Index of Linguistic Items

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-42359-5 — The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 3rd Edition David Crystal Index More Information

VI INDEX OF LINGUISTIC ITEMS

A auto 322, 330, 493 classist 189 -eau(x) 213 auto- 138 c’mon 79 -ectomy 210 a indefinite article 234–5, 350 aye 346 co- 138 -ed form 208, 210, 216, 223, 224, 237, short vs long 327, 345, 371 cockroach 149 346, 350 verb particle 367 B colour 179 -ed vs t (verb ending) 216, 331, 493 a- 138, 335 contra- 138 -ee 210, 220 -a noun singular 212 /b-/, /-b/ (sound symbolism) 263 could 224 -een 358 noun plural 212 B/b 271, 280 counter- 138 -eer 210, 220 -a- (linking vowel) 139 babbling 483 cowboy 148 eh 319 A/a 271, 280 back of 331 crime 176 eh? 230, 362 AA (abbreviations) 131 bad 211 curate’s egg 437 elder/eldest 211 -able 210, 223 barely 230 cyber- 452 elfstedentocht 383 ableism 189 bastard 263 Elizabeth 158 -acea 210 be 224, 233, 237, 243, 367 D -elle 160 a crapella 498 inflected 21, 363 ’em 287 -ae (plural) 213 regional variation 342 /d-/, /-d/ (sound symbolism) 263 en- 138 after (aspectual) 358, 363 be- 138 D/d 271, 280–1 encyclop(a)edia 497 -age 210, 220 be about to 236 da 367 encyclopediathon 143 ageist 189 been 367 danfo 495 -ene 160 agri- 139 be going to 96, 236 dare 224 -en form 21, 210, 212, -aholic 139 Berks 97 data 213 346, 461 -aid 143, 191 best 211 daviely 352 Englexit 124 ain’t 319, 498 be to 236 De- 160 -er adjective base ending 211 aitch 359 better 211 de- 138 familiarity marker 141, 210 -al 210, 220, 223 between you and I 206, 215 demi- 138 noun ending 220 Albert 160 Bexit 124, 143 depression 472–4 spelling 327 alike 239 bi- 138 Derry 359 Ermahgerd 97 alphabetist 189 bio- 139 di (verb particle) 367 -eroo 141 Americanism 85 blog 457 di- 138 -ers 141 amn’t 358 bloody 104, 185, 372 dice 213 -ery 210, 220 amongst 331 -body 222 did 367 -es (plural) 212–13 an 235, 350 bomb 330 different(ly) from/to/than 206, 331, 493 -ese 210, 220 before h 67 boojum 149 dis- 138 -esque 210, 223 -an 210, 220 -bot 461 div/divent 346 -ess 210, 220 and 225–6, 238, 295, 428, 460 bowdlerize 503 do 45, 67, 74, 224, 231, 240, 346, -est ending 21 as subordinator 358 Brexit 124, 497 367, 444 -et 327 at beginning of a sentence 227 bridegroom 149 does 216–17, 346 -eth 21, 29, 67 idiomatic uses 239 but 225, 238 -dom 210, 220 -ette 160, 210, 220 -and 350 adverbial 358, 372, 376 don’t 231 Euro- 139, 191 -ant 210, 220 dos Eurocentrist anti- 138 sentence-initial 227 346 189 any- 222 by 237 do so 240 every- 222 anymore (positive) 358 -by 25 dot 461 ex- 138 apart from 331 dunno 287 -ex 213 appendix 213 C exist 243 arch- 138 E -exit 124, 136, 143, 191 arise 243 -c (verb base ending) 217 extra- 138 around 331 C/c 271, 280 e magic/silent 42, 212, 217, 269, -ary 327 can 224 271, 284 F aside from 331 car 322, 330 optional 286 -ate 210 cardigan 165 -e (ending in Middle English) 39 -/f/ (sound symbolism) 263 -athon 139, 191 -challenged 143 e (electronic) 460 F/f 271–2, 280 -ation 210, 220 chic sale(s) 334 E/e 271, 280 far 211 atop 331 chitterlings 339 each other 222 farther/farthest 211

540

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-42359-5 — The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 3rd Edition David Crystal Index More Information

Index of Linguistic Items Appendix VI

-fashion 223 have to 96, 236, 497 -ite 210, 220 magnolia 165 fattyist 189 he 222, 493 -itude 461 mail 322 fi 367 headache 341 -ity 210, 220, 461 mal- 138 -fix 503 heightist 189 -ive 210, 223 man, generic use of 189 fore- 138 hello 419 -ix 213 -mancy 210 forensic 450 helpmate 149 -ize 210 manger 347 for ti 358 herb 272 Mary Deckers 106 frae 349 heterosexist 189 J -matic 139 -friendly 143 his (= its) 67 maverick 165 from 493 history 146 J/j 69, 272, 280 may 96, 224, 349 from (= since) 358 -hood 210, 220 me (vs I) 215 -ful(l) 210, 220, 223, 461 hopefully 206, 241 K medium 213 further/furthest 211 house 219 mega- 138, 143, 191 how (exclamatory) 231 K/k 273, 280 -ment 210, 220 G hurting 334 /k-/, /-k/ (sound symbolism) 263 Mexit 124 hyper- 138, 461 Kate 163 micro- 139 G/g 272 keep calm 97 might 224 /-g/, /-g-/ (sound symbolism) 263 I Kellogg 280 spellings of 40 g dropping 71, 81 Kinki 122 mines (= mine) 349 gan 346 I (pronoun) 367 knave 63 mini- 138 -gate 130, 143, 191 vs me 215 know 96 mis- 138 Gawd 287 -i (plural) 213 mono- 138 gay 148 -i- (linking vowel) 139 L ’morning 300 G’day 300 I/i 222, 272 mouse 461 ge- 21–2 before e 284 /l/ clear 257, 357, 363, 365 multi- 138 gels 287 vs j 69 dark 257, 365, 374 must 96, 224, 377, 497 Gersberms 97 -ial 210 sound symbolism 263 mustn’t 358, 372 get 237, 365, 428 -ian 210, 220 vocalized 347 give me it, etc. 343 -ic 210, 223 voiceless 355 N gl- 263 -ice 160 L/l 273 glamour 146 -ices (plural) 213 La- 160 N/n 273 God 185 -ies (plural) 212 larf 287 na 350 goes 217 if 365 law(r) and order 259 -na 349 gonna 236, 259, 287 clause 236 -le 211 nae 349 good 211 -ification 461 lecturer 328 nay 346 good afternoon/evening/morning/ -ify 210 -less 210, 223 need 224 night 300 -im 213 let 231, 358 neither . . . nor 225 got 331 in 480–1 -let 210, 220 neo- 138, 426 gotcha 287, 406 in- 138 lightning 217 -ness 210, 220 gotta 287 -in 103 -like 223 never 347 gotten vs got 331, 495 in behalf of 331 line 173 news 168 -gram 140 inflammable 138 -ling 210, 220 nexit 124 grammar 146 -ing form 21, 210, 215–16, 220, 223, little 484 nice 146, 428 Grexit 124 224, 237, 350 -’ll 236 nice and 239 -gynous 210 innit 287, 347 loadsa- 143 nicotine 165 inter- 138 lookist 188 night-night 300 H intra- 138 look you 355 -nik 210 -is 213 lorra 287 no particle 349, 350, 367 H/h 272, 280 -ise 210 loving 96 response 346, 380 /h/ dropping 42, 339, 442 -ish 210, 223, 426 luvverly 287 tag 319 haitch 359 is it 319 -ly 210, 223, 347, 367 ways of saying 301 hand 175 -ism 143, 189, 191, 210, 220 no- 222 hardly 230, 346 isn’t it 319, 355 M noan 346 har har 287 -ist 189, 191, 210, 220 nocht 350 have 224, 330 it 222, 446 M/m 273, 280 non- 138 have got 330 -it (verb ending) 350, 352 mad 167 none 206, 346

541

Appendices

not 217, 224, 230, 346, 349–50 post- 138 salon 148 tele- 138 not so 319 pre- 138 salt-cellar 149 ter die 267 nowt 346 prepone 497 sausage 146 Tex-Mex 123 n’t 217, 224, 230 pro- 138 says 216 th, pronunciation of 347, 357 nuf( f ) 287 professor 328 sch- 255 -th noun ending 138 -ny 349 proto- 138 sea, Old English words for 23 verb ending 21, 29, 67 pseudo- 138 see 349 thae 349 O psycho- 139 seesaw 140, 333 than 493 punch 146 -self 222 that (pronoun) 96, 222 O (vocative) 232 -selves 222 that-clause 242 -o familiarity marker 141, 372, 459 Q semi- 138 the 234–5 noun ending 212–13 senior lecturer 328 thee 349 -o- (linking vowel) 139 Q/q 274 sexist 189 The Hague 220 O/o (letter) 274 Québec 360 sez 287 there (unstressed) 243, 259 -ocracy 210, 220 quh- 350 -sh 263 these 222 -oes (noun plural) 212 Sha- 160 they 222 of 214, 222, 333, 358 R shall 96, 206, 224, 236, 319, 331, 349 they (= these) 349 off of 331 she 222, 493 they yins 349 -og 327 /r/ after vowel 71, 81, 99, 101, 105, sheep 213 thine 308 -ogue 327 257, 259, 332, 344, 357, 361, -ship 210, 220 -thing 222 oh 303 365, 375, 376, 380 shit 184 thingummybob 140 -oh 372 colouring 340 should 224 thir 349 OK 130 intrusive 259 shurrup 287 this 222 OK? 230 linking 259, 274, 336 silly 146 -thorp 25 old (-er/-est) 211 R/r 274, 287 sirloin 149 those 222 on 358, 480–81 racist 189 sit-in 103 thou 75, 222, 349 -on 213 rain cats and dogs 128 sk- 273 thwaite 25 -ona 160 -rama 139 sl- 263 thy 308 on behalf of 331 Rambo- 143 sly 146 till 333, 358 one (numeral) 349 re- 138 Smith 161 till (= so that) 358 one (pronoun) 304 -re 327 sn- 263 -tion 210, 220 -one 222 reader 328 so 358, 365 tire centre 360 one another 222 real 493 some- 222 to (particle) 45 only 206 regrexit 124 -some 223 to (preposition) 331, 493 or 230, 238 relaid 217 -son 26 -toft 25 -or 210, 220, 225, 327, 360, 493 relayed 217 sparrow-grass 149 Toronto 361 -os (noun plural) 212 right? 230, 319 -speak 191 trans- 138 -ough 43, 272 robot 383 Stanley 43 treacle 146 ought (to) 224, 319, 349 round 331 staple 172 treat 346 -our 327, 360 . . . rules OK 193, 435 -ster 210, 220 tri- 138 -ous 210, 223 Runnymede 150 stork 146 trif(f)ic 287 out- 138 -ry 220 -style 223 trough 347 over- 138 sub- 138 try and 239 S super- 138 P supercalifragilistic-expialidocious 141 U /-s/ familiarity marker 141 sur- 138 /p-/, /-p/ (sound symbolism) 263 noun base ending 213 sw- 263 U/u 40–1, 69, 275 P/p 274, 280 plural 212, 367 ultra- 138 paleo- 138 possessive 214, 367 T -um 213 pan- 138 present tense 25, 67, 216, 335, 346, un- 138 parlour 148 347, 358, 363, 382 /-t/ (sound symbolism) 263 uncle 166 pavlova 165 sound symbolism 263 T/t 275 under 481 please 303, 483 S/s 275 -t vs -ed (verb ending) 216 under- 138 pleb 451 long 40, 67, 275, 293 table 202 uni- 138 -ploid 222 sabby 498 tatu 365 -us 213 poly- 138 said 242, 445 techno- 139 used be 358 post 322 salary 146 teddy bear 165 used to 224

542

Index of Linguistic Items Appendix VI

V well 303, 365 X yigh 346 were 331 yiz 363 V/v 40–1, 69, 275, 280 wh- 350 X/x 276, 280 you 222, 304 vice- 138 wh, pronunciation of 81 you-all 222 Victoria 160 what (exclamatory) 231 Y yous 349 volt 165 what (pronoun) 222 youse 222, 358, 363, 372 what vs which 222 -y adjective base ending 211 yup 287 W whatsisname 140 adjective suffix 223 whenever 358 familiarity marker 141, 210 Z W/w 276 which 96, 222 noun ending 212 wanna 259, 287 whole 22 verb base ending 217 -z (plural) 463 wannabee 287 who(m) 83, 206, 222 Y/y 276 Z/z 276, 280 want to 96 whose 222 ya 287 Zola Budds 106 -ward(s) 210, 223 Wigan 132 y’all 222 zolaize 503 -ware 461 will 206, 224, 236, 331, 358 ye 67, 75, 349 was 331, 347 -wise 210, 223 ye (= the) 41 -ways 223 worse/worst 211 yeah 287 we 222, 304 -worthy 223 yeah right 383 web 461 wot 287, 426 yes 260, 346, 355, 380 weightist 189 would 224, 365 yes we can 97 would-be 450

543

VII INDEX OF AUTHORS AND PERSONALITIES

A Barnes, W. 134–5 Brandreth, Gyles 423 Cassidy, F. G. 332, 334 Barrie, J. M. 160 Branford, J. 106 Castle, Robert 429 Aarts, B. 96 Barry, M. V. 357 Branford, W. 106 Cawdrey, R. 76 Abbott, G. 286, 441 Bartlett, J. R. 86 Bridges, Robert 265, 267, 441 Caxton, William 26, 34, 40–1, 45, 54, Abse, Danny 355 Barton, J 72 Britain, D. 261 56–8, 68, 70, 74, 286, 338 Adams, Douglas 157, 221, 244 Bauer, L. 210 Britten, Benjamin 142 Celcis, P. 396 Adams, John Quincy 85 Baumgardner, R. J. 380 Broadbent, M. 167 Chalmers, A. 291 Adams, V. 18 Bawden, Nina 485 Brockett, J. T. 86 Chambers, E. 79 Addison, Joseph 76 Bazin, Hervé 464 Brodeur, A. G. 23 Chambers, J. K. 362 Adler, Mortimer J. 305 Beal, J. 346 Bröntes 144, 163 Chambers, W. and R. 498 Ælfric 13, 16, 21, 24, 27, 34 Beard, J. R. 86 Brown, B. 289 Chandler, R. 194 Agard, J. 364 Beckham, David 124, 223 Brown, R. 480 Charlemagne 270 Ainley, M. 211 Beckett, Samuel 385 Browne, C. F. 89 Charles, Prince 185 Aitken, A. J. 353 Bede, St 6, 7 10, 16, 20, 29 Browne, H. K. 93 Charles the Great 57 Akerman, J. Y. 86 Bell, A. 374, 406, 408 Browning, Robert 441 Chatterjee, U. 319 Alban, St 10 Benbow, T. J. 500 Brownsword, A. 432 Chaucer, Geoffrey 30–1, 34, 38–9, Albert, Prince 160 Benedict, H. 482 Bruna, Dick 265 41, 44–5, 54, 55, 57, 99, 286, Aldhelm, St 273 Benson, E. 173, 327–9 Bugs Bunny 436 291, 338 Alford, H. 90, 206, 389 Benson, M. 173, 327–9 Bullokar, W. 67 Chavez, Cesar 97 Alfred the Great 7, 10, 13, 24, 29, Benson, R. W. 399–400 Bunyan, John 278 Cheke, John 60–1, 134 154 Bentinck, W. 107 Burchfield, R. W. 259, 500 Cheshire, J. 346 Algeo, J. 319 Bentley, E. C. 432 Burgess, Anthony 144, 194, 430 Chiaro, D. 430 Allan, S. 261 Bernard, J. R. 370 Burger, H. G. 503 Christian, D. 335 Allsopp, J. 102 Berners-Lee, T. 456 Burgess, G. 142 Christie, Agatha 160 Anderson, R. 291 Berry, E. 443 Burns, Robert 146, 196, 351 Churchill, Winston 206, 227, 280, 290 Andrews, Julie 141 Bester, Alfred 283 Burrill, A. 86 Cicero 74, 205 Angogo, R. 108, 382 Betjeman, John 370, 386 Burrows, J. F. 468 Clayton, P. 431 Annand, J. K. 348, 350 Biber, D. 311 Burton, Richard 108 Cleary, E. 282 Appleton, C. V. 161 Bierce, Andrew 464 Busch, W. 350, 369 Clinton, Bill 401 Archer, W. 389 Billings, Josh 88 Bush, George H. W. 496 Close, J. 96 Aristotle 181 Blackstone, W. 398 Buss, R. W. 93 Cobbett, William 81, 205 Armour, Jean 351 Blair, P. H. 17 Butcher, J. 269 Cockburn, Lord 350 Armstrong, S. 211 Blair, Tony 230 Byrd, William 73 Coleman, David 430 Asterix 276 Blake, N. 36, 57 Byron, Lord 442 Colhoun, Adam J. 296, 471 Atkinson, M. 402 Bleasdale, Alan 190 Collier, J. 338 Atkinson, Rowan 163 Boag, J. 86 C Colter, Mary 297 Auden, W. H. 440–1 Bobbin, T. 338 Conan Doyle, Arthur 191 Augustine, St 10 Bob the Builder 97 Cabot, John 101 Connell, C. 432 Austen, Jane 80–2, 449 Bohmann, A. 96 Cædmon 13, 20–2, 29 Constable, John 135 Austin, P. 412 Bolton, W. F. 22, 63 Camden, W. 74 Cook, James 104–5, 110–11, 154 Awonusi, V. O. 381 Bombaugh, C. C. 425 Cameron, K. 151, 156 Cooke, Alistair 241 Boswell, James 78, 498 Campbell, E. S. N. 86 Cooper, J. A. 480 B Bouhours, D. 199 Campbell, Mrs Patrick 185 Cooper, J. F. 87 Bourhis, J. 318 Cappelletto, B. 423 Cooper, R. L. 391 Bacon, Francis 168, 449 Bouvier, J. 86 Cardigan, 7th Earl of 165 Coote, E. 338 Baeyer, C. V. 361 Bowdler, T. 165 Carey, Robert 73 Corns, T. N. 74 Bailey, N. 78 Bowles, W. 86 Carpenter, W. 86 Cotten, J. 426 Bailey, R. W. 361, 503 Boyce, Max 230 Carroll, Lewis 141, 144, 149, 160, 265, Cotton, B. 454 Baker, C. D. 484 Bradley, D. 371 277, 283 Coverdale, Miles 59, 66 Baldie, B. 481 Bradley, H. 500 Carson, Johnny 190–1 Cowan, N. 421 Bamford, S. 338 Bragg, W. L. 311 Carstensen, B. 122 Craig, J. 86 Baratz, J. C. 368 Branagh, Kenneth 163 Carter, Jimmy 401 Craigie, W. A. 500 Barnes, H. D. 482 Brande, W. 86 Cartier, J. 101 Cranmer, Thomas 59, 67

