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Spring 1994

The Underside of John Locke's Philosophy: The Politics of Distrust

Peter O'Brien Trinity University, [email protected]

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Repository Citation O'Brien, P. (1994). The underside of John Locke's philosophy: The politics of distrust. The Political Chronicle, 6(1), 1-8.

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Political Science Department at Digital Commons @ Trinity. It has been accepted for inclusion in Political Science Faculty Research by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Trinity. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Underside of John Locke's Philosophy: The Politics of Distrust

Peter O'Brien

Abstract theory of conflict. Multi-faceted in its assumptions. His failure holds grave Locke's writings reveal him as a man analysis, the theory examines conflict on consequences for his political thought. It obsessed with conflict; obsessed first with a variety of levels. On the most superficial certainly dulls the brighter side; and it understanding it and second with level, Locke tells us that conflict divides nearly blackens the darker side. controlling it. To understand it Locke primarily into two sorts: material and Conflict enveloped Locke's world. He developed a complex theory of conflict. confessional. At the deepest level, he sensed its threat all around him-at He avers that conflictoriginates primarily teaches that conflict is really all about Oxford, in England, in Europe, in the due to divergent and false definitions of words; it festers only among persons who world at large. Accordingly, Locke's ideas. He devises his political theory with define their terms differently. concern with conflict runs through all of an aim to controlling conflict. In this Furthermore, elaborating Locke's his works. He wrote the Two Tracts on scheme politics becomes fundamentally thoughts on conflict gives us cause to Government, for example, as a the search for and application of recast our understanding of his political contribution to the fierce battle over reasonable, correct definitions of key thought For Locke authors his political indifferentthings in the 1660s. He laments political ideas. The definitionsfunction theory in response to his study of conflict. over "what disasters this one issue has in a twofold manner. First, they facilitate This need not incite us, however, to caused, what tempests, military no less trust among members of civil societywho discard our rosy image of Locke than civil, it has provoked"2• The tracts observe them and thereby lead to the altogether. For Locke's political also allude to other "hotly disputed" issues effective regulation of conflict. Second, philosophy basically aspires to liberate of the day: "paedobaptism, church all persons who do not share these persons from the mischief of conflict. government, ordination, excommuni­ definitions Locke labels enemies of civil Peace, he claims, can get a foothold only cation, etc"3• Such issues disturbed Locke society. He advises his readers not to in societies whose politics turn on because they provoke men and incite "the tolerate such persons - to distrust them. tolerance, consensus, reason, and trust. many Revolutions which have been seen This second feature draws our attention But Locke said much more about in this Kingdom, in this and former to a "politics of distrust" parallel to the politics. He warned his readers to Ages"4• In addition to domestic troubles "politics of trust" commonly attributed safeguard their commonwealth from like the Puritan Civil War, Stuart to Locke's political philosophy. Finally, enemies in order not to squander the peace Restoration and Glorious Revolution, because Locke ultimately fails to prove achieved amongst the citizenry. Defense Locke felt England endangered by the existence of "correct" definitions, involves, first, identifying enemies. For external designs, particularly Papist ones.5 both his "politics of trust" and "distrust" Locke, all immoral and irrational persons In short, Locke's picture of England was turn out to be grounded in English come under the category of enemy. marred with the "marks of men striving ethnocentricism and Protestant Second, it necessitates not tolerating such for power and empire over one another"6• theocentricism. people - distrusting them. Given the Vigorous conflict did not confine itself deserved prominence of John Dunn's to England. Thus, Germany "is notorious interpretation of Locke1, it seems sensible for civil disasters"7• Conflict raged We do not normally count John Locke to refer generally to the brighter aspects through the whole of Europe like "those among the philosophers who treat of Locke's politics as the "politics of flames that have made such havoc and extensively the issue of human conflict. trust" and to the darker aspects as the desolation in Europe and have not been Our conventional picture of Locke "politics of distrust." quenched but with the blood of so many portrays him as manwho underscored the This essay seeks to etch out the latter millions"8• Conflict plagued lands far brighter side of human life. He advocated by following a design which points us to beyond the borders of Europe as well. tolerance and government only by each of the topics mentioned above. As Locke tells of the continental Christians' consent. He assigned a prominent role to each is considered, we will recognize that struggle with the Tm:ks9 and of the Turks' reason in guiding human affairs and even Locke traverses this vast theoretical own gory clashes with their eastern spoke of civil society held together terrain with the aid of two guiding neighbors10• Both immediate experiences throughthe mutual trustof its citizens. assumptions: that there is a law of nature and reports from abroad, in other words, This portrait paints far too rosy a whose moral dictates persons can know convinced Locke that "traditions picture of Locke. It omits a significant through reason; and that these dictates are vary ...much the world over and men's dimension of his thought which explores the same as those enunciated in the opinions are... obviously opposed to one the darker side of life: sin, irrationality Christian revelation. After outlining another and mutually destructive, and that and distrust. This darker dimension arises Locke'spolitics of distrust, theessay takes not only among different nations but in out of Locke's burning concern with up his attempt near the end of his life to one and the same state"11• conflict. Indeed, Locke developed a full demonstrate the validity of his guiding Human diversity deeply impressed and 2 The Political Chronicle - Spring/Summer 1994

