VARIETIES OF ENGLISH BeTg

l. On homogeneity(or otherwise) 1.1.The homogeneity illusion 1.2.The homogeneity assumption in linguistics 1.3.Knocking down the homogeneityhypothesis: Types of variation temporalvariation speaker-basedvariation: sex, age, occupation etc. sociologicalvariation cultural variation geographicalvariation pragmatic/situationalvariation interpersonalvariation idiosyncraticvariation 1.4.The whys andwherefores of heterogeneityin language 1.4.1.Conditions - personalconditions - cultural conditions - naturalconditions l.4.2.T}lresocial-psychological approach: "us andthem 1.5.The opponentof heterogeneity:Accommodation" 1.6.Practical implications of linguisticheterogeneity 1.7.Aims of the lectureseries 1.7.1.Descriptive 1.7.2.Theoretical

2. A surveyof Englishas spokenaround the world "MainlandEnglish" in Europe:Gibraltar, Malta in Ausfalia andNew Zealand in America in Africa in Asia 3. Why is meantby "Englishis spoken"? Englishas a(n) 3.I . firsVsecond/foreignlanguage 3.2.offrcial language 3.3. languageof instruction 3.4. languageof the media 3.5.written language 3.6. languageof the socialelite 3.7.language of internationaltrade and traffic 3.8.lingua franca 3.9.Conclusion: The three circles of English

4. Englishas a globallanguage 4.1.English: a uniquesuccess story 4.2.Whatis a globallanguage 4.3. Whatmakes a globallanguage? 4.4.Therise of Englishas a globallanguage 4.5. Conclusion:English and globalization

5. Standarddialects, regional dialects, social dialects 5.1.On therelation between region and dialect 5.2.Dialects and language change 5.3.On the relationshipbetween dialects and social class

Socialclass f

<- dialectal variation -> Percentageof aitch-dropping in Bradford (Yorkshire) Uppermiddle class t2 Lower middleclass 28 Upperworking class 67 Middle working class 89 Lower working class 93

Standard:He's a manwho/that likes his car. Dialectalvariation: a) He's a manat likes his car. b) He's a manas likes his car. c) He's a manwhat likes his car. d) He's a manhe likes his car. e) He's a manlikes his car.

5.4. Standardlanguage vs. dialect

5.4.1.Relationship Standardlanguage

dialectr dialectz.... dialectn 5.4.2.Standardization and codification 5.4.3.The attractionto the elite 5.4.4.Differences between standard dialect and dialect 5.4.5.The multiplicity of standardlanguages/dialects 5.5.The comparison problem 5.6.Dialect and identity 5.7.Determining dialect boundaries 5.8.The fuzzinessof dialectboundaries 5.9. Non-categoricaldifferences between dialects Examplel: The useof shouldand ought in threestandard dialects (tokens per 10,000words) British American Australian Should 12.9 9.2 7.5 Ought 1.1 0.7 0.3 Example2: The useof will andshall in threestandard dialects (tokens per 10,000words) British American Australian will 28.0 27.0 34.2 Shall 3.5 2.7 1.2

5.10.Dialect vs. accent 6. Why do languageshave dialects? 6.1.Social factors 6.1. L Settlementpatterns 6.1.2. Migrationpatterns 6.I .3. Geographicalfactors 6.1.4.Language contact 6.1.5. Economic ecology 6.1.6. Socialstratification 6.1.7 . Communicationnetworks 6.1.8.Group reference 6.1.9. Personal identity 6.2. Linguisticfactors 6.2.1. Rule extension/regularization 6.2.2.Analogy 6.2.3.Levelling 6.2.4.Transparency 6.2.5.Overemphasis 6.2.6.Grammatic alization 6.2.7.Minor processes:Dissimilation: colonel -> kernel :ask -> ar< Assimilation:I haveto -> I hafta 6.2.8.Conclusion

7. Terminology:Different types of variation 7.1.Dialect 7.2.Sociolect 7.3.Etlnolect 7.4.Register "situationlect" 7.5.Urban/rural varieties "cifflect" 7.6.Genderlect 7.7 . *FaffLulylect" 7.8."Couplelect" 7.9.Idiolect 7.10.Free variation