544

Index of Authors and Personalities Appendix VII

Crockett, Davy 99 Doyle, Roddy 359 Forster, J. 93 Green, Sir Henry 505 Croft, P. J. 69 Drayton, M. 441 Forsyth, Frederick 286, 447 Green, J. 199 Crompton, Richmal 290 Dreyer, J. 157 Foster, J. 485 Greenbaum, S. 209, 490 Cromwell, Oliver 356 Dr Seuss 284 Fournier, P. S. 282 Greene, Graham 426 Cruft, C. 165 Dryden, John 76–7, 206 Fowler, F. G. 208 Gregory I, Pope 10, 13 Crystal, B. 63, 72 D’Souza, J. 319 Fowler, H. W. 207–8 Gregory, R. G. 264 Crystal, D. 63, 65, 125, 170, 207, 226, Dubey, V. S. 378 Fox, George 75 Grice, H. P. 305, 469 312, 317, 383, 393, 429, 434, Dunkling, L. 156 Fox Talbot, H. 86 Grieve, C. M. 353 455, 478, 486 Durrell, Lawrence 160 Francis, D. 423 Grimm, J. 120 Crystal, H. 317 Dutch, R. 168 Francis, G. 86 Grote, D. 326 Crystal, S. 94, 478 Dylan, Bob 287 Francis, Sir Philip 449 Grunwell, P. 483 Cummings, E. E. 418, 443–4 Franklin, Benjamin 69–70 Gumperz, J. J. 302 Cureton, R. 443 E Freebody, P. 484 Guterres, Antonio 119 Cutler, A. 163 French, Peter 451 Gwilt, J. 86 Cutts, M. 400 Eadie, J. 86 Freud, Sigmund 146 Gyasi, I. K. 381 Cynewulf 9, 13 Ebeling, G. 429 Friedman, M. 414 Eckersley, Dominic 73 Fromkin, V. 249, 254 H D Eco, U. 242 Frost, David 300 Eddington, Paul 301 Frost, Robert 438 Hall, F. 207 Dahl, Roald 485 Eden, R. 86 Fry, D. B. 251, 254 Halliwell, J. O. 86 Daines, S. 70 Edison, Thomas 94 Hancock, I. F. 108 Dalton, P. 486 Edward IV 30, 56 G Hancock, L. 382 Dana, R. H. 86 E. K. [anonymous] 135 Hanks, P. 161 Darwin, Charles 91, 104 Eliot, T. S. 197, 438, 443, 445, 448 Gammond, P. 431 Hardcastle, Kate 161 Daunt, James 296 Elizabeth I 73, 356 Gamp, Mrs 93 Hardcastle, W. J. 486 David, Jacob 496 Elizabeth II 104, 119 Gandhi, M. K. 376 Hardwick, M. F. 362 Davies, M. 268 Ellegård, A. 74, 449 Garlick, R. 353 Hardy, Thomas 90, 92, 94, 135, 389, Davies, Mark 490, 495 Ellis, A. J. 72, 387 Garmonsway, G. N. 15 441, 448 Davies, W. H. 355 Elton, Ben 347 Garrett, M. 454 Hart, C. 307 Davy, D. 18, 226, 312, 393 Elyot, Thomas 60–1 Gaskell, Mrs E. C. 90 Hart, J. 68 Dawkins, Richard 97 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 87, 305 Gates, Bill 460 Havránek, M. 472 Day, John 65 Empson, William 441 Gerstaecker, F. 356 Hawking, Stephen 397 D’Costa, J. 369 Enfield, Harry 143 Gibbon, F. 489 Hawthorne, Nigel 301 DeCarrico, J. S. 175, 302 Evans, A. B. 86 Gibbons, Orlando 73 Hayakawa, S. I. 123, 183 Deck, Jeff 297 Evans, C. 355 Gil, A. 68, 338 Hazlitt, William 80, 82 Deep Thought 221 Everhart, J. 436 Gilbert and Sullivan 185 Heaney, Seamus 359 Defoe, Daniel 76–7, 338 Giles, Bill 314 Hengist 6 de la Mare, Walter 65, 440 F Giles, H. 318 Henry I 30 Delbridge, A. 370 Gilliver, P. 501 Henry II 30, 356 Denning, Lord 400 Faraday, Michael 91, 311 Gimson, A. C. 38, 73, 249, 251, 254–5, Henry IV 30 Dennis, D. B. 487 Farnsworth, R. 75 387 Henslow, J. S. 86 Desperate Dan 262 Fasold, R. 368, 391 Gledhill, D. 396 Herbert, George 355, 442 Devitt, A. J. 350 Faulkner, William 395 Gonzalez, A. B. 111 Herson, Benjamin D. 297 Dickens, Charles 90, 93, 135, 159, 162, Fell, C. E. 9 Goodhugh, W. 86 Higden, R. 35, 54–5, 338 203, 211, 265–6, 394, 402, 448 Ferguson, C. 412 Goodrich, C. A. 498 Higgins, Michael 119 Dickins, B. 34, 40 Ferreiro, E. 280 Gordon, E. V. 37 Hill, W. J. 63 Dickinson, Emily 446 Ferrier, Kathleen 199 Görlach, M. 369 Hinrichs, L. 96 Dieth, E. 338 Ferris, P. 428 Goscinny 276 Hoblyn, R. D. 86 Dillon, J. T. 403 Field, J. 153 Gove, P. B. 498, 499 Hodges, F. 161 Disney, Walt 141, 421 Fielding, Henry 265 Gower, John 34, 41, 57 Hofland, K. 493 Disraeli, Benjamin 90 Fields, W. C. 199 Gowers, Sir Ernest 96, 205, 207 Hogan, Paul 370 Dodgson, C. 162 Firth, J. R. 172 Grafton, Earl of 403 Holloway, Stanley 43 Donaldson, M. 245 Fischer, O. 45 Graham, B. F. 86 Holzknecht, S. 379 Donne, John 71, 73, 265, 429 Fitzgerald, Ella 421 Graham, J. J. 352 Hook, W. F. 86 Donnelly, I. 449 Fitz Neal, Richard 31 Graves, Robert 389 Hooker, R. 292 Dowland, John 73 Flexner, S. B. 87, 94, 103 Gray, Thomas 441 Hoover, Herbert 452 Downing, J. 484 Ford, Taelor 297 Greene, Graham 296 Hope, Daniel 72

545

Appendices

Hopkins, Gerard Manley 135, 145, Juncker, Jean-Claude 124 Lerner, G. 313 Mansion, C. 56 444–5 Justeson, J. S. 177 Levenston, E. A. 444 Marescoe, Charles 496 Hornbostel, E. von 179 Lever, R. 61 Marlowe, Christopher 65 Horsa 7 K Levin, Bernard 64 Marquis, Don 418 Hotten, J. C. 88 Lewis, S. 355 Marryat, Captain 185 Houseman, A. E. 447 Kachru, B. B. 107, 113, 380 Lieberman, M. 451 Marsh, David 296 Howard, John 119 Kasravi, B. 503 Lieven, E. 482 Marshall, N. 351 Howarth, P. 403 Kastovsky, D. 22 Lincoln, Abraham 87–8 Marx, Groucho 399 Howe, C. 480 Katz, S. M. 177 Lindsay, N. 373 Marx, Karl 199 Hoyle, S. M. 412 Keating, Pam 417 Livingstone, David 108 Mary, Queen of Scots 73 Hughes, G. 146–7, 167, 185 Keating, Paul 104 Llewellyn, S. 436 Mather, Ray 266 Hull, Rod 266 Keats, John 263 Lloyd, J. 157 Matthew, T. 59 Hulme, Keri 375 Kemp, J. A. 71 Llwyd, M. 355 Matthew Paris 152 Humble, W. 86 Kenyatta, Jomo 122 Lockwood, W. 146 Maunder, S. 86 Humphries, Barry 370 Kenyon, J. S. 249 Lodge, David 242, 265, 286 Maverick, S. A. 165 Humphrys, John 455 Ker, W. P. 11 Loren, Sophia 215 Mawer, A. 156 Humpty Dumpty 141 Kermode, F. 148, 438 Lorimer, W. L. 348 Mayhew, H. 437 Hünigen, Ellen 73 Kiernan, K. S. 489 Loudon, J. C. 86 Mbangwana, P. 379 Hunter, J. 368 Kilroy, R. 193 Lounsbury, T. R. 207 Meier, P. 73, 496 Hutton, M. 7 King, Martin Luther 103, 405 Lovelock, T. 415 Mellinkoff, D. 399 Kington, Miles 240, 301 Low, J. T. 348 Mencken, H. L. 326 I Kinnock, Neil 143 Lowth, R. 81–3, 205 Merle, G. 86 Kipling, Rudyard 442 Luther, Martin 59 Mermin, D. 149 Ilson, R. 173, 327–9 Kirkpatrick, B. 168 Lutz, W. 188 Merriam, G. and C. 498 Ingersoll, C. J. 87 Kitching, John 440, 485 Lydgate, John 34, 57 Messi, Lionel 124 Irving, W. 87 Kitto, J. 86 Lyly, John 74 Messier, C. 157 Iyengar, K. R. S. 107 Knott, T. A. 249 Mesthrie, R. 376 Kökeritz, Helge 72 M Michon, J. H. 281 J Kosinski, J. 231 Mieder, W. 196 Kovind, Ram Nath 119 McArthur, T. 118–19 Miles, Bernard 72 Jackson, Andrew 162 Kralj, Novak P. 465 McCarthy, Cormac 296, 471 Miller, E. 350, 369 Jackson, C. 183 Kretschmer, W. A. 335 Macaulay, Thomas 107, 207, 278 Milligan, Spike 265, 437 Jacobs, J. 190–1 Kubrick, Stanley 43 McClure, J. D. 353 Milne, A. A. 295  Jacobson, S. 394 Kucera, H. 490 McDavid, R. I. 336–7 Milton, John 74, 196–7, 441 James I 356 Kuiper, K. 412 MacDiarmid, Hugh 353 Minard, B. 436 James VI 73 Kurath, H. 333 McDonald, C. 346 Mindt, D. 331 James, Henry 449 McDowell, Rev D. J. 395 Minogue, Kylie 160 James, R. 264 L McDowell, J. 392 Mitchell, A. G. 370 Jamieson, J. 348 McElhinney, B. 392 Mitchell, Andrew 451 Jenkins, H. R. 397 Lakoff, G. 306, 447 McGonagall, William 444 Mitchell, M. 160 Jennings, P. 135 Lancaster, Osbert 386 McGoohan, Patrick 180 Mitford, Nancy 386 Jespersen, O. 207 Landells, E. 437 McGough, Roger 145, 295 Mitting, Mr Justice 451 Johansson, S. 493 Lanfranc 30 MacHale, Des 431 Mittins, W. H. 207, 245 John, King 30 Lang, A. 207 McLachlan, Edward 245 Modiano, M. 124 Johnson, C. W. 86 Langham, Simon de 505 Maclehose, Agnes 351 Montagu, M. W. 199 Johnson, Jennifer 368 Langland, William 34, 54 Macmillan, Harold 190–1, 196 Montgomery, M. 335 Johnson, Joyce 424 Lauder, Afferbeck 436 Macneice, Louis 445 Moore, Marianne 445 Johnson, Linton Kwesi 368 Lawrence, D. H. 440 McNicholas, N. 143 Morley, Thomas 73 Johnson, M. 306, 447 Laycock, D. 369 McQueen, J. 163 Morris, P. 423 Johnson, Samuel 77–9, 82, 84, 86, 490, Lazarus, Emma 100 Magee, Wes 265 Morse, Samuel 277 498, 499 Leacock, Stephen 207 Magnol, P. 165 Mueller, L. 214 Jones, C. 40 Leake, J. 156 Maguire, Gregory 305 Mulcaster, Richard 61, 68, 78 Jones, Daniel 72, 94, 249–51, 267, 387 Leavitt, L. 421 Maher, C. 401 Munsell, A. H. 164 Jones, F. 369 Le Carré, John 242 Mahn, C. A. F. 86 Murdoch, Iris 290 Jonson, Ben 71, 82 Lee, D. 434 Malan, R. 377 Murison, D. 196 Joyce, James 141, 144, 199, 359, 430, Leech, G. 490, 494 Maley, A. 121 Murray, J. 134, 499–500 435, 442, 445 Lemon, M. 437 Malory, Thomas 34, 57–8, 74 Murray, L. 82–3, 203, 205

546

Index of Authors and Personalities Appendix VII

N Phiz 93 Rogers, S. 266 Sheridan, Thomas 159, 434 Pierce, G. 430 Roget, J. L. 168 Shield, W. 351 Nabokov, Vladimir 386 Pine, J. 482 Roget, P. M. 168, 178 Shorrocks, G. 346 Nakagawa, E. 459 Pinker, S. 306 Roget, S. R. 168 Shuy, R. W. 368, 450 Napier, M. 86 Pinter, Harold 242, 439, 446 Ronberg, G. 70 Sidney, Philip 74 Narayan, R. K. 107 Piper, Mrs 93 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 158, 165 Simpson, A. 187 Nash, Ogden 432, 442, 444, 483 Pitman, Isaac 288 Rosen, Michael 245, 483 Simpson, J. A. 500 Nash, W. 187, 430, 447 Platt, J. 385 Rosenberg, B. A. 395 Simpson, N. F. 445, 448 Nattinger, J. R. 175, 302 Platts, J. 86 Ross, Alan 386 Simpson, P. 430 Nelson, Horatio 416 Plummer, C. 15 Ross, Alexander 350 Sinclair, J. 490 Nelson Francis, W. 490 Poe, Edgar Allen 87 Ross, A. S. C. 95, 386 Singer, E. 281 Nesfield, J. C. 204, 209, 218 Pope, Alexander 265, 441 Ross, H. E. 185 Singh, K. 385 Nevalainen, T. 76 Popham, Sir H. 416 Ross, Jonathan 347 Skeat, W. W. 338 Newman, J. 261 Porter, J. 11 Ross, T. 485 Sledd, J. 118 Nicholas of Guildford 36 Powys, J. C. 355 Rougeux, N. 296, 471 Slimbach, R. 282 Nicholson, Jack 190–1 Prelutsky, Jack 265 Roy, Ram Mohan 107 Smart, B. H. 86 Nicot, J. 165 Priestley, Joseph 83 Rubens, Peter Paul 171 Smith, J. 159 Nightingale, Florence 94, 504 Profitt, M. 500 Rundell, M. 172, 493 Smith, L. 283 Pryce, W. T. R. 354 Russell, Bertrand 182 Southey, Robert 421 O Ptolemy 152 Spears, Britney 475 Pullen, B. 292 S Speckter, M. K. 464 Obama, Barack 97, 401, 404–5, 423 Punch, Mr 420 Speght, T. 291 O’Casey, Sean 359 Puttenham, George 55, 387 Sachs, K. 179 Speke, J. 108 Olsson, J. 451 Sampson, G. 95 Spenser, Edmund 60, 65, 135, 197 Onions, C. T. 500 Q Samuels, M. L. 54, 170 Spevack, M. 133 Opfer, Colonel 188 Sandburg, Carl 194, 399 Spillane, M. 183 Ordericus Vitalis 30 Quiller-Couch, A. 187 Sandburg, D. 399 Spooner, W. A. 266 Oreström, B. 352 Quincey, Thomas de 82 Saussure, Ferdinand de 172, 317 Standish, M. 99 Orton, H. 338 Quirk, R. 18, 118, 120, 209, 225, 490 Savalas, Telly 287 Staniland, C. J. 100 Orwell, George 134–5, 145, 158, 188, Savory, T. H. 91 Steele, Joshua 70 389, 421 R Schäfer, J. 76 Steinbeck, John 196 Ó Sé, D. 357 Schiffrin, D. 303 Steiner, G. 385 Öttchen, C. 63 Raffles, Stamford 110 Schonell, F. 284 Stephen, King 30, 33 Owen, G. 413 Raleigh, Walter 98, 387 Scieszka, J. 283 Stephen, J. 399 Ramsay, A. 350 Scott, D. 367 Stephens, Joshua 73 P Rao, Raja 380 Scott, Walter 49, 92, 197, 448 Stephens, M. 355 Rawson, H. 263 Scragg, D. G. 441 Stephenson, George 164 Palmatier, R. A. 44 Ray, John 499 Scudamore, E. 86 Sterne, Laurence 265, 312 Palmer, S. 86 Read, K. 289 Sellers, Paul 425 Stevens, J. 10 Parker, M. 15 Reagan, Ronald 401 Sellers, Peter 215, 231 Stevenson, A. 296 Parkes, M. B. 292 Redfern, W. 198 Seuss, Dr 285 Stock, P. 172, 493 Parslow, R. L. 336 Reed, Henry 445, 448 Sewell, J. 442 Stoel-Gammon, C. 480 Partridge, Eric 194, 433, 455 Rees, Nigel 193 Shakespeare, William 61, 62–3, 67, Stone, L. 199 Passy, P. 251 Reid, A. 86 70–2, 75, 145, 148, 154, Stone, Sandy 370 Patagos, Alexis A. 464 Reid, J. 245 159–60, 163, 170, 187, 199, Storch, L. 464 Paterson, A. B. 373 Renton, Lord 400 205, 296, 338, 434, 445, 449, Stowe, Harriet Beecher 87, 89, 103, Patmore, Coventry 441 Rice Davies, Mandy 319 458, 471, 494, 504, 505 196 Patrick, St 10 Richard I 30 birthplace 73 Strachey, Lytton 199 Patterson, Les 415 Richard II 30 first recorded uses 65 Strang, B. 207 Peake, Mervyn 159 Richmond, E. B. 381 play chronology 63 Strevens, P. 113 Peary, R.E. 454 Richter, Max 72 signatures 159 Stubbs, M. 303 Pecock, R. 45 Rigg, A. G. 13 style 450 Sturluson, Snorri 23 Pederson, L. 335 Robinson, F. N. 291 vocabulary size 133 Styles, Harry 297 Pemagbi, J. 381 Robinson, J. A. T. 429 Shaw, George Bernard 94, 207, 289 Sullivan, Sir Arthur 185 Penn, William 156 Robinson, K. 163 Shaw, H. W. 88 Sullivan, C. 337 Pettie, G. 61 Rodman, R. 249, 254 Shaw, S. 392 Sullivan, R. 86 Phillips, K. C. 80 Rogers, J. 59 Shelley, Percy Bysshe 441 Summers, D. 490