alarmed Locke. He frequently remarks of conflict. Locke often lays the blame simple examples, in perceiving that white how different peoples manage to develop for conflict at the doorstep of unethical is white and not black, or that the three fully different, even opposing beliefs and behavior, such as avarice, covetousness, angles of a triangle are equal to two right traditions; how, for instance, "Our dishonesty and pride19. Indeed, as John ones27• Furthermore, it inheres in being deformity is others' beauty, our rudeness Dunn advances20, Locke ultimately traces able to draw the corresponding connection others' civility"12. And in the Essay such wrongdoings to the Fall. Yet, Locke between, say, the idea of white and the Concerning Human Understanding, he often associates immorality with actual white substance snow28; or in devotes considerable space to developing irrationality. For instance, troublemakers connecting the idea of horse with anactual a theory of the "association of ideas" to are both "dishonest" and "foolish"21; or horse and not, say, with a cassowary29. explain rampant human diversity13. Locke "moved by avarice and insatiable desire Then truth signifies "nothing but the harbors no fear for diversity in and of of dominion," yet also "confounded"22• joining or the separating of signs, as the itself. Rather, it menaces him only when In Locke's eyes, conflictual persons are Things signified by them do agree or it exists in the absence of a common, not merely sinners in the sense of disagree one with another"30• Moreover, recognized authority to which men can transgressors of ethical precepts; they are Locke strives to persuade that such turn to adjudicate their disputes. Without also stupid, or at least intellectually lazy. knowledge can be attained for more such an "Authority to judge between Locke often characterizes them as abstract, moral ideas. Such "moral them" force becomes the umpire among being unaware of the obvious. In the knowledge," he contends, "is capable of men. That is, diversity degenerates into a Second Treatise, for instance, he claims demonstration, as well as mathematics"31, state of war, that "State of Enmity, Malice, that the distinction between private and "without leaving any room or any contest Violence, and Mutual Destruction"14. communal property should be obvious to about it"32. Accordingly, persons can not Men need not search far for such an all. There can be "no doubt of Right, no only accurately define a moral idea such authority. For Locke maintains that God room for quarrel," since "there cannot be as justice, but they can with equal has given mankind the Law of Nature, a clearer demonstration of anything''23. Or "exactness" connect or disconnect theidea which "lays down what is and what is not in the Letter Concerning Toleration he with just or unjust acts in reality33. to be done"15. Moreover, God creates men criticizes the doctrine of Papal infallibility Locke's optimism rests on the assump­ with the capacity to understand the Law for resting on a "frivolous and fallacious tjon that persons can initially agree on of Nature through reason. As a result, distinction between the court and the definitions. Locke repeatedly contends Locke believes the law 's fundamental church"24. that such consensus is possible among precept to be clearly ascertainable to all The association of immorality with human beings, if only they apply them­ men: "And reason, which is that law, irrationality strikes at the core of Locke's selves diligently and reasonably to the teaches all Mankind, who will but consult theory of conflict, indeed, of his entire task34• The premium to be won from such it, that being all equal and independent, epistemology. In An Essay concerning an effort easily requites the labor exerted. no one ought to harm another in his Life, Human Understanding, Locke labors to For all disputes "may in good measure Health, Liberty, or Possessions"16. Locke erect the epistemological cornerstone of be remedied by definitions, setting down feels confident that this duty emanates his thoughts on conflict. He aims to that collection of simple ideas, which from God because Jesus stated it clearly demonstrate that the irrationality of every term shall stand for; and then using in his enunciation of "this general golden conflict issues, at heart, from opposing the terms steadily and constantly for that rule. Matt. 7:12, 'All things whatsoever definitions of ideas; "which is nothing but precise collection"35• ye would that men should do to you, do this, that they [persons] are not agreed in As he is wont to do, though, Locke you even so to them; for this is the law the signification of those words, nor have neutralizes his theoretical optimism with and the prophets"'17. in their minds the same complex ideas realistic pessimism. He tells us persons Moreover, the "Execution of the Law which they make them stand for, and so rarely agree on definitions. And he of Nature is... put into every Manshands, all the contests that follow thereupon are devotes the ninth and tenth chapters of whereby every one has a right to punish only about the meaning of a sound''25. The the Essay's third book (on the "imper­ the transgressors of the Law to such a Essay reveals Locke as a theorist pro­ fection" and "abuse" of words Degree, as may hinder its Violation"18• foundly interested in the role of language respectively) to detailing how persons Unfortunately, men can use or abuse this in society, especially in the confusion it mistake and confuse definitions. Locke God-given power of execution. They can provokes. Here Locke zeros in on conflict employs countless examples of employ it just as easily to invade and as the consequence of the "abuse" and controversies arising from divergence in oppress their neighbor as to discipline and "imperfection" of language. Here he the meaning of words and ideas. Thus, rehabilitate him. Humans thus always live endeavors to disclose the roots of the even persons within the same sect, "who in the balance between concord and persistent diversity and conflict he sensed have a mind to understand one another''36, conflict, between the "state of nature" and all around himself. disagree-or at least confuse themselves the "state of war." And it is by their own In order to follow Locke's manner of -because they use ideas and definitions decisions and deeds that they come to thinking in the Essay, it helps to begin inconsistently. Hence we find with moral enjoy the one or suffer the other. with his definition of knowledge. ideas, for instance, that "one man's Locke is aware that persons far more Knowledge consists in "the perception of complex idea seldom agrees with frequently choose the latter over the the connexion of and agreement, or another's, and often differs from his former. And this seeming enigma sparks disagreement and repugnancy of any of own-from that which he had yesterday, his interest in understanding the causes our ideas"26• Knowledge exists, to take or will have to-morrow"37• In relations 3 The Political Chronicle - Spring/Summer 1994

