English Section Thirdspace: the Lived Experience Bhanu Kandel Elderly Mistreatment : A Review Nupur Gupta Psychoanalysis: A Study of Human Unconscious Ganga Ram Paudyal Art and Science: A Study of the Symbiosis Prakash Gautam Foreseeing Future Through Past: An Apocalyptic Rajendra Poudel Vision In Bradbury’s A Sound of Thunder 28 Subordinates’ Perception on leadership Style of Branch Indira Shrestha Managers: A Comparative Study among Commercial Bank, Development Bank and Finance Company Study of Role Stress in Employees of Yellow Pagoda Devi Lal Sharma Hotel Translation of Cultural Refernces in Jhaṭāro Dr. Nabaraj Neupane g]kfnL v08 dfWolds g]kfnL kf7\oj|md @)^$ / @)&! sf] t'ngfTds cWoog lji0f'k|;fb zdf{ d}gfnL / sf]O/fnfsf syfdf ;f+:s[lts kIf M t'ngfTds cWoog 8f= nIdLz/0f clwsf/L Editorial Policy

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English Section Thirdspace: the Lived Experience Bhanu Kandel 1 Elderly Mistreatment : A Review Dr. Ram Prasad Aryal 9 Psychoanalysis: A Study of Human Ganga Ram Paudyal 16 Unconscious Art and Science: A Study of the Symbiosis Prakash Gautam 22 Foreseeing Future Through Past: An Rajendra Poudel 28 Apocalyptic Vision In Bradbury’s A Sound of Thunder 28 Subordinates’ Perception on leadership Style Indira Shrestha 38 of Branch Managers: A Comparative Study among Commercial Bank, Development Bank and Finance Company Study of Role Stress in Employees of Yellow Devi Lal Sharma 51 Pagoda Hotel Translation of Cultural Refernces in Jhaṭāro Dr. Nabaraj Neupane 72 g]kfnL v08 dfWolds g]kfnL kf7\oj|md @)^$ / @)&! sf] t'ngfTds lji0f'k|;fb zdf{ *$ cWoog d}gfnL / sf]O/fnfsf syfdf ;f+:s[lts kIf M t'ngfTds 8f= nIdLz/0f clwsf/L (# cWoog Thirdspace: the Lived Experience Bhanu Kandel Lecturer of English

ABSTRACT People have different lived experience in the society. Discrimination of some kind has been a permanent and almost unalienable feature

of every modern society. Even in the post-colonial era, people are colonized somehow or the other. There are different grounds for othering or thirding the people around the world in different societies

in different forms like race, religion, class, gender and caste creating

the firstspace, secondspace and thirdspace among the people. The

social system has created certain boundaries and obstacles, the

secondspace, conceived space, through which some people are

barred from reaching the firstspace which creates the thirdspace,

lived experience, among the people barred from getting entry into the firstspace. MLA has been taken the help of in referencing and the theory of origin of caste and its orientation has been of great use in preparing the article. The readers will be aware of the implicit intention of the writer that the third space pervades the human society and lived

experience of the people whether it is political, religio-cultural or social institution.

Key Words: caste, firstspace, secondspace, thirdspace, lived experience,

othering, thirding

Introduction People have different lived experience in the society whether one

has the direct approach to the first space, whatever the kind it is, or one has been detained from experience the first space due to the norms, values and principles of secondspace created by the people to keep the person or group from reaching the firstspace. One might have thirdspace experience of a certain fristspace though the person has experienced fristspace in some sector/ aspect of the social life. The people who have never experienced the firstspace in the society feel that they are the ones who are discriminated and devoid of power, which provides one with the opportunity to be in the

1 mainstream of the society. As Virginia Agostinelli has observed Contemporary critical studies have recently emphasized and redefined the role of space and more specifically, the spatiality of human life as a fundamental existential dimension which interweaves with the traditional historical-social modes of epistemological interpretation. Edward Soja has drawn upon the simplistic traditional dualism of historicality and sociality and elaborated a new radical postmodern way of thinking about real-and-imagined places. With the introduction to the notion of “thirdspace, ” a term that is purposely provisional, Soja has challenged the modernist either/ or logic (Soja 5) and contemplated instead (the possibility of) the existence of a new place of critical exchange. This innovative “strategic location, ” as Soja puts it, combines and transcends the dialectics of conceived/ lived and center/ periphery, ultimately allowing for “a radically different way of looking at, interpreting, and acting to change the embracing spatiality of human life” (Soja 29). Henri Lefebvre, whose conception of representational space has had a diverse interpretation by different scholars, had already started to question the rigidity and effectiveness of a categorical conceptual dualism. In this regard, while “travel[ ling] through Lefebvre’s biography as a geographical expedition” (Soja 29), Soja notices:

…the construction of compelling binary oppositions…[ is]

categorically closed to new, unanticipated possibilities. Two

terms are never enough, [ Lefebvre] would repeatedly write. Il

y a toujours l’Autre. There is always the Other, a third term that

disrupts, disorders, and begins to reconstitute the conventional binary opposition into an-Other that comprehends but is more than just the sum of two parts. (Soja 30-1)

Accordingly, Soja’s concept of thirdspace combines spatiality, historicality and sociality. It is “an-Other” way of (politically) understanding and possibly modifying the spatiality of human life through the critical awareness generated by a re-balanced/ restructured “‘cumulative’ trialectics that is radically open to additional otherness, and to a continuing expansion of spatial knowledge”

(Soja, 1996: 61). Soja’s innovative perspective of “thirding-as-othering” opens up a new real-and-imaginary critical space where issues of race, class and gender can be addressed concurrently.

Method This research paper has been prepared on the basis of secondary data and it is a library based study. Certainly, therefore, no field work has been

2 carried out but books, journals, magazines and electronic materials have been consulted as far as they are available and appropriate.

Theory of Thirdspace : The Lived Experience

Edward Soja, a Kenyan cultural geographer, has created his own theory of 'Third space' in his book The Political organization of Space (1971) in which

he talks of firstpace, secondspace and thirdspace. His book has aimed at opening up new perspectives on space and spatiality using "a critical strategy

of 'thirding-as-othering' to create his tripartite spatial theory, as well as to

assert the interdependent relationship of sociality, historicity, and spatiality

(5, 8-12). Soja's thirdspace is not only appropriate but also applicable in the

study and discussion of socio-cultural discrimination practiced in every society, though his theoretical framework and application are embedded in Western thought and scholarship.

The theory of thirdspace depends on the triad of perceived, conceived

and lived space, and also his translation of this triad into spatial practices,

representation of space, and spaces of representation (Stanek 1). According

to Soja, what Lefebvre describes as 'perceived space' or the product of 'spatial

practice' is the firstspace, "the spatial practice of a society secretes that society's space (Lefebure 38). Soja describes it that spatial practice is “ the process of producing the material form of social spatiality" and is therefore, " both the medium and outcome of human activity, behavior and experience"

(Soja 66). The product of spatial practice is Firstspace or "materialized, socially

produced, empirical space…. perceived space, directly sensible to open, within limits, to accurate measurement and description" (Soja 66). Materiality and physicality are the major features of Firstspace and the focus of Firstspace epistemologies (Soja 75). Lefebure's 'representations of space' create "conceived space" or

Secondspace. This is mental and conceptual rather than material and physical, about which Soja explains: This conceived space is also tied to the relations of production

and, especially, to the order or design that they impose. Such

order is constituted via control over knowledge, signs and codes; over the means of deciphering spatial practice and hence over the production of spatial knowledge… In these

dominating spaces of regularity and 'ruly' discourse, these

mental spaces, are thus the representations of power and

ideology, of control and surveillance. (67)

3 Therefore, Secondspace is imposed from above and mediates how people relate to and interact with Firstspace. According to Soja idealistic visions of spaces are part of second space-utopias, nations, artistic creations and visions of charted and uncharted territories (societies) alike, all make up Secondspace. This 'epistemology assumes that "spatial knowledge is primarily produced through discursively devised representations of space, through the spatial workings of the mind. In its purest form, Secondspace is . . . made up of projections into the empirical world from conceived or imagined geographies"

(Soja 79). It is important to note that Secondspace is the 'dominating space', not the dominated one, always coming from above rather than below (Soja 67). Lefebvre's 'spaces of representation' produce the 'lived space' or Thirdspace as Soja writes "spaces of representation contain all other real and imagined spaces simultaneously" (69). This is the dominated space where physicality and ideology meet and create lived realities:

These spaces are also vitally filled with politics and ideology,

with the real and imagined interwined, and with capitalism,

racism, patriarchy and other material spatial practices that

concretize the social relations of production, reproduction,

exploitation, domination and subjection . . . . The spaces of

the peripheries, the margins and marginalized, the 'third

worlds' that can be found at all scales, in the corporeality of

the body and mind, in sexuality and subjectivity, in individual and collective identities from the most local to the most

global. They are the chosen spaces for struggle, liberation, emancipation. (Soja 68)

Third-pace, for Soja, is the real space where people live their everyday life and it is highly political space; and "a strategic location from which to encompass, understand and potentially transform all spaces simultaneously" (Soja 68). It is difficult to describe what the Thirdspace is in fact but, to borrow Lefebvre’s, "concrete abstraction" or Soja's "real-and -imagined." Using the concept of Thirdspace helps to break out of binary thinking about spatial problems and issues-- one can consider both sides of the binary separately, their relationship to each other, and push beyond the boundaries set by either. It is the methodology Soja calls "thirding-as-Othering", which he describes: In what I call a critical strategy of "thirding-as-Othering". I try to open up our spatial imaginaries to ways of thinking and

4 acting politically that respond to all binarisms, to any attempt

to confine thought and political action to only two alternatives,

by interjecting an-other set of choices. In this critical thirding, the original binary choice in not dismissed entirely but is subjected to a creative process of restructuring that draws selectively and strategically from the two opposing categories to open new alternatives. (5)

Putting focus on the Thirdspace is critiquing the domination, subjugation, exploitation, subjection and status quo, uncovering oppression and inequality, and thinking beyond previously presented possibilities as well.