547

Appendices

Sutcliffe, D. 368 Tomlinson, R. 456 W Williams, J. E. 477 Svartvik, J. 490, 494 Torquemada 422 Williams, W. C. 438, 443 Swan, M. 31 Torrecilla, Marcelino 384 Wace 36 Willis, J. 485 Sweet, H. 72, 120 Tournier, J. 210 Wajnryb, R. 422 Willis, J. C. 129 Swift, Jonathan 69, 76–7, 185, 265, Travis, Dave Lee 267 Wakefield, E. G. 105, 338 Wilson, J. 403 304, 359 Treharne, E. M. 31 Wakelin, M. 99 Wilson, R. M. 34, 40 Swinstead, J. 72 Trenité, G. N. 285 Waldheim, Kurt 123 Wilson, T. 61 Synge, J. M. 359 Trevisa, John of 35, 54–5, 57, 338 Wales, K. 431 Winer, L. 365 Szmrecsanyi, B. 96 Trollope, Anthony 290 Walker, John 81, 338, 387 Wise, Ernie 426 Trudeau, Justin 119 Wall, J. N. 73 Witherspoon, J. 85 T Trudgill, P. 344–5, 347, 358 Wallis, John 71, 78, 82, 112 Wodehouse, P. G. 194, 290, 300 Truffaut, François 315 Wallis, S. 96 Wolfram, W. 335, 368 Tacitus 7 Truman, Harry S. 158 Wanamaker, Sam 62, 72 Worcester, J. E. 86 Tagg, C. 455 Trump, Donald 188, 404–5, 420, Ward, Artemus 89 Wordsworth, William 92, 441, 444 Tannen, D. 439 423 Waseleski, C. 393 Wren, B. 390 Tarzan 191 Tucker, G. 87 Waterston, W. 86 Wright, J. 338 Taylor, W. C. 86 Turner, G. W. 105, 370 Waterstone, T. 296 Wright, L. 54 Tebbit, Norman 196 Twain, Mark 88–9, 103, 305, 471 Watkins, Vernon 355 Wulfstan 13 Teberosky, A. 280 Tyndale, William 59, 64 Waugh, Evelyn 386 Wycliff, John 34, 48, 54, 67 Tennyson, Alfred, Lord 196, 265, Webb, V. 376 Wyld, H. C. 387 440–1, 444, 504 U Weber, C. 331 Wynkyn de Worde 56 Terras, M. 494 Webster, Noah 69, 84–6, 120, 288, 499 Thackeray, William Makepeace 92, Uderzo 276 Webster, T. 86 X 197, 296 Unwin, Stanley 141, 434 Weekley, E. 159 Thatcher, Margaret 402 Urdang, L. 503 Weiner, E. S. C. 500 Ximenes 422 Thirlwall, J. C. 438 Urry, J. 291 Weller, Sam 266 Thomas, Dylan 145, 175, 199, 283, Wells, J. C. 95 355, 428, 440, 442, 445 V Wendon, L. 268 Y Thomas, R. 400 Whiting, Bartlett Jere 499 Thomas, R. S. 355 Van Buren, P. 429 Whitlam, Gough 104 Yap, A. 385 Thompson, Emma 163 Vance, M. 487 Whitman, Walt 87, 90 Yeats, W. B. 359, 441, 447 Thompson, L. 438 Van den Branden, R. 494 Wilde, Oscar 199, 359 Yule, G. U. 278 Thurber, James 265 Vanhoutte, E. 494 Wilhelm II 437 Thynne, W. 291 Van Sertima, I. 368 Wilkins, J. 77, 168 Tillich, P. 429 Varley, R. 486 William I 30 Z Tipping, L. 208–9 Vesterhus, S. A. 122 William II 30 Todd, L. 359, 366–8 Vivaldi, Antonio 72 William of Nassyngton 31 Zangwill, I. 87 Tolkien, J. R. R. 9, 37, 197, 265 Volta, A. 145 Williams, E. 355 Zupitza, J. 11

548

VIII INDEX OF TOPICS

A address, modes of 386 Ainm 506 past tenses 331 ‘Address to the Haggis’ 351 Airspeak 416–17 prepositions 331 abbreviation 128, 129, 130–1, 141, Adelaide English 371 air traffic control 112, 416–17 pronunciation 249, 327 158, 212, 281, 379, 396, 414, adjective 209, 211, 218, 223, 232, Akrotiri 115 punctuation 139, 295, 331 417–18, 424, 428, 461, 466 234, 367 Al Ahram 324 spelling 84, 271–5, 286, 320, in Old/Middle English 12, 16, 40 central vs peripheral 233 Albania 116 327, 493 in texting 454–5 conversion to noun/verb 139 Algeria 116 word order 331 see also ellipsis emotive 393 Algonquian 60 American independence 101 ABC (Chaucer) 39 in humour 435 alias 162 American Indian languages 87, 101, ABC books see alphabet in Old English 21 Alice in Wonderland 283, 465, 471 122, 155, 362–4 Abingdon Chronicle 15 modifier in science 396 alliteration 11, 19, 23, 34, 36, 192, 196, borrowing from 137 ablaut 21 noun as 223 433, 439, 441 in place names 154 Aborigines 372 order 235 allonym 162 Americanism 84–6, 119 borrowing from 137 phrase 234 alphabet 28, 248, 268, 270–5, 282 American Language, The 326 languages 104, 122 suffix 138, 210, 223 book 268, 433 American Literacy Council 289 place names 154 zone 235 game 422–4 American Name Society 516 abstract content 397 Admiralty code book 416 humour 433 American Printing House for the abstract noun 210, 220–21 Adpepper Media 473–4 in Old English 16–18 Blind 177 abuse see invective adverb 44, 81, 209, 211, 218, 223, 224, see also letter (symbol) American Samoa 111, 115 academic prose 311 240, 303, 331 Alphabet, An 433 American Sign Language 487 academic vocabulary 499 compound 223 alphabetical order 166 American Spelling Book 84 Academy 77, 85, 199 humorous 435 alphabetism see initialism Amerindian languages see American Acadia 101 phrase 233, 234 alphametics 425 Indian languages accent 18, 71, 99, 118, 249, 252–7, scientific 396 alternative question 230 ampersand 282 266–7, 318, 337, 347, 361–2, suffix 210 alveolar 217, 255–6, 263, 271, 273, Amusing Alphabet, The 433 420, 426 adverbial 223, 232–4, 242, 244, 276, 380, 425, 483, 489 anachronisms archive 496 367, 408 ambiguity 45, 138, 205–6, 245, 267, lexical 170, 450 BBC 387 clause 238 401, 470, 472–4 on Internet 317 mock 426, 436 connectivity 244 amelioration 148 anacoluthon 467 public school 347 frequency 236 America 241 anagram 422, 424 regional 81, 94, 105, 106, 261, time 236 American Academy of Language and analogy 19, 43 272, 274, 275, 318–85, 442 advertising 122, 139, 186, 197, 211, Belles Lettres 85 anaphoric reference 235 vs dialect 318 231, 235, 264, 282, 287, 322, American Colonization Society 108 Ancrene Riwle 34 see also continuum, accent/dialect; 378, 406, 414–15, 416, 426, American Dialect Society 332, Andorra 116 Received Pronunciation 440, 447 460, 465 Android 465, 470 accents (graphic) 270 online 316, 472–3 American Dictionary 86 Angles 6 accentuation 32, 71, 81 advising verb 396 American Dictionary of the English Angles/angels story 10 accidence 209 Aelfric’s Colloquy 16 Language 85, 498 Angleutsch 123 accommodation 317–18, 347 affirmation 346, 358, 444 American English 84, 86–8, 98–100, Anglicism see anglicization cultural 383 affix 22, 138–9, 141, 143, 191, 210, 102, 104, 121, 123, 176, 180, anglicization 122, 350, 354, 357 accusative 44, 208, 215 367, 434, 461, 487 196, 206, 212–13, 223, 237, Anglikaans 123, 377 acoustic phonetics 248, 259 affricate 255, 257, 272, 275, 355, 440 252, 253, 256, 274, 326–37, Anglish 135 acronym 114, 130, 322, 461 Afghanistan 116 358, 427, 436, 490, 493 Anglo-Irish 356, 359 Acronyms, Abbreviations & Initialisms Africa 106, 108–9, 114–15, 122–3, states’ names 155 Anglo-Norman 30 Dictionary 131 137, 367, 369, 376–9, 380–2, variation 100, 332–7 Anglophone 363 acrostic 13, 424 493 see also New England Anglo-Saxon see English, Old active vocabulary see lexicon African-American 103 American English vs British English Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 7, 13, 14–15, active voice see passive voice Afrikaans 106, 376–7 110, 119, 319, 326–31, 360, 25, 33, 45, 152 Act of Parliament 398, 400–1 Afro-American first name 160 364, 372, 374, 379 Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy 28 Act of Union 350, 354, 356 Age, The 323 grammar 216–17, 237, 319, 331 Anglo-Saxon huts 8 adage see proverb age and language 39, 261, 362 idiom 330 Anglo-Welsh 355 adaptability, online 457 agent 237 in corpora 495, 497 Anglo-Welsh Review, The 355 addition (coordination) 239 agreement see concord lexicon 180, 328–30, 417 Angola 116

549

Appendices

Anguilla 114, 115 ash (symbol) 16, 40, 258 B bilingualism 30, 106, 110, 123, 323, animal names 164, 213 Asia see South Asian English, 354–6, 363, 385 animateness 214, 221, 233 South-East Asian English Babu English 380 Bing 495 animation 442, 462 aside 300 baby-talk 421, 459 biography 311 announcement 414, 416–17 aspect 45, 216, 237, 358 back-formation 140 biology 91, 396 anonymity on Internet 455 aspiration 256 back of tongue 250 Birmingham Blog Corpus 495 answering machine 308–10, 314, 419 assimilation 256, 259, 287, 365 backslang 421 Birmingham English 252 antecedent 446 Association for Scottish Literary backwards speech 421 birthday greeting 379 anterior time 237 Studies 348 Baconian cipher 449 Birthday Party, The 242, 439, 446 anthem 351 Association of Computational bafflegab 400 Bishop’s Bible, The 59, 66 anthimeria 63 Linguistics 490 Bahamas English 115, 365 Black English 102–3 anthrax letters 451 associative response 174 Bahasa Malaysia 110 in South Africa 106 anthroponomastics 150 assonance 440 Bahrain 116 Black English Vernacular 103, 366, 368 see also personal names asterisk 19, 421 balanced structure 192 blackout poem 470 anti-climax 430 Athens News 325 Bamileke 372 Blankety Blank 174, 422 Antigua and Barbuda 115 Atlanta Constitution, The 321–2 bandwidth 454 blasphemy 185 Antiquary, The 448 Atlantic triangle 102 Bangladesh 107, 115 blend 130, 140, 461, 467 antonymy 172, 176–7 Atlas of the Munsell Color System 164 Bank of English 490 block language 228, 466 aphasia 486 atmosphere 283 Bantu 106 blogs 96, 457, 467 aphorism 88, 175, 228 @ sign 456, 460 baptismal name 31 as texts 316 apostrophe 70, 212, 214–15, 289, 291, attitude, expression of 241, 260–1 Barbados 115 blends in 467 295, 349 attitudinal past 236 Barclays Bank 400 corpus 495 Appalachian speech 335 attractiveness of accents 318 base forms 210–11, 216 blue-backed speller 84 Appboy 465 attribute, semantic 181 Battle of Maldon, The 12, 25 Blue Ridge Mountains 337 Apple 465 attributive 223 Bauhaus 418 body copy 414 applause 314, 402 audible friction 250 Bayeux Tapestry 135 boldface 269 application form 401 audience 314, 406 BBC 206 Bolivia 116 applied linguistics 472–5 auditory phonetics 248 English 118, 259, 387 Bone People, The 375 appropriateness 388–9, 416 augmenting approach to spelling 288 BBC Advisory Committee on Spoken Boojums All the Way Through 149 approximant 257 Augustan 438 English 251 book hand 40 Arabic, borrowings from 60, 137 ‘Auld Lang Syne’ 349 BBI Combinatory Dictionary of Book of Common Prayer 67, 76, 354 archaism 21, 23, 33, 41, 67, 75, 94, Australia 104, 115 English, The 173 Book of Kells 270 197, 225, 228, 242, 272, 294, accent 370 Beast in Me and Other Animals, Book of the Duchess, The 38 308, 317, 395, 438, 442, 445 English 104, 121, 185, 194, 252, The 265 book title, humorous 434 archive s 260, 261, 300, 323, 358, 362, beauty in language 112 borrowing 8, 19, 24, 27, 36, 42, 60, 71, as texts 316 370–3, 427, 436, 484, 493 behavioural profiling 475 76, 100–2, 122, 134–7, 146, online 491 illiteracy 479 Belarus 116 149, 213, 255, 272–6, 284, 286, Arctic North 363 independence 104 Belau 111 349, 355, 362–3, 372, 374–6, Argentina 116 territories of 115 Belfast English 357 379, 381, 399, 424, 504 argot 194, 379, 421 Territory of 111 Belgium 116 Bosnia and Herzegovina 116 argument 241 Australian, The 323 English in 451 Boston English 336 metaphors 306 Australian Associated Press 408 Belize 102, 115 Botswana 115 Armenia 116 Australianism 374 Benedictine revival 24, 27 ‘bottom up’ approach 300, 446 army instructor language 448 Austria 116 Benin 116 Bounty, HMS 111 Arte of English Poesie, The 55 authority 386, 387–9, 411 Beowulf 10–12, 15, 17, 23, 441, braces 295 Arthurian legend 37 Authorized Version of the Bible 59, manuscript enhancement 489 brackets see parentheses article (in grammar) 43, 81, 230, 235, 62, 66–7 Bermuda 115 braille 277 349, 350, 358, 449 authorship 421, 488 Bhutan 107, 115 brand names 150, 264, 414, 418, 450 American vs British use 331 multiple 457 Bible 34, 54, 66–7, 75, 290, 348, 354, brands 304 in Old English 21 uncertain 278, 449 368–9 Brazil 116 omission 323 autocuing 308 quotations 193 breathiness 260–1 articulation 248, 254–7, 440, 489 automatic document classification translations 59, 428 brevity 454, 466 articulatory phonetics 248 472–3 bicapitalization 463 Brexit 5, 120, 124 arts page 427 auxiliary verb 45, 74, 81, 206, 217, bidialectism 121 Brief History of Time, A 397 Aruba 115 219, 224, 230, 234, 236–7, 259, big data 495 Brisbane English 371 ascender 269, 292 346, 349, 358, 367 bilabial 255–6, 263, 271, 273–4, British Council 115, 317 ASCII art 462, 470 avatars 317 349, 425 British East India Company 107, 110 ASCII cam 470 Azerbaijan 116

550

Index of Topics Appendix VIII

British English 32, 41, 102, 110, 176, Canoma 506 Channel Tunnel 416 clerihew 432 252–3, 256–7, 259, 319, 335, Canterbury Epitome 15 chanting 315 cliché 198, 240, 402 346, 347, 358, 371, 374, 380, Canterbury Tales, The 38–9, 45, 57 characters (literary) 448 expert 240 387, 427, 436, 437, 490, 492–3 Cantonese 111 names of 265 clipping 130, 379 variation in 338–55 Cape Verde 116 charades 425 closed syllable 258 vs American in corpora 495, 497 capital letter see letter (symbol) chatroom 456–8, 463 close vowel 250 see also American vs British capitalization 450 texts 2316 closing diphthong 251 English in searchlinguistics 474 Chaucerism 60 closure (phonetic) 255 British English for American captions 43 chauvinism 123 coalescence 71, 259 Readers 326 caretaker speech 392 chemistry 91 coal mining 394 British Indian Ocean Territories 114 cardinal vowels 55, 250, 368 chess 417 co-authorship 310 British Library 504 Caribbean Chewa 108 COBUILD 490, 502 British National Corpus 490, 492, creoles 364, 366 Chicago English 336 Cockney see London English 494, 495 English 102, 115, 121, 253, 357–8, ‘Chicken Song, The’ 163 Cocos Is 114 British Sign Language 487 346, 364–9, 442, 493 child language 268, 478–88 coda (syllabic) 258, 266 British South Africa Company 108 caricature 430 discourse 301, 412, 478 code-mixing 111, 123 British Virgin Is 115 carnival culture 384 games 421, 424 code-switching 125, 364, 376, 392, 448 broadcasting 94, 190, 243, 310, 311, Carolingian minuscule 16, 40, 270 grammar 478, 480–1 cognitive linguistics 306–7 387, 406, 410–13, 452 cartoon 90, 245, 348, 430–1, 435–6 humour 434 coherence 244, 398, 419, 444, 468 Brown University Corpus of American case (grammar) 21, 44–5, 82, 206, 208, lexicon 478, 480, 482 co-hyponym 179 English 134, 351, 491, 493, 496 210, 214–15, 220, 222, 232, 367 morphology 481 coinage see neologism Brunei Darussalam 115 case (letter) see upper-case letter phonology 478, 483 Colemanballs 430 Bulgaria 116 case law 398 pragmatics 483 collective noun 206, 221, 331 bulletin boards 456, 457 cataphoric reference 235 see also reading Collins–Birmingham University as texts 316 catch phrase 190, 196, 319, 410, 426, Child Language Data Exchange International Language bullet points 466 437, 459 System 488 Database 490 Buried Words 422 catch structures 190 children’s literature 197, 265 Collins COBUILD English Language Burkina Faso 116 Catholic talk 359 children’s names 161–2 Dictionary 502 burlesque 433 Cayman Is 115 Chile 116 collocation 172–6, 216, 307, 308, 390, Burns Supper 351 CD-ROM 500 China 116 429, 434, 473–4 Burundi 115 Ceefax 419 Chinese 110–11 creative 175 bush ballad 373 cellphones see mobile phones borrowing from 137 in corpora 495 Bush House 275 Celtic languages 8, 29, 31, 354 Chinese Whispers 425 collocational range 173 business text 492 borrowing from 8, 136 Christian name see first names colloquialism 167, 194, 329, 498 Butler English 380 place names 8 Christmas I 114 see also informality buzz word 191 see also Gaelic; Welsh Chronica majora 152 colloquialization 96 byline 408 censorship 452 chronicles 15 Colombia 116, 384 byname 162 Center for Electronic Texts in the chronogram 424 colon 70, 291, 295, 331 byte terminology 495 Humanities 491 chunking 261 colonialism 102, 111–12, 120, 122, Central African Republic 116 cinema catch phrases 190 358, 364, 366, 380, 387 C centralization (vowel) 377 circle of World English 119 Colorcards 481 Central Scots 352 circles of English 113 Color Me Beautiful 183 Cædmon 13, 20–2, 29 centre of syllable 258 Cisco’s Visual Networking Index 495 colour calendar series 180 centre of tongue 250 citations 79, 490, 498 adjectives 235 Call My Bluff 422 centring diphthong 251 citizen band radio 416 use of 419, 428, 442, 462, 487, 502 calque see loan translation cerebral blood flow 396 civil rights 103 vocabulary 179, 183, 417 Cambodia 116 CERN 461 civil service language 186 coloured paper 428 Cambridge Encyclopedia, The 132, Chad (character) 193 clarification 303 Coloureds 106 143, 277, 279, 348 Chad (country) 116 clarity 125, 205, 397, 401 Columbus Dispatch, The 322 Cameroon 108, 115, 369, 379 chain, push vs pull 55 class see social stratification column width 466 Canada Chambers Biographical classroom interaction 468 comedian 436 English 101, 114–15, 119, 230, Dictionary 132 clause 220, 228–31, 232–3, 238, 397, comic name 159, 262, 440 294, 323, 360–3, 427, 493 Chambers Dictionary of Synonyms and 444, 480 comic strip 197, 348 illiteracy 479 Antonyms 176 analysis 204, 209 comic writing 88, 444 Canadian/Canadien 360 Chambers Encyclopaedia 215 independent vs main 238 Comic Alphabet, The 433 Canadian raising 361–3 Chambers English Dictionary 129, 215 reported vs reporting 242 Comic Cuts 258 Canadian Society for the Study of Chambers Thesaurus 169 clear l 257, 357, 363, 365 comma 16, 70, 290–3, 295 Names 516 Chancery 34, 40–1, 54–5, 66, 282 cleft sentence 243, 358, 408 serial 278, 283