between different sects, matters constellations of ideas thereby become the Law of Nature still stands majestically deteriorate all the more. Here persons "by education, custom, and the constant above the squalor of diversity and often refuse even to try to agree on din of their party, so coupled in their ignorance in the world. And all persons definitions with their adversaries. To the minds, that they always appear there possess the god-given capacity to embrace contrary, each sect establishes its own together; and they can no more separate its truths. Not to do so, regardless of the distinct definitions and ignores those of them in their thoughts than if they were obstacles (to which Locke so insightfully others. Consequently, "there is scarce any but one idea, and they operate as if they draws attention), is in the last analysis sect...[which] has not a distinct set of were so"45• Perhaps no other group nothing but "madness."51 terms that others understand not"38• Locke convinces Locke of both the need and Locke abhors conflict because it cynically concludes that "the accuracy of his theory more than the represents human beings in their worst multiplication and obstinacy of disputes, Roman Catholics. He feels compelled to state. When persons conflict with one which have so laid waste the intellectual explain the sincerity with which Roman another, they essentially fail to think; and world, is owing to nothing more than this Catholics maintain false doctrines like that they thereby let spoil the greatest of God's ill use of words"39• of transubstantiation or papal infallibility. gifts, namely reason. Locke's works Naturally, these reflections concern He writes: correspondingly abound with admonitions debates among persons who speak the against lax study and examination52• same language and live in the same age. Take an intelligent Romanist that, from "Reason," he admonishes, "must be our "But when to this natural difficulty in the first dawning of any notions in his last judge and guide in everything"53• every country, there shall be added understanding, hath had this principle Locke's theology, epistemology and different countries and remote ages"40, constantly inculcated, viz. that he must anthropology all deeply influence his controversy stemming from divergent believe as the church (i.e. those of his political thought. Locke ultimately sees meaning becomes practically communion) believes, or that the pope politics as the process by which humans insurmountable. For when persons interact is infallible, and this he never so much make reason their "last judge and guide." without "any standing rule to regulate as heard questioned, till at forty or fifty And this essentially involves constructing themselves and their notions"41, it "fills years old he met with one of other and enforcing a reasonable language, that their discourse with abundance of empty principles: how is he prepared easily is, a set or system of terms and definitions unintelligible noise and jargon"42• In short, to swallow, not only against all on which the members of a Locke considered as the seed of probability, but even the clear evidence commonwealth can agree. irreconcilable conflict the failure to of his senses, the doctrine of The trust that Locke so often refers to establish and apply lucid and correct transubstantiation. This principle has in his political writings is trust in this definitions of ideas (especially moral such an influence on his mind, that he reasonable political language. Many ones). And this failure he called "the will believe that to be flesh which he Locke scholars note the central role trust foundation of the greatest, I had almost sees to be bread46• plays in his political philosophy54• said of all the errors in the world, if it Certainly trust counts as one of the key does not reach so far, it is at least the Ultimately, it is habit which causes marks which distinguishes Locke's most dangerous one, since, so far as it conflict. It "is of so great force to set us political philosophy from that of Hobbes. obtains, it hinders men from seeing and awry in our actions, as well moral as Unlike Hobbes, Locke refuses to accept examining"43• natural, passions, reasonings, and notions self interest alone as the foundation of These reflections exhibit Locke's themselves"47• civil society. A society rooted in self determination not to rest content with a Locke's explanation of conflict is interest does not liberate persons from a simplistic explanation of human conflict. surprisingly modem. His thoughts border state of war. The state of war merely He resists attributing discord merely to on the precipice of twentieth-century persists with the apparatus of the state human evil and self-interest. "Interest, cynicism and anthropological relativism becoming one more weapon persons try though it does a great deal in the case, without, however, plunging into their to obtain in orderto advance their designs yet cannot be thought to work whole abyss of doubt. The Essay frequently against adversaries55• In contrast, persons societies of men to so universal a exhibits Locke as an anachronistic who make up a truly peaceful and stable perverseness, as that every one of them phenomenologist of the seventeenth society "cannot but be supposed to have to a man should knowingly maintain century. Ruminations which call forth some Acquaintance and Friendship falsehood"44• He searches instead for the modern notions like "the social together, and some Trust one in reason why persons fail to see and construction of reality"48 pepper the pages another"56• examine things. of theEssa)l"9• But Locke is no relativist. Thetrust in Locke's "politics of trust" As intimated above, Locke develops He never neglects to qualify his thoughts fundamentally centers on an agreement the theory of the "association of ideas" to on human diversity. Thus he writes among persons on definitions. Persons fill the explanatory void. He recognizes concerningthe influence of the association who politically trust one another that human beings mature intellectually of ideas: "This gives sense to jargon, essentially agree to define and employ key in very diverse environments. The demonstration to absurdities, and political ideas and terms in like manner; "truths"-or estabhshed ways of viewing consistency to nonsense," and is that they speak the same political language. the world-prominent in persons' which "blinds their understandings, and Afterall, language marks "the great bond surroundings normally greatly influence makes them not see the falsehood of what that holds society together"57• Building a persons' perspectives on life. Certain they embrace for real truth"50• For Locke, civil-or political�society therefore first 4 The Political Chronicle - Spring/Summer 1994