8. Comparingtwo standards:British vs. AmericanEnglish 8.1.Spelling - our - ur: favour - favor - re - er: centre- center - consonantdoubling after suffrxing : travelled- traveled - logue- log: catalogue- catalog - ce - se:defence - defense - e - null : judgement- judgment - ction - xion : connection- connexion - ize- ise : jeopardize- jeopardise - Ve - e : encyclopaedic- encyclopedic Idiosyncraticdifferences: jail - gaol sceptical- skeptical tyre - tire cheque- check yoghurt- yogurt prograrnme-progftlm Punctuation:- capitalizationafter colon - order of quotationmark and full stop 8.2.Pronunciation - [a:] - [e]: chance,fast - null - []: course,car - [o] - [a:]: hot, top

- tVdl - [r]: writer, rider

- [ar] - [r]: hostile,missile - ü1- null: tune,new - [ar] - [sr]: courage,hurry Individualcases: stafus, ate, clark Secondarystress: territory, ceremony Individual cases:adult, laboratory,cigarette Prosody:speech rate, intonation 8.3.Morphology 6

8.3.1.lnflection Verb inflection: a) Irregular in BE - Regularizedin AE to burn,bumt-bumed to dream,dreamt - dreamed b) RegularizedinBE - irregularin AE to dive, dived- dove to fit, fitted - fit to sneak.sneaked - snuck c) Othercases to get,got, got - gotten to prove, proved,proved - proven 8.3.2.Derivation a) Suffix productivity:-iff: to ugliff, to humidi$ -ize:to hospitalize,to decimalize b) Zero derivation:an author- to author a sky rocket- to sky-rocket 8.4.Lexicon 8.4.1.Reasons for vocabularydifferences - difflerentecologies: the caseof robins - differenttechnological and cultural C:velopments: public school- homerun - different influencesfrom other languages:tornado, tortilla, tepee - independentlinguistic changewithin one variety: autumn- fall 8.4.2.Categories of lexical difflerences 8.4.2.1.Same concept - differentword form: tap- faucet,tin - can,queue - line, nought- zero,to ring - to call, match- game 8.4.2.2.Same word form - difflerentmeaning Form BE AE pants underpants trousers pavement footpath road surface nervy nervous bold, cheeky 8.4.2.3.Same word form - additionalmeaning in onevariety Form Commonmeaning Additional meaningin AE batlroom room with L.th room with toilet onlv 7

good fine valid asof tickets Form Commonmeaning Additional meaningin BE to mind to obeY to look after smart intelligent well-groomed surgery operation adoctor'soffice 8.4.2.4.Same word form - differencein style,connotation or frequencyof use Form BE AE quite negative/neutral Positive clever (common)positive (lesscommon) negative to fancy to like (common) (uncommon) 8.5.Morphosyntax: Plural agleement with collectivenouns: government,crew, Crowd, committee, team, jury, Staff,audienCe, sportS teams etc. BE: I don't think the RoyalFamily arerealiy known for their intelligence. AE: I think my family waspretty open-minded about different kinds of people. 8.6.Syntax 8.6.1.VP 8.6.1.1.Auxiliaries: do-support: I haven'tthe faintestidea. - I don't havethe faintestidea' I haven'tread this yet, but I will do. - I haven'tread this yet, but I will. 8.6.1.2.Modals: shall: What shall I do?- Whatwill I do? Shan't Will: Thatwill be the postman.- Thatmust be the postman. Would: WhenI wasyoung,I would go to the dentistand faint. Must: the bakeriesmust not havebeen open today - there was no freshbread. Oughtto: You oughtto takethis medicine.- You wantto takethis medicine. Goingto: She'sgonna win the game. Havegot to -> gotta:You gottabelieve me. 8.6.1.3. Verb complementation Infinitive vs. gerund:I hategetting up early. - I hateto get up early. For to construction:I want for her to fetch the strawberries. Compoundverbs: Go get the bananas. Omissionof auxiliaries:He wantedout andshe wanted in. 8.6.1.4.Tense and aspect: Past vs. PresentPrefect: I havealready eaten. - I alreadyate He would havebeen rich evenif he hadnot beenso good-looking.-He would have beenrich evenif he wasn't sucha looker. 8