According to Soja, the first step to opening up Thirdspace is to realize the interconnected and interdependent nature of sociality, historicity and spatiality (81). It cannot be realized or discussed within the boundary of any one established discipline because it is inherently a boarder-crosser (boundary- breaking) subject. Soja himself has summarized the concept of Thirdspace in the following way: Thirdspace is (1) a way to understand the spatial dimension of human life; (2) an integral part of the often neglected trialectics

of spatiality: (3) an all encompassing spatial perspective, which has the same potential as historical and sociological views; (4) a mutual political strategy against all forms of oppression; and (5) a starting point for many new approaches. (56-7) In fact it is not only important to think that it opens up new avenues for discussion about 'space' in geographical terms but many problems and issues like race, gender and caste, because despite the fact that they are much disregarded, in fact, they are social and cultural spaces created, developed into political space, as Lefebvre says, "(social) space is a (social) product" and therefore critical to understanding human life (26). Soja has challenged the former dialectic and has developed his ideas of trialectic. He has challenged the idea of binary opposites and introduced the idea of Firstspace, which is the 'real space'- the built physical buildings that can be mapped and seen, Secondspace is the 'imagined representational space, - i.e. how the space is perceived, seen and argued over, and Thirdspace is a fully lived space, a simultaneously real and imagined, actual and virtual locus of structured individuality and collective experience and agency.

Thirdspace, therefore, is the experience of life in the Firstspace mediated through Secondspace expectations. Thirdspace is a purposefully tentative and flexible term that attempts to capture what is actually a constantly shifting

5 and changing milieu of ideas, events, appearances and meanings (Soja 2). For

Soja "As thirdspace is the idea of both/ and also logic, instead of either/ or it doesn't only permit but also encourages a creative combination of modernist and post-modernist perspectives. (5)

Every life, every event, every activity we engage in is usually unquestionably assumed to have a pertinent and revealing historical and social dimension ( Soja 2). Thirdspace . . . is instead an efficient invitation to enter a space

of extraordinary openers, a place of critical exchange where the geographical imagination can be expanded to encompass a multiplicity of perspectives that have heretofore been considered by the epistemological referees to be incompatible.

It is a space where issues of raw class, caste (my addition) and gender can be addressed simultaneously without privileging one over the other... (5) It is 'an-other' set of choices. In this critical thirding the original binary choice is not dismissed entirely but is subjected to a creative process of restructuring that draws selectively and strategically from the two opposing categories to open new alternatives. The first of critical thirding revolves around the interjection of a critical spatial imagination into the interpretive dualism. The second has shaped the preceding discussion of modernism and post-modernism, creating the possibility of a more open and combinatorial perspective. Still another (third) is the Thirdspace which can be described as a creative recombination and extension, one that builds on a Firstpsace, perspective that is focused on the 'real' material world and a Secondspace perspective that interprets this reality through "imagined" representation of spatiality. (5-6)

Firstspace is the space which can be empirically mapped, and the

Secondspace is conceived in ideas about space, in thoughtful representations of human spatiality in mental or cognitive forms, these are perceived and conceived spaces, with the first often thought as "real" and the second as "imagined". Specifically "lived space" is seen as a simple combination or mixture of the "real" and the "imagined". Thirdspace is the product of

"thirding", the creation of another mode of thinking (10-11) about space that draws upon the material and mental spaces. Thirdspace can be, as bell hooks, has developed in her theory, "a potentially nurturing places of resistance, real- and- imagined, material-and-metaphorical meeting grounds of struggles overall forms of oppression, wherever, they are found" (12). Multiple forms of oppression and inequality (ies) marginality (ies), a powerful antidote to the

6 narrowed and aggressive centricisms and essentialisms that have deflected most modernist movements . . . ( hooks 13). Thirdspace for Foucault is the "heterotopia" which is the "space

in which we live, which draws up out of ourselves, in which the erosion of

our lives, our time and our history occurs" ( hooks 15). For Homi Bhaba,

Thirdspace is the 'radical openness and hybridity" (14). "Thirdspace in a way,

challenges the homogenization, differentiation and hierarchical ordering that thread through the specific geographies of the modern world" (17). It is a "real

fake" experience that is already within us, in the normal course of our daily

lives, in our homes and workplaces, in how we choose to be informed and

entertained, in how we are clothed and erotically aroused, in who and what

we vote for, and what pathways we take to survive" ( bhaba 19). If Firstspace is explored primarily through its readable texts and

contexts, and Secondspace through its prevailing representational discourses, then the exploration of Thirdspace must be additionally guided by some form

of potentially emancipatory praxis, the translation of knowledge into action in a conscious- and consciously spatial- effort to improve the world in some

significant world, where secondspace is hegemonically powerful (bhaba 22). Understanding situation of a group of people in the society requires some

specific contextual knowledge as Daine Mines puts, "some of the conditions from which it emerges and which it also shapes are conditions common to

humans all over the world: a concern with power and rank, a sense of self in

relation to others, the struggle we all face to matter in a world that does not always facilitate everyone's mattering (3).

Conclusion: Thirdspace suits to deepening an understanding of a society despite

several other challenges. It is useful because one, it provides a method of addressing the historically evolving relationship between space, power and inequality. Two, the concept of 'real-and-imagined' is especially appropriate to talk about a social phenomenon like caste which has been paradoxically defined and described as both a deeply engrained structuring principle of society and an imported method of social control. People have created a thirdspace in the different names and forms like race, property or caste in different part s of the world, and it is most probably this embeddedness in a specific area that makes a politically focused social theory which embraces and accounts for ambiguity particularly appropriate to understand the complex phenomena of a socio- cultural make up of a society.

7 Works-Cited

Agostinelli, Virginia. Envisioning Thirdspace: Spatiality and Marginality in Carlo Mazzacurati’s La Giusta Distanza. 4 June 2011. Web. 15 December 2016.

Bhaba. Homi. K. “Preface: In the Cave of Making.” Communicating in the Third

Space. Ed. Karin Ikas and Gerhard Wagner. New York: Routledge, 2009. nd Elliot, Anthony. Concepts of the Self. 2 ed. Cambridge: polity press, 2007. Print.

Foucault, Michael. Discipline and Punish. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York:

Vintage, 1979. Print. hooks, bell. The Will to Change: Men, Masculinity, and Love. Washington:

Washington Square Press, 2004. Print. rd Jenkins, Richard. Social identity. 3 ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2008. Print.

Lefebvre, Henri. The Production of Space. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1991. Print.

Reddy, Deepa S. Anthropological Quarterly. 78.3 (2005). 543- 84. Print.

Soja, Edward. Thirdspace: Journeys to Loss Angeles and other Real-and-

imagined Places: Cambridge Mass: Blackwell, 1996. Print.

8 Elderly Mistreatment : A Review 1 Nupur Gupta , 2 2 Ram Prasad Aryal, PhD and Ramji Adikhari PhD 3 Sandeep Gupta, MD

ABSTRACT Aging is a natural phenomenon and an inevitable process of growing old. With increasing age the vulnerability of aged population increases

and due to lack of time and proper care regarding elderly, there might be elderly mistreatment in society which directly and indirectly affects the quality of life of elderly population. Abuse of elderly people is an important public health problem in both developing and developed

countries. The government of Nepal has formulated a National policy, act and regulations on ageing in the country. Growing numbers of

elderly people are suffering different problems, but there are limited

studies regarding the extent of abuse in elderly populations, especially in developing countries. Studies estimated that 4-6% of elderly people in developed countries have experienced some form of mistreatment in their lifetime. The present article highlights the different mistreatment issues faced by elderly people within the country as well as globally.

Keywords: Elderly, aging, elderly abuse/ mistreatment, Nepal

1 Mrs. Gupta is graduate student at Department of Development Studies, Pokhara University;

Email: [email protected] 2 Drs. Aryal and Adikhari are Assistant Professor of Pokhara University, Nepal; 3 Dr. Gupta is Assistant Professor of Gandaki Medical College Teaching Hospital, Nepal

Background The world population is changing in both size and composition. The global population of older persons is expected to triple from 672 million in 2005 to

1.9 billion in 2050, hence it is becoming increasingly important to focus and enhance the wellbeing of the older population in later part of life1. As per World Health Organization (WHO) projections for the increase in numbers and proportions of older persons are impressive. Between the years 2000 and 9 2050, the world wide proportion of persons over 65 years of age is expected to more than double from the current 6.9% to 16.4%. The proportion of oldest- old (those aged 80 years and older) will increase during this period from 1.9 2,3 to 4.2% . Ageing is a universal reality which is beyond human control and dynamic process. It consist of ages nearing the life expectancy of human being which can be seen as the forth and vital stage of human lifecycle4. Most of the countries have accepted the chronological age of 65 years as a definition of elderly or older person, but this definition is somewhat arbitrary, as it is associated with the age at which one begin to receive pension benefits. As per the Senior Citizens Acts 2063, Nepal has defines the senior citizens as “people who are 60 years and above”5. Elderly abuse is a general term used to describe certain types of harm to older adults. Other terms commonly used are Elderly Mistreatment. The National Center of Elder Abuse (NCEA) - International federation on Ageing defines Elder abuse as any knowing, intentional, or negligent act by a caregiver or any other person that causes harm or a serious risk of harm to a vulnerable 6 adult . WHO defines Elder abuse as “any type of actions, series of actions, or lack of actions which produce physical or psychological harm and which is set within a relationship of trust or dependence. Elder abuse may be part of a cycle of family violence, it may be caused by caregivers or may be the result of lack of training of social and health institutions, who cannot meet the needs of older persons7. A study by Philip Bulman et. al on elderly abuse has estimated for year 2003 that 1.6 percent of old Americans (65+) suffered physical abuse. Other forms of elder abuse such as financial exploitation and emotional mistreatment were experienced by 5.2 and 5.1 percent old US citizens, respectively. These figures reflect high level of exposure of elder abuse cases in American society. Further it is said that these figures represent only “tip of the iceberg”8.

In Nepal there is very information available to public on prevalence of elder abuse also means less pressure from the government and other concerned agencies to come up with suitable policies and programs to curb the problem. Therefore it is high time to initiate activities that would bring out hidden information on prevalence of elder abuse in Nepali society to public scrutiny9.