necessitates building a correct and reliable civil society, in short, entails swearing an Locke denounces all persons who defend political language. And once persons oath to other reasonable persons to speak James II' s right to the throne. Such . interact with the same political language, their political language. It is no Loyalists in effect desire a situation in they possess the conceptual wherewithal coincidence, I suggest, that Locke refers which "Jesuits must goveme and France to remedy their disputes.58 This being in to oaths as "the bonds of human be our master"71• In the Letter concerning place, the concrete erection an d society"64, exactly the same terminology Toleratio n, Locke admonishes the maintenance of society easily follows. used to describe language. magistrate not to tolerate similarenemies. This linguistic interpretation of Locke These considerations point to the set To do so "means the magistrate would does not have to ignore the more of ideas Locke assumes when he writes give way to the settling of a foreign conventional reading of Locke's politics. of government by "consent." Consent jurisdiction in his own country, and suffer Persons do enter civil society for "the does not mean just any group of persons his own people to be listed, as it were, Presavation of their Propert y"59; they do each of whom individually consents for soldiers against his own grant their natural executive power to "a voluntarily to membership in a society. government"72• We thus find Locke known and indifferentjudge"60; and they Locke's consent assumes a group of frequently striving to draw his reader's do go on to organize institutions which persons who trust one another. They trust attention to enemies within the ranks who embody the executive, legislative, and one another because they reason together. will subvert society if not properly federative powers61• But they make all this They reason together because each person controlled. possible only through an initial agreement individually takes the time to reflect These secret enemies wage their battles on definitions; they first must define what seriously on prominent political ideas. with words rather than with swords. For property, judge, and power mean. Consent must be reasoned, not merely Locke, this makes them most dangerous. Indeed, Locke's concern with voluntary, to form a genuine They do "Mischief to Prince and People agreement on definitions is so strong, that commonwealth. Accordingly, Locke (by) the Propogating wrong Notions it merits reading the Two Treatises as a contends that tacit consent "makes not a concerning Government"73• Such series of definitions. If the work's chapter Man a Member of that Society"65• With doctrines spread "doubts or distrusts headings give any indication of Locke's reason absent from the act of consent trust amongst us" and cause "disorder and purpose, they make it difficult to overlook too must be absent. And without trust a confusion "74• They facilitate "the his lexicographical aim: "of property," "of group of consenting persons at best Weakness to be deceived with political or civil society," "of tryanny," resembles a political society; it cannot, Contradictions dressed up in a Popular "of conquest" (to name just a few of the however, constitute one66• Stile, and well turned Periods"75• And this political concepts Locke deemed Theindispensability of trust in politics leads Englishmen actually to "let in a important). In the Two Treatises, Locke reveals itself most dramatically at times foreigne force, enemy to our religion and endeavors to compile a political dictionary of crisis. Locke is thoroughly convinced nation"76• with which his compatriots can adroitly that only a society bound by trust and Locke combats these soldiers of words tackle their political problems. To express reason can survive the aggression of with words-with the words of reason. my argument slightly differently, Locke enemies. Naturally, trust based on reason Reasonable persons must employ their writes the Two Treatises assuming an facilitates true conviction which provides reason like a searchlight to ferret out underlying epistemological and moral members of society with the solidarity­ subversive zealots and enthusiasts. Since framework which he was busy the "inward strength"67, the "sincere reasoning hangs so closely together with constructing in the Essay62• The loyalty"68--effectively to unite against correct definition and application of terms cornerstone of that framework is the invasion and subversion. But Locke offers and concepts, persons best disclose their notion that persons cannot come to trust another, more importantjustification for enemies by examining the political one another so long as theyview theworld the necessity of trust. Only reason definitions espoused by the politically through diverging definitions of ideas. distinguishes definitively between friend active and influential in society. When Needless to say, not just any agreement and foe; only reason enables persons to the latters' ideas appear absurd, the secret on definitions suffices to produce trust. recognize their enemies. And if persons enemies of the government have been For Locke, they must be the right do not know their enemies, solidarity does spotted. definitions. Persons reach right definitions them little good. No work better exemplifies Locke's only when they employ their reason to Locke's works reveal a near obsession hunt for enemies than the Two Treatises. formulate the definitions. This type of with enemies. His works display him as a Locke obviously deemed Sir Robert active reasoning about central political man terrified by threats to England, Filmer (a leading apologist of absolute definitions seems to be what Locke has especially hidden threats. Hidden threats monarchy) a secret enemy of the in mind when he claims political society stem from those who pretend to be lovers government Moreover, Locke must have originates out of the "positive of England [that is, of "king and felt that thepersons who propogated the Engagement"63 of its founders. And the country, ... of peace and the protestant doctrines embodied in Filmer's "express Promise and Compact" which interest"69], but who actually conspire Patriarcha were spreading doubt and characterize genuine members of civil against it. Accordingly, Locke is distrust throughout the land. For Locke society represent, at the deepest level, a concerned "to have the true friends sets out in the Two Treatises primarily to commitment to recognize the same distinguished fromthe secret enemies of prove the unreasonableness of Filmer's political definitions which other the government''70• Writing shortly after doctrine; and for Locke, this means a reasonable persons recognize. Joining the Glorious Revolution, for instance, thorough scrutiny of Filmer's language. 5 The Political Chronicle - Spring/Summer 1994