551

Appendices

comma-colon 70 concrete poetry 442 cooing 483 cryptic clue 422 command 228, 230–1, 444 conditional 444 cookery 416–17 cryptology 416 Commentaries on the Laws of Congo 116 cookies as texts 316 Crystal Mark 188 England 398 Congo, Democratic Republic 116 Cook Is 111, 115 Cuba 116 commentary 310, 409–13, 485 congratulatory message 416 cooperative principle 446 cuckoo song 36 see also sports commentary Congressional record 391 coordination 74, 225, 238–9, 309, 398 cued speech 487 comment clause 39, 241, 245, 405, conjunct 219 in poetry 444 Cultural Rights Amendment 123 413, 438 conjunction 74, 209, 218, 225, 227, multiple 239 culture and language 502 comments 241 229, 238–9, 244, 259, 444 copula 233, 358, 367 Cumbric 122 commerce 139 end-placed 376 copy-editing 467 Curaçao 115 Committee on Public Double-speak connectivity 244, 259, 397, 411, 419, copyist see scribe curly brackets 295 185 432, 449, 480 copyright law 491 cultural factors common core 119, 134 connotation 176, 182, 359 co-reference 240 in dictionaries 384 common noun 220, 482 cultural 383 Cornish 122 in the European Union 125 communication game 482 Consequences 424 Coronation Street 142 in global English 383 communicative features 121 conservatism 105, 335, 350, 357, 370, corpus 96, 172, 177, 307, 490–7, 500 in Ngrams 497 Comoros 116 374, 377, 387, 429 as evidence 450 culturomics 497 compact disk 500 consonant 254–7, 271, 339, 432, linguistics 490 current relevance 236 comparative philology 19, 90 440–1, 478 typology 496 curriculum 206, 213, 478 comparison 81, 210–11, 223, 244 auditory discrimination 482–3 Corpus of American Soap Operas 496 cursive 270–7, 292 corpora 496 cluster 254, 256, 258–9, 262–3, Corpus of British English 490 Cut Spelling 288 Compendious Dictionary of the English 357, 365, 382, 440, 478, 483 Corpus of Contemporary American cybercafes 452 Language, A 84 combination 255 English 491, 496 cyclical commentary 413 competitions 422–5 doubling 19, 42, 69, 212, 217, Corpus of Early English cyclical lexemes 180 complement 232–4 271–5, 286 Correspondence 496 Cyprus 116 clause 238 frequency 256, 440 Corpus of Historical American English Czech, borrowing from 137 subject vs object 233 silent 217 490, 496 Czech Republic 116 Complete and Systematic Concordance Constitution of the United States 398 correcting 303 to the Works of Shakespeare 133 constriction (phonetic) 254 correctness 69, 77, 81, 90, 125, 286, D completed action 367 contact between languages 122 388–9 completeness 402 contact language 366 political 103, 177 Daily Mirror, The 409 Complete Plain Words, The 207 contempt of court 426 Costa Rica 116 Daily News, The 322 complexity 202, 229 contextual advertising 473 Côte d'Ivoire 116 Daily Sketch, The 185, 409 complex sentence 238 continuant 254, 257 Cottonian Library fire 11, 15 Daily Star, The 322 composite form see lexical phrase in names 163 countability 213, 220–1, 382 Daily Telegraph, The 322, 427 compound 22–3, 27, 61, 128, 139, 232, continuous meaning 237, 358 Country Life 430 Daily Yomiuri, The 305 295, 379, 444, 461, 474, 503 continuum, accent/dialect 353, 370, county name (British) 153 Danelaw 25, 31 neologistic 145 374, 377, 380 courtroom language 398 dangling participle 435 sentence 238 contour 260–1 Cranmer’s Bible 59 dark l 257, 365, 374 compound-complex sentence 239 contracted forms 81, 206, 210, 295, creativity 135, 142–5, 203, 421, dark web 495 comprehension 397, 400, 482 309, 388, 411, 428 452, 461 Darts 267 reading 484 convergence 318 creole 32, 102–3, 108, 114, 364–9, dash 294–5, 331, 428 vs production 482 gender 392 376, 382 Data Collection Initiative 491 Comprehensive Grammar of the conversation 39, 175, 192, 226, 228, continuum 364 dated language 197 English Language, A 202 237–8, 240–1, 261, 302–3, 305, definition of 366 see also archaism Comprehensive Pronouncing and 311, 335, 438, 447 grammar 367 dative 208 Explanatory Dictionary of the child learning of 482, 487 spelling 368 Day for Night 315 English Language, A 86 democratic 468 vowel system 368 dead lexicon 196 computer-mediated deviance in 426 creolization 366, 369 deafness 444, 487 communication 299 ellipsis in 240 critical metaphor analysis 306 debate 146 computer technology 221, 245, 281, in reading books 485 Croatia 116 verse form 36 289, 334–5, 422, 449, 488–506 literariness in 439 Croatian borrowing 136 Debate of the Soul and the Body 34 computing, language of 331 maxims 305 Cross Questions and Crooked decimal point 331 concord 206, 233–4, 335, 367, multiple 453 Answers 425 declarative 230, 484 390, 446 oratory 404–5 cross-reference 397 decreolization 366 concordance 172, 491 converseness 177 crossword puzzle 422 deep web 495 concreteness 397 conversion 61, 63, 138, 139, 367, 382, Crufts 165 definite article see article concrete noun 210, 220 444, 461 cry pattern 483 definiteness 222, 236, 240

552

Index of Topics Appendix VIII

definition 83, 193, 194, 554 urban 256, 336, 338, 345–6, 349, digitally mediated communication double negative 74, 83, 206, 346, 347 notional 226 357, 361 see electronically mediated doublespeak 188, 430 one-liner 435 see also accent; continuum, communication Doublespeak Award 188 degree, expressed in prefixes 138 accent/dialect; English; English, digram frequency 279 doublets 277 deictic expressions 309 Middle; English, Old digraph 17, 269, 272–6, 288–9 doubling, grammatical 367 deletion 409 dialogue 193, 312–15, 418, 478, 485, diminutive 358 Downton Abbey 170 demographic sampling 492 491–2 Dingbats® 425 Dracula jokes 431 demonstration 236 game 424 dinner-party conversation 315 drama 34, 242, 310, 439, 440, 446 demonstrative 43, 222, 358 machine-mediated 452–68 diphthong 42, 249, 251, 253, 258, 267, dramatized documentary 410 Denmark 116 diaresis 70 362, 365, 368, 371, 373, Dravidian, borrowing from 137 English in 122, 483 diary 314 377, 440 Dream of the Rood, The 9, 13 denotation 182 for teaching 487 diphthongization 340 dream-vision 34 dental 255–6, 275, 357 online 457 diple 295 drunk, words for being 94 dentists, speaking to 214 dictation 310 direct address 405 Dr Xargle’s Book of Earthlets 468 Department for Education and Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres, directive 231 dual alphabet 270 Employment 418 The 57 direct speech 242, 291, 445 dual gender 221 descender 269, 292, 451 diction 438, 445 free 242 dual pronoun 21 descriptive approach 78, 388, 452 see also archaism; lexicon direct vs indirect object 233 Dublin English 253, 357 descriptivism 304 dictionary 69, 78–9, 84–6, 128, 166, discourse 91, 261, 300–15, 358, 362, duration 216, 237 design of documents 401 181, 202, 286, 326, 348, 365, 390, 395, 397, 413, 420, 428, Dutch 60, 100, 106, 108, 137, deterioration 148 389, 488, 490–1, 493–503 478, 488 155, 364 determiner 219, 220, 222, 234, 244, as evidence 450 cyclical 411–12 English 383 259, 380, 397, 409 cultural 384 digital 452 dying lexicon 196 see also article (in grammar) innovations 166, 502–5 freedom 446 dynamic graphology 462 deviance 162, 287, 420–1, 478 reverse spelling 503 games 424 dyslexia 484 discourse 446 synonym 173 gender and 392–3 figure of speech 426 visual 169 humour 435 E grammar 426, 444 wars 86, 498 in blogs 467 graphetics 282 see also Oxford English Dictinary Internet 316–17 Early Modern English see English graphology 88, 93, 184, 272, 275, and Appendix VI: Johnson, Obama and Trump 405 East African English 108, 382 287, 327, 357, 414, 426, 428, Samuel; Webster, Noah reading book 485 Easter Tables 15 432, 442 Dictionary of American Regional Discovery 123 East Midlands triangle 55 lexicon 426, 445 English 334 disease, name of 213 eccentricity in personal names 158 phonetics 440 Dictionary of Canadianisms 362 disjunct 241 echo utterance 231, 260 phonology 426, 441 Dictionary of English Language and disparagement, in prefixes 138 e-commerce 472–3 rhyme 426 Culture 502 Dissertations on the English Language economic history, terminology 147 rhythm 426 Dictionary of First Names, A 161 120 economy of expression 130, 398–9, variety 448 Dictionary of Modern English distance, in prefixes 138 411, 419, 454, 466 Devil’s Alternative, The 447 Usage 208 distinctiveness, variety 118–19, 308 Ecuador 116 devoicing 256 Dictionary of Slang and divergence 318 Edges of Language, The 429 Dhekelia 115 Unconventional English 195 Dixon of Dock Green 190 EDIFACT 416 diachronic vs synchronic see Dictionary of South African Djibouti 116 editing 12, 309, 311, 391, 406 synchronic English 377 DNA language 450 editorial we 222 diacritic 68, 249, 270, 272, 277, 288 Dictionary of South African English on doctor–patient interview 448 educatedness 118, 256, 387, 389 diagramming 204 Historical Principles 106 documents 311, 398, 401 Educated West African English 382 dialect 26, 28–9, 36, 40, 43, 54–5, 90, Dictionary of the English Language, Dod and Davie 350 educational programmes 410, 468 99, 106, 118, 225, 230, 318–85, A 86 Doge 97, 458 educational texts 492 389, 420, 436, 488 Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and Doggolingo 97, 459 EGG Ensemble 73 accent vs 318 Ferns 129 Dogspotting 459 egg story (of Caxton) 57 boundary 349, 357 Dictionary of the Underworld, British ‘do it’ jokes 435 eggy-peggy 421 humour 88–9, 345, 377, 436 and American, A 195 Domesday Book 30, 34, 152 Egypt 116 in literature 338, 345, 351, 359, Dictionary Society of North America Dominica 102, 115 Ehrensperger Report 506 364, 368, 373, 375, 385 506, 516 Dominican Republic 116 elaboration 303 in search linguistics 474 Dictionary War, first 86 Dominion, The 406 electronic international vs intranational 319 Dictionary War, second 498 Doric 350, 352 communication (EMC) 316–17, island 348 dictum see proverb dots, continuation 428 416, 419, 452–68 mockery 318 Dieth–Orton Survey 338 Douai–Rheims Bible, The 59 exclamation marks 393 survey 94, 326 digital image processing 489 Douala 379 mail 309, 452–68

553

Appendices

media 408 threatening 122–3, 355 English as a World Language 378 ethnicity 106, 112, 123, 161, 261, 335, revolution 299, 452–68 written 268–95 English Atlantic Provinces 363 364, 370, 376–8, 385 technology 281, 309, 418, 452–6, uses 300–449 English Dialect Dictionary 338 etiquette 95 488–506 see also Africa; American English Dialect Society 338 books 386 unpredictability 455 English; American vs British English Dialect Survey 339, 344 Etruscan 270–5 electropalatograph 489 English; Australia; Black Englishes, new 98–123, 129, 319, Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish elephant jokes 431 English; British English; 378–85, 438, 493 Language 348 elision 39, 259, 287, 361, 365 Canada; Caribbean English; English for Academic Purposes 114 etymological fallacy 146 Elizabethan English 335 Euro-English; Irish English; English for General Purposes 114 etymology 22, 27, 68, 76, 90, 146–65, ellipsis 228, 231, 238, 240, 244, 314, New Zealand; Northern Ireland; English for Science and Technology 185, 277, 286 409, 412–14, 428, 466 Pacific English; Received 114 folk/popular 149 dots 295 Pronunciation; Scots; South English for Special/Specific Purposes etymon 147 elocution 296, 350 African English; South Asian 114 etymorph 422 eloquence 404–5 English; South-East Asian English Grammar (William Cobbett) euphemism 184–6, 309 El Salvador 116 English; Wales; World Standard 205 Eurobarometer 115, 124 e-mail 309, 418, 452–68 English; and other items under English Grammar: Past and Present Euro-English 121, 124–5, 416, 493 as texts 316 English below 204 Euromonitor International 115 framing 468–9 English, Middle 30–55, 335, 506 English Language Amendment 123 European Association for Lexicography frequency 495 corpus 34–9 English Language Day 504 506, 516 personalized vs institutionalized 466 dialects 335, 344 English Language Teaching 114 European Union 124–5 EMC see electronic communication grammar 44–5 English Now 150, 206 evaluation of jokes 430 em dash/rule 295 graphology 40–1 English Place-Name Society 156, 516 evaluator items 302 Emergencyspeak 416 phonology 42–3 English Place-Name Society Journal event, in place name 154 emojis 455, 465 poetry 34, 36–9, 42 506 eventive meaning 237 Emojipedia 465 prose 34–9 English Plus 123 evidence (legal) 398 Emoticons 316, 463, 465, 467 English, Old 8–29, 43, 135, 138, 151, English Poetry Full-Text Database 491 Evolving English 504 emotional expression 75, 260–1, 421 212, 248, 270–5, 286, 506 English Project 504 Exact Surveigh…, An 156 emphasis 74, 206, 243, 283, 355, 358, abbreviations 12 English Pronouncing Dictionary, An exaggeration 358 367, 463 adjectives 20 251, 255 examination answer 314 encyclopedias 86 alphabet 12, 16–18 English Renaissance 60–1 examination paper 204 encyclopediathon 141 compound 145 English-Speaking Union of the exclamation 228, 230–1, 303, 444, encyclopedic information in corpus 10–15 Commonwealth 506, 516 485 dictionaries 84–5 dialects 28–9, 344 English Spelling Society 289 exclamation comma 464 en dash/rule 295 grammar 20–1 English Today 128, 322, 378, 422, exclamation marks/point s 70, 227, endearment, terms of 170 graphology 16–18, 28 506, 516 291, 295 endnote 399 lexemes in Modern English 134–5 English World-Wide 348, 350, 352–3, adapted 464 England, dialects of 342 metre 441 378, 506, 516 in gender 493 Englañol 123 nouns 20, 32 envelopese 455 exclamative 231 English phonology 18 environment, in place name 154 exclamatory question 230 day in the life of 320–5 poetry 10–13 epenthesis 363 exemplifier 302 Early Modern 56–79, 335 prose 15–18 ephemera 492, 504 Exeter Book 9, 12, 18 future of 90, 120–3 verbs 20–1, 32 eponymy 165, 422 existential 243, 259 grammar 200–45 vocabulary 22–7 Ecuatorial Guinea 116 expanding circle 113, 378 history 5–123 vs Anglo-Saxon 9 erasure poem 470 expletive 421 learning about 476–87 English Academy of Southern Africa Eritrea 115 explicitness of reference 311 lexicon 126–99 77, 506, 516 error messages 461 expository verb 396 model of 2–3 English as a first language 112–23, 221 errors 203, 385, 419 extended circle 113 Modern 80–123 see also child language scribal 15, 19, 28, 40, 43, 152, 158 extension 148 name of 5 English as a foreign language 112, Eskimo, borrowing from 137, 155, 363 exterior circle 123 origins 4, 6–7 114, 277 essays 314 extraposition 243 personal 420–49 English as a Lingua Franca 114 Essay on the Mule 88 extraterritoriality 385 reasons for learning 112 English as a Multilingua Franca 114, Essential Spelling List, The 284 regional 318–85 385 Estonia 116 F social 386–419 English as an international Estuary English 347, 374, 387 speakers 114 language 114 Eternal Now, The 429 Facebook 457, 465, 475 spoken 248–67 English as a non-native language eternal vigilance 389 facial expression 260, 303, 309, 436, structure 126–295 378–85 eth 17, 270 453 studies 488–506 English as a second language 114 Ethiopia 115 fairy tale 197

