3 - i tsikl” [“Gortsek”

rpig h cets prdg o ielgcl eepin of redemption ideological of paradigm a creates he rrupting, – pioning art oftheproletariat. art pioning

the 3rdcycle], 64 esys tiue o i flo wies s self is writers fellow his to attitude detsky’s

Bakinskii Rabochi 202 , no. 203, September 7, 1921. -

revolutionary regimes in in regimes revolutionary - Bolshevik sentiments Bolshevik aé chantant café - revolutionary - ism

CEU eTD Collection 204 203 in specifically was Baku of value the 1921, after remained who artists those For city. peripheral opportunit more significantly provided center the institutions, cultural Soviet new the with directly engage to wished who those for Indeed, artists. refugee the for options viable became again they that meant conditions wartime a Moscow of reemergence the centers, cultural as Tiflis and Baku of potential the highlighted had Russia central and Caucasus South the between disconnect the war, civil the during Whereas state. Soviet the and artists between relationship the in playing that bad so gotten had Gorodetsky complained openly in theof pages situation the 1921, October By support. of systems other of favor id Conclusion eological uniformity became shriller, the Caucasian poets began eschew the organization in organization the eschew began poets Caucasian the shriller, became uniformity eological

“Lito,” Otdel iskusstv [Artistic se Quotedin Wood, “Politics ofthe Avant work is limitless, but they all stick to their own corners and it is absolutely incomprehensible incomprehensible absolutely is it and department. without aliterary make will do Narkompros how corners own their to stick all they but the limitless, have is We work […] them. to occurred only it if revolution, the of history the and ethnography, theater, of fields the to much contribute could who talents literary huge possesses hs tiue hwvr ws o rv idctv o te hnig oe ht au wa Baku that role changing the of indicative prove to was however, attitude, This for Gorodetsky of calls the and curtailed, was BakKavRosta of autonomy the As

A literary s literary A

ection of Narkompros still doesn’t exist, regardless of the fact that Baku now Baku that fact the of regardless exist, doesn’t still Narkompros of ection

ction], birth corpse a in reveals To it. forget to not ought revolution victorious first the of years first the of enthusiasm contained also germs Bolshevism other Only, many objection. no have Stalini I all Well, of beginning.’ germ ‘the that said often is It - Garde,” 8. Iskusstvo — is this very sensible? e ta Bk, hc hd eetd o t sau a a as status its to reverted had which Baku, than ies ug te iig a b te et grs hc te autopsy the which germs death the by man living the judge , 2

- 3 (1921):75. 65 Isskustvo — —

ms o germs of mass a n wih e a hv crid ih i sne his since him with carried have may he which and 203

that:

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R . Cambridge, MA: 2009. Harvard Press, University

Evelyn asulzade Baku State University]. BakuState Baku: asulzade Universi

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- , no 163, 14 163, no , ə ture armeniya t Universitetinin Tarixi Universitetinin t [Conversations with Viacheslav Ivanov]. Viacheslav with [Conversations , ed. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Alexander Alexander Fitzpatrick, Sheila ed. , teti teti N ’, 1976.

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Museology.” rd rski sainki iooi, ieauoeei, Uchenye literaturovedenie, filologii, slavianskoi i russkoi Trudy 08. —

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