$2 Keys Sea Heritage Journal

VOL. 20 NO. 4 SUMMER 2010 USS SHARK

OFFICIAL QUARTERLY PUBLICATION OF THE MARITIME HISTORICAL SOCIETY Understanding the Key West Hurricane of 1846

By Corey Malcom ©Mel Fisher Maritime Heritage Society, 2010 Introduction Key West is no stranger to hurricanes. Located near the heart of the Atlantic-Caribbean hurricane zone, the small, low-lying speck of land, situated along the northern edge of the Florida Straits, is frequently visited by tropical weather systems. These large cyclonic storms are simply a part of the island’s natural weather-pattern. Hurricanes have been known in the for centuries. The Memorable [] Hurricane of October 11, 1846. Mapa Historico Colonial shipping interests were Pintoresco Moderno de la Isla de Cuba, Hamburg: 1853. Photo credit: Murray Hudson Maps. especially vulnerable to them, and tales of maritime disaster account or hurricanes have come within 50 fleet of military vessels stationed in for much of what we know about nautical miles (57.5 statute miles) the port to flee, and it left at least 12 early storms in the Keys. In 1622, of Key West (NOAA, 2010). Based other vessels wrecked along the reef a hurricane that passed just to the on these figures, Key West has just (Anonymous, 1827 a; Anonymous, west of Key West wreaked havoc over a 38% chance of a significant 1827 b). Eight years later, in 1835, on the 1622 Tierra Firme fleet, tropical weather system passing another hurricane moved westward sinking eight of 28 vessels (Lyon, quite closely in any given year. along the islands, striking the Upper 1989). In 1733, the Spanish fleet Modern Key West was first settled Keys on the 15th of September, from Mexico was destroyed by a in 1822, after it became a remote and then Key West on the 16th, but hurricane that struck as they passed island outpost of the , most of its damage was to shipping the middle and upper Florida Keys and its earliest days as a fledgling interests along the northern part (Smith, 1997). In more recent years, community were not except from of the island chain (Anonymous, as weather data collection was the effects of hurricanes. The 1835). systematized, the frequency of these earliest documented hurricane to On September 5th, 1842, after tropical weather systems has been strike the island town happened in having first hit Havana the day more accurately measured. Between September of 1827. The storm was 1852 and 2009, sixty tropical storms strong enough to force the small (Continued on page 3) (Hurricane from page 1) October of 1846. The Eyewitnesses before, another storm struck quite The first-hand accounts of the close to Key West (Anonymous, 1846 storm certainly support the 1842 a). Damage was extensive legends of its power. There were at Sand Key, on the reef seven a number of witnesses, both on miles south of Key West, where land and at sea, who recorded the lighthouse keeper’s quarters their observations of the horrifying were completely destroyed. Many weather. These eyewitnesses to ships in the area were damaged too, the storm describe wind, flooding, and a vessel with a crew suffering, and damages that are of thirteen went missing, its crew unparalleled in modern Key presumably drowned. But on Key West memory, and the following West proper, the storm’s impact examination of the storm draws The Florida Keys Sea Heritage was apparently more moderate. A heavily from these accounts. Journal is published quarterly. writer from the island said, “…the These witnesses saw the events Subscription is available through damage on this key is trifling, some unfold from a variety of perspectives, membership. Copyright 2010 by old buildings have been destroyed and they wrote of the storm for the Key West Maritime Historical and fences blown over; nothing like different reasons. An anonymous Society of the Florida Keys, Inc. it has been felt here for the last 20 Key West resident submitted a long The art on the masthead, the USS years, so say our oldest inhabitants.” and especially rich description of the Shark, was drawn by Bill Muir. (Anonymous, 1842 b). hurricane and its effects to the New But things got worse two years York Herald (Anonymous, 1846 a). Editor: Tom Hambright th later. On October 5 of 1844, a Captain George Dutton of the U.S. hurricane struck the island directly, Army, in charge of the construction and it was much stronger than any of recently commissioned Fort Letters and articles are welcome. felt before. This storm also hit Taylor, wrote a letter to his superior Please write to: Editor, Florida Keys Havana first, then wreaked havoc Colonel J.G. Totten explaining post- Sea Heritage Journal, KWMHS, P.O. at Sand Key and damaged the hurricane status of the fort-building Box 695, Key West, FL 33041. lighthouse there, before coming project (Dutton, 1846). Long-time ashore at Key West. Many ships in Key West resident and collector of Key West Maritime the harbor were sunk or damaged. Historical Society customs Stephen Mallory wrote to Board of Directors The Revenue Cutter Vigilant and the Secretary of the Treasury Robert crew went missing in the storm, J. Walker to notify him of the President: Edward J.Little,Jr. never to be seen again. A writer storm and its effects on the island Vice President: Bill Verge from Key West declared, “The (Mallory, 1846). Commodore John Secretary: Corey Malcom unequal fury of the gale, when D. Sloat of the U.S. Navy notified Treasurer: Tom Hambright at its height, can scarcely be the Secretary of the Navy, John conceived! It swept everything Y. Mason, about his experiences Andrea Comstock before it – houses, fences, trees, aboard the brig Perry, and he also George Craig vessels, and almost everything in described the devastation suffered Bill Grosscup its course was leveled to the earth at Key West (Sloat, 1846). Another, Tom Hambright or borne off with frightful velocity” unnamed member of the Perry’s Mary Haffenreffer John Jones (Anonymous, 1844). But as bad as crew wrote his recollections of his the 1844 hurricane might have been, Sheri Lohr experience onboard the brig as it Don Lowe there was much worse to come: was driven back and forth across Louis Maglio What is thought to be the strongest the Florida Straits between Cuba Julie McEnroe hurricane known to have struck the Bill Verge island came just two years later, in (Continued on page 2) John Viele New Member William and Louis Bienlier, Tawas Jay Johnson and Jill Wolfe, Key City, MI; Joan Bollinger, Key West; West.

