VARIETIES OF ENGLISH BeTg l. On homogeneity(or otherwise) 1.1.The homogeneity illusion 1.2.The homogeneity assumption in linguistics 1.3.Knocking down the homogeneityhypothesis: Types of variation temporalvariation speaker-basedvariation: sex, age, occupation etc. sociologicalvariation cultural variation geographicalvariation pragmatic/situationalvariation interpersonalvariation idiosyncraticvariation 1.4.The whys andwherefores of heterogeneityin language 1.4.1.Conditions - personalconditions - cultural conditions - naturalconditions l.4.2.T}lresocial-psychological approach: "us andthem 1.5.The opponentof heterogeneity:Accommodation" 1.6.Practical implications of linguisticheterogeneity 1.7.Aims of the lectureseries 1.7.1.Descriptive 1.7.2.Theoretical 2. A surveyof Englishas spokenaround the world "MainlandEnglish" in Europe:Gibraltar, Malta in Ausfalia andNew Zealand in America in Africa in Asia 3. Why is meantby "Englishis spoken"? Englishas a(n) 3.I . firsVsecond/foreignlanguage 3.2.offrcial language 3.3. languageof instruction 3.4. languageof the media 3.5.written language 3.6. languageof the socialelite 3.7.language of internationaltrade and traffic 3.8.lingua franca 3.9.Conclusion: The three circles of English 4. Englishas a globallanguage 4.1.English: a uniquesuccess story 4.2.Whatis a globallanguage 4.3. Whatmakes a globallanguage? 4.4.Therise of Englishas a globallanguage 4.5. Conclusion:English and globalization 5. Standarddialects, regional dialects, social dialects 5.1.On therelation between region and dialect 5.2.Dialects and language change 5.3.On the relationshipbetween dialects and social class Socialclass f <- dialectal variation -> Percentageof aitch-dropping in Bradford (Yorkshire) Uppermiddle class t2 Lower middleclass 28 Upperworking class 67 Middle working class 89 Lower working class 93 Standard:He's a manwho/that likes his car. Dialectalvariation: a) He's a manat likes his car. b) He's a manas likes his car. c) He's a manwhat likes his car. d) He's a manhe likes his car. e) He's a manlikes his car. 5.4. Standardlanguage vs. dialect 5.4.1.Relationship Standardlanguage dialectr dialectz.... dialectn 5.4.2.Standardization and codification 5.4.3.The attractionto the elite 5.4.4.Differences between standard dialect and dialect 5.4.5.The multiplicity of standardlanguages/dialects 5.5.The comparison problem 5.6.Dialect and identity 5.7.Determining dialect boundaries 5.8.The fuzzinessof dialectboundaries 5.9. Non-categoricaldifferences between dialects Examplel: The useof shouldand ought in threestandard dialects (tokens per 10,000words) British American Australian Should 12.9 9.2 7.5 Ought 1.1 0.7 0.3 Example2: The useof will andshall in threestandard dialects (tokens per 10,000words) British American Australian will 28.0 27.0 34.2 Shall 3.5 2.7 1.2 5.10.Dialect vs. accent 6. Why do languageshave dialects? 6.1.Social factors 6.1. L Settlementpatterns 6.1.2. Migrationpatterns 6.I .3. Geographicalfactors 6.1.4.Language contact 6.1.5. Economic ecology 6.1.6. Socialstratification 6.1.7 . Communicationnetworks 6.1.8.Group reference 6.1.9. Personal identity 6.2. Linguisticfactors 6.2.1. Rule extension/regularization 6.2.2.Analogy 6.2.3.Levelling 6.2.4.Transparency 6.2.5.Overemphasis 6.2.6.Grammatic alization 6.2.7.Minor processes:Dissimilation: colonel -> kernel Metathesis:ask -> ar< Assimilation:I haveto -> I hafta 6.2.8.Conclusion 7. Terminology:Different types of variation 7.1.Dialect 7.2.Sociolect 7.3.Etlnolect 7.4.Register "situationlect" 7.5.Urban/rural varieties "cifflect" 7.6.Genderlect 7.7 . *FaffLulylect" 7.8."Couplelect" 7.9.Idiolect 7.10.Free variation 8. Comparingtwo standards:British vs. AmericanEnglish 8.1.Spelling - our - ur: favour - favor - re - er: centre- center - consonantdoubling after suffrxing : travelled- traveled - logue- log: catalogue- catalog - ce - se:defence - defense - e - null : judgement- judgment - ction - xion : connection- connexion - ize- ise : jeopardize- jeopardise - Ve - e : encyclopaedic- encyclopedic Idiosyncraticdifferences: jail - gaol sceptical- skeptical tyre - tire cheque- check yoghurt- yogurt prograrnme-progftlm Punctuation:- capitalizationafter colon - order of quotationmark and full stop 8.2.Pronunciation - [a:] - [e]: chance,fast - null - [r]: course,car - [o] - [a:]: hot, top - tVdl - [r]: writer, rider - [ar] - [r]: hostile,missile - ü1- null: tune,new - [ar] - [sr]: courage,hurry Individualcases: stafus, ate, clark Secondarystress: territory, ceremony Individual cases:adult, laboratory,cigarette Prosody:speech rate, intonation 8.3.Morphology 6 8.3.1.lnflection Verb inflection: a) Irregular in BE - Regularizedin AE to burn,bumt-bumed to dream,dreamt - dreamed b) RegularizedinBE - irregularin AE to dive, dived- dove to fit, fitted - fit to sneak.sneaked - snuck c) Othercases to get,got, got - gotten to prove, proved,proved - proven 8.3.2.Derivation a) Suffix productivity:-iff: to ugliff, to humidi$ -ize:to hospitalize,to decimalize b) Zero derivation:an author- to author a sky rocket- to sky-rocket 8.4.Lexicon 8.4.1.Reasons for vocabularydifferences - difflerentecologies: the caseof robins - differenttechnological and cultural C:velopments: public school- homerun - different influencesfrom other languages:tornado, tortilla, tepee - independentlinguistic changewithin one variety: autumn- fall 8.4.2.Categories of lexical difflerences 8.4.2.1.Same concept - differentword form: tap- faucet,tin - can,queue - line, nought- zero,to ring - to call, match- game 8.4.2.2.Same word form - difflerentmeaning Form BE AE pants underpants trousers pavement footpath road surface nervy nervous bold, cheeky 8.4.2.3.Same word form - additionalmeaning in onevariety Form Commonmeaning Additional meaningin AE batlroom room with L.th room with toilet onlv 7 good fine valid asof tickets Form Commonmeaning Additional meaningin BE to mind to obeY to look after smart intelligent well-groomed surgery operation adoctor'soffice 8.4.2.4.Same word form - differencein style,connotation or frequencyof use Form BE AE quite negative/neutral Positive clever (common)positive (lesscommon) negative to fancy to like (common) (uncommon) 8.5.Morphosyntax: Plural agleement with collectivenouns: government,crew, Crowd, committee, team, jury, Staff,audienCe, sportS teams etc. BE: I don't think the RoyalFamily arerealiy known for their intelligence. AE: I think my family waspretty open-minded about different kinds of people. 8.6.Syntax 8.6.1.VP 8.6.1.1.Auxiliaries: do-support: I haven'tthe faintestidea. - I don't havethe faintestidea' I haven'tread this yet, but I will do. - I haven'tread this yet, but I will. 8.6.1.2.Modals: shall: What shall I do?- Whatwill I do? Shan't Will: Thatwill be the postman.- Thatmust be the postman. Would: WhenI wasyoung,I would go to the dentistand faint. Must: the bakeriesmust not havebeen open today - there was no freshbread. Oughtto: You oughtto takethis medicine.- You wantto takethis medicine. Goingto: She'sgonna win the game. Havegot to -> gotta:You gottabelieve me. 8.6.1.3. Verb complementation Infinitive vs. gerund:I hategetting up early. - I hateto get up early. For to construction:I want for her to fetch the strawberries. Compoundverbs: Go get the bananas. Omissionof auxiliaries:He wantedout andshe wanted in. 8.6.1.4.Tense and aspect: Past vs. PresentPrefect: I havealready eaten. - I alreadyate He would havebeen rich evenif he hadnot beenso good-looking.-He would have beenrich evenif he wasn't sucha looker. 8 I wish he had doneit. - I wish he would havedone it. PhrasalVerbs: to finish offi to finish up Mediopassives:The book normallyships within a week.The setinstalls in minutes. Subjunctive:He suggestedthat sheplay. How come 8.6.2.Pronouns: Demonstratives: Who is thatlit?- Who is this? Relativepronouns: The boy that helpedyou is my nephew. Indefinitepronouns: One has to do one'sduty. - Onehas to do his/theirduty. 8.6.3.Adverbs and adverbials: Omission of "1y": Drive slow. It wasan awful hot day. Placementof adverbs:You canseldom /often/never tell. - You seldom/often/nevercan tell. 8.6.4.Prepositions: in the circumstances- under the circumstances 8.6.5.Conjunctions: Do asI do.- Do like I do. It looksas if you lost tendpounds. - It lookslike you lost ten pounds. Johnleft directly after Mary arrived.- Johnleft directly Mary arrived. 8.7.Conclusion: greater informality in AE thanBE 9. LinguisticBackground 9.1.1.Vowels o \ lu t \ ^ o a o: 9.1.2.Consonants 9 Consonantalprocesses: - palatalization:[k] -> [kj] - glottalization:butter [t] -> [?] - flapping: writer: [t] -> [r] - voicing:farmer lfl -> [v] - devoicing:noise: [z] -> [s] -labialization: brother-> bruwer - stopping:river -> ribber - vocalization:bull -> bouw - rhoticization:car. the ideaof it 9.2.Morphology - Reflexivepronoum: hisself, theirselves, meself, theirself - Adjectivecomparison: She is the beautifullestkind of girl. - Plural marking on measurenouns: for five year - PresentTense formation: He don't like me. - PastTense formation: to catch,catched, catched - "a"-prefrxingon "ing" forms:The times, they area-changing. - Adverbformation: That's real good. 9.3.Synta,r 9.3.1.Pronouns - Demonstrative:in themdays - Possessive:He's me brother. - Personal:Me andmy brother 9.3.2.Articles: I hadthe toothache. 9.3.3.Adjectives: Double comparative: That is somuch more easier. 9.3.4.Negation:Double negation/negative concord: He won't do me no harm. 9.3.5.Verbs - Progressive:I'm liking it. - habitual"be": He be sick. - PresentPerfect/Past tense: Were you everin London? - completive"done": He donego fishing. - doublemodals: