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Founding of the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Computing Technology

Zhang Jiuchun and Zhang Baichun Chinese Academy of Sciences

Computer science originated in the People’s Republic of China in 1956 with the founding of the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Computing Technology. The Soviet Union, which played a pivotal role, gave the Chinese the opportunity to learn computer science by supplying components and describing the manufacturing process. The Soviets also helped solve key difficulties and trained workers.

In 1956, the Chinese Science Planning Protocol for Developing National Sciences and Commission of the State Council organized Technology between 1956 and 1967. This pro- scientists around the country to prepare a re- tocol proposed to increase investment in 12 port for developing science and technology important fields of science and technology. over the next 12 years. This report led to the Chinese officials identified four fields as founding of the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ critical for national security: one was comput- Institute of Computing Technology. ing technology. They stated that developing In this article, we describe the events and these fields would require an emergency effort ideas that led up to the institute’s founding, because of pressure from the West. On the including the role played by the Soviet Union basisofthisreport,theChinesegovernment and Soviet experts. The Soviet Union not only decided to develop electronic digital compu- helped the Chinese become acquainted with ters, establish the Institute of Computing computing technology but also made sugges- Technology of the Chinese Academy of tions for managing Chinese development Sciences (CAS), and—most significantly—to efforts. borrow the basic computing technology from the Soviet Union. Overview: A technology policy For the Chinese to produce results, they On 1 July 1949, the Chinese Communist needed the Soviet Union’s help. The Soviet Party formally adopted a policy—called leaning Union began in the early stage of the 1950s to to one side—of looking to the Soviet Union for supply informal aid, consisting of informal technological and economic advice. Chinese exchanges of information and suggestions on leaders had little choice but to accept such developing computing. In 1956, the Soviet a policy, because the US and other Western Union helped China create the plan for countries were refusing to export technology developing computing technology over the to China. Responding to the actions of the next 12 years. In 1958, the Soviet Union Western countries, the Soviet Union hoped to formalized an agreement with China, called bring China within the block of socialist the 122-Project Convention (The Convention countries. on Soviet Union and China Cooperating and Soviet Public evidence of the Soviet strategy was Union Helping China with Significant Scientific seen in 1954, when a delegation of Soviet and Technical Research). Consequently, Chi- officials, led by the new premier, Nikita nese scientists were able to create the model Khrushchev, visited China and promised great- 104 computer by 1959. er scientific, technological, and economic aid. Soon, however, tensions began to build In 1956, with the assistance of the Soviet between the Chinese and Soviet governments. experts, the Chinese government developed The leaders of the Soviet Union and China a protocol, outlined in the report Long-term never fully trusted each other. While China

16 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing Published by the IEEE Computer Society 1058-6180/07/$25.00 G 2007 IEEE was determined to master modern technology, the testimony of early Chinese computing especially national defense technology, the experts, we describe the foundation of the Soviet leaders was always of two minds. On Institute of Computing Technology within one hand, Soviet leaders remained unsure of CAS and show how computing technology Mao Zedong’s desire to stay independent of was transferred from the Soviet Union to Soviet technology, nuclear protection, and China. general strategy, and expressed reluctance to provide China with advanced weapons. On Early research and decision making the other hand, Mao Zedong was needed to Aswe’vesaid,CASwasfoundedin1949. support the Soviet Union’s leadership inside Three years later, CAS scientists created a tenta- the socialist bloc during Nikita Khrushchev’s tive plan to develop computing technology and campaign to remove Stalinism in 1956. organized a computer research group led by Khrushchev agreed in 1957 to give China Hua Luogeng.1 In July 1953, a delegation of advanced military technology. Thereafter, he CAS researchers, who had visited the Soviet and Mao Zedong slowly moved toward differ- Union earlier that year, held a special sympo- ent interpretations of socialism and commu- sium on science and technology. During the nism, and their divergence escalated. symposium’s mathematics section, Hua pro- In July 1960, the Soviet Union withdrew its posed that China develop skills in differential experts from China, an event that marked the equations, mechanics, elliptical functions, breakdown of Sino-Russian relationships. In mathematical statistics, and computational subsequent years, the two countries became mathematics. Hua also advised China to ensure increasingly antagonistic. The Soviet Union that these skills were disseminated at Chinese began reducing its aid to China in science, universities to train engineers and scientists.3 technology, and the economy and stopped all This proposal caught the attention of CAS’s aid in the late 1960s. Despite this turnabout, leaders. On 15 October 1953, CAS held a meet- China continued to develop computing tech- ing to discuss the scientific research plan for an nology and successfully created a set of fast, Institute of Mathematics. The research plan transistor computers in 1965 for national included implementing Hua’s proposal. defenseandall-purposeuse. At this meeting, Hua recommended that Because Chinese computing technology China put into practice, and learn by experi- related specifically to military needs, the ence, what it had acquired from the Soviet history of that technology has seldom been Union and establish eight mathematical re- disclosed. In recent years, however, some search divisions, or groups, one of which publications have described parts of this would study computational mathematics. history.1 Also, some of the computer research- Hua believed that computational mathe- ers of the 1960s have discussed how they matics was urgently needed and was the duplicated Soviet computers. In these ac- weakest link in Chinese research. However, counts, Chinese researchers usually empha- Qian Sanqiang, director of the CAS Institute sized the Chinese effort and rarely discussed for Modern Physics, thought the CAS plan for Soviet aid. developing electronic computers was too Before we began our research, the most ambitious because it required a significant important international research paper was investment of equipment and people. He ‘‘Computer Technology in Communist China suggested that computers be developed (1956–1965),’’ written by Donald G. Audette through a plan that would begin with the in 1966, which described the development of simplest objectives and develop more gradu- Chinese computing technology.2 However, ally, working with the CAS mathematical because Audette could not obtain sufficient, divisions. Wu Youxun, vice president of CAS, reliable sources for crucial context, his de- agreed and decided that the academy should scription and conclusion were incomplete. For develop computational mathematics and train example, Audette stated that China hadn’t professional specialists in this field by building mastered computing technology before Soviet an electronic computer. He also concluded experts left China and that the first Chinese that research for electronic computers should computers were used mainly in mathematical be done in the Institute of Physics’ electronics calculation. group and ordered that Hua’s computer re- As we will explain, Chinese scientists search group be transferred to that institute.4 mastered computing technology before the By early 1954, China was already studying Soviets left, and their work was used for many Soviet computing technology. The CAS com- applications. Using archival records as well as puter research scientists had translated the