I wish he had doneit. - I wish he would havedone it. PhrasalVerbs: to finish offi to finish up Mediopassives:The book normallyships within a week.The setinstalls in minutes. Subjunctive:He suggestedthat sheplay. How come 8.6.2.Pronouns: Demonstratives: Who is thatlit?- Who is this? Relativepronouns: The boy that helpedyou is my nephew. Indefinitepronouns: One has to do one'sduty. - Onehas to do his/theirduty. 8.6.3.Adverbs and adverbials: Omission of "1y": Drive slow. It wasan awful hot day. Placementof adverbs:You canseldom /often/never tell. - You seldom/often/nevercan tell. 8.6.4.Prepositions: in the circumstances- under the circumstances 8.6.5.Conjunctions: Do asI do.- Do like I do. It looksas if you lost tendpounds. - It lookslike you lost ten pounds. Johnleft directly after Mary arrived.- Johnleft directly Mary arrived. 8.7.Conclusion: greater informality in AE thanBE

9. LinguisticBackground 9.1.1.Vowels

o

\ lu t \

^ o a o:

9.1.2.Consonants 9

Consonantalprocesses: - palatalization:[k] -> [kj] - glottalization:butter [t] -> [?]

- flapping: writer: [t] -> [r]

- voicing:farmer lfl -> [v] - devoicing:noise: [z] -> [s] -labialization: brother-> bruwer - stopping:river -> ribber - vocalization:bull -> bouw - rhoticization:car. the ideaof it 9.2.Morphology - Reflexivepronoum: hisself, theirselves, meself, theirself - Adjectivecomparison: She is the beautifullestkind of girl. - Plural marking on measurenouns: for five year - PresentTense formation: He don't like me. - PastTense formation: to catch,catched, catched - "a"-prefrxingon "ing" forms:The times, they area-changing. - Adverbformation: That's real good. 9.3.Synta,r 9.3.1.Pronouns - Demonstrative:in themdays - Possessive:He's me brother. - Personal:Me andmy brother 9.3.2.Articles: I hadthe toothache. 9.3.3.Adjectives: Double comparative: That is somuch more easier. 9.3.4.Negation:Double negation/negative concord: He won't do me no harm. 9.3.5.Verbs - Progressive:I'm liking it. - habitual"be": He be sick. - PresentPerfect/Past tense: Were you everin London? - completive"done": He donego fishing. - doublemodals: You might couldsay that we don't rightly know. - epistemic"musür't": This musfr't be true. 9.3.6.Agreement 9.3.6.1.Verb agreement:- "there"constructions: There's two menwaiting in the hall. l0

- NorthernSubject Rule: I sing.- Birds sings. 9.3.6.2.Pronoun agreement: My car,he's bruken. 9.3.7.Relative clauses: The man_ lives next dooris a nice chap. Resumptivepronouns: This is the housewhich I paintedit yesterday. 9.3.8.Complementation: Indirect questions: I'm wonderingwhat areyou gonnado. 'oforto" infinitives: We had guttersfor to drain the water away.

THE DIALECTS OFENGLISH 10.The southwestof : English (Dialect I) 10.1.: - rhotic,postvocalic /r/ is retroflex - epentheticlll afterschwa in : America -> [amerrkal]

- lowering:[e] -> [a]: trap

- :[er] -> [e:]: face

[au] -> [o:]: goat - initial fricativevoicing (highly recessive):farmer -) varmer 10.2.Morphology: Syllabic allomorphs on plural nouns:ghostes, beastes - Verb inflection: "be" in all personsand both numbers, in the plural also"am" and ...m)) We'm happy. Regularizationof irregularverbs: to know, knowed Doublemarking of tense:to steal,stoled; to take,tooked Levelingofpast tenseand present perfect: to break,broke, broke Irregularization:to creep,crope; to scrape,scrope 10.3.Syntax - Extendedarticle use: the chickenpox, the Christmas,the church - doublecomparison: I'd be morehappier out there. - pronounexchange: the useof subjectpron.'ms in objectfunction and vice versa: Theyalways called I Willie, see. Us don't think naughtabout things like that. - Genderedpronouns I likes this bread- it's very tasty. Passthe loaf - he's overthere. That'sa carrot.I've beenwatering 'im. I jumpedover her (a ditch).It's time shewas cleared out. il