Nepal, like many other countries in South-East Asia, has been successful in lowering the fertility and mortality rates and increasing the life expectancy of people in the interest of national development. According to the Nepal

Demographic Health Survey 2011, the total fertility decreased to 2.6 from

3.1 in 2006 (CBS 2006). However, a continued increase in the percentage of aged persons in the population is creating humanitarian, social and economic 10 problems in many less developed countries like Nepal. Past high fertility rates, combined with the decline in mortality has resulted in substantial growth in the number of old persons and, in conjunction with the subsequent fertility decline, to an increasing share of the elderly in the overall population. Following the migration of younger people from less developed to developed countries along with mitigation from rural to urban areas, rural older people are feeling isolated lonely and deprived of care 10. Aging is the term used to describe the decline of physical ability

(for example deterioration in hearing, sight and mobility) appearance (such as wrinkles and loss of hair) and mental agility (efficiency of retaining and processing information, old or new) that is experienced with advancing years.

This is a biological reality, however it is also a subject of construction by which 11 each society makes sense of old age . In Nepal, also the elderly population is in increasing trends. There were 1.5 million elderly inhabitants. During the years of 1991- 2001, the annual elderly population growth rate was 3.39%, higher than the annual population growth rate of 2.3. Life expectancy in Nepal has increased from approximately 27 years in 1951 to 64 years in 2008 (CBS, 2011) 12.

Abuse varies in form and includes physical, sexual, and psychological 13 maltreatment, financial exploitation and neglect . The elder abuse in family settings has increased in recent years for a variety of reasons, including the increasing proportion of older adults in total population, the related increase in chronic disabling disease, and the increasing involvement of families in care giving relationship with elders14. Elder abuse is a hidden problem because it is commonly associated with social taboos and people generally prefer to remain quiet about it.

However things are changing with increasing awareness level, societies being more open, enhanced reach of social media and growing cases of elderly mistreatment of changing structure of the society9. Elder mistreatment is also a result of cross cultural effects. Basically if a person is from a developing country it takes time for the old aged to adapt to the western culture and thus it results in their suffering. Basically an example of South Asian mother who goes to her sons house in abroad and she finds it difficult to live there because she couldn’t understand the work division. She falls sick and is provided with over the counter drugs and not a proper treatment by physicians as it would cost him a lot of money. This is also a type of elder mistreatment. This leads to returning of the mother to her country and leaving away from her beloved children leaving abroad15.

11 Elder mistreatment, like any other form of family violence, is extremely

complex, and various factors contribute to its occurrence. In study, there was

that several factors were associated with elder mistreatment. Depression,

being widowed/ divorced/ single/ separated, having physical disability, having

a labor-intensive job, depending on self-made income, and living alone significantly increased the risk of elder mistreatment16. The objective of the study is to study the existing problems existing in the elderly aged people in relation to mistreatment faced to them in the community by elderly individuals within the country as well as globally.

DATA AND METHODS This paper is based on the literature searched on Google scholar on elderly mistreatment from February 2017 - June 2017. The following search keywords

were applied: elderly, ageing, mistreatment, abuse, Nepal. We studied the data issued by the Central Bureau of Statistics and other related institutions including e-resources. The paper is based on the descriptive analysis of ageing population in the context of Nepal together with issues and challenges faced by our respected elderly gentlemen and women. In the study we have used the convincing examples of cases on elderly mistreatment report in the various literatures as studied.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Most of the elder abuses are not reported basically because of the fear of rejection and abandonment by other family members, their caregivers and also due to lack of understanding or impairment. Potential elder abuse can be detected through the elderly person 1) fear of family member or caregiver 2) unexplained injuries 3) very poor hygiene and appearance of elder neglect and mistreatment. There is no association between elder abuse or elder neglect and age, sex, marital status, or education. Studies have shown that elderly people are vulnerable to abuse and can go undetected14.

A study conducted by Geriatric Centre Nepal (GCN) shows out of 117 cases of elder abuse reported in two leading daily newspapers in a period of July 2008 to July 2010 shows that 43 percent were about physical abuse followed by neglect covering 33.3 percent. The study also shows that physical abuse led to death of the victims in 49 percent of the cases reported. It was found that physical abuse was the most common form of elder abuse reported in print media 43% followed by the neglect 33.3%. Elders living with families were

12 victimized more often than those living alone. Most incidents of elder abuse have reported within their family homes circumstances9.

Data on the extent of the problem in institutions such as hospitals, nursing homes and other long-term care facilities are scarce. A survey of nursing-home staff in the United States of America, however, suggests rates may be high: 36% witnessed at least one incident of physical abuse of an elderly patient in the previous year; 10% committed at least one act of physical abuse towards an elderly patient and 40% admitted to psychologically abusing patients. There is even less data on elder maltreatment in institutional settings in developing countries as studied by Sharma B et.al17. A total of 117 cases of elder abuse were reported in last two years in Nepal National Daily. A total of 52 and 65 different cases of elder abuse were reported by Kantipur and Annapurna Post respectively, i.e., after omission of duplications. In cases where more than one elders were abused, the number of victims were considered for the analysis. It is worth considering that more than 74% of these reported cases in print media were also reported to police.

There could have been additional cases that were reported to police, other systems of governance or elsewhere but were not reported by the selected print media. This is A baseline study of elder abuse in Nepal done under initiation of Nepal Human Right Commission and Geriatric Center Nepal from 2008 to 2010 from news published in daily Nepali News Press report9. The elder suffer a lot due to abuse and it is difficult for them to report and overcome it. Identifying a case of emotional and behavioral elder abuse requires an in depth understanding of mind set of both abusers and the victims. Such skill could be developed only by continuous observation over an extended period. Such task could be performed effectively by neighbors and/ or the community members provided they already have basic understanding of principles of elder abuse. Like in many other societies, it is a social taboo in Nepal for an outsider to look into the interpersonal relationships within a family. This makes it difficult for any case of elder abuse to come out in the public arena before it develops into some event of public crime. Even then, it may not get the attention of national media in lack of network for information collection and dissemination as evident from the low cases reported from remote districts.

Even if these conditions are fulfilled, the media personnel need to understand the importance of proper reporting, which was found to be grossly lacking in our country.

13 CONCLUSION Respect for elders and protection for weaker are the two basic human values that all societies have been promoting since the beginning of human civilization. Elder abuse is a violation of human rights that affects every aspect of the older person’s life. Elder mistreatment has been showing up as a challenge in the world mainly because it has not been in light but it could be prevented if strong laws are made by the government against the abuser and the elderly stand up for their rights. It could be avoided if the youths recognize the value of elderly people in the society and provide appropriate respect and value to our elderly population. Nepal’s The Senior Citizen Act clearly says that to take good care of old people are the responsibility of the families and their relatives. The nations of the world must create an environment in which ageing is accepted as a

natural part of the life cycle, where anti-ageing attitudes are discouraged and

are given opportunities to participate fully in educational, cultural, spiritual and economic activities. The world celebrates June 15 as the World Elder Abuse Awareness Day

every year, we would like to request our young generation to respect elderly people every day in their life and just not limit only for the awareness day event. The national policies and government should take initiatives on increasing the monthly incentives amount of the elderly people and establishing one Elder Service Support Center in each VDC for ensuring welfare of elders in a sustainable manner where older people issues and problems can be solved appropriately.

REFERNCES

1. Gupta, R. and Chaudhuri, A. (2008). Elder abuse in a cross-cultural context:

Assessment, policy and practice. Indian journal of Gerontology, 22(3-4), 373-393. 2. Department of International Economic and Social Affairs 1985.Periodical on

Ageing. New York: United Nations. 3. World Health Organization. (2001). Men ageing and Health - Achieving

health across the life span. Geneva: Swizerland.

4. Chandrika, S. Radhakumari, P. and Madhavi, B.D. (2015). Quality of Life of Elderly in old Age Homes and Community in Visakhapatnam City.

Journal of Dental and medical sciences, 14(10), 27-31.

5. Senior Citizens Act, 2063 (2006). www.lawcommission.gov.np.

6. National Center on Elder Abuse. (1998). New York, USA.

14 7. World Health Organization. (2017). Elder abuse Fact sheet. Geneva: Swizerland. 8. Bulman P. (2010). Elder Abuse Emerges From the Shadows of Public

Consciousness. National Institute of Justice Journal, 265. 9. NHRC and GCN. (2011). A Baseline Study on Reported Cases of Elder Abuse

in Nepali Press. Kathmandu, Nepal: National Human Rights Commission and Geriatric Center Nepal.

10. CBS. (2006). Statistical Pocket Book. Kathmandu: Center Bureau of Statistics.

11. Dubey, A (2011). A Study of Elderly Living in Old Age Home and within

Family Set-up in Jummu. Studies on Home and Community Science,

5(2), 93-98.

12. CBS. (2011). Statistical Pocket Book. Kathmandu: Center Bureau of Statistics.

13. Collins, K. A. (2006). Elder Maltreatment: a review. Archives of Pathology

and Laboratory Medicine, 130(9), 1290-96

14. Latha K. S. ( 2008). Elder Abuse and Neglect: A review. Indian journal of

Gerontology, 22(3-4), 437-479.

15. Comijs, H.C., Penninx, B.W., Knipscheer, K.P. and Tileberg VW. (1999).

Psychological distress in victims of elderly abuse: the effects of social

support and coping. Journal of Gerontology, 54(4), 240-245.

16. L, Wu., H, Chen., Y, Hu., H, Xiang., X, Yu., T, Zhang. et al. (2012). Prevalence and associated factors of elder mistreatment in a rural community in

People’s Republic of China: a cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 7(3), e33857.

17. Sharma, B. (2012). Elderly Abuse: An Emerging Public Health Problem.

Health Prospect, 11, 57-60.

15 Psychoanalysis: A Study of Human Unconscious Ganga Ram Paudyal Lecturer of English

ABSTRACT Psychoanalysis is a method of treating mental disorders that emphasizes the probing of unconscious mental process. It is based on the psychology theory by Sigmund Freud. It is the study of understanding of mental and emotional process in individual people. Freud aimed to put the study of human consciousness and the unconscious on a scientific footing. Psychoanalytic criticism is an approach to literary criticism which sees literary work as an

expression of the unconscious of the individual psyche of its author, or of the whole human race. It is also extended to encompass

analysis of the motives of an author, readers, fictional characters,

childhood memories, relationship to parents, creative process and interpretation of symbols in a text.

Key Words: unconscious, psyche, dream, conscious, sexuality

Background Twentieth century could be viewed from many perspectives of profound relevance to literate, criticism and theory. These complex phenomena have inspired a great deal of literature and criticism. At the end th of the 19 century, criticism in Europe and America had been predominantly biographical, historical, psychological, impressionistic and empirical. These vast political and economic developments provided broad context in which the literature of the 20th century arose.