January–March 2007 17 Founding: CAS Institute of Computing Technology

Soviet book The Approaches to Study Radiant term protocol for developing science and Electronics (edited by A.A. Sanin, published in technology. The Central Government also 1958) to study radio tube pulse circuits. invited Sergei A. Lebedev, superintendent of Furthermore, in October 1954, three kinds the Soviet Academy of Sciences’ Institute of of computers were shown at the Exhibition of Precision Machinery and Computing Technol- the Achievements of the Soviet Economy and ogy Research, to China to help plan the Culture Construction in the Soviet Exhibition research for computing technology.10 Hall (today’s Beijing Exhibition Center). The At the same time, the Chinese scientists had exhibition had an analog computer, an elec- made some independent progress in develop- tronic integrator to work out linear differential ing computing circuits. For example, in April equations, and a computer to calculate a de- 1956, Wu Jikang of the CAS computer research flection differential equation. At director group succeeded in demonstrating oscillo- Qian’s request, the CAS computer group spent scope tube memory.1 a lot of time learning, studying, and analyzing these three computers. Suggestions from Soviet experts CAS’s 1954 research plan included the In conjunction with their research on study of computational mathematics. The computing technology, Chinese scientists Institute of Mathematics would conduct the were receiving advice from the Soviets. In research; in conjunction, the Institute of August 1955, a delegation from the Soviet Physics would study computing machines. Academy of Sciences visited China. A member This plan called for scientists from both of this delegation, a Mr. Kostenko, suggested institutes to prepare a working laboratory in that China should investigate electronic ana- 1955 and, if possible, begin the mathematical log computers.11 Another Soviet scientist, a Mr. design of an electronic computer.5 An interim Cherkashin, suggested that China send re- report that CAS issued, the Developing Plan of searchers to study analog computers at the Science Undertakings of CAS between 1953 and Soviet Academy of Sciences and then bring the 1957, didn’t outline a further plan on com- computers back to China.12 puting technology.6 On 5 January 1956, the CAS standing On 4 October 1955, the Division of Physics, committee met to discuss plans for establish- Mathematics, and Chemistry held the fourth ing the Institute of Mechanics. At the meeting, meeting of the CAS standing committee, at Boris R. Lazarenko recommended that CAS which nuclear physicist Deng Jiaxian gave should use computers for cybernetic work and a preliminary report on the division’s research research.12 The meeting participants quickly development. He said that mathematics would approved this suggestion. Accordingly, the first deal with three subjects—differential committee asked Hua, the deputy director, equations, probability and mathematical sta- and Qin Lisheng, the deputy secretary-general, tistics, and computational mathematics. Only to prepare a research plan that would create an after a mathematics department had been electronic computer.13 established in these areas would the mathe- This program did little to advance comput- maticians begin to further develop computa- ing research, however. A more important tional mathematics. He also suggested that event in the development of Chinese electron- a department of computing technology be ic computers was a March 1956 conference in established instead of a department of com- Moscow, on utilizing mathematical machines putational mathematics.7 and instruments for Soviet manufacturing and Within CAS, growing interest in computing development. The secretary-general of the machines was matched by a similar interest presidium of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, within the Chinese government.8 In January A.V. Topchaev, invited a CAS delegation to 1956, the Central Committee of the Chinese this meeting. The meeting participants dis- Communist Party held a conference of intel- cussed problems of designing and program- lectuals, where Premier Zhou Enlai empha- ming high-speed electronic computers, as well sized that the computer was an important as the problems of special computers and technical revolution.9 According to the recol- analog devices.14 The delegation CAS sent lections of computer scientists Xia Peisu and included Min Naida, Hu Shihua, Wu Jikang, Zhang Xiaoxiang, the Central Government Zhang Xiaoxiang, Xu Xianyu, and Lin Jian- began, by March 1956, to acknowledge the xiang.14 importance of developing electronic compu- These delegates were responsible for pre- ters. About this time, they decided to give paring a computing technology research plan. electronic computers a place within the long- While visiting Moscow, they paid close atten-

18 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing tion to the Soviet experience. They visited the ates to study in the Soviet Union. Each Soviet Academy of Sciences, including the group should consist of 25 to 30 Institute of Precision Machinery and Comput- students. One group would study com- ing Technology, the Computing Center, the putational mathematics in Moscow Institute of Dynamics, the Institute of Auto- University; the other would learn control and Distant Control, and the Com- how to build a computer at Moscow puting Center at Moscow University’s mathe- Dynamics College. Chinese students matics department. They saw the newest would follow an accelerated plan so Soviet computer, the BESM—Bystrodeistvuyush- that they would finish their study chaya Elektronnaya Schetnaya Mashina (high- within three or four years. speed electronic calculating machine)—and — In China, there should be 40 to 100 they investigated the curriculum of Moscow people who could change their profes- University’s computer machine department. sions and become computer research- ers. Invite Soviet experts to China to Meeting with Lebedev give lectures on a short-term basis, say, The delegates also attended symposia with for one month so that the Chinese key Soviet scientists: S.A. Lebedev, who had could study theories of computing. designed the first Soviet computer, A.A. Dor- One goal was for Chinese students to odnitsin, the director of the Computing teach computing in the future, even Center of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, before computing machines were avail- and S.L. Sobolev, the director of the mathe- able. matics education and research group at Mos- — Chinese universities and colleges cow University. should start courses in computational During his symposium, Lebedev made 14 mathematics and computer manufac- a number of important recommendations: ture. Soviet experts could visit these schools to teach the courses that the 1. Chinashouldsetuparesearchorganizationof Chinese were unable to teach. computing technology. This organization — The Chinese should use Soviet refer- should have a research institute of pre- ence books and textbooks, and what- cision machinery and computing technol- ever books it can acquire from the UK ogy, a computing center, and a rudimenta- and the US. The Soviet Union could ry factory like those in the Soviet Union. provide any information that China This organization should have approxi- needed on the subject of computation. mately 100 researchers in the institute After 5 or 10 years, China should be and 50 workers or so in the factory. At — the beginning, the computing center could graduating 200 to 300 graduates in be combined with the research organiza- computational mathematics, and 500 tion. The computer center could be re- to 600 graduates in computer manu- moved after three years and operated as an facture each year. Those numbers independent organization. could change depending on the pace 2. China should actively train workers for this of development in China. new field: 3. China should pay attention to the development — Postgraduates from China would at- of the radio industry and the hardware of high- tend classes in the mathematics and speed electronic digital computers. Specifical- mechanics departments at Moscow ly, it should develop radio components, University, and should start studying radio tubes, ferromagnetic materials, semi- computing technology immediately, conductors, photoelectric materials and so that they would master the technol- photographic materials, printed circuits, ogy. magnetic tape readers, industrial assem- — China should create two computer blies, and cables. research groups of mathematicians and electrical engineers. In each group, Lebedev further recommended that this at least one or two persons should be work should be done with creativity and self- mechanics specialists. The group size reliance. He gave a three-step plan: could range from 10 to 25 people. Each worker should hold a graduate degree. 1. First, the Soviet Union would transfer the — China should send two groups of Soviet machines to China (under the Russian-speaking high school gradu- condition of owning the Soviet machines)

January–March 2007 19 Founding: CAS Institute of Computing Technology

and China would train its operators to use State Department in January 1956 and was and manufacture computers. conducted by the Science Planning Commis- 2. Next, China would build its own machines sion of the State Council. Premier Zhou Enlai from Soviet material and parts. himself guided this task.15 The Science Plan- 3. Finally, China would build its own ning Commission began its work in Beijing in machines using Chinese materials and March 1956. According to CAS vice-secretary- parts. general Du Runsheng’s recollection, the Sci- ence Planning Commission prepared the re- On their return to China, the delegation port Long-term Protocol for Developing National reported Lebedev’s recommendations and Sciences and Technology between 1956 and 1967 added comments of their own.14 The group with help from Soviet consultant Lazarenko.16 reported that: The Science Planning Commission assigned a group of experts—mathematicians, comput- 1. We have studied the development of the er experts, and other specialists from the electronic computer in the Soviet Union. Chinese Department of Electronic Industry— We discovered that the plan the Soviet to write the computing plan. The group Union used to develop the computer is included some of those who had participated similar to the plan established by CAS in in the March 1956 Moscow meeting. It also 1953 to enter the field of computing included people who had studied in the US machines and to establish Chinese inde- and knew something about computer devel- pendence. opment there.17 2. We learned the details of the Soviet The 12-year plan encouraged education organizations in this field and how math- and research.18 While developing its plan, ematicians and engineers cooperate to the computing technology planning commis- establish a new independent computing sion offered a series of public lectures by department. We learned how Chinese members of the Chinese delegation who had organizations in this field should be estab- attended the March 1956 meeting in Moscow. lished to be most effective. These lectures presented worldwide develop- 3. Through this visit, we increased our specif- ments in computing technology, explained ic knowledge of the electronic computer the work of CAS’s computer research group, and its importance and developing per- and at one lecture, scientists demonstrated spective. a drum memory that CAS had recently de- 4. By talking with Soviet scientists, we gained veloped. Qian Xuesen, superintendent of further ideas about the relationship be- CAS’s Institute of Mechanics, discussed the tween the theoretical problems in research- necessity of developing an electronic comput- ing electronic computers and practical er to assist his work in designing jet and rocket problems. We also learned the subjects technology.19 that we should emphasize to develop our Shortly after the 12-year plan was initiated, own computer industry. D.U. Panov, director of the Soviet Institute of 5. We appreciated the spirit of the Soviet Information and deputy director of the Soviet scientists working in research and develop- Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Computing, ment within a socialist state. We saw how replaced Lebedev in China as the consultant to this spirit supports a socialist society by the Science Planning Commission. After Pa- initiating advanced work, by carrying out nov arrived in Beijing, he gave lectures about and completing such work. This was a good computer development to Chinese experts example for us to learn from. and to the Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party’s Central Commit- By attending this computing technology tee.20 He introduced the topic of computer congress, the delegation gained significant research, explained the Soviet experience with ideas for developing Chinese computing tech- these machines, and discussed how the Soviet nology.14 Union had developed computers. He brought documentation for the Chinese: six copies of Long-term plan for technology a report related to the BESM and one copy of The CAS delegation’s visit to Moscow co- a paper on program design,21 and indicated incided with an effort to develop a 12-year that the Soviet Union would help China long-term protocol for developing a national manufacture computers.22 Panov gave many science and technology program in China. helpful suggestions about the Chinese com- This plan had been initiated by the Chinese puting plan: identified projects that should be