554

Index of Topics Appendix VIII

Falkland Is 114 Folklore Article Reconstruction Kit 187 influence on spelling 40, 42, 215, genitive 44–5, 65, 70, 208, 214–15, falling tone 260 fonts see founts 270–7, 286 295 falling-rising tone 260 food and drink vocabulary 147 in place names 154 group 45 false friends 22, 63 foot, metrical 441 Norman 30 postmodifying 45 familiarity marker 143, 158 forecasting see weather reporting French Guiana 116 genre 350, 456 family name see surname foregrounding 443 French Polynesia 116 geographical corpora 496 family word-finder 169 foreign names 277 Frenglish 123 Geographical Names Board of Canada Fanagalo 376 foreign words see borrowing fricative 255–6, 263, 271, 275, 349, 516 fantasy 442 forensic linguistics 450–1 355, 357, 440, 483 geology, vocabulary of 91 Faroe Islands 116 forgery 170, 281, 450 in noun ending 212 Geordie English 346 Farnworth 346 formal approach to grammatical frictionless continuant 254, 257, 440 Georgia 116 fascination with language, Irish 359 analysis 226 Friday Evening Discourse 91 German 19, 32, 69, 87, 100, 221, 319 fashion in capitalization 418 formality 75, 96, 125, 167, 169, 176, Frisian 6 borrowing 87, 137 fashion in names 150, 160 204, 206, 215, 388, 409, 411, fronting mock 436 fauna and flora 129 428 grammatical 243, 367, 382 Germanic 4, 10, 19, 22, 27, 29, 32, 36, fax 309, 468 in Obama/Trump 405 phonological 349, 362 135, 212 Fedspeak 400 in searchlinguistics 474 front of tongue 250 Germany 116 feedback 261, 309, 453 see also informality Frown Corpus of American English English in 122, 493 simultaneous 393, 457 formant 259 496 gerund 215 feet see foot formulae 11, 175, 213, 228, 395, 399, frozen phrase 482 gesture 309, 448 female first names 160, 163 401, 411–13, 417, 432 full forms 259 Gettysburg Address 87 feminine gender 221 in commentary 412 full point/stop see period Ghana 108, 114–15, 381–2 feminism 390–1 in greetings 95 full verb 224, 346 Gibraltar 115 fiction 311, 442, 492 in humour 430, 435 full vs empty lexicon 397 gift of the gab 359 fieldwork 334, 339 fortis 254, 256 functional shift see conversion Gilbert and Ellice Is 111 figurative language 23, 192, 225, forums as texts 316–17 futhorc 9 given name see first names 358–9, 414, 429, 439, 447 found poetry 470 future tense 208, 236 given vs new information 243, 261 figures of speech 306–7, 447, 474, 499 founts 269 fuzziness 181, 223, 302, 398, 411 Glasgow English 256, 349, 350, deviant 426 in ludlings 458–9 353, 358 Fiji 111, 115, 382 four-letter words 134 G see also Scots English Filipino 111 404, Room 461 glide 251 fingerprinting, linguistic 450 frames, metaphorical 307 Gabon 109, 116 global English finger spelling 487 framing 468, 469 Gaelic 60, 122, 137, 349, 352–3, 356, corpus 495 finiteness 224, 234, 408 France 116 358–9 culture 383 Finnegans Wake 141, 144, 359 Franglais 123 Gaeltacht 356 Global Web-Based English Corpus 495 Finland 116 Franks Casket 9, 29 Gallows 424 Globe and Mail 323 Finnish, borrowing from 137 free association 174 Gambia 108, 115, 380 Globe Theatre 62 fire metaphors 307 free combination 174 games 213, 410, 482 glossary 40 First Fleet 104 free direct/indirect speech 242 political language 402 Old English 10, 16, 29 first language see English as a first freedom spelling 424 glossolalia 421, 429 language discourse 446–7 word 174, 276, 421, 422–5 glottal sounds 255–6, 272 first names 95, 158, 160–1, 163 grammatical 444–5 word completion 424 glottal stop 255, 256, 347, 349, 387 as surnames 160 graphological 442–3 gematria 425 gobbledegook 186, 399 humour in 163 lexical 445 gender 21, 220–2, 261, 390–3, 491 God, notion of 390 stress in 163 literary 438–49 dual 221 Gold Coast see Ghana First Folio 63 phonetic 440 dynamic model 392 Golden Bull Awards 188 first recorded uses in Shakespeare 65 phonological 441 grammatical vs natural 221 Goodreads 457 first words 480, 482 variety 448–9 in pronoun 390 Google 456, 472, 495 fixed expression see idiom Freenet 495 variable 221 News 497 flag semaphore 277 free prose 467 General American 119, 249, 254, Ngrams 497 flag signalling code 416 free verse 441 327, 382 gossip 393 flaming 463 French 30, 34, 36, 68, 100–1, 102, 108, General British 387 Gotcha 406 flap 255 213, 220, 250, 261, 319, 358, General Canadian 363 gradation 216 fluency 411–13 360, 364, 385 generalization see extension graffiti 193, 199, 432, 434, 435 flyting 53, 427 borrowing from 27, 42, 46–7, 60, generic meaning 235, 349, 390–1, grammar 20–1, 74–5, 81, 82–3, focus 243 101, 134–7, 146, 149, 155, 323, 396, 3798 201–45, 390, 478, 488 folk etymology see etymology 349, 362–3, 379, 399, 434 Genesis 27 American vs British 331 folklore 146, 348, 359 influence on grammar 45, 75 Geneva Bible, The 59 archaic 197

555

Appendices

Australian 370–2 shape 485 ‘hard’ vs ‘soft’ sound 271–2 388, 416, 426, 428, 430–7, branches 209 substance 309 hard words, dictionary of 76, 79 485, 498 checkers 96 translatability 462 Hartrampf’s Vocabularies 176 dialect 345, 348, 350, 363, 370, child 478, 480–1, 487 Graphologist’s Alphabet, The 281 hash symbol 331, 464 377, 436 corpus studies 495 graphology 16–17, 40–3, 244, 269, hashtags 464 in spelling 88, 273, 287, 432 creole 365, 367 281, 309, 395, 414, 417–18, Hawaii 110–12, 122, 155 intentional vs unintentional 430 deviant 426, 444 420, 428, 462–3, 485, 488 Hawaiian, borrowing from 137 linguistic types of 432–7 in advertising 414 forensic 451 head, grammatical 220, 234 Humpty Dumpty 143 in commentary 413 freedom 442 headline 118, 231, 236, 240, 318, Hundred Rolls 159 in electronic communication 466 humour 432 321, 406, 408–10, 416, Hungarian, borrowing from 137 in heraldry 417 minimalism 418, 462 426–7, 466 Hungary 116 in religion 395 see also deviance, graphology heatmaps 3471 huskiness 261 in science 396 Great Bible, The 59 Hebrew, borrowing from 60, 137, hymns 390, 428 in searchlinguisticse 474 Great Illustrated Dictionary 502 160, 213 hypernym 172, 178, 398 intonation and 261 Great Typo Hunt, The 297 Hebrides 352 hypertext 462 Irish 358 Great Vowel Shift 55, 71, 286, 349 heckling 312 links as texts 316 knowledge of 203 Greece 116 hedera 294 HyperText Transfer Protocol 456 Latin 204 Greek 60 , 90, 205, 213, 270–5, 286, hedges 181 hyphengate 296 Middle English 44-5 350 in gender 393 hyphens 63, 70, 128–9, 139, 134, 258, mythology 202–3 borrowing 60, 137, 146 Heineken 414, 426 266, 286, 292–3, 295 New Zealand 357 names 214 hemi-colon 70 changes in practice 296 Old English 20–1 Greenland 116 heraldic language 417 in searchlinguistics 474 punctuation and 290–1, 294 greeting 95, 300 hesitation 261, 413 hypocoristic 158, 163 reasons for study 203 greetings-card 432 word 142 hyponymy 172, 178, 398, 425 regional 318, 320–85 Grenada 115 heteronormativity 392 hypothetical past 236 Scots 349 grid game 322 Hiberno-English 356-9, 363 significance 245 Guadeloupe 116 hierarchy 180, 229, 294, 308 I simplicity 112 Guam 110–11, 115 high vowel 250 South African 376–7 Guardian, The 407, 427 Higher English Grammar, A 208 iambic pentameter 261, 441 South Asian 380 Guatemala 116 Highlands 352 IATEFL 506 spoken vs written 309 guide movement 394 high rising intonation contour ICAME 480, 496 tagging 474 Guide to Geography 152 261 ICE Corpus Utility Program 493 terminology 204 guid Scots 350 Hindi 107, 122, 380 Iceland 116, 122 top ten complaints 206 Guinea 116 borrowing 60, 137, 146 ice-skating in The Netherlands 383 Welsh 355 Guinea-Bissau 1163 Hindu first name 160 iconicity 443 Grammar of the English Gullah 367–8 Hispanic 123 ICQ 457 Language in a Series of gutter Scots 350 historical corpora 496 IDEA 496 Letters 81 Guyana 114–15 Historical Thesaurus of the OED 168, identity 118, 121, 261, 304, 318, 326, grammatical Creole 367 170–1, 501 348, 350, 355, 361, 364, 378, connectivity 244 English 365 historical tradition 395, 398–9 380, 385–6, 394, 402, 426 freedom 444 historic present 236 cultural 383 gender 20, 221 H History of the Second World War, The gender 392–3 grammatical word 259 227 literary 438–49 density 397 Häagen-Dazs 464 Hobart English 371 occupational 394–419 conversion 139 habitual (verb use) 236, 237, 357 hobby 311 personal 420–49 grammaticality 227 hackers 461 holophrastic stage 480 regional 105, 318–85, 442 graph 269 Haitis 116 homophone 69, 368, 425, 434 social 130, 386–419 grapheme 269, 277–9 half-close/open vowel 250 Honduras 116 statistical 449 symbolism 280–1 half-line 12, 441 Hong Kong 110–11, 115, 493 ideograms 280, 465 see also graphology half-uncial 16, 270 house names 156 idiom s 128, 174–5, 228, 358, 372, 374, graphetic Halsbury’s Laws of England 399 House of Fame, The 38 414, 444, 503 contradiction 280 handout 314 house style 426 American vs British 330 deviance 282 handwriting 268, 270–5, 292–3, 420, howler 430–1 Shakespearean 64 eclecticism 463 428, 451, 462 Huckleberry Finn 89 Idioms and Phrases Index 503 graphetics 269, 397, 428, 462 analysis of 281 humanist cursive 292 idiosyncrasy 162, 266, 287, 406, 410, graphic Hangman 424 humorous column 427 413, 420, 436, 498 design 268 Hansard 403 humour 93, 130, 163, 175, 242, 262, illiteracy 479 expression 269 hard palate 257 265, 266, 284, 301, 310, 350, illumination, manuscript 17

556

Index of Topics Appendix VIII

Illustrated Texas Dictionary Initial Teaching Alphabet 289 InternetLiveStats 495 J of the English Language, in-jokes 186 interpreting 315 The 436 inkhorn term 60–1 interrobang 464 Jamaican illustrations 169 inner circle 113, 123, 378, 479 interrogative see question Creole 367, 369 image enhancing equipment 488–9 inscriptions 9 interruption 313, 314 English 115, 362, 365, 368, 493 image scanning 488 Instagram 457 intervention 478, 484–7 Japan 116 imaginative writing 236, 237, 492 instant messaging 457 interview 310, 410 Japanese 132 immigrant metaphors 306 instantaneous present 236 intimate names 162 borrowing from 60, 137 immigration see migration institutionalized expression 175 intonation 230, 260–1, 290, 301, 303, Japlish 123 imperative 231, 358, 444 institutional text 492 309, 311, 319, 365, 421, 441, jargon 186, 394, 399, 414 Imperial British East Africa instructions 396, 401 491 jazz 103, 421 Company 108 insular script 16–17, 40, 270, 272 auditory discrimination 482–3 Jewish migration 100 impersonal 237, 396 Insular Scots 352 functions 263 jingle 192, 440 impersonation 430 insult 430 points 464 job description 390 imprecision 181 intelligibility 118, 121, 202, 260, 261, rising 121, 261, 362, 374 jokes 236, 419, 421, 426, 430–1 impressionist (vocal) 436 315, 348, 364, 444 intransitive verb 224 about jokes 437 i-mutation 19 intensifiers Introduction to a Theological Theory of joke-capping sequence 430 inanimateness 214, 221 conversational 405 Language 429 Jordan 117 incaps 463 gender 393 Introduction to Language, An 249 journals on language 90, 506 incompatibility 179–80 in sentiment analysis 475 Introduction to the Pronunciation of journalism see news reporting incomplete intensification 138, 185, 223, 234, 239 English, An 249 Joy of Lex, The 423 messages as texts 316 intensity (of reaction) 303 intrusive r 257 Joysprick 144 sentences 405 intent meter 475 Inuit 137, 155, 363 judiciary, language of the 398 incongruity 88, 314, 485 interaction 300–15 invariable noun see noun Jungle Book 421 indefinite article see article in jokes 430, 435 invective 185, 193, 237, 263, 377 Junius letters 449 indentation 291, 295, 399, 401 interactive words 175, 482 invented letter 287 junk mail 469 Independent, The 118 intercalation in e-mails 469 inversion 44, 231, 242–3, 413, 444 Just a Minute 424 indexing 161, 168, 314, 401, 416, 503 intercaps 418, 463 inverted commas 70, 242, 291–2, 294 justification, line 269, 286, 293 indexicality 261 interjection 209, 218, 225, 228, 262 Invisible Internet Project 495 Jutes 4, 29 INDEXionary 503 International Apostrophe Day 296 invisible web 495 India 107, 110, 114–15, 122, 261 International Association of Teachers Iran 116 K English in 121, 275, 323, 357, 376, of English as a Foreign Iraq 116 378, 381, 382, 493, 497, 504 Language 506, 516 Ireland 124, 356 Kamtok 368 Indian Express 323 International Code of Botanical migrations 99–101, 104, 358 Kazakhstan 117 Indianization 107 Nomenclature 396 missionaries 16 kennings 23, 36 indirect object 44 International Computer Archive of Irish English 104, 114–15, 206, 217, Kent 326 indirect speech 236, 242 Modern English 490 230, 253, 256, 275, 356–9, Kentish 28–9 free 242 International Computer Archive of 371–3, 493 Kenya 108, 114–15, 122–3 individual differences 125, 420–49 Modern and Medieval English literature 356 English 382, 493 individuality 118 491, 496 mock 436 kern 269 see also identity International Corpus of English see also Northern Ireland Kerry jokes 431 Indo-European 4, 32 490, 493 irony 283, 443 keywords Indonesian 116 International Dialects of English irregular noun 34, 212–13, 349, 481 as texts 316 Indonesian, borrowing from 137 Archive 496 irregular verb 20–1, 67, 81, 346, 349, in context 173, 491 Industrial Revolution 91 internationalism 118, 319 478, 481 in search engines 49 inferior symbol 269 International Phonetics Association iSense 473–4 Khoisan 106 infinitive 21, 45, 216, 224, 236 251 Islamic first names 160 Kilroy 193 infix 138, 210, 461 International Plain English Campaign isochrony 261 King’s English, The 208 inflection s 20–1, 32, 42, 45, 74, 401 Israel 115 kinship surname 159 209–17, 474 International Society for the Linguistics i.t.a. 289 Kiribati 111, 115 decay of 32, 44 of English 506 Italian, borrowing from 60, 87, 100, Kirkdale inscription 24 informality 223, 226, 236–7, 242, 388, Internet 247, 299, 319, 452–75 137, 213, 286 knitting pattern 416–17 411, 426, 428, 492 as media 406 italic 269, 291–2 knowing about grammar 203, 229 see also colloquialism; formality chat 458 Italy 116 knowledge about language 304 information, unanticipated 303 information about English 115 It Pays to Enrich Your Word Power knowledge re-orientation (in discourse) information structure 243, 261 memes 97, 458 133, 422 303 informative writing 237, 492 new styles 316–17, 457 i-umlaut see i-mutation Kojak 287 initialism 130, 454 use of periods 297 ivy-leaf 294 Korea, North 117