So far as the development of psychoanalysis is concerned, it is necessary to go back to Aristotle who first examined the psychological dimensions of literature, so many other critics, philosophers and rhetoricians have also examined it ranging from an author’s motivation and intentions to the effect of text and performances on an audience. The application of psychoanalytic principles to the study of literature however is a relatively recent phenomenon, initiated primarily by Freud and in other directions by

Carl Gustav Jung and Jacques Lacan. In this regard Habib writes: The notion of the unconscious” was not in itself new and it can be found in many thinkers prior to Freud, notably in some of the Romantics such as

16 Schlegel, in Schopenhauer, and in Nietzsche Freud’s fundamental contribution was to open up the entire realism of the unconscious to systematic study, and to provide language and terminology in which the operations of the unconscious could be expressed. (571) From this we can clearly asset that Freud was the one who materialized psychoanalysis. Before Freud unconscious was posited as the ultimate source and explanation of human thought and behavior represented a radical disruption of the main streams of Western thought. Since Aristotle man was judged essentially a rational being, capable of making free choices in the spheres of intellection and morality. Freud’s claim is that our behavior is often motivated by impulses that are not immediately available to the conscious mind, lying instead within the province of a dynamic unconscious over which we have little control. The broad claim that our behaviour can be unconsciously motivated was not particularly novel even when Freud was writing at the turn the 20th century. However his innovation was to attach this idea to a specific theory of personality and to argue that a therapist using the right techniques of psychoanalysis would be able to make the unconscious. Psychoanalytic concepts have become part of our everyday lives. If psychoanalysis can help us better understand than man behavior, then, it must certainly be able to help us understand literary texts, which are about human behavior.

Unconscious as a Dynamic Entity The main claim of psychoanalysts is that our behavior is often motivated by the impulses that are not immediately available to the conscious mind, lying instead within the province of a dynamic unconscious over which we have a little control. The broad claim is that our behavior can be unconsciously motivated and unconscious is the reservoir of all kinds of problems. In this regard Tyson mentions, “The unconscious is the storehouse of those painful experiences and emotions, those wounds, fears, guilty, desires, and unresolved conflicts we do not want to know about because we feel we will be overwhelmed by them. The unconscious comes into being when we are very young through the repression the expunging from consciousness, of these unhappy psychological events” (15). Freud’s innovation is to attach this idea to a specific theory of personality, and to argue that a therapist using the right techniques of psychoanalysis would be able to make the unconscious conscious and thereby help the patients attain a kind of psychological equilibrium. Repression gives our painful experiences force by making them the organizers of our current experience. Then these feelings come out. From this we can conclude that human beings are motivated, even driven by desires, fears, needs, conflicts of 17 which they are unaware that is unconscious which “is not a passive reservoir of neutral data, through the word is sometimes used this way in other disciplines and in common parlance, but dynamic entity that engages us at the deepest level of our being ”(15). The Defenses As we know that unconscious is the storehouse all our experiences. Defenses are the processes by which the contents of our unconscious are kept in the unconscious when we analyze our fear of intimacy. Fear of emotional involvement with another human being is often an effective defense against learning about our own psychological wounds because it keeps us at an emotional distance. Defenses are the repression of the unfulfilled desires that are in unconscious. When we let these unfulfilled desires come freely they become destructive. For this reason they are hidden by defenses. We often repress what the id encourages us to think and do because the ego and the superego tell us not to think and do therefore forcing these unacceptable wishes into the unconscious. All of us have represses wishes into the unconscious. All of us have repressed wishes into the unconscious. Due to the defenses or repression these repressed desires emerge in disguised forms, dreams and slips.

The Interpretation of Dreams During sleep the unconscious is free to express itself and it does so in our dreams. Ancient cultures attached various kinds of significance to dreams, such as foretelling the future or expressing a means of communication between divine and human. Psychoanalysis insisted that dreams could be scientifically interpreted from the associations produced by the dreamer the analyst could infer a thought structure composed of latent dream thoughts. These were expressed not directly but only as translated and distorted into the manifest dream which was composed largely of visual images. Dream analysis involves treating the client’s dream as a symbolic representation of their unconscious mind. Freud’s basic idea here is that the mechanisms that keep unconscious desires at bay in a waking state are less effective during sleep, which allows the unconscious to make its presence felt in the mind of the dreamer, although in a heavily disguised form. The task of the therapist is to decide the dream in order to discover its time meaning. This involves reverse engineering the dream work that originally constructed the manifest content of the dream, thereby allowing the analyst access to its latent content, and with it the repressed desires that the dream represents. In this sense all dreams are a kind of wish fulfillment, an attempt to solve some psychic conflict in a way that is acceptable to the conscious part of mind. 18 Psychic Conflict In order to understand the mechanisms of psychic conflict it is necessary to know something about Freud’s tripartite theory of the human psyche. This holds that the psyche is made up of three parts: the id; the ego; and the superego. As Garvey says,

The id which comprises the basic drives of the psyche, ‘is a cauldron full of seething excitations….striving to bring about the satisfaction of the institutional needs subject to the observance of the pleasure principle’. The ego is organized, rational, decision making part of the personality governed by what Freud calls the ‘ reality, principle’ which in effect is just the requirement of survival of the real world. The superego is the moral, censorious part of the psyche. (336) Many kinds of psychological distress are related to tensions between these aspects of the mind. He further opines that “the ego, driven by the id, confined by the superego, repulsed by reality, struggles… (in) bringing about harmony among the forces and influences working in and upon it’, and routinely

‘breaks out in anxiety – reality anxiety regarding the external world, moral anxiety regarding the external world, moral anxiety regarding the superego, and neurotic anxiety regarding the strength of the passions in the id.”(336). Therefore we need to bring the tensions to the surface and thereby reduce their power to cause suffering. By proper understanding of the psychic distress we can settle the tension.

Sexuality Freud’s account of human sexuality is dramatically different from the ordinary conception. Freud treats sexuality as a drive which differs in important respects from our image of an animal instinct. The human sexual drive is highly variable both in terms of its characteristics activities and in terms of the persons and things towards which it is directed. Most important human sexuality essentially entangles the imagination. In this regard Habib writes,

“Freud not only saw sexuality as operative from beginning of a person’s life, but also viewed normal adult sexual life as the result of a long and complicated development of the sexual function of in an individual (575).

Mental Functioning Freud thought that the mind worked according to fundamental principles. He saw his neurotic patients as essentially conflicted and hypothesized that the conflicts arose from the conflicting principles at work in the mind. Freud saw fundamental conflict between the pleasure principle of the reality principle. As Lear writes “The pleasure principle works according 19 to loose associations of primary process mental functioning and aims at the discharge of tension” (162). When the mind is under the sway of the pleasure principle the diffusion and discharge of tension is the only issue. One could see it pretty clearly in dream activity. It is related to unconscious wishes, hallucinations etc.

On the other hand, mind starts to form a conception of external reality and of how to bring about a real change. A new form of mental functioning is presented which is no longer agreeable but what was real even if it happens to be disagreeable when the mind is operating according to the reality principle, it associates among ideas according to the logical connections of secondary process. As Lear says, “it pays attention to perception of the world, and it aims at action that will bring real-life satisfaction (146). The reality principle also aims at reducing tension but it does so via realistic considerations.

The Oedipus Complex

As the infancy progresses, sexual development undergoes the Oedipus complex the boy focuses his sexual wishes upon his mother and develops hostile impulses towards his father. It is a complex of emotions aroused in a young child typically around the age of four by an unconscious sexual desire of the parent of the opposite sex and wish to exclude the parent of the same sex.

The term was originally applied to boys, the equivalent in girls was called Electra complex. Freud further proposed that boys and girls experience the complex differently: boys in a form of Penis envy and that unsuccessful resolution of the complex might lead to neurosis, pedophilia, and homosexuality. A child is identification with the same sex parent is the successful resolution of the complex. Freud used the term Oedipus complex in his history of psychosexual stages of development to describe a boy’s feelings of desire for his mother and jealousy and anger toward his father. Essentially a boy feels like he is competing with his father for the possession of his mother. He views that his father as a rival for her attention and affections. He suggests that this stage plays an important role in the phallic stage and successful completion of this stage involved identifying with the same sex parent which ultimately would lead to developing a mature sexual identity. So the phallic stage serves as an important point in forming sexual identity.In this regard Abrams writes the repressed but continuing presence in the adult’s unconscious of the male infant’s desire to possess his mother and to have his rival, the father, out of the way (266). Psychoanalytic criticism sees a literary text as an expression of the unconscious of the individual psyche of its author or of the collective 20 unconscious of a society or of the whole human race. Disciple of Freud, Carl

Gustav Jung, broke with is master and concluded that Freud’s theory was excessively reductive and monolithic in referring neuroses to experiences of

children, especially sexual experiences. He introduced the theory of archetypes which depends on his theory of collective unconscious. In this regard Abrams

writes: Jung’s emphasis is not on his theory of collective unconscious but on what he calls the “collective unconscious’ shared by all the individuals in all cultures which he regards as the repository of “racial memories” and of primordial images and patterns of experiences that he calls archetypes” (267). He does not view literature as a disguised form of libidinal form of wish-fulfillment that parallels of fantasies of a neurotic personality. Instead he

regards literature as like the myths whose patterns recur in diverse cultures, an expression of the archetypes of the collective unconscious. A great author

possesses, and provides for readers access to the archetypal images buried in the racial memory and so succeeds in revitalizing aspects of the psyche which are essential both to individual slf-integration and to the mental and emotional well being of the human race. The work of Jacques Lacan related to his extensive re-reading of Freud in the light of insights furnished by linguistics and structuralism. He argued that

speech and, more generally language were central to psychoanalytic practice and to any theoretical conclusions that mind be extrapolated from it. He interprets Freud’s theories in the light of Saussurian linguistics. In this regard

Abrams writes, “Typical id” Lacan’s oft-quoted dictum, “The unconscious is structured like a language (267)”. Lacan Posits three orders or states of human

mental disposition: the imaginary order, the symbolic order and the real, by reformulating Freud’s views of the early stage of psychological development.

Works Cited th Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 6 ed. New Delhi: Harcourt, 1993. Print.

Garvey, Games and Jeremy Stangroom. The Story of Philosophy .London:

Quercus, 2012. Print

Habib, M.A.R. A History of Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present. Oxford:

Blackwell, 2005. Print

Lear, Jonathan. Freud. New York: Rutledge, 2005, Print

Sigmund, Freud. Interpretation of Dreams. New Delhi: Lexican Books, 2011. Print.