Figure I : The hierarcbyof individuation(Sasse 1993) PROPER HUMANS ANIMALS INANIMATE ABSTRACTS MASSNOUNS NAMES TANGIBLE OBJECTS l---r.\

COMMONNOUNS L--aJ

COI.JNTNOI.JNS MASSNOUNS

Rules:a) Animate nouns:Natural genderrule b) Femaleanimals: masculine pronoun c) Inanimatecount nouns:masculine pronoun d) Inanimatemass noun: neuterpronoun e) Inanimatereferents when individuated:masculine pronoun f) abstractentities: neuter pronoun - demonstrativepronouns: three-way distinction: number, proximaUdistal and count/mass Count:Like thick onewhat's in therenow. Mass:When you cometo thatthere comer. - Possessivepronoun: analytic strategy of niarkingpossession That was the owner of her. Sherfordwas the nameof it. - Reflexive pronouns:Regularization of standardsystem Everybodyenj oyed theirselves. Yesowe madethat ourself. - Relativepronoun: Preference for uninflectedforms: that, as,what My dearsister as deadand gone Omissionof subjectrelative pronoun I know a man'll do it for thee. - Prepositionsas direct object marker after progressive aspect I beendriving ofher for 15years. - Adverbs:"-Iy'' dropping ln the endthey was turning out real good turniture. - Periphrastic"do": expresseshabituality t2

As I do sayto my niece,you're far betteroffthan whatwe were.

11.The Southeastof England:Home Counties @ialect II) 11.1.Phonology: th-fronting in all positions:think -> fink mouth -> mouf brother-> bruwer glottalization:t -) ? quite nice -> [kwar?]

bottle-> [bozl] lateralvocalization: 1-> u mill -> [miu]; milk -> [miuk] 'ome": 11.2.Morphology: - possessive the fact was that me brotherleft home. - Reflexive pronouns:regularization He put his handto steadyhisself on top of the winch. Two bob for meselfand eight bob for the hoardand lodging. - Subject"us": whenfollowed by anNP apposition Us old boyswould be drinkingbeer, too. - Singular"us": restrictedto imperatives Showus themboots. - Demonsfative"them": for distantplural objects('othose") I don't know if you've everseen them old drinkinghorns. 11.3.Syntax - Verb agreement:"was", "has" and "does" and also full verbswith plural pronouns We/you/theywas without food. We hasa muck aroundin there. Every time we doesanything wrong. I goesinto the shelter. o'to - Existentialo'there" + singularforrn lf be": There'sno falseceiling, there's no columns. 'to 'to - Negationi ooain't'replacesonly auxiliaryverb be" and have" I ain't beenfishing for the last six days. Thereain't nothingYou can do. "don't" for all persons:He don't live in there. Multiple concord:He wouldn't give me nothing. "never" as a pasttense negator: I neverwent to schooltoday' 13

- Relativeclause marking: "whaf': The stuffwhat camefrom the gascorroded the cable. "as": Thatnoise as you heard - Questiontags: invariable "innif'. He getsupset quick, innit? - Pragmatic"like": discoursemarker functioning as exemplification, approximation. It's just like all stickingout all overthe place.