20 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing promoted, explained how Soviet electronic other relevant aspects. Finally, it stated that computers could be purchased, detailed which China lacked a comprehensive, long-term, and people could be sent to the Soviet Union to integrated plan for creating computers. study, and so on. Furthermore, he suggested to Accordingly, the plan emphasized that Hua Luogeng that a delegation be sent to the China should begin as soon as possible to Soviet Union to visit and study for a short time design and manufacture a high-speed, all- as soon as the computing plan was complete. purpose digital computer and to master the The delegation’s members could then teach basic technology to develop different types of others about computing technology when computers. The report recommended that they returned to China.1 China study Soviet achievements in this field while it resolved problems such as computer ‘First assembling, then separating’ program design, automatic translation, and so on. Members of the Chinese Planning Com- mission had differing opinions about starting computer research. Some insisted that a large Steps for researchers to take delegation of Chinese scientists be sent to the The long-term 1956–1967 plan, following Soviet Union for training and then come back the first assembling and then separating princi- with Soviet-made computers. The Soviet In- ple, outlined the steps that Chinese researchers stitute’s Panov agreed with this idea as did should take. It proposed creating a special Cherkashin. But because the commission office to create an Institute of Computing could reach no agreement, the planning group Technology in CAS with the Soviet Union’s could take no action. help. This temporary office would prepare for Within the Planning Commission, some the institute’s official creation in 1957. Other scientists said that China should establish institutes would collaborate with CAS’s In- many institutes (generally within universities) stitute of Computing Technology until they and that these institutes should conduct could gradually release their own personnel to research independently. After discussion, the other institutes. The 1956–1967 plan also group concluded that China should first stated that the new Institute of Computing establish a central institute but eventually would have manufacturing facilities associated create a number of independent institutes. with it and that CAS would establish a com- This idea, first articulated by Hua Luogeng, puting center in 1959, with the expectation was called first assembling to surmount difficul- that this single center would quickly expand ties and then separating to develop. The idea was into two or three centers. that, first, China would collect researchers With regard to acquiring international from many disciplines into a new Institute of equipment, the 1956–1967 plan called for Computing Technology. Then, as the group China to purchase electronic computers man- matured and trained more researchers and ufactured by the Soviet Academy of Sciences’ workers, it would gradually be dispersed into Institute of Computing Technology. Further, smaller, independent institutes.1 the plan specified that Chinese experts would In June 1956, the Planning Commission design electronic computers with help from completed the Long-term Protocol for Developing Soviet experts—moreover, that China would National Sciences and Technology between 1956 work to produce hardware based on Soviet and 1967 report. The protocol consisted of 57 hardware by 1957. The plan went on to significant science and technology tasks. Task stipulate that China would purchase any number 41 related to the foundation of equipment that it couldn’t make for the computer technology and became the guiding computer manufacturing facilities, from either document for developing China’s computing the Soviet Union or Western socialist coun- technology enterprise.23 The long-term pro- tries. tocol report defined the purpose of China’s As part of its work, the temporary office computer research: to improve the national would establish a one-year computer training economy, national defense, and academic class to teach the basic concepts of computer research. It outlined the status and compari- manufacture and operations. According to the son of Soviet and Western computer research, 1956–1967 plan, this office would continue to and it described the relevant specialties in teach this course for three or four years. By Soviet universities. The report also acknowl- then, graduates could create their own classes edged that China had no electronic digital at Chinese universities. The temporary office computers and that China was very weak in would create a library of the relevant books

January–March 2007 21 Founding: CAS Institute of Computing Technology

and periodicals relevant on computing tech- and 196723 for the foundation of computing nology. technology, we see that the plan’s basic contents were essentially those originating Training the researchers with Lebedev, having been brought back to China by the Chinese delegation. These ideas The 1956–1967 plan gave specific details had also been articulated by the Science about training Chinese researchers:23 Planning Commission of the State Council and by Panov after he arrived in China.24 N To train computer engineers, the new Instituteshouldsendagroupof10to25 Emergency development measures radio or electrical engineers to the Soviet The State Council’s Science Planning Com- Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Comput- mission then presented the 1956–1967 plan to ing Technology for one year; Zhou Enlai. Zhou, however, responded that N To train professional people in program- the printed book was too detailed—he wanted ming and computing technology, China a report that analyzed only the most urgent should send 10 to 25 students to the Soviet issues.25 In response, the State Council orga- Academy of Sciences’ computing center for nized a team to prepare emergency measures ayear; to speed up development of computers, N To improve the professional level of the semiconductors, automatic control, electron- teachers in electronic computers, China ics, atomic energy, and missiles. The Science should send a group of teachers to the Planning Commission’s secretary general, Soviet Union to study for one or two Zhang Jinfu, asked Qian Sanqiang, Hua Luo- months in summer 1956; N geng, Qian Weichang, Wang Shouwu, and To study the manufacture of electronic Luo Peilin to draft the emergency measures computers, China should send about 25 report. Lougeng wrote the section on compu- to 30 high school graduates to the Institute ters, and Peilin wrote about electronics. Secre- of Motion Dynamics. It should also send tary General Jinfu outlined five emergency another 25 to 30 high school graduates to measures, plus a sixth on missile development Moscow University to study computational for vice prime minister Nie Rongzhen to mathematics. The Soviet Higher Education implement.26 Because China, at that time, Commission would be asked to make kept secret its activities in atomic energy and a special, accelerated learning plan for these missile development, the committee separated students so that they could be qualified as these two issues from the rest. The other four experts within four years instead of the emergency measures were assembled into a re- normal five and a half years. port titled The Emergency Measures and Projects N China would request that the Soviet gov- about the Development of Computing Technology, ernment send teachers who will give Semiconductor Technology, Radio Electronics, courses in computers and computing tech- Automatics and Long-Distance Controlling Tech- nology. Meanwhile, these Soviet teachers nology (the report is known in shortened form could also teach the training courses given as Four Emergency Measures).25 Computing to Chinese engineers in mathematics and technology was included in the final draft take on some work in the Institute of because of Qian Xuesen’s influence. The Computing Technology. superintendent of CAS’s Institute of Mechan- N Programming and computational mathe- ics cited many examples to illustrate the matics courses would be added to the importance of high-speed electronic compu- curriculum of Chinese college and graduate ters. These examples sufficiently persuaded the students studying mathematics and me- committee to identify computing technology chanics in the Soviet Union. In addition, as one of the emergency measures.27 Chinese students in the Soviet Union who On 20 May 1956, the Four Emergency were studying electrical engineering would Measures report was officially presented to the also take courses in designing and State Department, championed by Zhou Enlai, manufacturing electronic computers. and was approved.28 The Science Planning Commission of the State Council officially Comparing the suggestions that Lebedev printed the report later, on 5 July.24 The had made during the March 1956 Moscow section on computing technology looked conference attended by the Chinese14 and the much like the earlier (1956–1967) government plans in the Long-term Protocol for Developing report on establishing computing.29 The main National Sciences and Technology between 1956 difference between the two reports was the