2 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - SUMMER 2010 (Hurricane from page 2) and the Florida Keys (Anonymous, 1848). Lieutenant William C. Pease, aboard the U.S. Revenue Cutter Morris, documented his harrowing experiences onboard ship in the Key West Harbor. (Pease, 1846). Another detailed story of the storm and its effects at Key West was published in the New Orleans Daily Picayune (Anonymous, 1846 b). By compiling information from the various perspectives of these eyewitness accounts and other primary observations, an accurate reconstruction of the storm’s fury is possible. All of the eyewitnesses provide a timeline of sorts for how the storm unfolded and progressed. The descriptions of these various eyewitness observers can be looked Tract of the 1846 Hurricane. Photo credit: the Author. at for evidence about the effects of the storm and the sorts of damage it caused. Each man had a different the communities of Savannah and lost, but bodies were seen floating vantage point and saw the hurricane Newlands (Piddington, 1848). in the harbor, in the different dresses unfold slightly differently, but By the 10th of October the of seamen in the merchant and naval they all describe strikingly similar hurricane was at Cuba, striking services,” said a witness to the next circumstances both during and somewhere on the southwestern day’s aftermath (ibid.). after the storm. The words of these shore; by evening, Havana was The Storm Arrives at Key West witnesses give a good sense of the feeling its effects. As the storm Roughly 100 miles to the worst that a hurricane has to offer. raged across the city and through north, at nearly the same time, the The 1846 Storm the night, ships were dashed to island of Key West was beginning On the 5th of October, 1846, the pieces, buildings fell, and scores of to feel the storm’s effects. The barque Cora, at sea in the Caribbean people died. Over 150 vessels were anonymous writer for the New York off the Venezuelan coast near lost in Havana Harbor, destroyed by Herald was the first to document Maracaibo, was the first to notice the indications of the storm’s waves so large they sent water as th the beginnings of the hurricane high as the lanterns of the lighthouse approach. “On the 10 [of October] (Redfield, 1846). From there, the of the Moro Castle. By 11 A.M. on the barometer gave evidences of storm traveled northwestward and October 11th, the hurricane’s fury change, and by comparing it with strengthened as it progressed. It had passed, but the devastation the sympiesometer, I was satisfied passed south of , where the left in its wake was extreme. “In that there were elements in motion, resulting sea swell caused problems the city and environs, the injury to which would soon be earnestly at along the eastern end of the island the buildings, trees, &c., has been work,” he wrote. At 3 A.M., the same (Schomburgk, 1848). The hurricane immense and many lives have been reporter went to the harborfront and maintained its course, and it soon lost,” wrote a reporter from Havana noted that the seas were increasing reached the Cayman Islands, where (Anonymous, 1846 c). Of 104 on a heavy northwest wind. He kept it was quite strong. At those small ocean-going vessels in the Havana watch of the changes throughout islands, the hurricane generated Harbor, only 12 were without the night and reported that within a surge of fifteen feet or more, significant injury. Nearly 50 local six hours from his first measure the which sent water coursing across coasting vessels were destroyed. “It the entirety of Grand Cayman at is not known how many lives were (Continued on page 4)

SUMMER 2010 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - 3 (Hurricane from page 3) more destruction as they flew into taken possession of the streets...” He barometer dropped 6/10ths of an other structures. Stephen Mallory also noted that some people climbed inch. Clearly, things were amiss. wrote, “… slates from roofs, into boats, hoping to stay above the The Wind boards, and even heavy pieces of rising tide. The New York Herald According to Stephen Mallory, timber were driven through the writer was even more specific about the wind was the earliest indicator air like straws, one piece of plank, how the flooding unfolded at Key of the storm. It first came from nine feet by fourteen inches wide West and said, “It was not until the northeast, starting around 10 came from a distance like a Indian about 3, when the inhabitants of o’clock in the morning. According arrow and penetrated through the the south western part of the town to his account, the winds eventually weatherboards and ceiling into began to realize their danger. The came around to the southwest, one of the Customs House rooms.” wind had hauled to the southward reached their peak in the afternoon, Capt. George Dutton was also awed and westward, and the waters of the and finally abated around midnight. by the devastating effect of the wind Gulf came rolling in with fearful Capt. George Dutton noted similarly and wrote, “The houses in town, rapidity, the streets were deepening that the storm started as a northeast (stone as well as wood,) were torn from the fresh accumulations of wind around 5 A.M. and increased piecemeal and scattered away like each succeeding moment …” He through the day, when by 3 in the chaff before the wind…” The writer then described how people from afternoon it “became a tornado.” for the New York Herald also said, along the waterfront areas of the Dutton also said that as the wind “… the air was filled with missiles – town tried to flee the rising water by increased in strength, it shifted the slates were driven with deathlike wading to the higher ground inland. direction to the south, and then the celerity, giving dreadful wounds But at the time, the small town was southwest, before abating around – rafters, boards and shingles flew divided by a large salt pond that ran 11:00 P.M. By these accounts, the with the lightness of feathers, and through the business district from 1846 hurricane could first be felt bricks and stones were falling in all the Bight on the island’s north shore, at Key West on the night of Sunday directions.” In a virtually identical across Duval Street, and ended near October 10th and steadily increased description, the New Orleans Daily the intersection of Caroline and through the morning of the 11th. Picayune’s writer reported, “…the Whitehead streets. The pond was By early afternoon the hurricane air was full of boards, timber, slate, normally passable via a 200 foot- reached its full force, and it then &c., and buildings falling in every long bridge, but the bridge had blew until close to midnight, when direction. Stone could not withstand failed in the wind. So, the New York it abated. the gale…” These eyewitnesses Herald writer continued, “when the Strong wind is perhaps the were all in agreement – the storm’s wind veered to the south west, the most distinctive characteristic of wind was fierce, and virtually all waters rushed in … sweeping into a hurricane, and the speed of the of the island’s structures could do the pond.” This meant that for those wind is the general measure of the nothing but disintegrate before it. along the waterfront to reach higher storm’s strength (Caldwell, 2008). The Storm Surge ground “the only avenue of escape Much of a hurricane’s damaging The wind was only one-half of [was] to be effected by swimming effects result from the forces of the terror that was wrought upon the through the debris of falling houses, strong winds. Key West suffered island by the hurricane. The force the government wharves, &c., &c.” from them tremendously in 1846. of the gale also brought with it a In an especially harrowing moment, Most of the houses and buildings flood of seawater that swept across the Herald’s writer describes on the island were built of wood the island and added to the terrible swimming across the pond as the and were not designed to withstand destruction and loss of life. This storm raged: “The scene was awful the extreme forces generated by storm surge appears to have arrived – life’s uncertain tenure seemed fast a powerful storm; those built of about mid-day or early afternoon waning to its close – and amid the stone or masonry proved just on Monday the 11th, driven by crash of falling houses, the rolling as vulnerable. These buildings the central fury of the storm. As in of the sea, and the messengers blew apart, and their components Mallory wrote, “…the citizens born upon the air, but little hope hurtled through the air as deadly began to desert their dwellings and could be entertained for safety. It projectiles, which caused injury seek the higher ground of the island was decidedly the tightest place to people caught in their path and at about noon when the sea had ever I was placed in…”