12. (Dialect III)

ScottishStandard English vs. UrbanScots 12.1.History 12.2.Phonology: - rhoticity - ScottishVowel LengthRule: Phonetic lengthening before voiced fricativesand hl,length contrastin "breathe"and "brief' Monophthongization:[er] -> [e:] in "face" and [au] -> [o:] in "goat"; house-> [u] bite -> [ai] dentalarticulation of alveolarconsonants 'glottalizationofltl 12 3. Morphology: Verb inflection:past tense formation: to kill, killt; to sell, sellt Noun inflection:elimination of stemallomorphy in: wife - wifes; loaf - loafs Pronouns:plural you: yous,yous yins 12.4.Syntax: - Agreement:Plural is/was: The windies wiz aw broken 'The windowsare all broken.' - Doublemodals: He'll canhelp in the mom. - Aspect:Progressive with stativeverbs: We werenaereally wantingto go last year. Progressiveturning into imperfective: The codeis often changedand studentsare forgettingthe new number. - Tense:Past Tense referring to an eventin the immediatepast: The electricianjust phoned. - Conditionalclauses: If she'."ouldcome to seethings for herself,she would ... - Interrogativepronouns: "hod'for "why'': How did you not apply? t4

- Coordinationfor subordinationin relativeclauses: Theboy I wastalking to - andhe actuallyworks in the yard- wassaying... - No subjectrelative pronoun:It was Jimmy Brown was the fireman.

13.Orkney/Shetland English (Dialect IV)

13.1.History 13.2.Phonology - Complementarylengthening in the rime: back [bak] - baulk [ba:k] Stoppingof dentalfricatives: thu -> du Retroflex(Scandinavian) hl+ /s/ as [g] in "force" and"nurse'o Dentalizationof alveolarconsonants 13.3.Morphology - regularizationof inegularverbs: He selled. indefinitearticle is always"t'a auncen'stangeman' irregularplural nouns:freider 'brothers'; een 'eyes'; kye 'cows' ratherthan"have": I'mseenrheard it' r3.4.Morpn"nn"-lJli*lt;,'T;ffi:Till'obe" a) -it after all stops b) --edafter voiced phonemes other than stops c) -t aftervoiceless phonemes other than stops Example:He flippit ('folded') up his trousers. 13.5.Syntax - Personalpronouns: Second person realized as "thu/thoo" and "you" - Agreement"s" after'othu":Du minds('remind') me aafil a deegrandfaider. - Naturalgender in nouns:Tools and phenomena of natureare masculine. Someexpressions of time, o'fish"and "lamp" arefeminine. Example:Da tide fardernort, he streamson da westside.

14. (Dialect V) 14.1.History 14.2.Phonology: - loweringof lel: trap [trap] - rhotic - word-mediallengthenin; of consonants,e.g. pepper [pep:ar] 14.3.Morphology: verb inflection:he do/hedoth he have/hehath I be, you am,thee art, thee bist, shebe, we am,they am,they be,them be. 15

14.4.Syntax - questiontag o'isn'tif': invariant:I've heardthe word,isn't it. - word orderin indirectquestions as in directquestions: e.g.I don't know whattime is it. - "for to" construction:I went to town for to seethe doctor. - predicatefronting: Coal they are gettingout mostly. - variousways of codinghabituality: He goesto the cinemaevery week. (standard) He do go to the cinemaevery week (habitual"do") He's goingto the cinemaevery week. (habitual progressive)

15.Irish English(Dialect VI) 15.1.History 15.2.Terminology - Anglo-Irish - Hibemo-English - Irish English - UlsterScots 15.3.Phonology a) in UlsterScots - retentionof Older Scots/u:/: cow /ku:/ - frontingand raising of O.E.long "a": home lhe..ml - no roundirg of lal afterlwl: swan/swan/ - retentionof final /x/: bought lbc:xtl - vocalizationof final lU: wall lwc:l - palatalizationof velar stops:cat kjatl; gap lgapl b) in Irish English - epenthesisin codaclusters: film /filam/ c) in - vowel breaking:clean lHijan/; fool /fuwal/

- raising of laul: down ldew/ or /deun/

- retentionof lul: Dublin /dublan/(also in BelfastEnglish) d) in BelfastEnglish - raising of lel to lel: back /beV