22 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing tone. In contrast to the original report, Four 1956, the Science Planning Commission of the Emergency Measures stated that China should State Council invited Zhou Shouxian of take steps as quickly as possible to develop its Qinghua University, Xu Xianyu of Beijing computing technology and to cooperate with University, and Jiang Shifei of the Beijing the Soviet Union.29 Institute of Aeronautics to join the group. This Meanwhile, following Zhou Enlai’s instruc- invitation was followed, three weeks later, by tions, the CAS commissioned Hua Luogeng to a letter from the third department of the take charge of preparing the office of the Headquarters of General Staff of the military, Institute of Computing Technology. On 19 which asked CAS to choose a cadre of 10 others June 1956, Hua chaired the preliminary to study electronic computer technology at meeting of the Preparation Commission for the Soviet Academy of Sciences.33 The CAS the Institute of Computing Technology— delegation consisted of 15 people. Most were Preparation Commission, for short.30 It was scientists; several were translaters and one was called the Preparation Commission because a secretary. officially, the CAS Institute of Computing The investigation group met during late Technology was not founded until May August and early September to prepare for 1959. Attending the meeting were the vice their trip. Three basic documents guided their secretary-general of CAS, Du Runsheng, and preparations: ‘‘The Working Planning of the the vice director of the Division of Mathemat- Computing Technology Investigation Group ics, Physics, and Chemistry, Yun Ziqiang. The of CAS in the Soviet Union,’’ ‘‘The Designing commission—consisting of computing experts Assignments of the Institute of Computing from CAS, various government agencies, and Technology of CAS,’’ and ‘‘The Tentative colleges and universities—was formally ac- Working Contents of the Computing Tech- cepted by the government on 25 August 1956. nology Investigation Group of CAS in the The Preparation Commission oversaw three Soviet Union.’’ The first of these documents research departments, one administration of- dealt with the scope of the trip; this paper fice, and one experimental factory. The first instructed CAS to send 10 researchers to the research department, which dealt with com- Soviet Union so they could learn about the puter software and operations, was directed by state of Soviet work on computing.24 Min Naida. The second research department, ‘‘The Working Planning of the Comput- the hardware department, was directed by ing Technology Investigation Group of CAS Wang Zheng. The third research department in the Soviet Union’’ paper dealt with many dealt with computational mathematics and problems in computer research, including was directed by Xu Xianyu. the direct transfer of technology from the The administration office had five person- Soviet Union to China, the training of senior nel divisions: secretary, general affairs, equip- Chinese researchers, the organization and ment, accounting, and a translation group. management of computer research, the There was also a temporary training class education of new computer scientists, and controlled by the Preparation Commission. the collection of books and other instruc- Two years later, in November 1958, the tional material on computers. Moreover, the commission would establish an information delegation was instructed to visit Soviet labs, division. These organizations employed Soviet to discuss matters of technical cooperation, experts to give lectures and guidance. They to see the work relevant to mechanical translated and published several dozen books manufacturing and mathematics, to learn and pamphlets on special computing subjects how to conduct a computer training course and compiled a Chinese-Russian dictionary of and how to set up a computing specialty in computing technology.31 In December 1958, universities, and to learn how to administer the preparation office would create the first computing research. Chinese computer journal, The Trend of Elec- tronic Computers. Delegation’s responsibilities Second CAS study delegation The delegation, led by Min Naida, left After creating the Preparation Commission, China in small groups after 11 September CAS organized a second study delegation to 1956.24 They traveled to the Soviet Academy visit the Soviet Union. CAS decided to send of Sciences’ Institute of Computing Technol- a group of researchers with practical experi- ogy, where they were hosted by Sergei Lebe- ence, a strong theoretical background, and dev.34 The delegation led this group to in- who were roughly 35 years old.10,32 In August vestigate the research, production, and

January–March 2007 23 Founding: CAS Institute of Computing Technology

education of computing technology in Mos- ing, and the purchase of Soviet-made ma- cow and Leningrad. Each member of the chines. Additionally, the delegation inquired delegation was responsible to investigate a dif- about conducting computing technology ferent aspect of computer technology or training courses and establishing a computing a different computer institution. course of study in universities. All told, the delegation visited 21 Soviet Lebedev invited the principals of each Soviet organizations. Of those, 10 belonged to the research department to introduce their work Soviet Academy of Sciences, 8 belonged to the and give specific suggestions on constructing Ministry of Radio Industry, of which 1 was a Chinese research institute. The Soviet scien- attached to the Ministry of Instrument and tists gave the visiting delegation 90 pages of Automation industry, and 3 were educational suggestions and technical reports. This sugges- 24 organizations. The delegation spent most of tion notebook related the projects, concepts, their time at the Institute of Precision Ma- and procedures of the research departments’ chinery and Computing Technology, the organizational systems; the research direction Computing Center of the Soviet Academy of and tasks; numbers and proportion of every Sciences, and the Moscow CAM Computer kind of personnel; the size of laboratories; types Factory. They became very familiar with the and numbers of equipment; and so on. M-20 computer but they also saw the BESM, Strela, M-2, M-3, Ural, and the IPT analog Delegation reports to CAS computers as well as punch card computers. The Chinese delegation, which left the They visited the CAM Factory many times to Soviet Union in late fall 1956, reported on 18 learn how to manufacture the M-20. December to the 37th meeting of the CAS During the visit, experts from the Institute standing committee.35 The Working Summary of Precision Machinery and Computing Tech- of this Investigation Group report, coupled with nology, the Computing Center of the Soviet members’ personal recollections, conveyed to Academy of Sciences, and Moscow University CAS what the committee had learned.22,24,34 gave 22 academic lectures to the Chinese In essence, the visit was highly positive: the delegation. The lectures involved mathemat- delegation learned much about the Soviet ics, computers, arithmetic units, memories, scientists’ computing skills, which they ad- elements, and the control and application of mired, and had come away with enough semiconductors. Following these lectures, the knowledge so that they themselves could delegation focused on the study of large-sized quickly organize research labs, start education- all-purpose computers: the BESM and the M- al programs, and begin constructing comput- 20. They divided into small groups and visited ing equipment. The report also indicated different Soviet research institutes for study a future of promising technical cooperation purposes and to participate in experimental between China and the Soviet Union. work. ThereturningChinesedelegationmadethe following suggestions:24 Informal discussions with Soviets While visiting Moscow, Min, accompanied N Create an Institute of Computing Technol- by other CAS members, had many informal ogy in the CAS by fall 1957, discussions with Lebedev and Panov; also with N S. Mukhin, a computing technology scientist Begin cooperating with Soviet computer researchers, in the Institute of Precision Machinery and N Computing Technology, and the principals of Create Chinese versions of the BESM and M-20 computers, each research department of that institute. The N delegation asked questions about research Use replicates of the Soviet computers to management, key research tasks, building train Chinese workers to build and operate computers, a research department, and organizing and N administering an institute. They also asked Send a delegation to buy Soviet computers about building the first Institute of Computing and components (the delegates noted that Technology in China; computer development; this should be done secretly), equipment needed in research departments; N Begin plans to make computer components factory requirements; and issues concerning to in China, personnel training. The delegation negotiated N Ask Soviets to transfer information about matters relating to the invitation of the Soviet computers, and experts to China, the number of Chinese N Ask Soviets to send five experts to China for scientists who could receive advanced train- six months.