557

Appendices

Korea, South 117 Latvia 117 creation 142–5, 190–5, 379, 445, sporting 417 Korea Herald, The 324 Laud Chronicle 15 461; see also borrowing and the weather forecasting 411 Kosovo 117 Laugh-In 436 countries listed under lexicon Welsh 355 Krio 108, 369 law, language of see legal language database 488 West African 381 Kuwait 117 Law Society 401 density 397 see also terminology KWIC 173, 491 Laʓamon’s Brut 34, 36 deviance 426 liaison 259 Kylie 160 Lay Folk’s Mass Book, The 40 freedom 445 libel 416 Kyrgyzstan 117 layout 244, 432 frequency 134 Liberia 108, 115 leading 269 gap 143 Libya 117 L Leaflet, The 388 hierarchy 180 Liechtenstein 117 leave-taking 300 phrase 175, 302 ligature 269, 276 labio-dental 255–6, 271, 275 Lebanon 117 sequence 172 limerick 432 labio-velar 257 lecturing 91, 311, 314, 328 series 188 Lindisfarne Gospels 17 lake names 101 Leetspeak 97, 458 structure 138–9, 166–81 linearity 442 Lallans 348, 353 left-justified setting 269 substitution 172 lines 12, 16, 291, 295, 309, 441 lampoon 430 legal language 93, 184, 197, 225, triplet 134 lingua franca 32, 107–10, 115, 364 Lancashire English 338 230, 235, 328, 348, 398–401, lexical field see semantic field linguistic atlas 332–5, 338–43, 353 Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen 490 426, 449 lexical item see lexeme Linguistic Atlas of England, The Landau-Kleffner syndrome 487 legalese 400 lexicography 498–501 338–43 Language of the Law, The 399 Legend of Good Women, The 38 online 498 Linguistic Atlas of New England, language legislation 398, 400 principles 498 The 332 attitudes 94–5, 318, 374, length see also dictionary Linguistic Atlas of Scotland, The 353 385–6, 388–9; see also consonant 355 triplet 144 Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States 335 prescriptivism vowel 251 lexicology 128 Linguistic Atlas of the United States, awareness 95, 202–3, 391, lenis 254, 256 cultural 383 The 333 460, 466 Lern Yerself Scouse 436 lexicon 128–99 Linguistic Atlas of the Upper change 8–123, 134–49, 190–9, 266, Lesotho 115 active vs passive 133, 478, 482 Mid-west 334 270–5, 291–4, 388, 391, 414, Let Stalk Strine 436 advertising 414 linguistics 204, 488 418–19 letter (missive) 95, 290, 311 American 333–4 Linguistic Society of America 391 contact 32, 122–3, 136–7, 378–85 informal 428 American vs British 328–30 LinkedIn 457 disability 245, 484–8 openings 428 archaic 197 linking r 257 learning 35, 167, 179, 268, 313, to the press 315 Australian 370–3 Linnæan system 91, 396 382, 478–87 letter (symbol) 269–76 British 338, 340, 386 lipogram 424 planning 353, 386, 391 capital see upper-case below Cameroonian 379 lip-rounding 250, 256, 251, 349, 357, play 458–9, 470 distribution 278 Canadian 360, 362–3 362, 377 shift 376, 385 doubling 212, 217, 271–5 Caribbean 365 lisp 256 Language Activator™ 502 formation 281 change 96 lists 398, 402 Language Awareness in Reading fashions 418 child 478, 480, 482 list server 456 Readiness 484 frequency 277 history of 9, 22–7, 46–9, 60–1, ‘Litany for the Ghetto’ 429 Language File 245 frieze 268 63–4, 76–80, 84–7, 90–1, 94, literacy 280, 289, 422, 452, 479, Language for Special/Specific games with 422–4 121 484, 487 Purposes 114 large vs small capital 269 humorous 434 functional 489 language game see word game lower-case vs upper-case 269 in electronic communication literature 10–15, 34–9, 53, 62–3, 87, Language of Scouting 394 properties of 277–9 460–1 92–3, 144–5, 160, 197, 265, Lankan English see Sri Lanka upper-case 12, 16, 17, 58, 69, Irish 358 338, 348, 351, 353, 355, 356, Laos 117 70, 129, 132, 150, 220, 227, Latinate 60–1 359, 364, 368, 373, 375, 380, LARR test 484 269–75, 286, 290, 292, 294, legal 401 385, 416, 438–49 late Loyalists 101 308, 309, 312, 418, 424, 428, living vs dead 190–9 analysis of 438–9 lateral 255, 257, 262–3, 273 442, 463, 484 New Zealand 374–5 see also individual authors, Latin 8, 13, 15–18, 21, 30–1, 34, 36, see also alphabet occupational 394 Appendix VI 56, 74–5, 90, 267, 286, 354, Letterland 268 poetic 445 Lithuania 117 385, 399, 441 level regional 129, 318–85 liturgy 56, 67 alphabet 16, 18, 270–5 of language 2, 486 religious 395 see also religion, language of borrowing 8, 19, 24, 60–1, 63, 68, of sentence structure 229 scientific 91, 396 Liverpool English 252, 256, 358, 436 79, 134–7, 146, 232, 278 level tone 260 Scots 348–53 Liverpool Poets 145 glossary 17, 29 lexeme 128, 133, 172, 224 size of 129, 133, 136, 478 loaded language 182 grammar 202, 204, 206–9, 213, lexical South African 376–7 loan translation 27 215, 218, 221, 242 connectivity 244 South Asian 378, 380 loan word see borrowing

558

Index of Topics Appendix VIII

LOB corpus 331, 491 madness, semantic field of 167 medieval surnames 159 minority use of English 376 location magazine covers 227 medium, mixed 310 minor sentence 228, 231, 303, 405, 466 expressed in prefixes 138 magic e 271 medium of communication see media minuscule 16, 258 metaphors 306 Magic Pudding, The 373 Melbourne English 371 Minute on English in India 107 locomotive names 150, 164 Magna Carta 150 melting-pot 87, 99 miracle play 58 logic and language 112, 206 main clause 238 memes 97, 458–9 misprint 430, 432 logo 360 major sentence 228 memos 311 spoken 432 LOLcats 97, 459 majuscule 270 memorability 196 misquotation 196, 426–7 Lollards 54 makars 53, 427 memorization 261 missionaries 10, 16, 18, 296 London English 54–5, 104, 194, 252, Makars’ Club 353 memory games 425 mis-spelling 88, 287, 432 256, 267, 347, 358, 371, 387, making sense 202, 227 Mencap 189 mixed metaphor 430 421, 442 malapropism 430, 432 meowlogisms 459 mobile phones 422, 454, 475 Londonderry 359 Malawi 108, 115 Mercian 28–9 modal verb s 45, 235, 236, 398 London Jamaican Creole 368 Malay 110, 122 merger, sound 362 change in 96 London-Lund Corpus of Spoken borrowings from 60, 106 Merriam–Webster 129, 457, 498 double 335, 349 English 491–2 Malaysia 110, 111, 115, 122, 382 Mersey Poets see Liverpool Poets models for using English 360, 380, 387 London Missionary Society 110 Maldives 117 messaging 457 models of language 2–3, 119 London street names 156 male first names 160, 163 metadata 475 Modern English see English, Modern London Underground 440 Mali 117 metalanguage 245, 268 Modern English Grammar 209 Longman Dictionary of English Idioms Malta 115, 124 metalinguistic humour 437 Modern English Usage 207 175 manga 97 metal umlaut 464 modification 218, 234–5, 413 Longman Dictionary of English Manila Chronicle, The 111 metaphor 23, 306–7, 389, 429, 447, see also adjective Language and Culture 330 manipulation verbs 396 474 Moldova 117 Longman Dictionary of the English manner maxim 305, 469 frames 307 Monaco 117 Language 178 Manx 122 metaphysical poets 448 Mongolia 117 Longman/Lancaster English Language Maori 104, 122, 261 metathesis 365 Monitor, The 337 Corpus 172, 490, 493 borrowing from 105, 137, 374–5 metaworlds 456 monitor corpora 491, 496–7 Longman Lexicon of Contemporary in place names 154 meteorology 411 monologue 230, 241, 312–15, 418, English 166 phonology 375 metonymy 132, 447 478, 491–3 Longman Pronunciation Maori Language Act 375 metre 11, 23, 36–9, 44–5, 71, 261, 357, variations 314 Dictionary 95 maritime communication 416 396, 439, 441, 444 monometer 441 Long s 497 Maritime Provinces 101 metrics see metre monophthong 249 look-and-say 484 marketing, names in 150 Metro magazine 375 monosyllabic style 404 Lord Chamberlain’s office 185 Marshall Is 111, 115 microlinguistic studies 302–3 monosyllable 258, 440 Lord’s Prayer 27, 29, 40 Martinique 117 Mexico 117 monotone 413 lore, popular 311 Mary Poppins 141 microblogging 457 Montenegro 117 Los Angeles Times, The 427 masculine 221 Micronesia, Federated States of months in pidgin 368 loudness 260, 413 mass noun 221 111, 115 Montserrat 115 lower-case see letter (symbol) Mastermind 190, 425 Microsoft 465 Monty Python 190–1, 436 Lowland Scots 348 matrimonial advertisements 378 midcaps 463 mood see modal verbs low vowels 240 Matthew’s Bible 59 mid vowels 250 moon’s place names 157 ludlings 458 Mauritania 117 Middle English see English, Middle MOOs 456 lurking 469 Mauritius 115 middle initials 391 Morocco 117 Luxembourg 117 maxim see proverb middle names 158 morpheme 210 lyrics 36, 287 maxims of conversation 305, 402 Midland dialects (UK) 42, 54–5, 257, morphology 208–9, 210–25, 229, 342, brand name in 414 in electronic communication 469 371 444, 503 Lyrical Ballads, The 92 Max and Moritz 350, 369 Central 41 forensic 450 Lyttelton Times, The 99 Mayflower 98 East 32, 41 in child language 481 Mayotte 117 Midland dialects (US) 332, 337, 358 in humour 434 M Meaning of Liff, The 157 Mid-Ulster dialect 357 in search linguistics 524 media migration 87, 100–1, 104–6, 123, 318, lexical vs derivational 210 Macau 117 influence of 160, 326, 347, 454 354, 356, 358, 362–4 Morse Code 277 McDonald's slogan 96 language 184, 190, 406–13 military jargon 186 Morte Darthur 58 Macedonia 117 Mediaballs 430 military ranks 180 motherese 392 machine-readable text 491, 500 media reporting 307 Millenary Petition 66 mother tongue see first language Macmillan Visual Dictionary 169 Media Resource Service 397 mini-dialogues 315 motto see proverb macro-organizer 302 medical language 91, 448 minim 272, 276 Mozambique 117 Madagascar 109, 117 medieval studies 359 confusion 40, 497 Mozilla 465

559

Appendices

‘Mr Eliot’s Sunday Morning Service’ National Association for the Teaching newsgroups 456 non-verbal communication 260 441 of English 506, 516 News on the Web 495, 497 Norfolk I 111, 114 Mr Men 504 National Council of Teachers of Newspeak 61, 145 norms 421 Muddle English 430 English 188, 506, 516 Newspeak Dictionary 389 normalization in Ngrams 497 MUDs 456 national curriculum 118 New Spelling 287–9 Norman see Anglo-Norman Multicultural London English 364 nationalism 105, 106, 112, 121–2, 136, New Statesman, The 182, 424 norm-producing / developing / multidialectism 364 261, 355, 381, 385 New Welsh Review, The 355 dependent 379 multilingualism 108, 110, 366, 379, nationality adjectives 235 New World 98–103 Norn 122 385 National Reading Council 479 New York Newsday 406, 427 Norse, Old 23–6, 32, 43 multilogue 315 native language see English as a first New York Post, The 322 Northern (dialect of Middle multimedia 456, 462 language New York Times, The 391, 427 English) 42 corpora 496 natural history, semantic field of New Zealand 105, 115 Northern England English 252, 257, multiple conversations 347 179, 396 cultural language 383 261, 335, 436; see also Tyneside multiple embedding 39 naturalness (in language use) 389 dependencies 111, 114 English multi-user dungeons 456 natural vs grammatical gender English 121, 261, 358, Northern Ireland English 252, 261, Museum of Promotional Arts 282 20, 221 374–5, 493 267, 335, 356, 358–9, 493 musicology 179 Nauru 111, 115 New Zealand Press Association 408 Northern Mariana Is 111, 115 mutation 19, 212 NCTE 188, 506 Ngrams 497 Northern Rhodesia see Zambia see also i-mutation negation 44–5, 74, 210, 230, 346, 367 Nicaragua 117 Northern Scots 352 Myanmar 117 contracted 217 nicknames 155, 159, 162, 326 Northern US English 332 Myspace 457 in sentiment analysis 474–5 Niger 117 Northumbrian 9, 28–9 mystery plays 34, 58 multiple 74, 83, 206, 346–7, 367 Nigeria 108, 114–15 Norway 117 particle 350 English 379, 381, 493, 495 Norwegian, borrowing from 60 N prefixal 138 Pidgin 379 note-taking 314 neologisms 60, 63, 76, 130, 142–5, Nineteen Eighty-Four 145 No Thanks 443–4 names 150–66, 214, 265, 278, 391, 191, 262, 379, 426, 434, 445, Niue 111, 114 notional definition 218, 226 440 459, 461, 499 Noblesse Oblige 386 noun 44, 208–9, 212–15, 218–19, fashion in 160 electronic 461 node (collocational) 173 220–2, 223, 232, 367, 397 frequency list 166 literary 144 nom de plume 162 abstract vs concrete 138, 210, male vs female 163 Nepal 117 nomenclature see terminology 220–1 phonological analysis of 163 Netherlands, The 117 Nomina 506 capitalization 69, 294 societies 506 English in 493 Nomina Africana 506, 516 case 214–15 survey 161 Netlish 452 nominative 208, 215 collective 206, 221 see also brand name; onomastics; Netspeak 452 nonce words 142, 426, 499 conversion 139 personal name; place name; neurolinguistics 396 noncount noun 220–21 count/noncount 213, 220–1, 382 toponymy neuter 221 nonfinite 224, 234 generic 398 nameability scale 164 neutral (lips) 250 nonlinear text 462 in Old English 21, 32 name anagram generator 422 New Caledonia 117 non-native use 114, 303, 313, 378–85, irregular 34, 212–13, 349, 481 Name Gleaner/La Glanure des Noms New Colossus, The 100 387, 502 number 212–13 506, 516 New England 85, 99–101, 332 nonpersonal vs personal 221 proper vs common 139, 220, 482 Names 506 English 252 non-raising (in Canadian suffixation 210, 220 Names Society 506, 516 New English Dictionary 91, 500 English) 362 variable vs invariable 212–13 Names Society of Southern Africa 516 new Englishes 115, 124, 495 non-rhotic accent 257, 274 noun phrase 220, 222, 233, 234, 240, Namibia 115 Newfie 363 nonsense 331, 396–7 ‘Naming of Parts’ 448 Newfoundland English 363 names 265 novel 80–2, 92–3, 445, 447–9 narrative 11, 39, 261, 347, 362, 396, New General Catalogue 157 speech 421 brand name in 414 412, 424, 449, 478 New Hebrides 111 verse 432, 434, 440 Now see News on the Web Narrative of a Journey Round the new information 243, 303 word 141, 142, 262, 309, 413 Noye’s Fludde 142 World 358 new learning 60 non sequitur 430 nuclear English 121 narrowing, semantic 148 New Oxford English Dictionary nonsexist guidelines 391 nucleus (of syllable) 258, 266 NASA 489 Project 500 nonstandard English 45, 81, 123, 222, number 138, 210, 212–13, 220, 222, nasality 261 news 319, 346, 357, 382, 426, 448 224, 233, 380 nasals 254–5, 257, 273, 371 bulletin 244, 410 in blogs 2467 numeral 17, 223 NATE see National Association for the radio vs TV 410 in ludlings 458–9 as name 157 Teaching of English reading 261, 310 in memes 97 system 180 national anthem in Phonotypy 288 reporting 118, 235, 243, 287, 311, in texting 455 numerical game 425 National Apple Register of the United 321–5, 378, 391, 406–13, see also Standard English nursery rhyme 197, 440 Kingdom 164 426–7, 446 Non-U see U and Non-U Nyasaland see Malawi

560

Index of Topics Appendix VIII

O original pronunciation (OP) 71–3, 496, Paraguay 117 borrowing from 137 499 paralinguistic features 261 person 222, 224 object (grammatical) 232–3 origins of English 6 parallelism 412 personal identity 420–49 clause 238 Orkney 349 syntactic 439 personal names 25–6, 30, 31, 34, 100, direct vs indirect 233 Ormulum, The 42, 44 parental speech 392, 482 158–63, 265, 272, 408 objective case 215 orthography 68–9, 78, 139, 269, 418; parent-child dialogue 314 as place names 154 object names 164 see also spelling; writing parentheses 70, 269, 291, 295, 312, reference in the press 391 oblique (in punctuation) 58, 291, 294 Orwell Awards 188 396, 438 personal pronouns 20, 25, 28, 43, 222, obscenity 185, 193 Othello 148 types of 248 242 obsolescent 196 Ottawa Valley English 363 Paris Charivari 437 vs nonpersonal 221 obsolete 196 outer circle 113, 378, 380–1 parish registers 161 personal text (corpus category) 492 occupation outermost circle 123 Parker Chronicle, The 15 personification 221, 447 as surname 159 Outline of English Phonetics, An parliamentary draughtsmen 400 Peru 117 as variety 261, 394-419, 436, 448 251, 385 parliamentese 400 pet-directed speech 459 prosody in 261 Outline of English Speech-Craft, An Parliament of Fowls, The 38 Peterborough Chronicle, The 15, 32–3, octameter 441 135 parody 187, 345, 399, 406–7, 428, 430, 40, 44–5 OED see Oxford English Dictionary ‘Owl and the Nightingale, The’ 437, 448 petitions 315 official publications 237 34, 36 parsing 204–5, 209, 220 pet name 168, 175 official status (of English) 107–8, 112, owl jokes 431 participants 312–15 phatic function 309, 457, 468 114, 122–3, 376, 378 Oxford Companion to the English participle 74, 216, 218, 235, 350 Philippines 110–11, 114–15 of-genitive 214 Language, The 118, 348 particles 224, 259, 303, 319, 346, 367 English 493 Of the Lawes of Ecclesiastical Politie Oxford Dictionaries Corpus 465 partitive noun see collective noun Philological Society of Great Britain 292 Oxford Dictionary of Quotations 437 parts and wholes 180 498, 500 Old English see English, Old Oxford English Dictionary 64–5, 76, parts of speech 209, 218 Philological Society of New York 85 old-fashioned language 94, 197 91, 134–5, 194–5, 389, 465, party-games 314, 422–5 philology 18–19, 90, 152, 488 Old Saxon 27 488, 499, 500 Passion in Practice 72 Phoenician 270 Oldspeak 145 comparison with Webster III 129 passive vocabulary see lexicon phonaesthesia see phonaesthetics Oman 117 revisions 501 passive voice 45, 216, 237, 304, 349, phonaesthetics 154, 163, 262, 440 oneiroparonomastic 144 Oxford Text Archive 491, 496 365, 367, 396–7, 413 phoneme 43, 71, 248, 269, 271, 275, one-liner (joke) 430 oxymoron 447 child use of 481 284 ‘One of Our St Bernard Dogs is past participle 216 correspondence with grapheme 269 Missing’ 445 P past perfective 237 phonesthetics see phonaesthetics Onomastica Canadiana 506, 516 past tense 208, 216, 236, 346, phonetic onomastics 31, 150–65 Pacific, South 110 349–50, 367 deviance 426, 440 onomatology see onomastics Pacific English 110–11 American vs British 331 freedom 440 onomatopoeia 262, 492 page 282, 309, 447 Paston letters 35 humour 432 onset (of syllable) 258, 266 Paget-Gorman Sign System 487 Pastoral Care 13 language 284 On the Present State of English paint shades 164, 183 patois 364 spelling 19, 379 Pronunciation 267 Pakistan 107, 114–15 pause 260, 291, 294–5, 312, 405, Phonetic Journal, The 120, 288 Oor Wullie 349 English 381–2 413, 491 phonetics 248, 254, 488 OP see original pronunciation palatal 255, 257, 272, 275 PC see political correctness forensic 451 open syllable 258 palato-alveolar 255–6, 272, 276, 425 peak (of syllable) 258 Phonetics Institute 288 open vowel 250, 271 Palau 111, 115 Peanuts 160 phonics 284, 484 oppositeness of meaning see Pale, the 356 Pearl 34 phonic substance 309 antonymy paleography 152 pedantry 388–9 phonograph 94 optical character recognition 490, 497 Palestinian Authority 117 pejoration see deterioration phonography 288 oracy 487 palindrome 424 pen-name 162 Phonological Assessment of Child oral Panama 117 pentameter 441 Speech 483 formulae 395, 412 panchronicity 317 perfective 45, 237 phonological performance 443, 448 pangram 424 perfect tense 208 deviance 426, 441 transmission 11, 34 pantomime 315 performativity 208 freedom 441 oratio obliqua/recta 242 Papua New Guinea 111, 114–15, 369 in gender 392 humour 432 oratory 290 English 379, 382 in speech acts 3104 phonology 28, 248–65, 254, 309, 318, order (concept of) 245 paradigmatic 172 period (punctuation) see point 320, 336, 339, 349, 355, 363, order, expressed by prefixes 138 paradox 429, 447 periodical 506 395, 414, 487–8, 499 Order of Australia 104 paragraph 12, 227, 282, 466 periphrastic form 211 African 382 order of mention 390 lead 408 permissive society 94 American 332, 336 orientation, expressed by prefixes 138 structure 397 Persian 60 American vs British 327