Thus, Locke declares his intention to religion." As the letter reveals, this enemies commit demonstrate that ba sically entails defining the two concepts But Locke also warns his readers not carefully. In his usual manner, Locke to wait for an actual commission. Waiting if any one will be at the Pains professes that correctly defining the two leads to the situation in which it is "too himself...to strip Sir Robert's Discourses concepts lies at the heart of eliminating late"84 to expel the enemy. For this reason of the Flourish of doubtful Expressions, the conflict aroused in these matters. "If Locke defines enemy hostility as "Word and endeavor to reduce his Words to this not be done, there can be no end put or Action." He thereby rationalizes his direct, positive, intelligible Propositions, to the controversies that will be always own method of detecting adversaries by and then compare them one with arising between those that have, or at least the analysis of their words. It is Locke's another, he will quickly be satisfied pretend to have, on the one side, a epistemology which enables him to make there was never so much glib Nonsense concernment for the interest of men's this (in my eyes giant) step which equates put together in we ll sounding English77• souls, and, on the other side, a care of the words and actions. fu the Essay, Locke commonwealth"81• But once Locke lays convinces himself of the power of words. This was, of course, the task of the out his "correct'' definitions of the two, As the above discussion exhibited, he First Treatise. fu the Second Treatise, he uses them topoint thefinger at enemies concludes that conflict stems originally Locke goes on, as suggested above, to of the commonwealth. He counsels the from false definitions. Furthermore, his present and justify the correct political reader not to tolerate atheists and Roman theory of the association of ideas lets him definitions. He must have concluded that Catholics; atheists because they do not assume that people's words determine with the wrong and right definitions even acknowledge religion and therefore their actions. Only with such a theory contrasted so starkly next to one another surely cannot see the distinction between could Locke write passages of the his readers could easily see Filmer for church and civil government; Catholics following sort which condemn persons the enemy of the land Locke took him to because they make the two terms completely through supposition: "For I be. Moreover, by fostering reasoned synonymous and thereby "have... mixed have reason to conclude, that he who examination of political ideas Locke must together and confounded two things that would get me into his Power without my have hoped to contribute to the are in themselves most different, the consent, would use me as he pleased, establishment of trust in English politics church and the commonwealth"82• Since when he had got me there, and destroy and to the future stability of the land. the two groups do not share Locke's me too when he had a fancy to it...and Locke's hopes were answered. By the reasonable definitions, he labels them reason bids me look on him, as an Enemy time he wrote the preface to the Two unreasonable and thereforehostile. to my Preservation, who wouUl take away Treatises in 1689, he could applaud his It becomes clear, then, how much that freedom, which is the Fence to it"85• compatriots for discovering and repelling Locke relies on reasonable language and Locke's use of the subjunctive tense here their enemies. "The King, and Body of linguistic scrutiny to direct attention to makes it clear that an enemy in word will the Nation, have since so thoroughly the adversaries of civil society. Examining soon become an enemy in deed. In confuted his [Filmer's] Hypothesis, that I their definitions carefully oonstitutes an Locke's eyes, what reason forwaiting for suppose, no body hereafter will have ... effective way not only to nip conflict in the deed remains outside of foolishness the Confidence to appear against our the bud, but also to protect the or insolence? commonsafety"78• However, the fact that commonwealth frompotential subversion. But once persons discover their Locke published the Two Treatises after For all his talk of trust, in other words, enemies, they must decide what to do with the Glorious Revolution suggests he was Locke spent much of his time distrusting them. Locke tenders essentially four not as confident as this passage conveys. others. definitions to guide this treatment "man," He admits so much when he writes: "For Closer analysis demonstrates that "beast," "slavery," and "conquest." The I should not have Writ against Sir Locke developed a complete "politics of first two do not enjoy their own chapter Robert ...were there not Men amongst us, distrust" parallel to his "politics of trust." heading but are plainly handled in who, by crying up his Books, and And as is bis custom, Locke devises the conjunction with Locke's discussion of espousing his Doctrine, save me fromthis politics of distrust through a series of the state of nature. Put succinctly, man Reproach of Writing against a dead definitions. In the Two Treatises, Locke reasons; beasts do not. More importantly, Adversary"79• Locke continued to be supplies his reader with several definitions those persons who fail to reason worried about secret enemies; so worried, needed to determine enemies. These degenerate into beasts, indeed, into the that in both his two and only manuscripts primarily include "the state of war," worst kind-those "noxious Creature(s)," concerning the Glorious Revolution he "despotical power," "tyranny," those "wild Savage Beasts with whom called for public renunciation of the "usurpation," and "the dissolution of Men can have no Society nor Security"86• political doctrines he judged false80• government." The firstinstructs in a most Furthermore, their bestiality prescribes Locke's search for enemies surfaces general way who represents an enemy: their treatment. "For having quitted in other works as well. In the Letter "And therefore declaring by Word or Reason ... be becomes liable to be concerning Toleration, Locke does not Action,not a passionate andhasty, but a destroyed by him be uses force against, scrutinize a specific "false" doctrine. sedate settled Design, upon anotherMans as any savage ravenous Beast, that is Nevertheless, he does conduct the search Life, puts him in a State of War with him dangerous to his being"87• Unreasonable by means of a definition. His chief against whom he has declared such an persons render themselves liable to purpose is "to distinguish exactly the intention"83• The other definitions more conquest. Conquering them practically business of civil government fromthat of specifically define likely acts which corresponds to enslaving them; for 6 The Political Chronicle - Spring/Summer 1994