24 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing Beyond recommendations for creating Soviet Union and China also endorsed ‘‘The a Chinese computing infrastructure, the dele- Convention on the Cooperative Scientific and gation identified problems that would soon Technical Research.’’ A key item in this need to be addressed. Problems needing document was the establishment of scientific resolution included these: the fundamental research and the industrial basis of computing question of building a few large computers or technology. The electrical engineering group many small computers; the need to cooperate took charge of the specific negotiation of with the Ministry of Mechanical Industry, the computing technology and reached an agree- General Staff of the Military, and the Ministry ment to start computer research in China.39 of Higher Education; a concern for placing The agreement considered opening a Chi- researchers with the Ministry of Education; the nese computing laboratory in the Soviet need to obtain equipment for experimental Union with roughly 30 researchers but con- factories; and the need to build its infrastruc- cluded that such a decision should be made in ture quickly. the future. It stated that the first goal of the CAS Institute of Computing Technology was China–Soviet aid conventions to build a copy of the BESM and the M-3 Soviet In fall 1957, the Chinese government sent computers. It also stated the conditions under a third delegation, headed by Guo Moruo, to which the Soviet Union would transfer the the Soviet Union to negotiate a comprehensive technology necessary to build these machines. science and technology agreement between In addition, the agreement also included the two governments, which would cover a provision for building an analog computer China’s second five-year plan.36 Delegation in China after 1958. members in the computing field included Min During discussions with their Soviet coun- Naida, Qian Wenji, and Luo Peilin. The group terparts, the Chinese found that they would talked with Soviet representatives Lebedev, A. need to adjust their original plans. They had Dorodnitsin, and a Mr. Boryuk. Zhang Xiao- intended to first build an M-20 computer but, xiang, who at that time was studying in the after learning that the Soviets were having Soviet Union, was also involved in the meet- trouble with their version of that computer, ings. the Chinese decided instead to build a copy of After much discussion between the Soviet the older BESM. The Soviets delivered the Union and China, the two countries signed, BESM technical specifications in the first on 11 December 1957, a five-year agreement quarter of 1958.40 titled ‘‘The Convention on the Scientific and As the Chinese prepared to build the BESM, Technical Cooperation between the Academy the Soviets had two suggestions:41 First, they of Sciences of the Union of the Soviet Socialist suggested that China proceed with creating Republics and Chinese Academy of Sciences a computer research department in the Soviet (1958–1962).’’ At this meeting, Guo Moruo Union for the purpose of designing, with represented CAS. In accordance with this guidance from Soviet experts, a midsized convention, the two countries’ academies of digital computer. The department would be sciences signed a second scientific protocol the staffed by 15 to 20 specialists. The Soviets also following year. This protocol outlined the suggested that China begin designing its own cooperation between the Soviet Academy of computer immediately. The Soviets would Sciences’ Institute of Computing, the Soviet send some experts to help with this project Academy of Sciences’ Computing Center, and and promised to supply computer compo- the CAS’s Institute of Computing Technolo- nents. In the process, they gave no specific gy.37 With this protocol, the Soviet Union suggestions about the nature of the computers agreed to accept four to six researchers from that the Chinese would create, although they the CAS’s Institute of Computing Technology indicated that this project would take consid- and involve them in computer research and erably longer than establishing the computer manufacture. The Soviets also agreed to send laboratory in Russia. four experts to China to initiate Chinese The Chinese researchers were more at- computer research and to accept four post- tracted to the idea of building their own graduate students for advanced study. Finally, computer, however, than to working in the the Soviet Union agreed to send experts to Soviet Union. They felt that building their China for a short-term visit whenever there own computer would be more beneficial to the was a specific technical problem to solve.38 growth of China’s computing industry and to Besidestheconventionssignedbetween the acquisition of a midsized digital computer the two countries’ academies of sciences, the intheshortesttimepossible.TheChinese

January–March 2007 25 Founding: CAS Institute of Computing Technology

acknowledged that this project might require nology and went on to work on the 104 more foreign exchange than establishing computer—essentially a BESM copy—and de- alaboratoryinRussia,butthatitshouldbe veloped an application for the computer.18 adopted anyway.41 The team returned to China in 1958, except In mid-December 1957, Min Naida re- for one student who remained in the Soviet turned to China to seek guidance about the Union until 1959.44 choice between the two competing projects. Originally, the Chinese State Council’s Because Chinese officials wanted to expand Science Planning Commission had planned every aspect of the electronic computer in- to send 60 to 100 high school graduates to dustry and to train a large number of technical study computers in the Soviet Union, but the specialists at home, they decided that they Soviets had agreed to accept only 30 stu- couldn’t send their experts to live in Russia. dents.45 Thus,inthelatterhalfof1956,China Therefore, they decided to forgo establishing had chosen 30 high school graduates with one a Chinese laboratory in the Soviet Union and year of study in the Soviet Union. Half of these instead learn how to manufacture the BESM students had been sent out to the Institute of computer in China. Motion Dynamics; the other half to the At December’s end, Min returned to the Institute of Leningrad Engineering. Most of Soviet Union to continue negotiations. His these students had returned to China after work concluded with an agreement to pur- graduating in 1962.1 chase a BESM-II computer from the Soviet Between 1956 and 1959, the Preparation Union and duplicate that computer in Chi- Commission selected 10 individuals to study na.42 The BESM-II computer was an improved in the Soviet Union for an academic degree:44 version of the original BESM. Its technical five studied at the Soviet Academy of Sciences’ specifications and architecture were the same Institute of Computing; the other five were at as for the original BESM except for improve- the Soviet Academy of Sciences’ Computing ments in the assembling structure, some Center. Most of these postgraduates returned internal components, and replacing the CRT to China between 1960 and 1962—for various memory with magnetic core and in some reasons, only four received a degree equivalent peripheral equipment. At the time, the BESM to the doctor of philosophy. had a 10-millisecond clock. The agreement In early 1956, CAS had found that it also included how the two countries should needed more trained people than it could cooperate on the development of the digital find. That March, in an effort to quickly bring computer and of analog computers. workers up to speed with the requisite skills, This agreement embodied every idea that the Institute of Modern Physics’ computer had been put forward in the plan to establish researchgrouphadconductedacomputer computing technology and in ‘‘The Emergen- study group at the Institute of Mathematics. cy Measures of Computing Technology.’’ This group had more than 20 participants, Before the relationship between the Soviet including people from Beijing University and Union and China broke down in 1960, the two Tsinghua University. Xia Peisu lectured to the countries successfully implemented each item group, explaining the basic principles and in the agreement. operational methods of electronic computers.1 The group met once a week for more than Training the researchers three months. In February 1957, the Chinese Academy of Later in 1956, the CAS investigation learned Sciences selected 20 professionals for advanced the methods to conduct a computing tech- studies in the Soviet Union. The group, headed nology training course from the Soviet Acad- by Zhang Xiaoxiang, consisted of individuals emy of Sciences and other relevant units.46 largely between 25 and 30 years in age. In all, According to the plan, from the latter half of they came from five cooperative units.43 Most 1956 to 1962, the Preparation Commission of their classes concerned the design and held four training classes, lasting one or two operation of the Soviet M-20 computer. Their years each, and cultivated 684 computer teachers were the principal officers in research technology professionals who reached the departments or key engineers. In early 1958, graduate level.44 some of the Chinese students were transferred In the late 1950s, the Preparation Commis- to study the BESM-II computer, which was the sion had held three training classes, which basis for the 104 computer and the BESM-II received Soviet help directly or indirectly. computer. After 18 months of study, most Some of the classes’ teachers had been mem- students had mastered the basic Soviet tech- bers of the delegation that had earlier visited