21 Art and Science: A Study of the Symbiosis Prakash Gautam

ABSTRACT:

Developed and practiced in their own specific spheres, art and science are generally taken to be distinct and independent disciplines to each other. Art is said to revolve around subjective impulses and strive for aesthetic values as much as science is characterized by its objective orientation and empirical concern with life and world in general. This article takes a post-modernist perspective to examine how art and science occupy discreet but overlapping spaces so as to share their

approaches, subject matters, modes of operation and goals and get defined by the liminal exchanges of their reciprocity.

Art and science are generally tre ated as diametrically distinct disciplines. The first is valued for its subjectivity, the appeal it makes to human heart and the freedom of imagination it enjoys.

The latter, on the other hand, is hailed for its objective approach, the way it excites the human mind and the fascination for observation it has.

The father of Physics, Newton, received a mixed reception from poets.

As the scientific revolution that he spurred took hold, the Romantics protested against its mechanistic abstractions. These artists were uncomfortable of the fact that Positivism and the Newtonian model of Physics were oriented towards bringing a split between man and nature. Despite the efforts of some polymaths like Leonardo da Vinci, Benjamin Franklin and Francis Bacon, pure science and art tried to defend the independence of their discursive practices until the 20th century. It was normally held that “the rise of science has had something to do with displacing art as a publicly important vehicle for those truths that people accept as being centrally important” (Clausen 4). The challenge of Positivism caused the arts to retreat from making great claims about “truth.” Poetry, for example, was cut down to size by I.A. Richards and isolated from other disciplines by its claim to be a unique mode of discourse. With the advent of the “modern” ideology which sees truth as elusive as a jellyfish, science alone has not been able to rule truths in all its aspects, neither has art been content with the mere customary job of imparting

22 pleasure. Being aware of its limitations, every discourse seeks recourse to other discourse(s). Literary theory prides itself in being ever more scientific.

Technology, with its invitation to control and change, has entered into all aspects of our everyday lives, making artists more aware of contemporary science as scientists are of modern art. This new openness from artists and scientists presents an opportunity to build greater understanding between the “cultures.” Interdisciplinary relation has become a widespread requirement today: that is, the need for unity in the face of the excessive fragmentation of knowledge, made possible by the progressive subdivision of labour, duty, skill, craft and technology is not only essential but equally inevitable. In some respects, this entails a reversed movement with regard to that grafted in the modern era with the birth of the experimental sciences, when the problem was properly that of safeguarding the autonomy of each singular discipline. Although we find different shades of distinction between artand science, the two human endeavours only differ in their ways of gaining knowledge of the life and worldview we share. “Ancient Greeks did not distinguish between the two notions and called them by a single wordtechne , meaning ‘skill, ’ ‘art, ’ ‘craft, ’ and ‘refinement.’ And the first laws of Physics established by Pythagoras were the laws of harmony which called for a synthesized study of art and science” (Poincare 14). In many respects these disciplines are in reciprocal relation where one’s being depends on that of the other. There are apparent complementarities in the methods utilized by art and science to approach the world. Science relies routinely on the analysis of facts and searches for cause-effect relations; it strives to “find an eternal law in the marvelous transmutations of chance” and endeavours to “find a fixed pole in the endless train of phenomena” (Carnap 32). Art, on the other hand, as

Carnap examines, finds among the same “transmutations of chance” the only and the inimitable ones, and among the same “endless train of phenomena” infallibly selects only those that enable one to sense the harmony of the whole (33).

The world of human perceptions is infinitely diverse, chaotic and colored with personal emotions. Every human being has their own way of putting their impressions in order and comparing them with those of others. To this end, they have invented science and created art. Science is about ordering and rationalizing the empirical impressions of the external world while art is about delving into the world within us, with its complex network of feelings and emotions, and resurfacing the impressions therein. Art and science have thus had common beginnings. They are united by the feelings of wonder they 23 evoke – how did this formula, this poem, this theory, this music, this feeling of joy, this angst of loss, this pain of separation came into existence or got its shape as it is? Wonder has always been the threshold for knowledge.

The creative aspect of all arts and sciences is the same. As observed, it is determined by, one’s intuitive capacity to group facts and impressions of the surrounding world so as to satisfy our emotional need for harmony, a feeling one experiences when out of chaos of external impressions one has worked up something simple and consummate, e.g., a statue out of a block of marble, a poem out of a collection of words, or formula out of numbers. This emotional satisfaction is also the first criterion of the truth of the product, which of course is to be tested later on – by experiments in science and by time in art. (Dummet 53-54) Poets have long been searching for a “poesy of thought” and not simply poetry. Scientists, on their part, speak about “poetry in science.” Both clans, it seems, are now eager to break down the age-old barriers between them and to forget their ancient feuds. It is never a wise enterprise to ask which discipline is better; there is no sense in arguing about which hand, right or left, is more important, even though they function differently and have their own specific purposes. All artists should understand that they cannot reach the acme of their art without first mastering the sciences of diction, mimicry, motion and gesture. Only with this mastery they can create something unique and wondrous out of spontaneous effort. In exactly the same manner, a scientist, even though she has mastered the trade of a physicist, will make no real physicist if she only sticks to formula, numbers and logic. All profound truths of science are paradoxes at birth and they cannot be mastered by only leaning on logic and experiment. Many literary theorists like Wimsatt consider metaphor central only to poetry. However, this is not the absolute argument to closer examination.

Even mathematics, like music, makes use of metaphor in its discourse in the latent form in its assumptions, hypotheses and generalizations. Science’s base metaphors are increasingly mathematical. Turbayne thinks that science is essentially metaphor-laden; the metaphors which have been denuded of their metaphorical value on the face of mathematical principles govern our science today (33). No human discourse can escape this play of metaphors for, as Nietzsche contends, every form of language, ranging from that of math to music, is inherently metaphorical. Extra-linguistic reality can never be understood truly if by this one means understanding that is non-metaphoric; human knowledge is metaphoric 24 through and through. The drive toward the formation of metaphor is the

fundamental human drive, which one cannot for a single instance dispense

with in thought, for one would thereby dispense with man himself. (from On

Truth and Language, qtd. in Yadin12)

Indeed scientific concepts are only closed in specific contexts, and that

they are not different in kind to the metaphors of poetry. In general, it appears

that science has been permeating art in many senses; to take some examples,

it provides materials (pens, paints), art forms (cinema, photography) and subject matter (science fiction) to art. It has changed the world that some think is art’s duty to describe.

“The symbolic elements of poetry are words, and the corresponding

elements of mathematics are ratios” (Buchanan 18). Therefore, the

mathematician sees and deals with relations, the poet sees and deals with qualities. Ratios and adjectives respectively are the symbols through which they see and with which they operate (22). But in this age of disappearing

boundaries, science craves for adjectives as much as art relishes in the ratios.

In an interview, Alan Lightman, a renowned contemporary physicist-novelist, highlights this mutual permeation between art and science and the resultant reciprocity. I have made some minor discoveries myself as a scientist. And I know how it feels to see something new that wasn’t known before. It’s a real rush. That moment of discovery that I’ve experienced as a scientist is very similar to what I’ve experienced as a writer and a novelist. One of the things I realized when I was looking at these great discoveries of the twentieth century and trying to find common patterns was that

for many of these scientists, the creative process was the same

as that of artists, painters, writers and musicians. (Seaman 1)

As in art, the parameters of truth are not necessarily to be applied in science in the same manner; they can be relative and sometimes subjective too. When

Keats says “Beauty is truth and truth beauty” (117), he makes an insightful remark to bridge the adjacent banks of art and science. Even if a scientific theory has been shown to present a fundamentally wrong model of reality, it can still be useful. Einstein’s view of the universe superseded Newton’s, but Newton’s laws got us to the moon and back. Einstein’s gravitation theory could not cope with quantum effects, but theoreticians still depend on it. Ultimate truth is not the only factor determining a theory’s lifetime. The physicist Dirac, therefore, said that when he has to choose between beauty and truth, he always chose beauty, expecting later experiments to prove him right (qtd. in Buchanan 29). 25 Focusing on the scientist’s preoccupations with beauty Henry Poincare

opines: A scientist studies nature not because it is useful; rather he

studies it because it is beautiful, a source of pleasure for him.

If nature were not beautiful, it would not be worthy of the

effort that goes into knowing it, and life would not be worthy of the effort it takes to live it. (13) A scientist not necessarily always practices science only for the sake of divulging the mystery of the world. For him it is a source of spiritual joys and

aesthetical delights of an artist, who has mastered the art of couching beauty in real forms. The uniqueness of each discipline can also be seen as its limitation.

For instance, science knows “everything” about the typical Nepal musical

instrument, the sarangee: the number, quality and length of its strings, the

type of wood it is carved in, the geometric coordinates of its shape, the mass it occupies in the universe and such objective details of its design. It can also analyze the frequency and magnitude of its sound waves and the effect they

have in the atmosphere in exact digits. Nevertheless, science is unable to

describe what happens to this polished from when a virtuoso, the gandarva, sits down to play. Although it can be specific in examining the “sonic waves”

of the instrument, it freezes in its examination when it comes to do with the

“melody” that is involved in the play, or the waves it excites in the heart of the connoisseurs while mesmerizing them. It can be concluded that art in the postmodern scenario has lost its

“totalizing premises.” The aestheticism, emotionality, subjectivity, imaginative autonomy and pleasure which were taken to be the sole attributes of art have

now transgressed into the realm of science. Science, which was taken for

its empiricism, the exclusive concern with matter and facts, the systematic

approach involved in its process, and its objective commitment to divulge the

mystery of life and the world, cannot help relishing the camaraderie with art.

All the totalizing limitations dismantled, art and science have come into a new treaty of coexistence. Disbelieving their flimsy “metanarratives, ” these two disciplines lend their “mininarratives” to each other so that a collage of non-totalizing narratives can be assembled. In this context, the concept of absolute science by and for scientist and pure art for and by artist becomes a theoretical reality. For this unavoidable reciprocity and fundamental symbiosis, we need not have any qualms to say that art is respired in the body of science and science circulates in the veins of art. One has its “being, ” in Heideggerean terms, based on the existence of the other. 26 References:

Buchanan, Scott.Poetry and Mathematics. Virginia: University Press of Virginia, 1929.