"Slavery .. .is nothing else, but the State of confesses so much himself by the end of in the world, if doubtful propositions War continued, between a lawful the last edition of the Essay and in his shall take place before self-evident; and Conquerour, and a Captive"88• final work, The Reasonableness of what we certainly know give way to Locke's passage on conquest also Christianity. In the latter, he writes: "It is what we may possibly be mistaken in100. provides another example of his belief in plain, in fact, that human reason, the power of words. He stipulates that unassisted failed men in its great and Yet, Locke's own intuition should have the conqueror possesses the right of proper business of morality. It never from caused him to doubt his assertions in The dominion only over those who use force unquestionable principles, by clear Reasonableness of Christianity. His against civil society89• Since he earlier deductions, made out an entire body of studious analysis of peoples of different argued that word or action can initiate the'law of nature"'95• cultures and of the nature of the conflict war, he seems to place words under the In TheReasonableness of Christianity, between them suggests that it is in fact rubric of force. It seems Locke agrees­ Locke searches for that needed assistance not so clear to everyone that the at least on some occasions-that the pen in the Christian revelation. All his life he Scriptures' prescriptions stem directly is mightier than the sword. Perhapsit was had assumed the identity of the dictates from God. And even those who would Locke's awareness of the potency of of reason and the decrees of the Christian grant the divinity of Scripture hardly see ideology-to use a contemporary revelation96• Therefore, when the light of eye to eye on its interpretation101• Locke notion-which made him fear potential reason shone not as brightly as Locke not only took part in such scriptural conflict all around him. Whatever the banked on, he turned to the example of debates, he perspicaciously explained cause, this fear stimulated him to value Jesus Christ to teach men how to live. their intensity and longevity. Indeed, his distrust as much as trust in politics. For Christ's message encompasses the very own analysis in the Essay goes far Both the "politics of trust" and Law of Nature. "There is not, I think any to explain why in TheReasonableness of "distrust" rely on the demonstrability of of the duties of morality which he has Christianity he himself let what he reason. They depend upon the actual not, somewhere or other, by himself and certainly knew give way to what he may existence of 1) reasonable linguists and his apostles, inculcated over and over possibly have been mistaken in. For in 2) correct political and moral definitions. again to his followers in express terms"97• embracing the Christian revelation as real Moreover, if Locke uses the Law of Accordingly, Locke devotes his efforts in truth, Locke fell under the spell of his Nature and the definitions it implies to this work to deciphering Christ's lessons education, custom, and constant din of make the case for the possibility of a civil as delivered in the Scriptures for all to his party. "Real truth" became society as well as to distinguish between acknowledge and follow. synonymous with being English and being the members and non-members of society, Locke's venture, however, cannot pass Protestant. he must prove the existence of such a as a demonstration of the Law of Nature. The epistemological shift (failure) law. Although the majority of his works The Reasonableness of Christianity implied· in The Reasonableness of takes the law as given90, Locke constitutes at best an impressively erudite Christianity casts considerably different acknowledged his philosophical hermeneutic exegesis-but hardly an light on Locke's politics. Unfortunately, obligation to prove its reality. "To admissible philosophical proof-of the Locke never returned to his political establish morality... upon its proper basis," law established in Scripture. Locke thought to edit it, or at least to illumine Locke writes, we must "show ... that there creates, in effect, a loosely conceived the consequences his final work held for are certain rules certain dictates which it Protestant theocentric system of morality. his politics. However, it behooves heirs is his [God's] will all men should conform Granting Locke's example cogency as the of Locke's thought to do so. First, Locke's their actions to, and that this will of his is embodiment of a Law of Nature demands "politics of trust" transforms into a trust, sufficientlypromulgated and made known a Pascalian leap of faith. For faith "is the not among reasonable persons, but among to all mankind"91• This task Locke assent to any proposition, not thus made English Protestants. The political undertakes in the Essay, whose purpose out by the deductions of reason''98. Despite definitions they agree to observe result is "to take a survey of our own this reliance on faith, Locke refuses to let not from reasonable examination, but understandings, examine our own powers, reason fall by the wayside altogether. We from cultural self-confidence and pride. and to see to what things they were employ reason, he contends, to satisfy Cultural partiality becomes the bond that adapted"92• ourselves that a given testimony actually holds society together. Reasonable They are not adapted to demonstrating emanates from God: "whether it be a definitions play no significant role. morality. Locke talks a great deal of a divine revelation or no, reason must Second, and more importantly,Locke's kind of mathematics of morality whereby judge"99• More importantly, "politics of distrust" turns into the distrust "moral knowledge may be brought to so of all those who do not share his view. great clearness and certainty"93• Like no proposition can be received for Our discussion above reveals that Locke mathematics, morality can possess a set divine revelation... ifit be contradictory already distrusted these people long of definite principles and definitions to our clear intuitive knowledge. before he wrote The Reasonableness of which guide the moralist unequivocally Because this would be to subvert the Christianity. But before this work he through the queries of his field. Locke principles and foundations of all foundedhis suspicion on theirirrationality scholars readily agree, however, that knowledge, evidence, and assent per se and not on their cultural heritage. Locke failed to supply these building whatsoever; and there would be left no In supplanting the universal definitions blocks of an indisputable morality despite difference between truth and falsehood, he unsuccessfully sought in theEssay with his claims of their existence94• Locke no measures of credible and incredible his own Protestant definitions derived 7 The Political Chronicle - Spring/Summer 1994

from the Scriptures in The 23 Two Treatises, II, 39-41. 49 See, for instance, Human Understanding, II, XXXIII, 5,7,17, and 18; III, IX, 22; III, X, Reasonableness of Christianity, Locke 24 Toleration, p. 51; also see pp. 57-58; and MS 2,4,14,16, and 22; such relativist statements Locke c. 27, fo. 12-13 (Printed in Two Tracts, effectively labels all non-English and non­ can be found in other works as well: Essays p. 243). Protestants enemies of civil (English) on the Law of Nature, p. 129 or 163; Two 2s Human Understanding, III, IX, 9; for the same society. This, in tum, condemns them to Tracts, First Tract, p. 146. point also see later on in the essay III, IX, 16- 50 Human Understanding, II, XXXIII, 18. bestiality, slavery and conquest - to 17 and Ill, XI, 6-7; furthem1ore, see Ill, IX, 21 si something like an English, Protestant for Locke's explanation of why he came to Ibid., II, XXXIII, 4. this conclusion: s2 Inquisition. See, for example, ibid., II, X and XI as well as I must confess, then, that, when I first began IV and XIX;or Two Treatises, Preface, where this Discourse of the Understanding, and a Locke criticizes Filmer's lax study; or good while after, I had not the least thought Toleration, p. 29; or Two Tracts, First Tract, Notes that any consideration of words was at all pp. 165-66.

John Dunn, The Political Thought of John necessary to it. But when having passed over s3 · HumanUnderst anding, III, XIX, 14; also Two the original and composition of our ideas, I Locke (Cambridge, 1969). Treatises, II, 63. began to examine the extent and certainty of John Locke, Two Tracts on Government, ed. our knowledge, I found it had so near a 54 See Peter Laslett's introduction to the Two Philip Abrams (Cambridge, 1967), Second connexion with words, that, unless their force Treatises, pp. 126ff.; or John Dunn, Locke Tract, p. 210. and manner of signification were first well (New York, 1984), pp. 25ff.. ss Ibid., First Tract, p. 172. observed, there could be very little said clearly Speaking of religious zealots who are anxious pertinently concerning knowledge ....lf we John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, and to persecute others, Locke notes: "But so soon consider, in the fallacies men put upon them­ ed. Peter Laslett (New York, 1965), II, 223. as ever court favor has given them the better selves, as well as others, and the mistakes in end of the staff, and they begin to feel See, for instance, John Locke, A Letter men's disputes and notions, how great a part themselves the stronger, then presently peace concerning Toleration, ed. Patrick Romanell is owing to words, and their uncertain or and charity are to be laid aside" (Toleration, (New York, 1950), p. 51; or Bodleian Library, mistaken significations, we shall have reason p. 26); also see Two Treatises, II, 92. MS Locke e. 18, passim. Printed in James Farr to think this no small obstacle in the way of " Two Treatises, II, 107. and Clayton Roberts, "John Locke on the knowledge.... But I am apt to imagine, that, s Glorious Revolution: A Rediscovered were the imperfections of language, as the 7 Human Understanding, III, XI, 1; see also III, Document'', The Historical Journal, instrument of knowledge, more thoroughly I, I and III, X, 13. XXVIII(1985)pp. 385-398. weighed, a great many of the controversies 58 Ibid., N, III, 20. that make such a noise in the world, would of Toleration, p. 13. s themselves cease.... 9 Two Treatises, II, 124. Two Tracts, Second Tract, p. 211. 26 60 Ibid., IV, I, 2. Ibid., II, 125. Ibid., First Tract, p. 160. 61 27 Ibid .. Ibid., II, 143-148. Toleration, p. 59. 62 28 Political Thought 1 Ibid., III, X, 10. John Dunn, makes a similar 0 Two Tracts, Second Tract, p. 217. 2 argument at p. 79. 11 9 Ibid., III, XI, 21. 6 John Locke, Essays on the Law of Nature, 3 Two Treatises, II, 122. ed. W. von Leyden (Oxford, 1958), p. 129. 30 Ibid., IV, V, 2. 64 Toleration, p. 52. 12 31 Ibid., III, XI, 16. Two Tracts, First Tract, p. 146; also see 6s 2 Two Treatises, IL 122. Toleration, p. 59 and Essays on the Law of 3 Ibid., III, XI, 17. 66 Nature, p. 163. � Tilis is the upshot of the entire eigth chapter of 33 Ibid.,III, XI, 9. to 13 See, for example, John Locke, An Essay the Second Treatise, where Locketries show 34 that as much as a patriarchal society may look concerning Human Understanding, ed. As noted above, Locke hopes for exactness in Alexander Campbell Fraser (NewYork, 1959), morality parallel to exactness in mathematics; like a political society, it is not. and at III, XI, 25 he even speaks of the 6 II,X:XXIII. 7 Toleration, p. 48. possibility, if not feasibility, of a universal 14 68 Two Treatises, II, 19. "Dictionary" of all correct definitions. MS Locke e. 18 fo. 2 (Printed in James Farr 15 and Clayton Roberts, "Glorious Revolution'', Essays on the Law of Nature, p. 113. 35 Ibid., IV, III, 20. 16 p. 395). Two Treatises, II,6. 36 Ibid., III, IX, 8. 69 1 Ibid., e. 18 fo. 1 (ibid., p. 395). 7 John Locke, The Reasonableness of 37 Ibid., IIL IX, 6. 70 Christianity as Delivered in the Scriptures, Ibid., e. 18 fo. 3 (ibid., p. 396). 38 Ibid., III, X, 14. The Works of John Locke (London, 1812), 71 Ibid., e. 18 fo. 1 (ibid, p. 395). VII, pp. 115-116. 39 Ibid., III, X, 22; or IL XXXIII, 18: "Wrong and 72 Toleration, p. 51. 18 Two Treatises, II, 7; also see Dunn, Political, unnatural combinations of ideas will be found 73 Two Treatises,Preface. pp. 126-127 for an explanation of this "strange to establish the irreconcilable opposition doctrine" of Locke's. between different sects of philosophy and 74 MS Locke e. 18 fo. 5-6 (Printed in James Farr 1 religion." and Clayton Roberts, "Glorious Revolution", 9 See, for example, Toleration, pp. 57-58; or 40 p. 398). Two Treatises, II, 46. Ibid., Ill,IX, 22. 41 75 Two Treatises, Preface. 20 John Dunn, Political Thought, p. 115. Ibid., III,IX, 7. 2 6 21 4 Ibid., 4. 7 See MS Locke e. 18 fo. 6 (Printed in James Two Treatises, II, 46. ill, x, Farr and Clayton Roberts, Glorious 43 Ibid., IT,XXXIII, 18. 22 Toleration, p. 57; Locke expresses this duality Revolution", p. 398. clearly inthe Two Treatises when speaking of 44 Ibid .. 77 Two Treatises, Preface. why persons violate the law of nature: "For 45 Ibid.. though the Law of Nature be plain and 78 Ibid.. 6 4 Ibid., IV, XX, 10; for another passage on intelligible to all rational Creatures; yet Men 79 Ibid.. being biassed by their Interest as well as Roman Catholics, see II, XXXIII, 17. 80 At MS Locke e. 18 fo. 2 (Printed in James ignorant for want of study of it are apt not to 47 Ibid.,II, XXXIII, 9. allow of it as a Law binding to them in the Farr and Clayton Roberts, "Glorious 48 Social application of it to their particular cases" (II, Peter Berger and Thomas Luckman, The Revolution", p. 396) Lockecalls for"a solernne 124; my emphasis). Constructionof Reality (New York, 1966). publique renunciation"; in the Two Treatises, 8 The Political Chronicle - Spring/Summer 1994

Preface, Locke calls on his adversaries to "retract.. what they have vented"; although the adjective "public" is missing, the textual context suggests Locke means a public retraction. 81 Toleration, p. 17.

82 Ibid., pp. 57-58; also see MS Locke c. 27 fo. 12-13 (Printed in Philip Abrams, Two Tracts, p. 243). 83 Two Treatises, II, 16.

84 MS Locke e. 18 fo. 3 (Printed in James Farr and Oayton Roberts, "Glorious Revolution", p. 396).

85 Two Treatises, II, 17 (my emphasis); also see II, 230 for the role supposition plays in distinguishing enemies. 86 Ibid., IT, 10-11..

87 Ibid., II, 181.

88 Ibid., II, 24.

89 Ibid., II, 182-189.

90 In his introduction to the Two Tracts, Philip Abrams argues the Locke worked with this assumption from his earliest works on (p.58); Peter Laslett makes a similar point in his introduction to the Two Treatises (p.95).

91 MS Locke c 28, p. 152 (Quoted in John Dunn, Political Thought, p. 189).

92 Human Understanding, I, introduction, 7.

93 Ibid., III, XI, 17.

94 See Peter Laslett's introduction to the Two Treatises, p. IOI; or John Dunn, Political Thought, pp. 188ff..

95 Reasonableness, pp. 139-140.

96 See, for instance, John Dunn, PoJitical Thought, p. 25 and p. 79.

97 Reasonableness, p. 122. 98 Human Understanding, IV,XVIII, 2.

99 Ibid., IV, XVIII, 10.

•00 Ibid., IX,XVIII, 5. 101 At ibid., ill, IX, 23, Locke himself even takes up the heated debate and conflict over biblical interpretation.

Peter O'Brien is assistant professor of political science at Trinity Universityin San Antonio, Texas.