26 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing the Soviet Union, and some were those postgraduates who had returned after studying in the Soviet Union. The lecture topics were based on Soviet computing technology. One of the teachers was an expert from the Soviet Academy of Sciences’ Computing Center, U.D. Shmiglebsky. The course text was a Chinese translation of a 1,000-page manual that D.U. Panov had brought to China.47 Between fall 1960 and summer 1962, the CAS Institute of Computing Technology and the Chinese University of Science and Tech- nology ran the fourth training class, which hadabout150students.Inall,CAStrained more than 800 people in computing technol- ogy between 1956 and 1962.44 This training prepared urgently needed people for work in computer research and manufacturing. Ulti- mately, those attending the courses mastered the required technology and knowledge, and were instrumental in developing the 104, 109, 44 and 119 computers. Figure 1. The 103 computer. (Courtesy of CAS.) Duplicating the Soviet computer drum. The M-3 was a binary fixed-point, 32- At the end of 1957, CAS received the bit word computer. The Chinese engineers technical drawings and specifications from slightly modified the Soviet design:48 Al- the Soviet Union for the M-3 computer. At though the original computer’s Enhanced that time, CAS formed a committee to study Messaging Service used a vertical memory the drawings and prepare to duplicate its drum, the Chinese engineers added a magnetic design. This committee was headed by Mo Gensheng, who had translated a book on the core memory. The original input device was M-3 computer, and Zhang Zichang.48 At the a teletype keyboard, but the Chinese added same time, the Preparation Commission a photoelectric tape reader. The original out- signed a contract with the 738th Factory of put device was a teleprinter that the Chinese Beijing to manufacture M-3 and BESM-II replaced with a high-speed printer. These computers. In December 1957, when CAS changes increased the calculation speed from received the remaining engineering drawings 30 to 1,800 operations per second. The input for the M-3, the Preparation Commission speed was increased from 52 to 1,250 digits per formed an M-3 engineering group. Beginning minute. The output speed improved from 24 49 in March 1958, the 738th Factory of Beijing to 650 digits per minute. started the trial manufacture of M-3 compu- ters. By September, it had produced the first Early achievements working small digital computer.48 This com- By 1958, China directed some of the 20 puter was named by Youle, which means we students in the Soviet Union to change their have a computer for the first time. The name was studies and learn about the BESM-II computer. later changed to August 1st, which had To do so, these students remained in the Soviet significance because it was the day the Chinese Union for an extra six months, then returned People’s Liberation Army was formed. In 1959, to China by May 1958 and began work to when it was manufactured in small batches, create a BESM-II. With the Soviets’ help, they the computer’s name was changed again to were able to create an operating BESM by the 103 computer (see Figure 1). September 1959. This machine was China’s The 103 electronic computer was almost first large-sized, all-purpose digital electronic entirely made on the basis of Soviet M-3 computer. Named the 104, it was only slightly computer specifications. The M-3, a first-gen- different from the BESM (see Figure 1).50 eration computer, contained 800 vacuum The 104 computer featured tubes, 2,000 copper oxide diodes, 10,000 capacitor elements, 400 plugs in three cabi- N abinarysystem, nets, and a 1,024-word-capacity magnetic N 39-word length,

January–March 2007 27 Founding: CAS Institute of Computing Technology

ture in the Great Hall of the People, and for analyzing aerial surveys. The 104 computer was used in national defense, for advanced scientific research, meteorology, survey, dam hydrology, architecture, design of power equipment, and so on. Most visibly, the 104 computer aided engineers in the theoretical design and detonation of the first Chinese atomic bomb.54 During the process of duplicating the M-3 and BESM computers, Soviet experts played an important role. Between the end of 1957 and the end of 1959, seven Soviet experts came to China and helped CAS.55 In particular, they helped resolve crucial problems such as mag- netic core memory manufacture, core storage installation and testing, operation control Figure 2. The 104 computer. (Courtesy of CAS.) adjustment, peripheral equipment design and testing, as well as testing the entire system. N a three-address instruction, N Several Soviet experts extended their stay in a 2,048-word magnetic core memory, China because of the need to solve difficult N two 6,000-word magnetic drum memories, problems.56 The Soviets’ role began to decline N 10-microsecond access time, only after the cohort of students returned from N 10,000-operations-per-second perfor- the Soviet Union, a time that corresponded to mance, China’s work on the 104 computer.57 After N floating-point arithmetic operation, these researchers returned, the Soviets’ role N 120,000-word magnetic tape storage, diminished noticeably. N 10,000-operations-per-second average cal- culating speed, Problems on the horizon N a photoelectric paper tape reader for During the period when China was dupli- input with a speed of 15 numbers per cating Soviet electronic computers, China second, and embraced Mao Zedong’s idea of the Great N a printer capable of 15 lines per second. Leap Forward. This idea, promoted in 1958, was intended to spur China’s economic The 104 was comparable to an IBM 704 growth, caused the Chinese leadership to set computer in 1956.51 The 104 was inferior to some impractical goals that slowed research on the newer machines being produced in the US computers.58 In building the 103 computer, and the Soviet Union, but it was better than for example, Chinese industry did not imple- those coming out of England, Japan, and West ment sufficient inspection procedures to en- Germany.52 sure a quality project. Pressured to build an By duplicating the M-3 and the BESM-II, unrealistic number of computers, workers Chinese engineers mastered computer design were reluctant to stop production lines and and manufacturing techniques. They trained hence accepted inferior or flawed compo- a complete technical contingent in computer nents. The visiting Soviet experts noticed this research, design, manufacture, and operations. problem and suggested that the Chinese These two computers—the 103 and 104— should change their production methods. completed the initial state of China’s comput- However, because China was committed to er development and were the major accom- break from convention and move its economy plishments of the initial 12-year plan. forward, Chinese manufacturers did not fol- Between December 1961 and January low the Soviet advice but instead tried to fix 1962, the 103 and 104 computers were the problem with superficial solutions. As certified as formal industrial products of the a result, the workers produced few operational People’s Republic of China.53 Both machines computers. When China started building the were given to military departments and 104 computer, officials recognized the prob- made an important contribution in a variety lems of poor quality and adjusted their of ways. For example, the 103 computer was methods, but these steps failed to fix the used for short-term weather forecasting, for problems.58 According to Zhang Xiaoxiang’s calculating the platform’s mechanical struc- recollection, China had no significant failures

28 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing with the 104 computer’s components, and it N the 109 computer Model III—with transis- reliably operated for many years.59 tors; a large-sized all-purpose digital com- The Chinese modified the 103’s design puter (1967). shortly after the computer went into pro- duction. In deciding to modify the com- Other Chinese institutions had also made puter, the Chinese experts fell into two strides in the 1960s. The Huabei Institute of camps. One group argued that the 103 Computing Technology, the Huadong Insti- design should be improved before the ma- tute of Computing Technology, Tsinghua chine was ready for full production and University, and the Haerbin Institute of Elec- operation; the other urged that the machine tronic Engineering had achieved significant be produced and operated as soon as the progress in developing transistor computers design was ready. The Soviet expert G.P. as well. These computers played a signifi- Lopato helped resolve this issue. He argued cant part in China’s development of the that the 103 design needed to be improved atomic and hydrogen bombs and China’s and helped the Chinese experts who favored management of its economy. These computers that decision to convince the others of the symbolized China’s mastering of Soviet tech- plan’s benefits. Lopato argued that the result- nology. ing machine would be more reliable and stable.22 Conclusions The earliest interest in computing in China Founding of computing institute dates to 1951, when Hua Luogeng, a CAS After years of operating through the Prep- mathematician, suggested developing a group aration Committee, CAS officially founded its devoted to computational mathematics and Institute of Computing Technology on 17 May computing technology. The Institute of Math- ematics organized a few people to start work in 1959. Over the following years, CAS set up in this field; however, no one knew much about succession nearly 20 institutes of computing computing’s mathematical or technical as- technology, computing centers, and computer pects. The group did not accomplish much research departments in Shanghai, Shenyang, until the academy drafted the Long-Term Pro- Wuhan,Xian,Chengdu,Hefei,Nanjing,Tian- tocol for Developing National Sciences and Tech- jin, and Taiyuan.53 Following the principle of nology between 1956 and 1967 and the sub- first assembling and then separating, as out- sequent Four Emergency Measures. Once those lined in the 1956–1967 plan, the individuals two documents were complete, the Chinese who had transferred to work at the Institute of successfully duplicated the Soviet computing Computing Technology from the third de- effort in roughly two years’ time. Clearly, the partment of the Headquarters of the General development of computing technology need- Staff, the Ministry of the Second Mechanical ed the support of the state before it could Industry, the Fifth Institute of National De- proceed. fense, and from colleges and universities, all Besides state support, computer science returned to their original departments. By the needed a well-conceived plan to advance. early 1960s, these research organizations The Chinese plan followed the suggestions of started their own work in duplicating Soviet Soviet expert Lebedev and drew on the idea of computers. first assembling to surmount difficulties and Beginning with the duplicates of the Soviet then separating to develop computers that M-3 and BESM-II computers, China later Hua Luogeng had recommended. The point developed vacuum tube and transistor com- on which it differed from Lebedev’s suggestion puters on its own. Within six or seven years was in the decision to forego the creation of after duplicating the BESM-II, China success- a Chinese computing laboratory in Russia. The fully developed success of the Chinese effort shows that such a laboratory was not necessary. The advantage N the 107 computer—with vacuum tubes of such a laboratory was that it might have (April 1960), lessened the ill-effects of the Great Leap For- N the 119 computer—with vacuum tubes; ward, but as we have seen, that period of a large-sized, all-purpose computer (April political turmoil did not significantly affect 1964), computer development. In the process of N the 109 computer Model II—with transis- making and carrying out its plan for creating tors; a large-sized, all-purpose digital com- computers, the Chinese government relied on puter (1965), and both Chinese and Soviet experts. Without the