561

Appendices

Australian 249, 254, 368–9 plural 212–13, 367 pragmatics 95, 175, 300–8, 435, 446, pro-form 240, 244 British 249, 254, 339–40, 344–5, poetry 29, 71, 261, 264–5, 290, 294, 482, 468 Profumo affair 319 347 350, 364, 413, 430, 438, 440, in child language 483 programming 487 Canadian 361–2 442, 444, 485 in electronic communication 457, progressive 45, 236–7, 356, 378, 380 Caribbean 365 archive 490 469 change 96 child 478 diction 445 in searchlinguistics 475 present 236 creole 368 humorous 330 Prague Post, The 324 Prologue to The Canterbury historical 72 in searchlinguistics 474 Prairies English 363 Tales 39 Irish 356 Middle English 34, 36–9, 42 prayers 308, 395 pronoun 43, 45, 74, 209, 218, 222, 233, Maori 375 Old English 10–13 see also religion, language of 244, 259, 343, 349, 358, 367, Middle English 42–3 nonlinear 442 preaching see sermon 398, 449 New Zealand 374 variety freedom in 448 precept see proverb case 215 Old English 18–19 vs prose 34, 38, 443 precision see economy creole/pidgin 367 Scots 349 Poetry Wales 355 predeterminer 234 cross-reference 446 South African 376–7 point (punctuation) 16, 70, 130, 227, predicate 232 definite 240 South Asian 380 291, 292, 294–5, 297, 331 predicative 223 demonstrative 43, 222 Welsh 355 pointing 70 predictability 420 dual 20 phonotypy 288 point of view 303 predictive text 455 gender 390 phrasal constraint 175 Poland 117 prefix 22, 61, 138, 143, 210, 229, 278, indefinite 222, 240 phrasal verb 128, 224 police 426, 450, 503 new 393 phrase 229, 234–5, 503 gender style 392 prelinguistic infant 314 omission 376, 428 conversion to noun 139 statements 292 premodification 234, 341 personal 21, 25, 28, 43, 222, 242 types of 234 PoliceSpeak 390 premodifier, order of 235 phrase 234 physics, language of 91, 397 Polish, borrowing from 137 preposition 44, 67, 81, 209, 218, possessive 215, 222 Pickwick Papers 2 politeness 215, 236, 483 224–5, 259, 347, 349, 377, 380, pragmatic functions 304, 405 pictography 256, 465 political 449 sex-neutral 390–1 picture poem 442 correctness 103, 189 American vs British 331 suffix 210 pidgin 32, 102, 108–9, 366, 367, identity 402 at end of sentence 83, 206, 389, 467 types of 222 379–81 language 93, 186, 190–1, child use of 480 use by Obama and Trump 404 Cameroonian 369 193, 241, 314, 392, 402–5, double 467 Pronouncing Dictionary of American creolized 114 447, 505 meanings 225 English, A 249 Nigerian 379 Politics and the English Language 134 multi-word 225 Pronouncing Dictionary Piers Plowman 34 Polychronicon 35, 54–5 prepositional of English 81 Pig Latin 421 Polynesian 137, 375 phrase 233–4 pronunciation 248–67 Pilgrim Fathers 98 polysemy 472–4 verb 224 idiosyncratic 162 Pinterest 45 polysyllabic prescriptivism 42, 45, 82–3, 95–6, 203, in dictionary 84–5 Pipe Rolls 152 style 404 205, 206–7, 208, 215, 296, 304, preferences 95 Pitcairn Is 111, 114 word 258 350, 387–9, 395, 498 standard 119, 387 pitch 260–1 pop poetry 145 present see also phonology range 349, 395, 413 popular etymology see etymology, participle 216, 350 proper names/nouns 43, 132, 150, 213, see also intonation popular perfective 237 220, 284, 424, 482 placards 315 portmanteau word 141, 144, 434 simple 236 proper vs common noun 139, 220 place names 8, 10, 25, 30, 34, 100, 104, Portugal 117 tense 208, 236, 358, 412–13, 485 prophets of doom 452 150–7, 165, 197, 357, 373 Portuguese 102, 286, 364 press reporting see journalism proscriptive rules 206, 388 online 473 borrowing from 60, 137 prestige 118, 119, 318, 348, 353, 356, prose 442 place of articulation 251 posh voice 426 376, 379, 387, 436 Middle English 34–9 place references 242 possessive 214–15, 222, 367 presupposition 304 Old English 15–18 Plain Dealer, The 321 post-alveolar 255, 257 primary verb 224 vs poetry 265, 443 Plain English 118, 186, 188, 205, 235, postcards 234 print 118, 121, 269 prosody 78, 121, 226, 244, 260–1, 237, 398–400, 401, 516 postcode 416 on screen 462 291, 301–2, 309, 364, 395, 408, Plan of a Dictionary of the English postdeterminer 234 printing 55, 56–7, 68, 270, 272, 286, 412–13, 432, 437, 440–2, 478, Language 78 postmodification 234–5 290, 292–3, 452 492 play, brand names in 414 postposition 376 Prisoner, The 180 in child ren 463 playing with language 359, 458–9, 470 postscript 428 Private Eye 430 punctuation and 290–1 see also word games postvocalic /r/ see rhotic accent Private Snoops 193 Protestant talk 359 Plimoth Plantation 73, 98 pound symbol 331, 464 production dictionary 502 proto-word 483 plosive 163, 255–6, 262, 271–4, 357, power and language 261 productivity 124, 139 proverb 175, 196, 228, 358, 500 362, 380, 440 practising 314 profanity 185 pseudo-audience 314

562

Index of Topics Appendix VIII

pseudo-dialogue 314, 419 Queen’s English 118 conservative 252, 257, 259 rhyme 19, 38–9, 71, 72, 192, 196, 258, pseudonym 162 Queen’s English, The 206, 389 modified 257, 387 357, 364, 414, 432–4, 441 psychotherapy 174 Queen’s English Society 506, 516 refined 252 deviant 426 public schools 347, 387 Queen’s speech 312 Received Standard 387 scheme 291, 444 public speaking 259 queer linguistics 392 recipe 416 rhyming couplet 36 publishing 426 question 45, 74, 222, 228, 230, 233, recitation of joke 430 rhyming slang 194, 421 pub sign 156 312, 358, 365, 466, 468 recognition, expression of 303 rhythm 38, 192, 196, 258, 260–1, Puerto Rico 102, 110, 115, 364 as an answer 358 Recorder, The 324 395, 402, 405, 414, 421, 432, pull chain 55 dominance 446 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, 439–41, 486 pun 10, 71, 73, 193, 425–7, 430, in gender 393 The 56 auditory discrimination 482–3 434–5 intonation 261 reduplication 140, 367, 376–7, 382 deviant 426 graphic 282 political 403 reference, syntactic 240 see also stress-timed rhythm pun-capping sequence 430 remembered 303 reflexive 222 riddles 9, 12, 18, 294, 419, 421, 425, Punch 90, 430, 437 rhetorical 230, 358, 376, 409 regional variation 26, 94, 252, 272–3, 433, 434–5 punch-line 430 word 230, 376 275, 287, 318–85, 380, ridicule 430 punctuation 12, 16, 40, 58, 68, 74–5, question comma 464 442, 448 right-justified setting 269 76, 226–7, 244, 260–1, 269, question mark 16, 70, 227, 230, 291–2, Regional Standard Englishes 121 rise-fall tone 260 282, 290–7, 309, 312, 399, 401, 295, 464 registration forms 312 rising tone 260 419, 432, 442 questionnaire 312, 334 registry office index 161 in statements 261 American vs British 331 question-time (parliamentary) 403 regularization (of spelling) 69, 288 ritual 394–5, 398, 402 art 471 quip 430 regular vs irregular 216 Rivals, The 434 auditory vs grammatical 296 quod 291 rehearsing 314 river names 151 authorship studies 296 quotation 62, 70, 79, 175, 196, 395, relative clause 222, 308, 350, 376, 408 roads, 14th-century 54 exaggerated 428, 463 408 relative pronoun changes 96 road signs 328 forensic 451 quotation mark see inverted commas relators (textual) 302 Rocket 164 functions of 290 relevance maxim 305, 469 Rock, the 363 grammar and 290–1, 294 R religion, language of 24, 34, 56, 67, role, social 386 heavy vs light 290 76, 93, 175, 197, 222, 287, 308, roll (consonant) 255, 257 hierarchy 294 r see intrusive r; linking r; rhotic 311, 390, 395, 426, 429, Roman alphabet see alphabet in electronic communication 463 accent; Appendix V 447, 448 Romance 102, 274, 277–8 new marks 464 radio see broadcasting religious names 151, 160 romance 34, 36, 38 obsolete 294 Radio Telefis Éireann 357 remedial English 388 Romance of Names, The 159 pragmatic factors in 464 raising (vowel) 371, 374 Renaissance 70–5 Roman de la Rose 38 word cloud 471 Raj 107 Renton Report 400 Romania 117 punctuation poem 294 R&D 245 repetition 367, 412, 439 Roman names 151 punctuationprints 296 rankings in search 469 in Trump 405 Romanticism 90, 350, 448 punctus 291, 294–5 rap 103, 364 repetitiveness 398, 401 root 210, 503 purism 60, 71, 208, 213, 347 rapport 426 reported speech 242 round bracket see parentheses purr word 183 Raspberry Pi 419 reporting see news reporting rounding see lip rounding push chain 55 Rastafarian 367 request 303 Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In puzzles 422–5 rate of speech ResearchGate 457 190–1 pye 56 in Obama and Trump 405 Resounding Tinkle, A 448 royal names 160 Pygmalion 185 in forensic phonetics 451 re-spelling Royal Institution 91 readers, Australian 484 in Doggo 459 Royal Society 77 Q Reader’s Digest 133, 198, 207, 502 in humour 436 royal we 222 readership 409 restricted corpora 496 RP see Received Pronunciation Qatar 117 reading 280, 478, 484 restricted language 112, 410–11, Ruddigore 185 Quakers 75, 99 aloud 290, 312 416–17, 419 rule 203, 205, 206, 284, 435 qualifier 302 scheme 485 result, expression of 239 breaking 88–9, 426, 458 qualify (grammar) 218 spelling and 284 retroflex 255, 257, 274, 376, 380 rules for writing good English 388 quality (vowel) 251 Reading (UK) 346 Réunion 117 rune poem 13 quality maxim 305, 469 real books 485 reversal, expressed in prefixes 138 runes 9, 13, 16, 40, 270 quality vs tabloid press 407–8 rebus 379, 454 Rheims New Testament 59 rural dialect 197 quantity, expression of 222, 234 Received Pronunciation 42, 71, 106, rhetoric 70, 74, 82, 290, 367, 397, 402, Russia 117 quantity, vowel 251 119, 249–52, 256, 259, 267, 405, 420, 447 Russian, borrowing from 60, 137 quantity maxim 305, 469 318, 327, 347, 357, 370, 374, rhetorical question 230, 358, 376, 409 Russian Gossip 425 quasiquote 464 377, 380, 382, 387 rhotic accent 99, 257, 274, 332, 344–5 Ruthwell Cross 29 Quebec English 363 affected 253 see also Appendix V Rwanda 109, 115

563

Appendices

S Scottish National Dictionary 348 builder 175 simplification 259, 410, 483 Scottish Renaissance 353 completeness 226, 313, 428 Simplified Spelling Society 251, 289, Saint Helena 112, 114 Scottish vowel-length rule 349 compound vs complex 238 506, 516 Saint Kitts & Nevis 115 scout movement 394 connection 244, 481 Simpsons, The 456 ® Saint Lucia 102, 115 Scrabble 133, 422–3 functions 230–1, 303 Singapore 111, 115 Saint Paul's Cathedral 73 championship 423 information 243 English 110, 382, 385, 493 Saint Pierre and Miquelon 117 screening test 211 in progress 313 singular 212–13 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 115 screen size 454, 462 length 398, 409–10, 466 ‘Sir Gawain and the Green Knight’ saints scribble-talk 483 major vs minor 228 34, 37 in place names 154 scribe 12, 17, 28, 30, 41 simple vs multiple 228, 238–9 Sightscreen 474 names of 160 Chancery 34, 40, 54–5, 68 simplified 410, 466 situation 308 Salisbury Use 56 error 15, 19, 28, 40, 43, 152, 158 structure 226–45, 397, 428, 480 size, expressed in prefixes 138 Samoa 111, 115 Scriptorium 500 sentence level game 424 Sketches by Boz 211 Samoan 375 scrolling 462, 468 sentence stem see lexical phrase skimming 284 sample corpora 496 sea areas 411 sentiment analysis 474–5 Skype 457 Sandwich Is 111 seance 315 sentiment ranking, emojis 465 slang 90, 94, 129–30, 141, 186–7, 194, San Marino 117 Seafarer, The 13 sequence of tenses 242 394, 428, 445, 461, 466, 499 San Serriffe 407 search engines 142 Serbia 117 slash see oblique Sanskrit 90, 380 assistance 472–3 serif 269, 282 slave trade 100, 102, 108, 366 sans serif 269, 282 optimization 469 sermon 66, 314, 395 slips of the tongue 266, 430 São Tomé and Príncipe 117 search linguistics 472–5 Seven Tears 73 Sloane Ranger 387 sarcasm 430 Seaspeak 416 Seven Types of Ambiguity 441 slogans 192–3, 264, 287, 405, 414, satire 90, 187, 388, 394, 430, 433, 436 second language 112–23, 319, 364, sexism 189, 390–1 426, 440, 466 satirical diary 427 376, 380, 382, 427 sex, lies and videotape 418 Slovakia 117 Saudi Arabia 117 Second Life 317, 456 sex variation 362 Slovenia 117 saw see proverb second person 67, 75 Seychelles 112, 115 small capital see letter Saxon, Old 27 Second Shepherds’ Play 58 SGML 490–1 small letter see letter; lower-case Saxons 4 secretary cursive 292 shaggy-dog story 430 smartphones 455 saying, verbs of 236, 242 secret language 194, 421 Shakespeare's Globe 72–3 smileys 428, 454, 463 Scandinavian languages 9, 11, 31, 45, security on Internet 472–3 Shavian 288–9 Snapchat 457 273 security messages as texts 316 Shaw alphabet for writers 288–9 snarl word 183 borrowing from 25–6, 45, 136, 146 selectional restriction see collocation sheep joke 431 sneer quotes see scare quotes influence on pronouns 21 Selkirk Grace, The 351 she puzzle 43 Snek 458 scansion 441 semantic Sherlock Holmes 191 social scare quotes 290, 295 change 76, 148–9 Shetland English 349, 352–3 identity 130, 386 scat singing 421 field 147, 164, 167, 348 shibboleth 206, 208, 388 media 457, 465 scholarship, language of 61 fuzziness 181 shipping forecast see weather forecast networking 457 schwa 259, 267 structure 166, 502 shop name 148 networking as texts 316 science fiction 204, 442 targeting 473 shopping list 310 stratification 261, 335, 370, 374, science magazines 389 semantics shop talk 186 386, 409 scientific language 91, 129–30, 149, forensic 450 Shorter Oxford Dictionary 296 variation 287, 335, 338, 347, 362, 181, 235, 237, 295, 396–7, 411, in grammar 304 shorthand 90, 288 370–1, 386–419, 448 427, 448 in search linguistics 474 sibilant 212, 215, 255, 276, 489 societies, language 90, 506, 516 scientific society 91 punctuation and 290 ‘Siege of Belgrade, The’ 433 Society for Name Studies in Britain scop 11 semaphore 277 Sierra Leone 108, 115, 381 and Ireland 506, 516 Scotch-Irish see Ulster Scots semi-colon 70, 291, 293–5 sight stanza 443 sociolinguistics 113, 308, 370, 374, Scots English 40, 52–3, 196, 206, 250, semilingualism 385 signature, e-mail 468 376, 379, 385, 388, 488 252, 257, 274–5, 335, 346, semi-modals 96 signature line 414 in gender studies 392 348–53, 357, 358, 362, 375, Semitic, North 270–5 signed English 487 in search linguistics 474 442, 448 semi-uncial 270 Signing Exact English 487 vs stylistics 308 see also Glasgow English semi-vowel 254, 257, 275, 276 sign language 309, 487 softening phrase 231 Scots Language Society 348 Senegal 117 Sikh first names 160 soft palate 254, 256 Scots migrations 99, 101, 105 sense 181 silence (in broadcasting) 412 soft sounds 271–2 Scots Style Sheet 353 associations 174, 434 silent letters 19, 84, 271–5, 286, 288 Solar System Standard English 123 Scots Thesaurus, The 349, 352 engine 473–4 simile 447, 499 solecism 207 Scotticisms 350 relations 172, 176–81 simple verb form 236–7 Solomon Is 111, 115 Scottish Chaucerians 34 sentence 226–31, 244–5 Simpler Spelling Board 289 Somalia 117 Scottish Corpus of Texts Speech 496 abbreviation 240 simplicity 112, 202, 485 song 287, 414