- lowering of lel to lel: set lsetl _l

t6

Differencesbetween Protestants and Catholics: Shift from intervocaliclöl tolllin Catholicbut not in Protestantspeech. 15.4.Morphology - Presentperfect formation with o'be":They're not left schoolyet. distinctionbetween singular "you" andplural "yous(e)" 15.5.Syntax - Perfectiveaspect: Past tense used to encodean eventwhich took placeat someunspecified point in a periodleading up to the present. e.g.Were you everin Kenmare? - the "after" perfect:refers to eventsor statesin the recentpast e.g.You're afterruining me. 'You have(ust) ruinedme. - progressiveaspect: with stativeverbs e.g.They're not believingit. - habitual"do" and"be: e.g.They be shootingand fishing out at the forestrylakes. e.g.It's betterbecause you be's boreddoing nothing at home. - Imperatives:overt subject imperative e.g.Go you there;read you that book. - NegativeConcord, e.g. You've not heardof that nothing. - relativeclauses: resumptive Dronouns e.g.They jumped banks that time on the race-coursethat they wouldn't hunt overthem today. - Complementation:"for to"-construction e.g.There was always one man selected for to makethe tea. - Subordinationwith 66and"as introducer of a subordinateclause. Subordinate clauseusually contains a subjectnoun or pronounfollowed by a participle. e.g.I mind ('remember')whenever we werewee ('little'), andmy mother rearingus, hey, shehad to washall... - NorthernSubject Rule: A plural nounsubject takes "s" on the verbwhereas a plural pronounsubject does not (unlessthere are someother sentence elementsbetween the subjectand the verb) e.g.Sons of their comesover here. - Definitearticle with - institrrtions,e.g. I left the schoolin earlyage. - diseases,e.g. But she'sthe measles. - with schoolsubjects, e.g. The maths nowadays seems to be complicated. - physicalsensations, e.g. The poor people were starved with the hunger. t7

16. (Dialect VII) 16.1.History 16.2.T\e languageas a North Americanvariety 16.3.Phonology: - mergingof lol andlil towardslol, asin "lot" and"caught" :t et and tet metgetowards tet' as in .T**;:ffi:T. .,':# o'price" - raisingof diphthongsbefore voiceless consonants: lail -> lzil, asin laul -> lzul,as in "mouth"

- retractionof le.l to lal, as in "trap"

17. (Dialect VIII) 17.1.History 17.2.Morphophonology: - verb inflection:syllabic allomorph after l-stl It disgustesme to drive downthrough this cove. It nevercosted me onered cent. - nouninflection: syllabic allomorph after l-sCl We haddeskes, and I remember... Thebirds have built nestesin the springhouse. 17.3.Morphology: - verb inflection:a greatdeal of formalvariation To begin- began,begin, begun - begin,begun To blow-blew, blowed,blown-blowed, blown To break- broke- broke,broken To bring - brought,brung - brought,brung To catch- catched,caught, cotch, cotched - catched,caught, cotch, cotched - nouninflection: no plural on mea$re nouns: e.g.We cut it into four quarter. Massnouns as count nouns: e.g. Have you got any easingpowders? Pluralsfor animals:e.g. There used to be plentyof deers. - personalpronouns: two formsfor secondperson singular: you, ye five formsfor secondperson plural: you, ye, you'uns,you all, y'all two forms for third personsingular neuter: it, hit I know positivethat hit wasn'tall true. - possessivepronouns: /n/-final insteadof /s/-final forms of the independenttype The colts is theirn. - Work themjust like they was yourn. 17.4.Syntax: - finite "be", doesnot expresshabituality as in otherdialects 18