January–March 2007 29 Founding: CAS Institute of Computing Technology

Soviet experts and information, it would be patents and the distribution of economic unimaginable for the Chinese to have mas- benefits among the various institutions. The tered computing technology within several agreements were surprisingly flexible, for years. activities involving the Soviets, and had no In all, the Soviets helped their Chinese limitation of scope. The friendship between counterparts in eight key areas. First, a Soviet the Soviet Union and China fostered a com- conference in 1956 informed the Chinese fortable atmosphere for the Soviet Union to about the accomplishments of Soviet comput- help with founding the Institute of Comput- er experts and started the planning for Chinese ing Technology and transferring computing computer research. Second, Soviet experts, technology. most notably Lebedev, helped the Chinese prepare a 12-year plan for computing. Acknowledgments Third, in September 1956, the Soviet Acad- Project funding was courtesy of the Chinese emy of Sciences hosted a delegation from CAS. Academy of Sciences’ knowledge innovation This delegation visited the organizations of program, No. KJCX2-W6. We thank the CAS computer research, design, trial-manufacture, archive office, and the archive room of the production, and higher education in the Institute of Computing Technology’s scientific Soviet Union, and learned theories and tech- research office; Fan Hongye from the Institute niques for every aspect of computer develop- of Policy and Management of CAS for his ment. Fourth, shortly after this visit, the guidance in our modifying this article; and Soviets agreed to provide the Chinese with Yao Fang, Department of Mathematics at computers, computer plans, and computer Capital Normal University (Beijing), for her components. help in translating, from Chinese into Russian, Fifth, the Soviets trained Chinese students the Russian names of some Soviet specialists. at the Institute of the Computing Technology, We also thank the IEEE Annals of the History of the Computing Center of the Soviet Academy Computing—in particular, Robin Baldwin, Paul of Sciences, Institute of Molotov Dynamics, Ceruzzi, Anne Fitzpatrick, David Grier, and and Institute of Leningrad Engineering. In Louise O’Donald—for assistance in preparing turn, these people trained others in China. this article. Sixth, the Soviet Academy of Sciences helped Chinese engineers duplicate the M-3 and the References and notes BESM-II. In this effort, Chinese scientists 1. X. Peisu, ‘‘The First Electronic Computer Research actually improved the Soviet designs. Group in Our Country,’’ The Historical Materials Seventh, Soviet technology was spread of Chinese Science and Technology, 1985, vol. 6, through the Institute of Computing Technol- no. 1, pp. 12-18. ogy of CAS. This institute played the role of an incubator and a disseminator. Finally, Soviet 2. D. Audette, ‘‘Computer Technology in technology provided examples to Chinese Communist China, 1956–1965,’’ Comm. ACM, researchers as they created the 107, 119, 109 vol. 9, no. 9, 1966, pp. 655-661. Model II, and 109 Model III between 1960 and 3. For the contents of the special symposium, see the 1965.60 In this last effort, China moved into Records of the Symposium Held by the Leaders of the transistor stage and demonstrated its CAS, Planning Bureau of CAS, July 1953, file ability to design and manufacture computers. no. 14, 53-3-26, CAS archives, Beijing. All in all, the Soviet Union aided China to 4. ‘‘The Documents of the Superintendents’ create its first computers by successfully trans- Meetings of CAS (the Record of the Mathematics ferring its technology. This transfer occurred and Physics Groups),’’ Planning Bureau of CAS, under specific historical conditions and in October 1953, file no. 2, 53-3-8, CAS archives. a manner very different from the usual way of 5. ‘‘The Table of the Research Topics in 1954 (Basic technology transfer between countries. For Sciences Category: on Mechanics and example, it was carried out during a time of Computational Mathematics),’’ February 1954; cooperation between the two governments. see the Itemized Table of Each Scientific Working The technology transfer occurred when the Plan of CAS in 1954, Planning Bureau of CAS, 54- two governments were interested in forging 3-20, CAS archives. The CAS did not officially a larger, more productive relationship as examine the plans, which were for reference only. a bulwark against the West. Therefore, when 6. ‘‘Chinese Academy of Sciences: Developing Plan the general conventions on computer tech- of Science Undertakings of the Chinese Academy nology were signed, the two countries did between 1953 and 1957 (revision),’’ The not worry about agreements on technical Developing Plan of Science Undertakings of CAS