4 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - SUMMER 2010 By all accounts the storm surge was swift and high as it raged across virtually all of Key West. In the inhabited part of the island, Lt. Pease of the Revenue Cutter Morris wrote “…the tide was five feet high and running six miles an hour through the center of town, which is rather higher than the rest [of the island]…” The writer for the New Orleans Daily Picayune described an almost identical swiftness of the tide, saying, “The current ran six miles an hour through the town of Key West.” Similarly, Capt. Dutton, in his letter to Washington, said of the water, “The lower part of the town was inundated to a depth of three feet, with a strong current running across it.” Dutton also noted that the area to the south of the town, near Fort Taylor, was even deeper underwater. Stephen Mallory similarly reported that the tide was having a more pronounced effect on the low-lying parts of the island outside of the town. “On the back or North East part of this island the tide covered the land to a depth of seven and a half feet…” he wrote of what were then generally uninhabited areas of Key West. As he tried to evacuate his family from their harborfront home to higher ground inland, he observed, “The sea was then as high as my Chart of Key West, 1843, by J. Edmund Blake, US Corps of Topographical breast…the entire town at that time (4 Engineers. Photo credit: the Author. o’clock P.M.) being underwater, and its houses falling to pieces or floating parents; and by general sentiment fishing vessels making their home off to sea…” all seemed anxious to attain the port there, and others visiting on Most of the citizens living along higher portions of the town,” he business, the island’s harbor was the lower-lying areas north of Eaton wrote. But even once they were always filled with ships of varying Street made their way inland, toward there, Lt. Pease wrote, there was size and design. The Florida Straits tree-covered, elevated ground little comfort to be found. “The were also generally busy with (Browne, 1912). There they could citizens fled to the back part of traffic, as ships exited the Caribbean find refuge at Solares Hill. This hill the town… into the bushes, laid and via the Gulf is the highest point of Key West at down and held on, expecting Stream current. Because they were between 15 and 16 feet above sea every moment the waves would all caught relatively unaware of level (Anonymous, 2005). The New reach them,” he wrote. what was unfolding, many mariners York Herald writer documented the At Sea were forced to ride out the storm confusion that many experienced in Key West was, of course, also aboard ship. Onboard a vessel at getting to this rise: “Women were a significant seaport that boasted sea was (and still is) nowhere to wading in all directions – children a large maritime community. being carried by their friends or With dozens wrecking and (Continued on page 6)

SUMMER 2010 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - 5 (Hurricane from page 5) our decks.” Soon after, the Morris which was published in a number of began to drag anchor and be carried newspapers (Sloat, 1846). “During be during a powerful hurricane, away by the wind and the current. the night it commenced blowing a and those who rode out the 1846 The crew had no idea where they gale, and on Sunday it increased hurricane onboard ships suffered were headed – “…our compasses to a tremendous hurricane, such as terribly during the ordeal. Many of flew round in such a manner that has never been witnessed in those the vessels were completely at the they became useless,” wrote Pease. seas,” he noted. “During the whole mercy of the storm and could not be Not too long after they were cast day and Sunday night the brig was controlled by their crew in any way. adrift, a heavy sea struck them, driven before it at the rate of 12 or There are three firsthand accounts which rolled the Morris on its side. 13 miles per hour, and no one on written by those who rode out the This jolt carried away everything on board expected her to live from one hurricane aboard ships at or near the decks and shifted the equipment moment to another,” he wrote about Key West, telling of what it was stored below. In a desperate attempt the Perry’s being hijacked by the like to be at sea as the storm raged to right their unstable vessel the storm. At last the brig struck the reef around them. crew heaved the cutter’s iron guns but was quickly carried over the The report of Lt. Wm. C. Pease, overboard, “all hands expecting rocks by the high water to a shallow who was onboard the US Revenue momentarily to go to the bottom,” bar, where it came to rest, still in Cutter Morris, relates the story said Pease. one piece with all hands safe and of his vessel as it was toyed with Sometime after night had fallen, sound. But things were not good. by the hurricane in the Key West the Morris struck bottom and held “At daylight [Monday] we found Harbor (Pease, 1846). As he wrote fast, despite being persistently we were within a mile of one of in his frightening sketch, “The battered by the wind and seas. At the Baya Honda Keys, and several current was running by us at the the dawn of next day, Pease and his wrecks near us. On board of one, rate of twelve miles an hour, the men found the cutter in two feet of not half a mile from us, twenty lives vessel laying broadside to it as water on the shoal flats north of Key were lost out of twenty-one,” Sloat well as the wind, made her labor West. “Around [us] are wrecks of reported of the sad scene around very heavy…” The cutter’s anchor every description; one ship on her them. chains threatened to part because of beam ends, three brigs dismasted, Another member of the Perry’s the tremendous force being exerted all three schooners; three vessels crew (who, for unknown reasons, on them by the wind and the sea, sunk in a small channel, and four wrote anonymously) described the and the crew was forced to cut away vessels bottom up. How many brig’s harrowing passage even more their mainmast to help stabilize the persons attached to these vessels vividly: “We lost all knowledge of vessel. And they struggled to keep have been drowned I am unable to our position, and were driven at the the vessel afloat; the pumps were say,” wrote Pease. mercy of the winds and the waves going non-stop, supplemented by Commodore John Sloat, aboard – where we were going or where the crew’s furious bailing. To add to the USS Perry also gave a shipboard we might strike, no one could tell. their problems, buildings and debris perspective of the hurricane. The We could do nothing more. Two from the town that had been swept Perry had just left Havana for or three men to steer, and one to sea created additional hazards Charleston when it was caught in officer to watch the course, were for the ships in the harbor. Pease the storm, and it had the unfortunate all that were required. It was next to lamented that because of floating fate of riding the full circuit of the impossible to make the voice heard, wreckage, the harbor was a veritable wind through the Florida Straits. The and the few orders were conveyed junkyard: “At 4 P.M., the air was Perry was first driven southward principally by signs. All hands were full of water, and no man could and nearly dashed on the Cuban on deck, and we waited our fate in look forward for a second; houses, coast, when the wind switched and silence. Oh! What an awful day was lumber, and vessels drifting by us; sent it northward toward the reefs that!” (Anonymous, 1848). some large sticks of timber were of the Florida Keys. The Perry This same crewman described turned end over end by the force of was eventually hurled upon a shoal the scene after the storm had the current, and the sea was running approximately 40 miles east of Key passed, and the Perry had gone so high, that as it broke over us, it West. After reaching Key West, aground. A small boat sent from the brought lumber, casks, &c., &c. Commodore Sloat wrote a letter brig inspected the damage in Hawk on board, and carried them across to his superiors in Washington, Channel between Bahia Honda and

6 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - SUMMER 2010 Key West, 1838, by William Whitehead. From Key West the Old and the New (Browne, 1912) The upper image shows Key West’s working waterfront, from the Bight to the Harbor. The lower image looks southward, with the visible at the upper right. The salt pond is to the left. In 1846, Key West would have been approximately twice the size of the town depicted in these images. Photo credit: Monroe County Library.