Carnap, R. The Unity of Science. London: Eyre & Hall, 1934.

Clausen, Christopher. “Poetry in a Discouraging Time.” Georgia Review

(Winter, 1981): 4-9.

Dummet, Lionel. “Why Truth Matters?” The Enigmas of Truth. Ed. Daniel Stevens

and Paula Day. New York: Harper, 1977. 49-57.

Keats, John. “Ode on a Grecian Urn.” John Keats: Selected Letters and Poems.

Ed. J. H. Walsh. London: Chatto and Windus, 1954. 115-117.

Poincare, Henry. “Creative Impulses of Man.” Internet Posting. 7 Nov. 2007.

http: / / www.walesarts.edu/ english-dreams/ crit.html.

Seaman, Donna. Interview with Alan Lightman. The Booklist. Chicago: Dec1, 2005.

Vol. 102, Iss. 7; p.21. Internet Posting. 10 Aug.2007.

http: / / proquest.umi.com/ pqdweb?did=11253528.

Turbayne, Collins. The Myth of Metaphor. Columbia: South Carolina UP, 1970.

27 Foreseeing Future Through Past: An Apocalyptic Vision In Bradbury’s A Sound of Thunder Rajendra Poudel

Can a single fly or butterfly influence the presidential election ina super power country like America and reverse the results? Generally we do not think so. But in his story A Sound of Thunder Ray Bradbury has presented

such an instance. In the story, a butterfly, killed sixty million two thousand

and fifty five years ago, makes an American president un-win the election in present i.e. 2055 AD. Though we do not see with our bare eyes the direct relation between the death of a butterfly and presidential election ina

country like America, Bradbury has successfully and persuasively shown it possible through virtual reality of a time machine. His story re-examines and verifies Barry Commoner’s ecological principle “Everything is connected with everything” and shows how a seemingly insignificant action in present can bring an unimaginably tremendous and devastating result in course of time. In order to make people able to see the apocalyptic consequences of their

present actions in future, Bradbury has taken his readers in a safari to millions of years in past and got a butterfly killed there which is his own apocalyptic vision of foreseeing future through past.

In A Sound of Thunder, Eckles, Billings, and Kramer make a time safari to the age of dinosaurs in order to experience hunting Tyrannosaurus Rex.

They are clearly instructed by Mr. Travis, their safari guide and Lesperance his assistant. Mr. Travis tells them not to go off the metal path that is built just six inches above the green surface and not to shoot any animal without permission. To Eckles’ question “why” he answers because “we don’t want to change the Future” (131). He has a clear vision that any action in present has some consequences in future. He further explains how stepping on a single mouse in that period might annihilate a whole civilization. He says that killing one mouse accidentally means destroying all future families of that particular mouse and he further

elaborates:

For want of ten mice, a fox dies. For want of ten foxes a lion

starves. For want of a lion, all manner of insects, vultures, 28 infinite billions of life forms are thrown into chaos and

destruction. Eventually it all boils down to this: fifty-nine

million years later, a caveman, one of a dozen on the entire

world, goes hunting wild boar or saber-toothed tiger for food.

But you, friend, have stepped on all the tigers in that region. By stepping on one single mouse. So the caveman starves (132). In this explanation Mr. Travis has shown the relation between a mouse and a caveman. Not only them but infinite numbers of other animals and living things are inter-related with them. Travis further explains how the caveman

gives birth to ten sons; and then they to hundred sons. In course of time, they make a nation and onward a civilization. This idea of Mr. Travis resembles

with Aldo Leopold’s concept of biotic community. He says, “That man is, in

fact, only a member of biotic team is shown by an ecological interpretation of history” (39). Leopold further elaborates his concept of biotic community through a

pyramid structure. He writes, “A plant layer rests on soil, an insect layer on the

plants, a bird and rodent layer on insects, and so on up through various animal

groups to the apex layer, which consists of the larger carnivores” (42). And he

further says, “Man shares an intermediate layer with the bears, raccoons, and

squirrels which eat both meat and vegetables” (43). This concept of organicity,

thus, believes that all the living organisms in this world are dependent and connected to each other through a network because they live on each other. And they are maintaining a balance between and among themselves. If one of these living being disappears it is sure that the whole network will be affected.

Travis, in the story, says that the caveman is an entire future nation

and onward a civilization. So he says to Eckles, “The stump of your foot, on

one mouse, could start an earthquake…With the death of that one caveman, a billion others yet unborn are throttled in the womb. Perhaps Rome never rises… Europe is forever a dark forest… there might never be a United States at all” (132-133). In this way Travis makes Eckles understand how much catastrophic might it be to kill a single life form on Earth. Killing a living organism is just like taking a thread out of a complex tapestry which makes the whole tapestry collapse. He focuses not only on animals but on plants too. Crushing certain

plants could add up infinitesimally, he says, a little error here would multiply

29 in sixty million years, all out of proportion (133). This idea of Mr. Travis is apocalyptic in nature. He senses the forthcoming catastrophic consequences of a minimal action in present. Does hunting of the dinosaurs affect the future or not? Actually they are going to shoot only the one which is dying and will no more mate another. They will shoot at him exactly at the same time when it dies of something else. However at the time of shooting Eckles gets frightened with the Tyrannosaurs and goes off the path. He happens to step on the ground and his shoes get some dust on soles. Meanwhile others shoot the giant adventurously. Travis gets very angry with Eckles and worries about the penalty they have to pay to the government.

On their return, they find many changes in the real world back to their home. The man in the office looked different; the alphabets in the notice board were changed; and most surprisingly the result of presidential election was

overturned. Being shocked when Eckles asked who won the election last day,

the official replied, “Deutscher, of course! Who else? Not that fool weakling

Keith. We got an iron man now, a man with guts!” It made Eckles more serious. Meanwhile he notices that there was a beautiful butterfly lying dead on his boot. He asks if it could be taken back and make alive. How could that

be possible! How could anything be undone! Finally after seeing everything,

Travis fires his gun, perhaps he shoots at Eckles. “There was a sound of thunder” (141-142). It is an apocalyptic thunder that is overheard. It is the price of what Eckles did in the world of dinosaurs. It is the result of their activities in the world of past. The changes seen in the office are the consequences seen at a glance. What other effects might there be in the entire world? This sound of thunder has brought many questions on surface? It is interesting that death of a butterfly has overturned the result of an election. Even the psychology of people also has been changed. They had favored Keith before but within a

day they supported Deautscher. That is perhaps what Barry commoner says,

“Everything is connected with everything”. Here, the death of butterfly is

connected with the psychology of people, language, politics, election and so many other things. Is Eckles the sole agent for this disaster? What is the role of

the government, the Time Safari agency, Mr. Travis, and all other people who

30 are enjoying the time safari adventure? Are these the result of only the death of a butterfly?

Although Eckles is very much responsible for the disaster, he cannot be the sole agent of it. The Time Safari agency and the government have already constructed a ground for the activities which might lead to such an accident. For Eckles it is only an accident. But there is an error in the attitude of the government and the runners of the agency. They give a high priority to human pleasure and see wild animals as inferior beasts. It is human superiority complex to take entertainment of hunting animals no matter whether they are still alive or already dead. However Paul W. Taylor denies this human superiority over

other beings. In his essay “The Ethics of Respect for Nature”, he challenges the concept of human superiority saying that human are superior only when we give more value to human capacity. But animals have their own capacities

more than we have which are more valuable to them. For example, human

cannot meet cheetah in speed, eagle in vision, monkey in agility, and so on. So

that so called human superiority is false. He says, “Humans are claiming human superiority from a strictly human point of view in which the good of humans is taken as the standard of judgment” (79). Thus this human superiority concept in itself is a false consciousness of Travis and his fellow human beings. In fact human beings are no superior to any other species. They all

have their own distinct identities and are, according to Darwin, in a ‘web of complex relations’ between and among living organisms. With reference to

Darwin in his essay “Environmental Apocalypticism”, Lawrence Buell writes,

“Darwin, while preferring the image of the (genealogical) tree as the epitome

of the history of speciation, when it came to characterizing the affinities among

“plants and animals, remote in the scale of nature” imagined them as being “bound together by a web of complex relations” (282). Darwin even thinks that the organisms have a kind of distant kinship. This concept of kinship is also supported by Edward C. Wilson in his essay “The Environmental Ethic”.

He says, “Viewed from the perspective of evolutionary time, all other species

are our distant kin because we share a remote ancestry” (155). Henceforth, there is no hierarchy between and among the species of entire earth. Thinking other animals as inferior and enjoying them as prey in hunting game is anthropocentrism and this kind of attitude is not environment friendly. The

31 very anthropocentric view of people and government, which hindered them

to respect other creatures, is fully responsible for the entire disaster in the story. The government and the Time Safari agency also have realized this sense of ecological disaster. The legal provision of penalty for violating any precautions and clear instructions to the travelers about do’s and don’ts is their sense of probable apocalypse. However they are exploiting nature for their economic interest. Even though they have a sense of apocalypse and

have tried to apply some preventive measures, it is an anthropocentric attitude which is the major cause of environmental threats. In his essay “An overview of Environmental Ethics” Clare Palmer comments anthropocentric attitude

as that suggests using natural resources for human benefits. He writes, “And anthropocentric approaches do not necessarily suggest reckless exploitation of the environment; they may instead maintain that natural resources should be very carefully managed for human benefit- including for the benefit of the poor and future human generations” (18). Thus even the idea of saving nature for human benefit and for future generation is an anthropocentric attitude which cannot save the environment.

The government and the Time Safari agency, in the story, are very much aware of not disturbing the ecological balance but their carefulness is not the love and respect of nature. The government is using it as a heritage

to show the tourists and generate national revenue and Mr. Travis, the safari

agent, wants not to disturb the ecological balance just to prevent him and the

agency from the penalty to pay to the government. While instructing Eckles, he

says, “I repeat. Don’t go off. For any reason! If you fall off, there is a penalty… The government doesn’t like us here. We have to pay big graft to keep our

franchise”(131). Similarly after Eckles goes off the path he says, “That ruins us! We’ll forfeit! Thousands of dollars of insurance! We guarantee no one

leaves the path. He left it. Oh, the fool! I’ll have to report to the government.