564

Index of Topics Appendix VIII

sonorant 254 speech acts 230, 483 Standard Generalized Markup sub-colon 70 sort (printing) 269 speech and language pathology/therapy Language 491 subject 232–4 sotto voce 310, 315 167, 211, 266, 483–7, 489 standardization 41, 54–5, 68, 90, 290, clause 238 sound change 18–19, 40, 42–3, speech marks see inverted commas 347, 353, 380 length 397, 443 71, 266 speed of speech 260, 413 standardizing approach to subjective 215 sound symbolism 157, 163, 262–5, spelling 71, 212, 217, 248–9, 254, 259, spelling 288 subjects, names of 213 280, 432, 440, 459 268, 271–7, 284–9, 293, 349, Standard West Indian English 364 Subject-Verb-Object order 44, 232–3 sound system 248–67 367–8, 375, 377, 379, 479 stanza 291, 443 see also word order SoundSpeler 289 American vs British 84, 86, 88, star name 157 subjunctive 21, 45, 228, 331 Sound-Write™ 289 119, 271–5, 320–1, 327, 360, Star Trek 190, 207, 327 subordinate clause 233, 238–9, 242, South African English 106, 109, 115, 493 statement 230, 444, 485 409 121, 217, 261, 376–7, 383 archaism 197 rising tone in 261 subordination 74, 225, 238–9, illiteracy 479 consistency 19, 40–1, 57, 68, 76, state present 236 309, 481 South African Indian English 376 129, 158, 286, 293 state verb 218, 231, 237, 367 multiple 238 South Asian English 107, 257, 274, Early Modern English 68–9 Statistical Study of Literary Vocabulary, subscript 269 380–2, 493 games 423–5 The 278 substandard 498 South China Morning Post 320, 427 guides 68 statistics 278–9, 421, 449, 488 see also non-standard South-East Asian English 110–11, humour 88 stative see state verb substitution technique 238 114–15, 122, 369, 379, 382, in search linguistics 474 Statue of Liberty 100 succinctness see economy 385, 493 in texting 455 Statute of Pleading 505 Sudan 115 Southern American English 253, 332, Middle English 33, 40–3, 54, 152 Statute of Rhuddlan 354 suffix 22, 61, 138, 143, 210, 220, 223, 337 nonstandard 88–9, 93, 184, 272, statutes 398, 400–1 229, 357–8, 361, 459, 461 southern drawl (in USA) 103, 275, 287, 327, 357, 426, 428, Statutes of Union 354 derivational vs inflectional 210 253, 337 432, 442, 463 stem 210 summarizer 302 Southern Rhodesia see Zimbabwe Old English 16–19, 28–9 stereotypes 89, 197, 228, 313, 318, Summoner’s Tale, The 39 Southern Scots 352 reform 42, 68, 77, 84, 90, 277, 286, 335, 355, 363, 371, 376, sumo wrestling 325 Southern Ontario English 363 288–9 390–1, 396, 402, 410, 426 Sunbelt 99 Southland burr 105, 375 spelling pronunciation 382 story-grammar 424 Sunday Times, The 440 South Sudan 109 Spitting Image 163 Story of English, The 202 Sun, The 287, 406, 427 South-west England English 253, 257 split infinitive 45, 90, 95, 205–7 story-telling 359 superdictionary 129, 449 sovereign, in place names 154 spoken dialogue 312 Straits Settlements 111 superior symbol 269 space (word) 290, 295 spoken medium game 425 Straits Times, The 110 superlative 211 space shuttle 123 Spoken Word: A BBC Guide, The 259 streaming media 454 superordinate see hypernym spacing in URLs 463 spokesperson 315 stream of consciousness 405 superscript 269 Spain 117 spondee 441 street names 156 supplanting approach to spelling 288 spam 455, 469 spoofing 469 stress 19, 32, 71, 72, 80, 253, 260–1, supremecourtese 400 spamming 469 Spoonerism 266, 432 327, 349, 357, 364, 441, 483, surface web 495 span, lexical 173 sports 491 Suriname 115 Spanglish 123 commentary 223, 236, 244, 261, change in 71, 266 surname 26, 158, 160, 274 Spanish 100, 102 412–13, 416 in first names 163 types of 159 borrowing from 60, 87, 137, 149, reporting 322, 427 postponement 357 surrealism 445 154–5, 286, 319, 364 see also commentary stress-timed rhythm 121, 253, 261 Survey of English Dialects 338–43, spatial reference 244 spread vowel 250 Strine 371 347 special corpora 496 spy novel 447 strong forms 259 Survey of English Usage 490, 492 specialization see narrowing square brackets 70, 293 strong verb see verb, strong Survey of the Language of English Special K 280 Sri Lanka 107, 115 Student’s Grammar of the English Place-Names 506 special needs 478 English 381–2 Language, A 209 suspended sentence 74 special sorts 269 St see under Saint studying English 478–88 suspension dots 295 speech stage name 162 style 39, 74, 77, 134, 175, 211, 308, Swahili 108–9, 122 disguise 421 stammering 486 420, 439, 446, 481, 488, 490 Swaziland 115 perception 482 Standard English 29, 56, 87, 102, heterogeneous 317 swearing 76, 104, 184–5, 263, 393, 427 simultaneous 315 118–19, 261, 309, 318, 320, in search linguistics 474 Sweden 117 spectrograph 259 328–9, 346, 349–51, 352–3, levels of 167, 169, 176, 405 English in 493 vs electronic communication 453 359, 363–4, 367, 379–80, 388, style manual 227, 304, 391, 428 Swedlish 123 vs writing 125, 129, 226, 248, 426, 436, 491 stylistics see style Switchboard Corpus 451, 496 309–11, 314, 331, 391, 491–2 origins of 54–5 stylometry 449 Switzerland 117 speech, political 314, 402 see also nonstandard stylostatistics 278, 449 Sydney English 371

565

Appendices

Sydney Morning Herald, The 427 Teaching English to Speakers of Other timeless statement 236 trolling 469 syllabic consonant 257–8 Languages 114, 506, 516 time line 236 Trondheim Soloists 72 syllable 163, 250, 254, 258, 266, Teaching of English as a Second time reference 138, 239, 242, 244, True Story of the 3 Little Pigs, The 283 440–1, 483 Language 114 408, 445 truism see proverb syllable-timed rhythm 125, 261, 357, teasing 430 Times, The 427 Tumblr 457 364, 376, 380, 382 technical terms see jargon; terminology Times ov Toronto, The 289 Tunisia 117 symbol (graphic) 282 technology 281, 419, 478–88 timing (dialogue) 315 Turkey 117 Synchronic English Web Corpus 495 electronic 299, 309, 419, 452–68 Timor-Leste 117 Turkish borrowing 60, 137 synchronic vs diachronic Teefax 419 titles Turkmenistan 117 in EU documents 125 telegraph 452 of works 13 Turks and Caicos Is 114 in forensic linguistics 450 telegraphic style 240, 379, 408–9, 424, personal 95, 376, 391 turn, conversational 291, 313, 453, in Internet texts 317 426, 454 Today 322 468, 485 in searchlinguistics 474 telephone conversation 305, 311, 452 Togo 117 Tuvalu 111, 115 synonym 23, 27, 76, 172, 176, 328 Teleprompter 310 Togoland 108 twang 371 dictionary 173 telestich 424 Tokelau 111, 114 tweets 455, 464 syntactic Teletext 419 Tok Pisin 368–9, 379 emojis in 465 function 220 television see broadcasting Tom Swifties 435 frequency 495 parallelism 439 Tempest, The 148 tone (pitch) 260–1 sent by Trump 405 syntagmatic 172 tempo 260, 441 parenthetic 241 Twentieth Century Words 96 syntax 44–5, 209, 218–45, 349, 367, tense 20–1, 81, 208, 210, 224, see also intonation Twictionary 461, 498 376, 444 236, 242 tone of voice 261, 437 twins 313 archaism 444 American vs British usage 331 Tonga 111, 115 Twitter 317, 457, 459, 464, 465, 475 humour 435 past 208, 236, 346, 349–50, 367 tongue 248, 256, 489 change of prompt 455, 457 in searchlinguistics 474 present 208, 236, 358, 412–13, 485 tongues, speaking in 421 Twittonary 461, 498 spoken vs written 226 terminology 91, 129–30, 138, 176, tongue twister 259, 425, 432, 440 Tyneside English 257, 261, 346, 358 see also word order 179, 181, 186, 266, 284, 394, ‘top down’ approach 300, 446 typeface 280, 282 synthetic Scots 353 396–7 topic 302 types and tokens 404 Syria 117 TESOL 506, 516 topographic names 151, 159 typesetting 292 tetrameter 441 toponomastics see toponymy typewriting 462 T Texan English 436 toponymy 150–7, 165 Typo Eradication Advancement League text 244, 261, 282, 308, 316–17 see also place names 297 taboo 95, 184–5, 410, 416, 445 textbook 313, 426 Tor 495 typography 69, 268–9, 282–3, 401, tag clouds 470 text clouds 470 Toronto corpus of Old English 10, 491 407, 409, 432, 442, 462 tagging 474, 491 Text Encoding Initiative 491, 494 Toronto English 362 taglines see slogans textese 455, 465 Toronto Star, The 323 U tag question 230, 319, 331, 346–7, 349, text linguistics 468 Towneley Cycle 55, 58 355, 362, 376–7, 380, 382 text-messaging 269, 454, 457, 475 trade names 197, 273, 276, 287 U and Non-U 386 types of 319 myths 455 traditional grammar 83, 204–18, 218, Uganda 108, 115 Taiwan 117 texture 282 223, 226, 232, 236, 241 UK see United Kingdom Tajikistan 117 Thailand 117 traditional orthography 287–9 Ukraine 117 talking shop 394 theme 243, 397 transcription 254, 260, 302, 312, 368 Ulster see Northern Ireland English talking to object/oneself 314 theography 175, 429 types of 248 Ulster Anglo-Irish 357 Tamil 60, 110 theolinguistics 390 transitivity 224, 237 Ulster Place-Name Society 516 ‘Tam o’Shanter’ 351 therapy see speech and language translation 31, 60, 66, 315 Ulster Scots 352, 356, 358 Tanganyika see Tanzania pathology/therapy problems of 57 Ulysses 145, 435, 442 Tangier Island 99 thesaurus 168, 176, 502 Treatise on the Astrolabe, A 39 umlaut 212, 464 Tanzania 114–15, 122 Things 431 tribal names 151 uncial 17, 270, 272–5 English 493 third language 114 tridialectalism 121 Uncle Tom’s Cabin 87, 88, 89, 196 tap 257 Third Man, The 426 trigraph 269 underlining 292, 462 tape recording 309 third person singular 67 trill 255, 257, 274 Unicode 465, 470 Tarheel State 326 thorn 17, 29, 40–1, 270, 276 trimeter 441 unintelligibility 421 tautology 430 threads as texts 316 Trinidad and Tobago 102, 115 unison prayer 315, 395 taxonomy, biological 396 three language formula 107 English 365 United Arab Emirates 117 Teaching English as a Foreign three-part discourse 402, 435 Trinobagian 365 United Empire Loyalists 101, 363 Language 114, 118, 387 Through The Looking-Glass 141 triphthong 249, 251, 258, 440 United Kingdom 114–15 Teaching English as an International Tidewater accents 98–9 trochee 441 illiteracy level 479 Language 114 tilde 16 Troilus and Criseyde 38, 291 see also British English

566

Index of Topics Appendix VIII

United Nations 116, 505 vegetative noise 483 vocative 197, 208, 232, 308 Webster’s Third New International United Nations Trust Territories 110 vehicle names 164 vogue word 191 Dictionary 129, 286, 498, 499 United States of America 84–9, 100, velar 255–6, 263, 271–2, 274, 349, voice see passive comparison with OED 129 112, 114–15, 123 355, 483, 489 Voicebank 504 weight 443 illiteracy level 479 Venezuela 117 VOICE Corpus 496 in clauses 404 see also American English ventriloquist’s dummy 315 Voice over the Internet Protocol 495 rhythmical 441 United States Virgin Is 115 verb 20, 44, 209, 216–18, 224, 376 Voiceprinting 451 Wellerism 266 Universal and Critical Dictionary of as clause element 232–3 voice quality 261, 420, 426, 437 Wellington Corpus of Written the English Language, A 86 conversion to noun 139 voicing 212, 217, 250, 254, 256, New Zealand English 496 universal language 77 defective 219 271–2, 274–5, 340, 374, 483 Welsh 122, 354 Universal Nonstandard English 382 impersonal 74 vowel 19, 69, 94, 99, 249–53, 55, 259, borrowing from 60, 137 university teaching, semantic field of in Old English 20–1, 32 267, 271–5, 340, 349, 357, 362, English 158, 230, 252, 257–8, 261, 328 in humour 435 365, 371, 374, 376, 382, 424, 274, 318, 354–5, 493 univocalic 424 in science 396 425, 432, 440–1, 478, 482–3 Welsh Language Act 355 unjustified setting 269 lexical 224 double 69 Wenglish 123 unparliamentary language 184 modal 45, 224, 236, 398 frequency 251, 277–9, 440 WeRateDogs 459 unpublished English (corpus) 492 multi-word 224 fronting 371 West, vocabulary of the US 87 unrounded vowel 250 phrasal 128, 224 harmony 19 West African upper-case letter see letter prepositional 224 high vs low 250 creoles 366 uptalk 261 serial 367 in first names 163 English 108, 367, 380–2 Urban Dictionary 124, 498 static 380 length 12, 42, 251 West Country English 99, 253, 256, Uruguay 117 strong 21, 216 nasal vs oral 250 436 usage 45, 76–7, 83, 95, 125, 128, suffixation 210 open vs close 250 Western Mail, The 322 213–16, 236, 256, 271–5, 295, see also auxiliary verb; irregular verb peripheral vs central 259 Western Sahara 117 350, 360–1, 386, 388–90, 493, verbal noun 215 pure 249, 252 West Germanic names 31 498 verbal duelling 12, 53, 373, 426, 430 raising 371, 374 West Indian Creole 364 USA see American English; United Verbatim 506, 516 shifts 19, 55, 71, 286, 349 West Indian English see Caribbean States verbless clause 233 system 42, 55, 251, 368 English uses of English 300–451 verb phrase 224, 233–4, 358 transcription 249 Westminster 54–5 US Trust Territory of the Pacific Is American vs British 331 vowel gradation see ablaut West Pacific creoles 366 111 meanings of 236–7 vox pop 410 West Saxon 16, 28–9, 33 uvular trill 257 verse Voyager 123 WhatsApp 457, 467 Uzbekistan 117 comic 444 vulgarism 39 whisper 261, 425 free 441 Whitby, Synod of 10 V nonsense 432, 434, 440 W white horse 26 verse-contest 34 white space 443 vagueness 309, 414 versification 441 Waitangi, Treaty of 105 wh-questions 230 Valentine’s Day greetings 162 Vespasian Psalter Gloss 29 Wales see Welsh English in jokes 435 Vancouver English 362–3 vestments 183 Wallis and Futuna Is 117 Wikipedia pages 317, 475 Vancouver Sun, The 427 Vienna–Oxford International Corpus of ‘Waltzing Matilda’ 373 wills 30 Vanuatu 111, 115 English 496 Wantok 369 Winchester Chronicle 15 variable gender 221 Vietnam 117 warning verb 396 wine, semantic field of 167, 499 variable noun see noun Vikings 9, 10, 12, 25, 29 Washington Post, The 391 Wired Style 460 variety 71, 95, 108, 114, 118, 121, 235, Virgin Is 102 Waste Land, The 438 Wisconsin English Language Survey 308–451, 456, 491–2 virgula suspensiva 291, 294 Watcher, The 193 334 awareness 90–1, 460, 484 virgule 70 Waterstones 296, 304 wisecrack 430 definition of 308, 381 virtual worlds 456, 468 weak forms 259 women’s magazines 391 deviance 426–9, 448 visual arts 171 weather forecasting 312, 314, Worcester Chronicle 15 electronic 452–75 visual form 442–3 410–11, 416 Worcester Fragments 34 freedom 448 vocabulary see lexicon web see World Wide Web word 210–17, 229, 259, 282 humour 93, 426, 436 vocal Weblish 452 class 209, 218–25, 303, 491 occupational 261, 394–419, 436, cords 525 websites as texts 316 class tagging 474 448 folds 250, 254–5, 483, 525 Webster–Mahn 86 completion game 424 personal 93, 420–49 organs 248, 254, 489 Webster’s International lexeme and 128 regional 252, 287, 318–85, 380 play 483 Dictionary 498 division 12 social 287, 335, 338, 347, 362, vocalic verb see verb, strong Webster’s New International formation 22, 61, 138, 202, 210–17, 370–1, 386–91 vocalization, infant 483 Dictionary 498 220, 372, 434, 461, 498

567

Appendices

frequency 257, 449 Word Geography of the Eastern United writing 88, 205, 268–95, 309–11, 478, yes–no question 230, 377 games 277, 421, 422–5 States, A 333 484 Yiddish, borrowing from 87, 137, 255 hesitation 140 Word Search 422 senses of 269 yogh 16, 40, 270, 276 maze 423 Word Squares 422 vs electronic communication 453 YouTube 472 nonsense 140, 143, 262, 309, 413 Words Within Words 422 see also speech vs writing of the year 485 World English see World Standard written medium game 422–4 Z order 20, 32, 38–9, 44, 67, 226, English wynn 16, 40, 270, 276 230–1, 308, 331, 343, 355, 380, Wordtree® 503 Zambia 108, 115 413, 444, 480, 487 World Englishes 378, 506, 516 X English 382, 493 play 193, 414, 426–7, 442 World Second Language English 382 Zanzibar see Tanzania processor 428 World Standard English 98–123, 319, xenoglossia 421 zero article 235 spacing 12, 16 328–9, 360, 362, 374, 378, 380, x-height 269 zettabytes 495 types and tokens 404, 497 385, 491 XML 494 Zimbabwe 108, 115 watching 490, 506 World Wide Fund for Nature 268 English 493 Word Banks online 490 World Wide Web 142, 422, 452–69 Y zip code 416 Word Cloud Generator 471 as a corpus 495 word-clouds 470 surface vs deep 495 Yacky dar, moy bewty! 436 historical thesaurus 170 WorldWideWebsize 495 Yaoundé, University of 379 punctuation 471 worthiness of mention 390 Yemen 117

568