Key West. The boat’s crew reported wrecked vessels. The whole coast damage or destruction. According back to the Perry; “In pulling down was strewed with wrecks.” to Stephen Mallory, the Northwest inside the reef, they found the As the Perry’s crew observed, Passage Lightship broke from its whole channel filled with boxes, many vessels in and around Key barrels, bales, &c, the cargoes of West and the Florida Keys suffered (Continued on page 8)

SUMMER 2010 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - 7 (Hurricane from page 7) go into eternity. It is a large stone injured, all but eight (as far as I can building, and being surrounded moorings and, with anchor chains learn) were blown down, floated with 5 feet water, running by six dragging from its bow, was blown to sea or unroofed. Four fifths of miles an hour, cutting the sand out stern-first some sixty miles into the the real estate are destroyed.” This from the foundation…” wrote Lt. Gulf of Mexico. At least twenty-six same devastation is echoed by all Pease. And, much as described by vessels of varying design were lost of those who commented. Fort Mallory, Pease also noted that thirty or damaged at Key West. Four or Taylor’s Capt. Dutton said, “…of feet of one wall had been removed five vessels lay bottom up near the about 400 houses, large and small; and fifteen of another. Apparently, island, and another twenty-one were there are not more than 10 or 12 left it was only through sheer luck that scattered up and down the reef. All standing or in a habitable condition, the hospital was left standing at all. but one of the Key West wrecking and those are much shattered…” “The U.S. marine hospital suffered fleet was lost or damaged. Some Reaffirming this observation, the much, and if the gale had continued vessels were carried onshore by writer for the New Orleans Daily much longer, would necessarily the surge. “One large brig drove up Picayune said that, along with the have fallen,” wrote the reporter for into the woods, and now she stands severe damage suffered by all of the the New York Herald. without her masts, perfectly upright, town’s warehouses, “…the streets Construction on the US and no water near her!” wrote the of Key West are full of lumber, and government’s Fort Taylor had Perry’s anonymous correspondent. not six out of six hundred houses but started in 1845, and the completed A schooner carrying a new light for what are either unroofed or blown fort was to be a large masonry the Tortugas lighthouse was lost down.” The combination of wind structure sitting on a stone near those islands. And there were and water was simply too much foundation in 10 to 12 feet of water other ships that simply vanished, for the town’s houses, and their off the southwestern shore of the leaving only circumstantial destruction was nearly complete. island. The beachfront grounds used evidence to tell of their loss. In And it was not just wooden as a base camp for the construction one case, unaccompanied bales of houses that were ruined; other, were approximately one-half mile cotton floated eerily into Key West much more substantial buildings south of the town, and the hurricane Harbor, “… some vessel, cotton suffered, too. The newly built damage was exceptionally bad near loaded and not yet heard from, Marine Hospital, a strong stone this part of the island. By the time must have been in the hurricane and and masonry building along Key the storm left, all of the equipment suffered from its violence,” wrote West’s western shore, was nearly employed in the fort’s construction the New Orleans Daily Picayune’s destroyed. According to Stephen was wrecked, scattered, and washed correspondent. Mallory, some of the damage to the into town. “The wharves, bridges, Damages hospital occurred when the surge, houses, lighters, boats, tools, As has already been made some 5 to 6 feet deep at that part machinery, and materials, ordnance evident, the force of the wind and of the island, destroyed a nearby stores in short, all have been swept water caused considerable damage wharf, the remains of which were way, and mixed up with the general to both the island and town of Key then carried into the southeast ruin,” wrote Captain George Dutton. West, but eyewitness accounts corner of the building. Another Lumber intended for the project was provide remarkable specifics about renegade raft of timber then hit the blocking many of the streets, and nature and scale of these injuries. hospital from the northwest. These even substantial objects like cannon The damage to the buildings of Key impacts damaged the structure carriages and crowbars were found West was absolutely catastrophic. on two sides up to a height of in the middle of town. The camp’s The exact number of structures twenty-five feet. Additionally, stable was carried by the surge standing on the island in 1846 is the wind removed the building’s for 200 feet, but it came to rest not known, but from the various roof except for the mainframe intact, with the horses and mules accounts it appears to have been and principal rafters. Those inside surviving inside. One of Dutton’s somewhere around 500 buildings. the hospital were terrorized as the men survived the chaos by floating Of these, over 95 percent were building appeared to be coming for 300 yards toward the hospital on rendered uninhabitable. As Stephen apart from above and below. “The the wheel of a cannon carriage. Four Mallory reported, “Every building occupants of the Marine Hospital men were swept by the water from in this town was more or less were expecting every moment to the construction camp’s barracks to