e.g.I be too old for suchtomfoolery. If it be barn-curvedtobacco, you havea different thing. - finite "have": They('there') havebeen a big change. - DiscontinuousVPs (presentperfect split up by object) e.g.We hadall our work doneup. - Doublemodals, e.g. You might couldask somebody along the road. - Progressiveaspect, extending to stativeverbs e.g.We was liking youjust fine. - Completive"done" ('already','completely') e.g.We thoughtPa and Ma haddone gone to church. - Ingressiveverbs: e.g. He took runningoff ('beganto run ofP) - habifual"s": e.g.I drinksthree and four cupsto a meal. - a-prefixing:e.g. It just took somebodyall the time a-working. He was a-justtearing that window open. - Multiplenegation/concord e.g.I've not neverheard of that. We didn't haveno usefor it nowavs. - Personalpronounsusedreflexively e.g.You cancatch you ('yourself) a mole. - Personalpronouns in demonstrativefunction (both aspronouns and determiners) e.g.Them ('these') looks a wholelot steeperthan they did in my youngdays. I've went up overthem rocks a manya time. - Relativeclause markers: nine in total, including"what","as", 'othats" e.g.We needto remembera womanthats child hasdied. - Doublecomparative/superlative e.g.I'd sayI wasmore healthier back then than I am now. Doc was the most healthiestman in this pan of the country. Who's got therefirstest? - Prepositionafter verbsof mentalactivity e.g.I canrecollect of him a-goingto school. - Stackingof prepositions e.g.They was severalhouses on up aroundup on Mill Creek. - PPsto expresshabituality e.g.We would havesinging of a night andof a Sunday('every nighVevery Sunday') 19

- Conjunctionsfollowed by redundant"that" e.g.Not just becausethat I'm born ard raisedthere.. . - Omissionof relativepronoun as subject e.g.They is six fees would havemade anybody a gooddwelling house. - Left dislocation e.g.The bear, it madea passa-toward him.

18. (Dialect IX) 18.1.History I8 2 Phonorogv:' posi'lion :Trff:,,u;,1'fi';:ä:l - flapping of ltl -< [r] intervocalically:thirteen - alternationbetween palatalized alveolars and affricates: tune [tjun] - ttjunl

assume[asjum] - [aJum] - variationin the pronunciationof the "goat" vowel: [eu,ey, ou,oy] - vocalizationof /U, e.g.oomilko' - Raisingof [au] to [eo], asin "mouth" 18.3.Morphology: Verb inflection:Leveling of pasttense and past participle: e.g.sing, sang, sang shrink, shrunk,shrunk 18.4.Syntax: - extendeduse of progressive - presentperfect with pasttense function: e.g.Then he's hit her on the head. - no marking of anteriority in reportedspeech: Kim said shehas a bad cold. - "haveto" asfull verb:They have to makea decisionby Friday,don't they. - gerundspreferentially preceCed by possessiverather than personal pronoun in writing British American Ausfalian Po Pe Po Pe Po Pe 378s1191622

19.New ZealardEnglish(Dialect X) 19.1.History 20

19.2.Phonology - non-rhotic - neutralizationoflel andlelbefore lU: e.g.salary - celery

- neutralizationof /u:/ and lulbeforelU, e.g.pull - pool

- centalization of /r/: kit -> [kat], e.g. affect - effect - loweringof lelto la/:trap

- lowering of lJ to lol: force

- mergingof lpl andlealt;wards the former:e.g. near - square

- devoicingof voicedfricatives: president - precedent - fronting of dentalfricatives: from postdentalto interdental - Assimilationof ltjlto lttl. Furtherassimilation yields "student" -> [ftJudant]

- Vocalizationof /l/, e.g.smile [smoo] - Rhythm:use of full vowelsin unstressedsyllables 19.3.Morphology: plural form "yous": e.g.I askedthe children:Are yousready yet? 19.4.Syntax: possessive: - less frequent use of inflected("s") genitive - subjunctive:relatively frequent(ike AE) - *will" in suggestions,e.g. Will I closethe window? - deletionof auxiliary"have": e.g.I'm sureI seenher put the car in the garage. - "would of insteadof "would have": e.g.I would of beenjust overthe correctage. - doublecomparative: e.g. One class is morebrighter than the other.

20. African AmericanVernacular English (Black English) An ethnolectrather than a dialect Origin of AAVE Creolehypothesis Dialect mixture hypothesis 20.1.Phonology: - raisingof la'lto lel:bang

monophthongizationof lu/: mine -> [ma:n] stoppingof fricatives:business -> [bIdrus] seven-> {sebn] 2l

thing -> [tE] those[doz] - vocalizationof /r/: floor -> [floa] - vocalization/deletionof /l/: help -> [hep] - deletionof glide: computer-> [kamputa] - metathesisof /s/ + stop:ask -> [eks] - backingof /V: street-> [skrit] - simplificationof consonantclusters: land -> [len]

- stress:on first syllable:police -> [pölis] 20.2.Morphology:verb inflection:past as participle: I hadwent down there. Participleas past. They seen it. Infinitive as past:They run thereyesterday. - regularization:Everybody knowed him. - No third personsingular inflection: She have money. - Plural"was": The folks wasthere. Noun inflection:regularization: oxen -) oxes geese-> gooses sheep-> sheeps children -> childrens(redundant plural) - no plural on measurenouns: I got 50 cent. - Pronouns:regularization of "mine": Thebook is mines. 20.3.Syntan: - copula/auxiliarydeletion: She nice. They acting silly. - invariant"be": Sometimesthey be playinggames. - deletionof /l/ beforelabial: She'll be -> shebe Shebe herein a minute,won't she? - completive"done": Theydone used all the goodones. - intensifuing'odone":I done told you 'ot to messup. - Resultative"be done":My ice creambe donemelted by the time we getthere. - Remote"been": I beenhad it aboutthree years. - Pastperfect with pasttense (narrative) meaning e.g.They had went outsideand then they had messed up the yard. - doublenegation: It wasn'tnothing. - ooair.'t'forpreverbal negative for presenttense "be": Sheain't here. Also asa substitutefor "didn't": Sheain't do it. 22

no possessivemarking: the dogtail no plural marking: two boy personalpronouns in possessivefi.rnction: It's they book. personalpronouns in demonstrativefunction: She likes themapples. questionformation without inversion:Where that is? quotativeoosay": I told him say,"Leave".

21.Conclusion 21. I . Varietiesbeyond regional ones

Ethnolect L2 Pidgins Creoles e.g. Black English Englishesspoken by e.g.West African e.g.Jamaican Creole non-nativespeakers PidginEnglish(es) 2l.2.Determiningthe "distance"among the varieties:Hierarchical cluster analysis

gäätäää=E*ä;Hä!ä*45*äääääEäFH säfug;rlää$*E;sg s

21.3.Recunent deviations from the standardlanguage 21.3.1.Phonology - glottalizationof lt/ - rhoticity - vocalizationof /1/ - loweringof la,lto lal 21.3.2.Morphology - doublecomparison (e.g. more brighter) 23

- regularizationof presenttense forms of verbs(e.g. He showup andsay) - regalanzationof inegular verbs (e.g.knowed) - levellingof pasttense and past participle (e.g. He hadwent) - regularizationof nounplurals (e.g. sheeps) - regularizationof reflexivepronouns (e.g.hissell theirself) - adverbswithout adverbialmarker (e.g. real good) - numberdistinction for secondperson pers^nal pronouns (e.g. you - youse) - Presentperfect formation with'obe" rather than "have'o 21.3.3.Syntax - wider rangeof usesof progressiveaspect (e.g. She is liking) - negativeconcord/multiple negation (e.g. He won't do no harm) - zero-relativizationinsubject position (e.g. The manlives thereis a nice chap) - levellingof differencesbetween present perfect and past tense (e.g. Were you everin London?) - doublemodals (e.g. I tell you whatwe might shoulddo) - invariant questiontag (e.g. inni| - personalinstead of demonstrativepronoun (e.g. in themdays) - personalinstead of possessivepronoun (e.g. He's me brother) - extensionof anicleusage (e.g. We go to the churchevery Sunday) 21.4.Explanations for recurrentfeatures 2l .4.1. Simplification - glottalizationof /t/ - morphologicalregulari zation - invariant questiontag 21.4.2.Historical change at a slowerpace - loweringof lelto lal - rhoticity - presentperfect formation with "be" - zero-relativizationof subjectpronouns 21.4.3.Lesser respect for "artificial" (i.e. unnatural)linguistic constaints - doublecomparative - multiple negation - doublemodals - wider rangeof usesof progressiveaspect 24

21.5.Toward a theoryof (social)dialect variation 21.5.1.Background assumption: Language in a constantflux 21.5.2.Main Claim:It's all sociological 21.5.3.How is the linguisticdifference introduced? 21.5.4.From socialto regionaldialect variation

21.References

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