They might revoke our license to travel”(139). In response to him Eckles says, “I’ll pay anything. A hundred thousand dollars”(ibid). Thus both Travis and Eckles have demonstrated their instrumental thinking of nature. They have not understood nature as a co-existing entity; instead have converted the environment in terms of monetary value. Can the scar of the environment

32 be washed by any amount of money? Not at all. Will it be alright if the Safari agency doesn’t have to pay and Eckles pays high amount of dollars? The

answer is clear, no. The economic interpretation of nature does not help in the environmental conservation. It is a dangerous perspective to view at nature. Leopold says that a system of conservation based solely on economic

self-interest is hopelessly lopsided. It tends to ignore, and thus eventually

to eliminate, many elements in the land community that lack commercial

value, but that are essential to its healthy functioning (42). So that economic value judgment of the environment is not eco-friendly. We cannot ignore nor even wipe it out just because some organisms lack economic value. Leopold says that sometimes lack of economic value becomes a universal character among the species. Thus the attitude of both Travis and Eckles is against the environmental ethics. Likewise the government’s action of giving permission for time machine also is no more different from above two characters. It is utilitarian approach to nature which uses nature as an instrument or means for its usefulness. Leopold instead suggests for a fair and balance use of natural

resources. Writing about land ethic he says, “A land ethic of course cannot

prevent the alteration, management, and use of these “resources”, but it does

affirm their (resources’) right to continued existence, and at least in spots, their continued existence in a natural state”(39). Then he adds that the role of Homo-sapiens should be changed from a conqueror to a plain member of the land community. For this human beings should first be free of superiority complex. The problem in the story begins from the attitude of people as the conqueror over wild animals. Their expedition of hunting is the conquering

game from which they want to win a trophy. After shooting the animal, Travis asks them if they want to take a trophy picture; only the picture because they cannot take the trophy (the game) back to their home in future (138). This conquering psychology has become a hindrance in environmental conservation movement. This kind of mentality again does not let humans

be a plain member of land community, as suggested by Leopold, and turns a blind eye towards forthcoming catastrophe. It is again a kind of flat anthropocentrism. In his essay “The Blind spots of Centrism and Human self-

enclosure” Val Plumwood writes, “As the human-centered culture of our

33 modern form of rationalism grows steadily more remote and self-enclosed,

it loses the capacity to imagine or detect its danger” (100). Exactly like this, we see in the story Travis and Eckles have lost the capacity to imagine the

forthcoming danger. Being agreed with Plumwood, William Rueckert says, “In

ecology, man’s tragic flaw is his anthropocentric (as opposed to bio-centric)

vision, and his compulsion to conquer, humanize, domesticate, violate, and exploit every natural thing”(113). In A Sound of Thunder the tragic flaw of Eckles and Travis is that they make a journey to past with conquering mentality to hunt the dinosaurs but they do not realize it that sometimes the conqueror himself is conquered. In fact the Tyrannosaurus was already dead. It made no matter for him to die

once again. But for Eckles, it is his ultimate fate to be shot in the end. In fact

meets his death twice: one in the defeat with the prey and other with the real bullet in the end. Not only for him but it was a fate for Travis as well that he is sure to pay fine and more importantly Keith whom he had favored has lost the election. It is a great loss for him. Furthermore he also will certainly share the catastrophe caused by the death of butterfly. It is also the flaw of the government and the travelers in the Time Safari not being able to see the probable danger. The travelers have become much hedonistic in experiencing hunting dinosaurs just for their pleasure. Hence Ray Bradbury has portrayed the character of modern human beings as so hedonistic that they hardly think for anything other than their pleasure. Though they sometimes sense the forthcoming environmental

catastrophe, their suicidal pleasure seeking tendency has made them incapable of acting in eco-friendly manner. Actually it is the irrationality of human beings that they have exploited nature not only for survival but for getting richer and richer. Unlike rest of the organisms boarded on the Earth human being have accumulated the natural resources unfairly. The latest human social system of capitalism has promoted this irrationality more than others in past. The up-surging consumerist trend of late capitalism has further blinded people to think anything of nature. It is assumed that the more one consumes the

more s/ he is great; and the things to consume come solely from nature. The producers (capitalists) are promoting people to consume anything more and

more so that they can earn more, no matter whether their activities hurt the

34 environment or not. And to some extent governments also have promoted these economic activities in order to make the country economically strong.

Though there are some conservation programs, as in the story, they are

completely guided by economic interest which, as Leopold has already said, is lopsided. In order to make people understand consequences of their present

activities in future, Bradbury has invented a time machine and taken his readers in time safari. He has made them visit sixty million years back in past. In that age he has got a butterfly killed and shown its effect in present so that they can understand what consequences might there be of their present activities in future. It is an interesting idea of foreseeing future through past.

If the death of a single butterfly or of a single mouse, which is not supposed

as a significant event in this world of capital, can make the result of a super power country overturned and bring change in the total structure of society

or make a whole civilization of Europe not existed at all, what consequences will our present activities from using plastic to nuclear tests bring in the time to come? The sound of thunder of the time machine and of the rifle in the story has given the readers a clear message. It is a warning bell for the future catastrophe which no super power of this world can make not occur. The sound also is a question to the entire human world that if we are saving some of this world to our future generations. This message which Bradbury has given through A Sound of Thunder is

originated from the sense of apocalypse. Therefore, it is the apocalyptic attitude of Bradbury to make people realize of the necessity of correcting their way of life in present showing the future apocalypse so that they can save themselves and their descendents from the probable disaster. Lawrence Buell comments apocalyptic mode of thinking as anthropocentric attitude

to nature, as is the concept of web of interdependence, which cannot

assimilate the equal existence of all the organisms in nature. In his essay,

“Environmental Apocalypticism”, he writes, “Just as the metaphor of the web of interdependence is central to the ethical force of the contemporary

ecocentric critique of anthropocentrism, so is the metaphor of apocalypse central to ecocentrism’s projection of the future of a civilization that refuses to transform itself according the doctrine of the web. Henceforth Bradbury’s

35 effort of foreseeing future through past also is an apocalyptic vision of environmental conservation. However it is a noteworthy effort that he has made. The story sounds as if Bradbury also is standing with Anuradha Chaudary

and saying, "We seem bent on digging our own, or our descendants’, graves…

We must therefore heed Capek’s final admonition: if we fail to take decisive

action, if we fail to bring about fundamental changes in our ways of thinking

and doing politics, we just might sink and drown” (Chaudhary, 267), instead

of standing of echoing with Leopold “that man is, in fact, only a member of a

biotic community (39). Like Jared Diamond says in “Adaptive Failure: Easter’s

End”, he also resounds, “We too have no emigration valve … If we continue

to follow our present course, we shall have exhausted the world’s major

fisheries, tropical rain forests, fossil fuels, and much of our soil by the time

my sons reach my current age” (Diamond, 258-259). In the end, can we undo the things we have done if we know that they are wrong? Perhaps we would

like to reverse and do the things correctly. Unfortunately, we are redoing the

things that, in fact, are already proved as wrong. However we should, at least, be able to listen to the sound of thunder and correct our present course.

Works Cited:

Bradbury, Ray. “A Sound of Thunder”. Flax-Golden Tales. Moti Nissani and

Shreedhar Lohani. Eds. Kathmandu: Ekta Books, 2010.

Buell, Lawrence. “Environmental Apocalypticism”, The Environmrntal

Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture.

Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1995.

Chaudhary, Anuradha. “How Sane Are We?”. Flax-Golden Tales. Moti Nissani

and Shreedhar Lohani. Eds. Kathmandu: Ekta Books, 2010.

Diamond, Jared. “Adaptive Failure: Easter’s End”, Flax-Golden Tales. Moti

Nissani and Shreedhar Lohani. Eds. Kathmandu: Ekta Books, 2010.

Leopold, Aldo. “The Land Ethic”. Environmental Ethics. Eds. Andrew Wright

and Holmes Rolsten III. MA: Blackwell, 2003.

Palmer, Clare. “An overview of Environmental Ethics”. Environmental Ethics.

Eds. Andrew Wright and Holmes Rolsten III. MA: Blackwell, 2003.

36 Plumwood, Val. “The Blind spots of Centrism and Human self-enclosure”,

Environmental Culture: The Ecological Crisis of Reason. London and New York:

Routledge, 2002.

Rueckert, William. “Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism”.The

Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. Eds. Cheryll Glotfelty and

Harold Fromm. Athens and London: The University of Georgia Press, 1996.

Taylor, Paul W. “The Ethics of Respect for Nature”. Environmental Ethics. Eds.

Andrew Wright and Holmes Rolsten III. MA: Blackwell, 2003.

Wilson, Edward C. “The Environmental Ethic”. Literature and Environment: A

Reader on Nature and Culture. Eds. Lorraine Anderson, Scott Slovic and John

P. O’Grady. New York: Longman, 1999.

37 Subordinates’ Perception on leadership Style of

Branch Managers:

A Comparative Study among Commercial Bank, Development Bank and Finance Company

Indira Shrestha

Lecturer, School of Business, Pokhara University

ABSTRACT This paper examines the subordinates’ Perception on Leadership Style

of Branch Managers of Commercial Banks (CBs), Development Banks (DBs) and Finance Companies (FCs). This study has also analysed influence of demographic factor (gender) on perception on leadership styles of Branch Managers (BMs). Stratified random sampling method has been applied for sampling. The sample size for this study is 300. Perception of subordinates on leader ship behaviour has been assessed in thirty areas such as “create an atmosphere of mutual trust”.

Statistical tools like independent sample t test, ANOVA, have been employed. The study reveals that there is significant impact on the subordinates’ perception on the leadership styles of BMs with respect to gender. The mean value indicates that there is different perception

of subordinates of CBs, DBs, and FCs on leadership behaviour of BMs.

Key Words: Perception, leadership style, branch manager, Nepalese financial institutions. 1. Introduction In twenty first century the word leadership has been central to the success of organizations irrespective of types of organizations ranging from profit making to non-profit making organizations and private to public organizations. Many issues related have been arising in today’s business arena. A sense of urgency is being realized to enhance the overall performance of organizations to meet the objectives and expectations of the citizen and the nation. There is nodoubt that success and failure of the organizations depend upon style of leadership. This study tries to let them know how their employees perceive them regarding

38 their leadership style and the main objectives of this study areto analyze the influence of demographic variable (gender) on subordinates’ perception on leadership style of managers and compare among the subordinates perception on leadership style of managers of CBs, DBs, and FCs.The study does not cover entire banks of Nepal. It covers only CBs, DBs and FCs situated in Kaski and Tanahun district of Nepal.