30 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing between 1953 and 1957 (protocol), file no. 4, 24 Defense,’’ The Historical Materials of CAS and Nov. 1954, 53-3-23, CAS archives. Research, no. 6, 1999, pp. 1-83. 7. The Department of Physics, Mathematics and 16. L. Zhenkun, ‘‘The Records of Interview with Du Chemistry, ‘‘The Tentative Opinions of the Runsheng,’’ The Historical Materials of CAS and Department of Physics, Mathematics and Research, no. 2, 1999, pp. 1-33. Chemistry of CAS on the Research Development 17. Between April and June 1956, Xia Peisu and Wu during the Period of the Second Five-year Plan,’’ Jikang participated in the planning work of the file no. 3, 4 Oct. 1955, 55-15-3, CAS archives, foundation of computing technology. pp. 2–3. 18. Z. Xiaoxiang, ‘‘The Record of Two or Three Affairs 8. On 11 June 2003, author Zhang Jiuchun during the Period of the Foundation of Computer interviewed academician Zhang Xiaoxiang by Cause in Our Country,’’ The Thirty Years of the telephone. 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28. F. Hongye, ‘‘The Chronicle of Chinese Academy of of science and technology brought a copy of Sciences (1949–1999),’’ Shanghai Science and a table of the specific cooperative items between Technology Education Press, 1999, p. 70. Soviet Union and China from 1958 to 1962. The 29. The Emergency Measures and Projects about the first cooperative project between the Chinese Development of Computing Technology, Academy of Sciences and the Soviet Union Semiconductor Technology, Radio Electronics, involved computing technology. Judging from Automatics and Long-Distance Controlling the table’s contents, it was based on the plan of Technology, file no. 2, 56-1-1, Archives of the Inst. the foundation of computing technology and the of Computing Technology. Emergency Measure of Computing Technology. 30. H. Shaozong, ‘‘The Recollection and Reflection on The contents were quite specific, detailing such the Development of Chinese Computing items as purchasing an up-to-date, large digital Technology,’’ The Thirty Years of the Institute of electronic computer; purchasing drawings; Computing Technology of CAS (1956–1986), Inst. inviting experts; training cadres; exchanging of Computing Technology of CAS, Aug. 1986, achievements and data between each other; and restricted publication, pp. 21-27. so on. Whether this cooperative-item table was 31. Z. Wei, ‘‘Energetically Developing Information determined or not requires future research. Resource and Servicing Vigorously Scientific and 38. Chinese Academy of Sciences, ‘‘The Scientific Technical Research,’’ The Thirty Years of the Cooperative Items between Soviet Academy of Institute of Computing Technology of CAS (1956– Sciences and Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1986), Inst. of Computing Technology of CAS, 1958 (The Foundation of the Scientific Basis of Aug. 1986, restricted publication, pp. 164-170. Computing Technology Research),’’ file no. 4, 32. ‘‘The Summary of the Second Meeting of the February 1958, 60-5-14, Archives of the Inst. of Preparation Commission of Computing Institute Computing Technology. Sorted Out by the Office of the Preparation 39. ‘‘The Items of the Significant Scientific and Commission of the Institute of Computing Technical Researches Which Will Be Done by Technology of CAS,’’ memorandum, file no. 2, Soviet Union and China Together and Will Be 21 July 1957, 56-1-2, Archives of the Inst. of Done with Soviet Help by China between 1958– Computing Technology. 1962,’’ file no. 5, 59-5-10, Archives of the Inst. of 33. Third department of the Headquarters of General Computing Technology. Staff of the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army to 40. ‘‘The Working Summary of the Preparation of the the Cadre Bureau of CAS, ‘‘The Name List of the Institute of Computing Technology (between July Students to Study Electronic Computer in the 1956 and December 1957),’’ file no. 1, 57-1-2, Soviet Union Informed by Letter,’’ 22 August Archives of the Inst. of Computing Technology. 1956, The Reports and Name Lists of CAS about 41. Q. Wenji, ‘‘The Report on Several Significant Carrying out the Emergency Measures of the Problems about Computing Technology,’’ file National Science Planning Conference and no. 1, November 1957, 57-5-3, Archives of the Sending out People to Study in the Soviet Union, Inst. of Computing Technology. document file no. 31, 57-10-30, Cadre Bureau of 42. M. Naida, ‘‘Some Part of the Report Given by the CAS, CAS archives. Radio Group of the Consultant Group of the 34. Z. Wei, ‘‘The First Investigation Group of Chinese Delegation to Soviet Union,’’ file no. 1, Computing Technology of Our Country in the November 1957, 57-5-3, Archives of the Inst. of Soviet Union,’’ The Thirty Years of the Institute of Computing Technology. Computing Technology of CAS (1956–1986), Inst. 43. Z. Xiaoxiang, ‘‘It is Here that the First Large-Sized of Computing Technology of CAS, Aug. 1986, Computer of Our Country Was Manufactured,’’ restricted publication, pp. 79-82. The 45 Years of the Computing Technology Institute 35. General Office of Chinese Academy of Sciences, of CAS, Inst. of Computing Technology of CAS, ed., The Memorabilia in 1956, the Annals of 2001, restricted publication, pp. 52-54. Chinese Academy of Sciences, General Office of 44. X. Peisu, ‘‘The Situation of Training Scientific and Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1956, restricted Technical Personnel in the Early Period of publication, pp. 373-387. Computing Institute,’’ The Thirty Years of the 36. General Office of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Computing Technology of CAS (1956– ed., The Memorabilia in 1957, the Annals of 1986), Inst. of Computing Technology of CAS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, General Office of Aug. 1986, restricted publication, pp. 56-70. Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1957, restricted 45. The Chinese Academy of Sciences delivered publication, pp. 453-460. a letter to the Second Office of the State 37. When traveling to Moscow to discuss the Department about the matter of choosing 30 scientific and technological cooperation of the high school graduates to learn electronic Soviet Union and China, the Chinese delegation computers abroad, 8 October 1956; The Relevant

32 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing Documents to Send Out Trainees, Postgraduates Summary of Foreign Affairs, Memorabilia, and Graduates to Study in the Soviet Union in Statistics and the Summary of the Ten-Year Work 1956, the Student Abroad Department of the of the Soviet Experts, collection, file no. 4, 61-4- Scientific Cadre Training Bureau, file no. 28, 56- 37, CAS archives. 10-12, CAS archives. 56. Preparation Office of the Inst. of Computing 46. Preparation Commission of Computing Technology, ‘‘The Report on Extending the Technology of CAS, ‘‘The Report on the Period of the Soviet Experts: O.B. Shcherbakov in Investigation Group of the Institute of Computing China,’’ 19 Dec. 1957, ‘‘The Volume about Soviet Technology to Go to Soviet Union, the Cadre Experts O.B. Shcherbakov, Y.D. Shmyglevsky, and Bureau of CAS: The Reports and Name Lists of Y.I. Vizuch Working in China’’ collection, file CAS about Carrying out the Emergency Measures no. 1, Liaison Bureau of CAS, CAS archives, 58-4- of the National Science Planning Conference and 69. Sending out People to Study in the Soviet 57. In the telephone interview on 11 June 2003, Union,’’ 15 August 1956, file no. 31, 57-10-30, Zhang Xiaoxiang mentioned it. CAS archives. 58. ‘‘The Situation of Professional Work in Computing 47. Z. Keming, ‘‘The Speech Given to the Institute in 1958,’’ manuscript, 58-1-1, Archives Mathematicians by Zhang Keming at the of the Inst. of Computing Technology. Mathematics Meeting,’’ file no. 2, Archives of the 59. Zhang Xiaoxiang made such a comment in the Inst. of Computing Technology, 1956, 56-1-2. author’s telephone interview on 11 June 2003. 48. Z. Zichang, ‘‘The Situation of Developing 8.1- 60. The 109 Model III and 119 computers played type Digital Electronic Computer,’’ The Thirty a more important role in China’s industrial and Years of the Institute of Computing Technology of national defense programs than the 107 CAS (1956–1986), Inst. of Computing computer. Technology of CAS, Aug. 1986, restricted publication, pp. 36-44. Zhang Jiuchun is an assistant 49. ‘‘The Significant Achievement of Science and professor at the Institute of Technology: BaYi Digital Electronic Computer,’’ Policy and Management of Archives of the Inst. of Computing Technology, the Chinese Academy of kept in the Inst. of Policies and Management of Sciences (CAS). His research CAS. interests are the history of 50. Z. Xiaoxiang, ‘‘Some Experience about the Chinese modern science and Imitation of Computer 104,’’ the relevant technology and the history of discourses read out at the meeting, file no. 4, 59- the Chinese Academy of Sciences. He has a master’s 15-2, CAS archives. 51. Inst. of Computing Technology, ‘‘The History degree in the history of science and technology Evolution of the Institute of Computing from the Institute for the History of Natural Technology,’’ Inst. of Policy and Management of Science of CAS. CAS. 52. Inst. of Computing Technology, ‘‘The Zhang Baichun is a professor Momentous Science and Technology at the Institute for the History Achievement—the 104 High-Speed Digital of Natural Science of CAS. He Electronic Computer,’’ Inst. of Policy and focuses on the history of tech- Management of Chinese Academy of Sciences. nology and the history of 53. L. Yin, Z. Ting, and Z. Xuedong, The Electronics mechanics. He has a PhD in Industry in Contemporary China: Electronic the history of science and Computer Industry, Chinese Social Science technology from the Institute Publishing House, 1986, pp. 156-180. for the History of Natural Science of CAS. 54. L. Jifeng, L. Yanqiong, and X. Haiyan, ‘‘The Project of Two Bombs,’’ One Satellite: A Model of the Big Readers may contact Jiuchun Zhang about this Science, Shan Dong Education Press, 2004, p. 193. article at [email protected]. 55. Chinese Academy of Sciences, ‘‘The Summary of the Ten-Year Work of the Soviet Experts in For further information on this or any other Chinese Academy of Sciences,’’ 17 October 1961, computing topic, please visit our Digital Library Documents of CAS in 1960 such as the Working at http://computer.org/publications/dlib.

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