8 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - SUMMER 2010 their deaths. The only structure that grounds were destroyed. Mallory blackened and shriveled, as though was not damaged at the fort was a described a macabre scene along the a withering fire had passed over brick cistern built onto the bedrock. south shore where the graves had them. All, all is in desolation…” A discouraged Capt. Dutton wrote been disinterred, “…the dead were Deaths bluntly to his superiors, “In brief scattered through the forest many There were many deaths that terms I have to report the total of them lodged in trees…” And of resulted from the 1846 hurricane. destruction of all the works thus far the military cemetery he wrote, “the But because of the confusion in the erected for the construction of the dead from Comm. Porter’s grave aftermath of the storm and, perhaps, fort.” Like Dutton, Stephen Mallory yard with the site of the yard are attrition to the historical record, the saw nothing salvageable from the entirely washed away…” The New exact figure will probably never fort project. “The works under York Herald reported that sixty be known. Nonetheless, relatively the Engineering Dept. here are hurricane-exhumed bodies were accurate accountings can be made destroyed and in fact they are now reburied after the storm. from the eyewitness accounts to get in a worse condition than when they As for the other structures at least a sense of how many people were before their commencement,” on the island, the hurricane’s lost their lives on that day. As was he wrote. damaging effects were all-inclusive said before, fourteen were killed The lighthouses, one at Key – no building was immune. when the Key West lighthouse fell, West, and another, seven miles to “The churches, Episcopal and and six died at Sand Key. Four men the south on the reef at Sand Key, Methodist, both fell; and the new at Fort Taylor were lost. Three men both of masonry construction, stone edifice for the Methodists, is died when the Pilot Boat Lafayette were two of the other substantial likewise down,’ reported the New sunk; the Brig Exchange lost the structures in the area. But both York Herald. All of the wharves 1st mate overboard; a man named buildings also had a fatal design were destroyed, and none of the “A. Wilson” died when the Sloop flaw: neither was founded upon the warehouses designed to hold Frankford capsized; nineteen bedrock (Anonymous, 1846 d). As salvaged goods from wrecked ships drowned on the schooner Villa the pounding waves and rushing avoided damage, noted Lt. Pease. Nueva when it went down; and four water scoured the sand and coral Stephen Mallory reported that the or five vessels were found wrecked rubble out from underneath them, entire works of the Lafayette Salt with no sign of life and no bodies both lighthouses collapsed; their Company, on the eastern end of onboard (Anonymous, 1846 a). The destruction was complete. The New the island, were completely washed number of dead on shore was nearly Orleans Daily Picayune’s writer away. as great. Beside the fourteen killed said bleakly, “Key West light-house The one place relatively when the lighthouse fell, twelve and dwelling attached are entirely unscathed after the storm was the others are listed as having been gone. The spot where they stood U.S. Army barracks on the north- killed by flying debris, collapsing is covered by a white sand beach.” central shore of the island. These structures, or being carried away Commodore Sloat noted similarly, structures “escaped with less damage in buildings that were swept to sea “Of the lighthouses at Key West than any other buildings, but they (Anonymous, 1846 e). But there and Sand Key not a vestige remains; have been slightly damaged,” wrote were probably more. The writer Sand Key is washed away, so that Com. Sloat. But the Army did lose for the New York Herald said, “Our the sea flows over it.” By Stephen some of their stores and wagons, own loss here is about 40. Some Malloy’s tally, twenty people died which were carried into the harbor. few have been found and buried.” while trying to find refuge at the The unnamed writer from the Bodies were found days after the two lighthouses – fourteen at Key US Brig Perry summarized the storm, mixed in the debris and West; six at Sand Key. post-hurricane scene at Key West, rubble. The New Orleans Daily Not even those who were already and he painted a bleak picture: “The Picayune reported, “Dead bodies dead were spared disruption by the town itself is in ruins – not a house are occasionally dug out from under storm. There were two cemeteries uninjured – many blown away the ruins, and no one can tell how on the island in 1846, a military entirely, and some gone to sea, while many there are remaining. As far one near the Marine Hospital, and others are sunk in the harbor. Trees as can be ascertained, fifty persons a public one behind the natural torn up by the roots lie scattered have lost their lives…” dune ridge paralleling the southern in every direction, while those yet beachfront. Both of these burial standing are shorn of their limbs, (Continued on page 10)

SUMMER 2010 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - 9 (Hurricane from page 9) happened to them, yet they had to occupy the barracks. Adding to little choice but to move forward the difficulty, most of the town’s For the record, sixty dead are and rebuild. Sitting on one of water supply was mixed with salt recorded across the various historical the most remote territories of the water because the island’s cisterns accounts, with an unknown number United States, they would have had had been flooded by the surge. And of missing. But whatever the exact to migrate many miles by sea to there was a shortage of food; much figure, for a town of approximately reestablish themselves anywhere of it washed away or otherwise 1,500 people, the losses were else. Not only would it have been ruined. According to the same significant. logistically difficult, but abandoning newspaper account, the Captain Geological Alterations Key West probably did not make of the Revenue Cutter Morris The forces of the hurricane economic sense either, especially if salvaged the stores from aboard affected more than just the people continued growth in the wrecking a wrecked schooner and gave of Key West and their property. and fishing industries was feasible. them to the Methodist minister to There were also physical alterations So, the residents of the island distribute to the needy. And, unlike to the area’s islands themselves. stayed, and they did rebuild. Some Maloney’s glowing recollection Perhaps most significantly for Key 30 years after the storm, the Key of the situation, Stephen Mallory West, the salt pond that occupied West historian Walter Maloney saw great difficulty in rebuilding the center of town was irreversibly remembered the post-hurricane due to a shortage of supplies and changed. According to one report, reconstruction with pride as he labor. “Not a slate can be procured “The great gale of October 11th, wrote of the courage of the island’s here; not a carpenter to perform 1846, so altered the configuration of inhabitants, “They did not stop to the work, without paying him the island by the washing up of the shed tears over their misfortunes. exorbitant prices,” he wrote. Even sand, that the pond ceased to receive The sun rose the morning after the into the next year, the shortage of its tides…” (Maloney, 1876). With storm to behold active limbs and labor and supplies was so acute that a barrier blocking its flow, the pond stout hearts clearing the ground of two Bahamians who had recently became stagnant and a detriment the debris, and the waning moon immigrated to the island found it to the community. So much so, in of the next night shone upon the more feasible to ship their homes fact, that in 1853, a previous edict bright hammer of the mechanic as from the Abacos than to struggle to to keep the pond open and clear he drove firmly home the nails in the build new in Key West (Kerr, 2005; was reversed, and the owners of reconstruction of their homes and Starr, 1972). the submerged lots within it were their businesses” (Maloney, 1876). There were problems for those required to fill them. (As a direct The situation as it was recorded by working and traveling on the water, result of the hurricane of 1846, the eyewitnesses immediately after the too. Within a week of the storm’s heart of much of modern Key West’s storm was a bit different. The writer passing, a ship was wrecked west tourist district now occupies these for the New York Herald simply of Key West because of the lack of filled wetlands, including Sloppy sent out a plea for charity: “Will the lighthouses (Anonymous, 1846 g). Joe’s Bar and the Old City Hall.) benevolent not come up and give Shortly after this wreck happened, In December of 1846, it was us a helping hand, strengthen us the crew of the Cutter Morris reported that Sand Key, which amid our distress, and yield to those erected a day-marker consisting of had been completely obliterated who in their sorrow are truly to be a sixty-foot tall staff with a black immediately after the hurricane, pitied, some of their sympathy and ball on the top near the site of the had re-emerged. This time, though, excess of worldly comfort?” Indeed, ruined Key West lighthouse to the sand and rubble island was some the needs of the post-hurricane help alleviate danger to shipping fifty feet to the west of its original Key Westers were many. With the (Anonymous. 1846 f). Eventually, position. Where the Sand Key destruction of virtually all the town’s a temporary lightship with an lighthouse and keeper’s quarters dwellings, there was a terrible apparently feeble light was put had been was two feet under water homeless problem. According to the in place on the reef, but despite (Anonymous, 1846 f). New Orleans Daily Picayune, the its inadequacy, it was still there Reconstruction housing situation was relieved to The Key Westers of post- four years later. “The light-ship some degree through the generosity stationed near Sand Key is old, hurricane 1846 may have been of the U.S. Army’s Quartermaster, shocked and stunned by what had and the light miserable. Several who allowed many of these people vessels and much valuable cargo

10 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - SUMMER 2010 have been lost, by the neglect of the government to build a light- house on Sand Key to replace the one destroyed by the hurricane of 1846,” the frustrated insurance agent John Hoyt wrote from Key West (Hoyt, 1850). Years later, the storm’s effects were still evident to visitors, with the loss of vegetation being the most noticeable. One writer describing the island after an 1850 visit said, “Key West looks like a place where nature “has been and gone” – a few utterly blasted trees, (killed and stripped of bark by a hurricane four years ago,) being the only sign I saw of indigenous vegetation.” (Willis, 1854). And even two years after that, the damage to Key West’s vegetation was still apparent, as was noted by a visitor who said, “The unoccupied parts are covered with low stunted wood and bushes, the larger trees having been prostrated by the destructive gale of 1846.” (T., 1852). Even in the early 1880’s – some thirty five years after the hurricane – the renowned 19th century marine scientist Louis Agassiz noted that on Key West “…even at present, the rushes, driven upon it by the flood [of 1846], may be seen among the trees Sand Key, pre-1846, showing the lighthouse and light keeper’s quarters. and bushes, at a height equal almost Photo credit: Monroe County Library. to its loftiest summit.” when bad weather threatened. Key Estimating the Hurricane’s Force And the scars were not just West attorney William Hackley Judging solely from the evident in the island’s landscape commented on this anxiety in his eyewitness accounts, the storm and vegetation. The hurricane’s diary as another storm threatened, was a major hurricane, but with survivors had been changed, too. and the islanders restlessly awaited no identified observations taken Writing two years after the storm, its arrival. “During the night I was at Key West during its peak, an the anonymous crewman who had up several times to look at the understanding of the storm’s ridden it out it out onboard the US barometer. At 11P.M. it was 29.42, intensity has to be deduced from a Brig Perry wrote “It is actually at 5 A.M. 29.45, at 6A.M. 29.46. variety of sources. We know there painful to me at times to think of The wind during the night was fresh were barometers being used on the [the hurricane]; the mind becomes with some rain and this morning it island at the time, but if any readings wearied in dwelling upon the looks [to be] threatening a gale, the were recorded, they have not been awful sights then witnessed.” He people last night were nailing up found. Fortunately, though, three was not alone in his unease. Those windows and securing their houses barometric pressure readings taken at Key West had seen the worst till late. The hurricane of 1846 when the storm was at Havana have that nature had to offer, and they has made cowards of us all,” he were wary. They knew to be afraid confessed (Hackley, 1853). (Continued on page 12)

SUMMER 2010 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - 11 (Hurricane from page 11) it ever has again. As stated before, the island’s history, but that does the water was observed to have not mean it will forever retain survived from there. Even though run at depths of three to five feet that dubious honor. There is every these observations were made 100 through what was then the town in reason to believe what happened miles away, they serve as the most the northwest corner of the island, then will likely happen again – but reasonable measures of the storm’s and at seven and a half feet over the next time, if people are armed intensity at Key West. the less-elevated eastern side of the with the knowledge of the past, the When the storm was at Havana, island. After the hurricane, Capt. effects should not be a surprise. one of the lowest barometric Dutton of Fort Taylor drew a sketch The historical evidence clearly readings ever – 27.06 inches of of the western end of the island confirms that Key West was hit mercury (916 millibars) – was and included the storm’s high- by a very large and powerful reportedly recorded (Garriott, water line His mark is at what is hurricane in 1846; one that was at 1900, p.58). It has been suggested approximately the 8-foot elevation least a strong category four storm. that, with its extreme and poorly contour today. In an inset on the There have been many direct hits documented “outlier” position, same drawing, he shows the high- and close calls at Key West since, doubts about its accuracy are water at 8 2 feet above low tide. but never a storm to equal the one warranted (Fernández-Partagás, As a bit of additional evidence to that came ashore then. Some of the 1993). Fortunately, though, there confirm these measurements, Capt. lessons provided by the accounts were at least two other observations E. B. Hunt of the US Army Corps of of the hurricane’s survivors are recorded at different locations in Engineers noted, “The gale of 1846 obvious (i.e. it is never wise to stay Havana, though, and these readings raised the water to within seven on a boat during a hurricane), but were both quite similar. The first feet of the apex [of the island]…” some are not so evident. To help was a measure of 27.74 inches, or (Hunt, 1863). Combining all of the fill in these gaps, the destruction 939 millibars (Anonymous, 1846 figures and observations supports, Key West suffered in 1846 provides h, Garriott, 1900 p.59). The other, Dutton’s estimate of the storm surge authentic and concrete examples of recorded aboard the Steamship that inundated the island. If by one what would happen in a repeat of Thames in Havana Harbor, was a measure the water was seven and a similar events. reading of 27.70 inches of mercury half feet on the eastern portion of Though we have stronger (938 millibars) (Hast, 1847). At Key West, where land rarely exceeds structures than existed in 1846, there 938 or 939 millibars, the hurricane one or two feet in elevation, and by will still be significant damage from (at least when it left Cuba) was another it came to within seven the wind. Fortunately, Florida’s a category four storm, perhaps feet of the island’s highest point, building code, and Monroe County’s approaching category five strength. a fifteen-and-a-half foot peak, the more than most, has been fortified in According to the Saffir-Simpson storm surge in 1846 must have been recent years so that newer structures scale of hurricane intensity, a somewhere between eight and nine are more wind resistant than ever. category four storm would have feet above normal. These measures With these codes, newer buildings had winds between 131 and 155 would be consistent not only with fare much better than those built miles-per-hour (Caldwell, 2009). Capt. Dutton’s measure, but with before (Pielke, et al, 2008). So, as More specifically, according to the the other eyewitness accounts of the a result of improved construction Dvorak Current Intensity Chart, a town’s severe flooding. According techniques, wind damage to modern storm with a barometric pressure to modern maps, most of the then structures from a similar storm of 938 or 939 millibars would have inhabited portions of Key West should be considerably less. But sustained winds of approximately would have ranged between two to wind-borne debris in the form of 143 miles-per-hour (NOAA, eight feet above sea level (City of tree-branches, roofing tiles, and 2007). It is difficult to know if the Key West, 2005), meaning the water pieces of buildings that did fail, storm strengthened before striking affected virtually everyone. among any number of other things, Key West, but, judging from the What Lessons Can We Learn? could not be avoided and would still survivors’ accounts, it does not Assuming the past is prologue, cause damage to life and property. appear to have weakened in any the lessons of the 1846 hurricane Perhaps the biggest hurricane- way. are important ones for modern Key related problem for Key West, The storm surge at Key West in Westers. The storm certainly appears though, and one that is not easily 1846 certainly came higher than to have been the most powerful in resolved, is that many, many homes

12 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - SUMMER 2010 Sketch showing the effect of the Storm of October 11th, 1846, on the works at Key West by Captain George Dutton To illustrate the damage at Key West to his superiors in Washington, Capt. George Dutton drew a sketch showing the effects of the hurricane on the western end of Key West. This sketch includes a number of important details about the storm. In the upper left, there is a series of arrows showing the wind changing from northeast to southwest as the storm progressed. These measurements are consistent with a direct strike on the island by a storm passing from south to north. Also, the high- water mark is shown. This mark follows what is roughly the island’s eight-foot elevation contour. Additional features are also drawn, such as the locations of the lighthouse, the Marine Hospital, the Ft. Taylor construction camp, and the custom house. Photo credit: United States National Archives, Records of the Office of the Chief of Engineers, Record Group 77 Adapted from A Field Guide to Fort Taylor by James J. Miller (2005). and businesses have been built in other furniture. But if Key West debris, which worked to batter the lowest elevations of the island were to face a surge of 8 to 9 feet walls and undermine structures, – areas that were uninhabited in the again, the many single-story homes causing them to collapse. Any 1800’s. This means that the damage built at ground level in the lowest building in a flood zone today, even from the same degree of flooding as elevations of the island would those built of masonry or concrete, occurred in 1846 would be much provide no shelter. Water would would be susceptible to this same more extensive. A limited preview fill these dwellings almost to their sort of water-caused damage, and of this scenario was delivered with ceilings, and their occupants would those that are built on soft ground Hurricane Wilma in October of be forced into attics or onto roofs such as fill or sand could be subject 2005, when a storm surge of 4 to 6 to avoid drowning. And, as was to undercutting and destabilization feet flooded over half of the island’s observed in 1846, it was not just from scour. homes (Kasper, 2006). Many who the height of the storm surge that An additional problem revealed went through Wilma’s flood were caused the damage – it was the in the 1846 experience was that able to stay above the water by swiftly rushing current, combined climbing onto counters, tables, or with wave action and floating (Continued onage 14)

SUMMER 2010 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - 13 many of the wooden buildings were during the monster hurricane of Evening Transcript, November 3. not fastened to the ground and were 1846. And there won’t be again. Anonymous, (1848). “The swept away in the high storm surge Bibliography Hurricane at Sea.” The Sailor’s and carried to sea. To this day there Magazine, 20:7, pp.193-196. are still wooden homes in the older Anonymous, (1827 a). Salem Gazette, October 2. Anonymous (2005). Key West parts of Key West sitting untethered Flood Zone Map. City of Key on stone pilings, anchored only Anonymous, (1827 b). The Newport Mercury. October 6. West Department of Engineering by utility lines. There is little to Services. prevent these structures from Anonymous, (1835). “From Key West,” The Southern Patriot, Anonymous (2010). US Census repeating the past and floating off Bureau State and County Quick their foundations in another severe October 5. Anonymous, (1842 a). “From Facts, Key West, Florida. Retrieved flood. January 27, 2010 from http: Interestingly, none of the 1846 Havana – Great Gale,” The Southern Patriot, September 14. //quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/ accounts mentions rain. The heavy 12/1236550.html. rains often associated with tropical Anonymous, (1842 b). “From Our Correspondent, Key West Browne, J. B. (1912) Key West: weather systems can also create a The Old and the New. The Record nd Sept. 6.” The Southern Patriot, significant 2 level of flooding, Company: St. Augustine. during or after a storm. The residents September 24. Anonymous, (1844). “From Caldwell, D.P. (2009). Tropical of 1846 Key West appear to have Cyclone Definitions. National been spared such a scenario. The Key West Light of the Reef – Extra,” The Southern Patriot, Weather Service Instruction 10-604. Today, we are fortunate to have Retrieved January 25, 2010 at http: an array of technology that allows September 23. Anonymous, (1846 a). //www.weather.gov/directives/sym/ us to track the progress of hurricanes pd01006004curr.pdf in near real-time and predict where “Additional Particulars of the Recent Gale at Havana,” The Dutton, G. (1846). Letter to they are likely to strike, well before Col. J.G. Totten dated October 14. they make landfall. And the expected Southern Patriot, October 31. Anonymous, (1846 a). Richmond Enquirer, November 3. size and intensity of storms can Fernández-Partagás, J. (1993). be predicted with ever-improving “Authentic Particulars of the Terrific Gale of the 11th of October,” Impact on Hurricane History of accuracy. All of this information a Revised Lowest Pressure at allows those who might be affected New York Herald, November 6. Anonymous, (1846 b). “List of Havana (Cuba) During the October by a hurricane ample time to plan 11, 1846 Hurricane. Retrieved accordingly. Certainly, evacuation Vessels wrecked at Key West during the Hurricane of the 11th inst.,” New December 15, 2009 from http: should be considered a basic option //www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/ for Key Westers when any hurricane Orleans Daily Picayune, October 23. Partagas/impacthurrhist.pdf threatens, especially powerful ones. Garriott, E.H. (1900). West As has been seen, a strong hurricane Anonymous, (1846 c). “The like the one that struck the island in Hurricane in Cuba.” The Farmer’s 1846 would show little mercy to Cabinet, November 12. EDUCATION PROGRAM Anonymous (1846 d). SPONSORS those that chose to stay. At least four $100 OR MORE “Lighthouses,” The Southern percent of Key West’s inhabitants RICHARD G. BRIGHT Patriot, November 9. TOM & KITTY CLEMENTS died in the 1846 Hurricane. (With BARBARA ELLEN CHURCH Anonymous (1846 e). “Gale at BETTY L. DESBIENS a population on the island estimated BUD DRETTMANN Havana – 50 or 60 Vessels Lost,” JOHN & BEATRICE DUKE at 23,262 (Anonymous, 2010), four SHIRLEE EZMIRLY The Pittsfield Sun, November 5. CELESTE ERICKSON percent today would translate to MARY HAFFENREFFER well over 900 people dead!) And Anonymous, (1846 f). “Sand TOM & LYNDA HAMBRIGHT CLYDE W. HENSLEY those people died in a number of Key.” The Baltimore Sun, December JOHN H. JONES EDWARD B. KNIGHT ways: some drowned in boats; some 12. TOM KNOWLES JOHN & KAY PLIMPTON drowned in their homes; some were Anonymous, (1846 g). “More DAN & VIRGINIA PROBERT LARRY & GRETCHEN RACHLIN swept to sea; some were crushed by Marine Disasters,” The Southern JUDITH & JAMES ROBERTS MRS. WILLIAM SHALLOW falling buildings; and others were Patriot, October 31. SOUTHERNMOST HOTEL IN THE USA Anonymous, (1846 h). “Awful ED SWIFT struck by flying debris. There was JAN & TY SYMROSKI simply nowhere safe at Key West Hurricane at Havana.” Boston

14 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - SUMMER 2010 Indian Hurricanes, US Department National Oceanic and Atmospheric of Agriculture Weather Bureau, Administration (2010). Coastal Services Washington. Center, Historic Hurricane Tracks. BUSINESS MEMBERS ALLEN COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY Hackley, W. (1853, published Retrieved January 28, 2010 from GENEALOGY CENTER 900 LIBRARY PLAZA 1997). Hackley’s Diary. Florida http://csc-s-maps-q.csc.noaa.gov/ FORT WAYNE, IN 46802 260-421-1223

Keys Sea Heritage Journal, 8:1 hurricanes/viewer.html AMBROSIA TROPICAL LODGING 618 FLEMING STREET p.14. Pease, Lt. (1846). Letter of October KEY WEST, FL 33040 305-294-5181

Hast, P. (1847). “Hurricane at 23. Boston Daily Atlas, November 2, CAPE AIR Havannah.” A letter of November 1846. KEY WEST INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT KEY WEST 33040 800-352-0714 7, 1846, in The Annual Registry, or Piddington, Henry (1848). The CHESAPEAKE APPLIED TECHNOLOGY a View of the History and Politics Sailors Horn Book for the Law of 623 SIMONTON STREET KEY WEST, FL 33040 888-873-3381 of the Year 1846. George Woodfall Storms. John Wiley, New York, pp 134- COASTAL SAILING ADVENTURE, INC. and Son, London. 135. 28555 JOLLY ROGER DRIVE LITTLE TORCH KEY, FL 33042-0839 295-8844 Hoyt J. C. (1850). “Wrecking Pielke, R.A., Gratz, J. Landsea, CONCH TOUR TRAINS, INC. at Key West” The Merchant’s C.W., Collins, D., Saunders, M.A., 601 DUVAL ST. KEY WEST, FL 33040 294-4142 Magazine 22:1, pp.340-41. & Musulin, R. (2008). “Normalized FRIENDS OF ISLAMORADA AREA STATE PARKS Hunt, E.B. (1863)”On the Hurricane Damage in the United States: P.O. BOX 236 Origin, Growth, Substructure, and 1900-2005,” Natural Hazards Review, ISLAMORADA, FL 33036 DR. ELIAS GERTH Chronology of the ” February, pp.29-42. Retrieved January 3412 DUCK AVENUE The American Journal of Science 31, 2010 from http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/ KEY WEST, FL 33040 305-295-6790 HISTORIC FLORIDA KEYS FOUNDATION and Arts, 35:22 pp.197-210. pdf/NormalizedHurricane2008.pdf 510 GREENE STREET Kasper, K.C. (2006). Hurricane Redfield, W.C., (1846). The Law KEY WEST, FL 33040 HISTORICAL PRESERVATION Wilma in the Florida Keys. of Storms. The Mechanic’s Magazine, SOCIETY OF THE UPPER KEYS, INC. P.O. BOX 2200 Retrieved December 8, 2008 from Museum, Register, Journal, and Gazette, KEY LARGO, FL 33037 http://www.srh.noaa.gov/key/ Vol. XLVI No.1236, pp.379-380. KEY WEST ENGINE SERVICE, INC. P.O. BOX 2521 HTML/wilma/wilma.html. Schomburgk, R.H. (1848). The KEY WEST, FL 33045 Kerr, J. (2005). “The Way History of Barbados. Cass, London. KEY WEST WOOD WORKS It Was: When They Sailed to Sloat, J.D. (1846). Letter to John 6810 FRONT STREET STOCK ISLAND KEY WEST, FL 33040 296-1811 Key West, Green Turtle Homes Y. Mason, Secretary of the Navy THE LANGLEY PRESS, INC. Went too.” Abaco Life. Retrieved dated October 23. Richmond Enquirer, 821 GEORGIA STREET KEY WEST, FL 33040 294-3156 January 28, 2010 from http: November 3. MEL FISHER MARITIME HERITAGE SOCIETY //www.abacolife.com/2008/07/14/ Smith, R.C. (1997). “Flota of 1733.” 200 GREENE ST. KEY WEST, FL 33040 294-2633 the-way-it-was/ In British Museum Encyclopedia of MILE ZERO PUBLISHING Lyon, E. (1989). The Search Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, 5950 PENINSULAR DR. #629 for the Motherlode of the Atocha. J. Delgado, editor. British Museum KEY WEST, FL 33040 USS MOHAWK MEMORIAL MUSEUM Florida Classics Library, Port Press, London. P.O. BOX 186 Salerno. Starr, R. (1972). “Carpenter- KEY WEST, FL 33041 OLD TOWN TROLLEY Mallory, S. (1846). Letter to Architects of Key West,” American 6631 MALONEY AVENUE Robert J. Walker, Secretary of Heritage Magazine, 23:2. KEY WEST, FL 33040 296-6688 PIGEON KEY FOUNDATION Treasury. In “The Hurricane of T., L.C. (1852) “Florida-Key West- P.O. BOX 500130 1846,” Florida Keys Sea Heritage The Wreckers-Fisheries-Etc., Etc.,” MARATHON, FL 33050 A.R. SAVAGE & SONS, INC. Journal 6(4) p.6 DeBow’s Review of the Southern and 701 HARBOUR POST DRIVE Maloney W. C. (1876). A Sketch Western States. 13:1 pp 414-41 TAMPA, FL 33602 813-247-4550 of the History of Key West, Florida. SEASTORY PRESS Willis N. P. (1854). Health Trip to 305 WHITEHEAD STREET #1 Reprinted 1968 by University of KEY WEST, FL 33040 296-5762 the Tropics. Charles Scribner: New [email protected] Florida Press, Gainesville. SOUTHERNMOST HOTEL IN THE USA National Oceanic and Atmospheric York. 1319 DUVAL STREET KEY WEST, FL 33040 296-6577 Administration (2007). Dvorak Corey Malcom is Director ST. LOUIS AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER CO. Current Intensity Chart. Retrieved of Archaeology for the Mel 3928 CLAYTON AVE. ST. LOUIS, MO 63110 314-533-7710 November 27, 2008 from http: Fisher Maritime Heritage Society //www.ssd.noaa.gov/PS/TROP/CI- and secretary for the Key West chart.html. Maritime Historical Society.

SUMMER 2010 - FLORIDA KEYS SEA HERITAGE JOURNAL - 15 Sand Key Lighthouse drawn by William Whitehead. Photo credit: Monroe County Library.

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