1.1 Literature Review

Wang, Shieh & Tang (2010) showed that charismatic, transformational and visionary of the leadership style are positively related to the organizational performance.

Singh, Nadim, Ezzedeen (2012) examine attributes of “a good” and “a bad” leader, qualities of a leader, and his perception of the gender issue. The essential leadership style characteristics for the best leader were: empowering, knowledgeable, inspirational, developmental, visionary, self-assured, decisive and rewarding. Characteristics of “bad” leader were: manipulative, selfish, dishonest, unapproachable, condescending. Gautam and Malla (2013) studied the leadership styles of branch managers and its relationship to subordinates’ job satisfaction and branch performance with special reference to National capital region, India and found that leadership effectiveness has a high and significant positive correlation with branch performance in case of both public and private sector banks and also showed that branch performance has a high and significant positive correlation with job satisfaction in case both public and private sector banks.

Kaur (2013) studied the relationship of empowerment, transformation, leadership and personal outcome and result revealed that leaders have properly implemented transformational style in managing organization employee. Ekaningsih (2014) studied the effect of transformational leadership on the employees performance through intervening variables of empowerment, trust and satisfaction of coal companies in east Kalimantan and found that transformational leadership more effectively gives direct effect onthe performance than through empowerment and trust on the leaders either completely or partially influence satisfaction significantly. Acharya and Shrestha (2013) studied the relationship between leadership styles of managers and employees' job satisfaction in INGOS and NGOS in Nepal andtheir result showed that employers are relatively satisfied with transformational leadership style as compared to transactional leadership

39 style. Study also documents that employees considers contingent reward as transformational leadership component and indicates that managers who developed the work worth and professional relationship has more satisfied employees in their organizations Karavelioglu (2014) analyzed the leadership style in banking sector in North

Cyprus: testing factors effecting authoritarian style and a model for banking sector in a small Island economy and also found the result revealed that managers in the north Cyprus banking sector exhibit task oriented leadership style. While the older managers were found to be more task oriented leaders and female managers were found task oriented leaders and female managers were found to be more task oriented. Sireesha and Pandurangarao (2014) studied leaders and subordinates perception on leadership style. A comprehensive study between private and public bank sector and their result revealed that leaders perceived leader closely monitor employees to ensure they are performing correctly, leader like the power that his leadership position holds over subordinates must be directed or threatened with punishment by leaders in public sector whereas private banks it is always tried to include one or more employees in determining what to do and how to do it, employees are informed about what has to be done and how to do it. Subordinates perceived employees suggestions are not considered and also no time for them. Leaders like the power that his leadership position holds over subordinates. Leader likes to use his leadership in public sector but private sector leader likes the power that his leadership position holds over subordinates. Employees have the right to determine their own organizations objectives.

Javed, Jaffari and Rahim (2014) studied the leadership styles and employees’ job satisfaction, a case from the private banking sector of Pakistan and their research revealed that there is a significant relationship between transactional leadership style and employee’s job satisfaction andthis transactional leadership style is more adopted by the leaders as compared to transformational leadership style.

2. Data and Methods This study is mainly based on primary data. Perception of subordinates on leadership behavior hasbeen assessed in the thirty areas such as “create an atmosphere of mutual trust”, “demonstrate honest, ethical behavior in all transaction”. These agreement factors have been measured on Likert scale ranging from disagree strongly (1), to agree strongly (5). For sample the

40 financial institutions are stratified into three strata namely CBs, DBs, and FCs and so stratified random sampling has been used with sample size 300.

For sample 122 employees have been taken from CBs, 110 from DBs and 68 from FCs.The Cronbach’s alpha was found 0.907.The frequency, percentage, means, t-test and ANOVA have been employed to analyze the final result of quantitative method.

3. Discussion and Analysis

Table 1: Social-demographic Profiles of Respondents Variables Respondent Percentage (%) Gender Male 180 60 Female 120 40 Total 300 100 Marital Status Married 229 76.3 Unmarried 71 23.7 Divorced 0 0 Widow 0 0 Total 300 100 Job Position Trainee Assistant 56 18.7 Assistant Level 146 48.7 Officer Level 98 32.7 Total 300 100 Service Year Less than one year 46 15.3 1-3 109 36.3 4-8 132 44.0 9-15 13 4.3 Over 15 0 0 Total 300 100 Education +2 Level 35 11.7 Bachelor 114 38.0 Masters 151 50.3 M. Phil 0 0 Doctorate 0 0 Total 300 100 Age Under 20 5 1.7 20-25 104 34.7 26-30 131 43.7 31-35 46 15.3 Over 35 14 4.7 Total 300 100

41 Organizational Commercial Bank 122 40.7 Status Development Bank 110 36.7 Finance company 68 22.7 Total 300 100

Table 2: Subordinates’ perception by gender Mean Scores t Agreement Factors p value male female value Creates an atmosphere of mutual trust 3.75 3.9333 -2.643 0.009* Demonstrate courage in all 3.4833 3.7 -2.895 0.004* transaction Expect people to be accountable 3.85 3.5083 3.85 0.00* Translate organizational goals practically for people from the 3.4278 3.2 2.364 0.019** lowest level to the highest level Makes decisions promptly 3.4944 3.2083 2.86 0.005* Decisions without finger pointing 3.5056 3.3 2.117 0.035** Implements innovation to improve 3.4556 3.2167 2.312 0.021** performance

Manage change, rumored, efficiently 3.5389 3.3833 1.818 0.07*** listen without pre-judging 3.3444 3.625 -2.627 0.009* Has relationship with work 3.6611 3.9333 -2.925 0.004* associates regardless of position Is accessible to communication 3.7056 3.925 -2.178 0.03** Acceptance of differing opinions 3.6444 3.8667 -2.23 0.027**

*, **, and *** mean the coefficient is significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% level of significance respectively Above table shows that the t-test value (t= -2.643) and p value (0.009) show that there is a significant difference in the subordinates’ perception on the leadership styles of BMs regarding trusting environment with respect to gender at 1 % level of significance. The mean value shows that female subordinates (mean=3.9333) are more positive towards trusting environment in comparison to male subordinates (mean=3.75). The t-test value (t = -2.895) and p value (0.004) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “courage in all transaction” at 1 % level of significance. According to mean value female respondents 42 (mean=3.7) are more positive in manager’s courage in all transaction than male respondents (mean= 3.4833). The t-test value (t=3.85) and p value (0.000) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception “expect people to be accountable” at 1% level of significance. The mean value shows that male subordinates (mean=3.85) are more positive towards managers behavior in expecting people to be accountable and offer in comparison to female subordinates (mean=3.5083). The t-test value (t=2.364) and p value (0.019) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “manager’s capability in translating goal” at 5 % level of significance. The mean value shows that male subordinates (mean =3.4278) are more positive in this regardin comparison to female subordinate (mean=3.2). The t-test value (t=2.364) and p value (0.019) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “quickness in decision making” at 5 % level of significance. The mean value shows that male subordinates (mean=3.4944) are more positive in comparison to female subordinate (mean=3.2083). The t-test value (t=2.117) and p value (0.035) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “manager’sdecisions without finger pointing” at 5 % level of significance. The mean value shows that male subordinates (mean=3.5056) are more positive than female subordinate (mean=3.3). The t-test value (t=2.312) and p value (0.021) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “manager’s innovativeness” at 5 % level of significance. The mean value shows that male subordinates (mean=3.4556) are more positive than female subordinate (mean=3. 2167). The t-test value (t=1.818) and p value (0.07) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “change management skill” at 10 % level of significance. The mean value shows that male subordinates (mean = 3.5389) are more positive than female subordinate (mean = 3. 3833). The t-test value (t=2.312) and p value (0.021) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “manager’s innovativeness” at 5 % level of significance. The mean value shows that male subordinates (mean = 3.4556) are more positive than female subordinate (mean = 3. 2167). The t-test value (t= -2.627) and p value (0.009) show that there is significant

43 difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “listening without pre- judging” at 1 % level of significance. The mean value shows that female subordinates (mean = 3.625) are more positive than in comparison to male subordinate (mean = 3.3444). The t-test value (t= -2.925) and p value (0.004) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “relationship with work associates” at 1 % level of significance. The mean value shows that female subordinates (mean = 3.9333) have more positive perception thanmale subordinate (mean = 3.6611). The t-test value (t= -2.178) and p value (0.03) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “access to manager” at 5 % level of significance. The mean value shows that female subordinates (mean 3.9333) are more positive than male subordinate (mean = 3.6611). The t-test value (t= -2.23) and p value (0.027) show that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “accept differing opinion” at 5 % level of significance. The mean value shows that female subordinates (mean = 3.8667) are more positive than male subordinate (mean = 3.6444).

Table: 3 Subordinates’ perception on leadership style of managers of

commercial banks, development banks, and finance companies Organization status Com- Devel- Finance Agreement Factors mercial opment Compa- P value bank bank ny

Mean Mean Mean Demonstrate honesty in transaction 3.9426 3.7 3.6176 0.001* Lead by example as in "doing what I 3.4672 3.8818 3.4853 0.000* ask others to do" State expectations clearly 3.8361 3.7091 3.5 0.005** Expect people to be accountable 3.7787 3.8364 3.3971 0.000* Translate organizational goals practi- cally for people from the lowest level 3.4836 3.3909 2.9853 0.000* to the highest level Makes decisions promptly 3.5656 3.4909 2.8676 0.000* Resolve conflict with goal to succeed 3.7295 3.4273 3.4265 0.003* Communicates with charisma 3.6803 3.5 3.1912 0.001* decision without finger pointing 3.5656 3.5364 2.9853 0.000*

44 Involves others in planning 3.3852 3.5364 3.0147 0.000* Praise people for work well done 3.7787 3.6273 4.0588 0.011** Encourages others for full ownership 3.5164 3.2273 3.2941 0.016** provide decision making authority 3.5082 3.1364 3.3088 0.001*

Provide training for leadership, team- 3.4918 3.1273 3.5735 0.002* work and technical skills Implements innovation to improve 3.541 3.2182 3.2647 0.012** performance Shows good tolerance skill 3.4754 3.2364 3.6618 0.000* Celebrate organizational successes 3.9508 3.7364 4.0441 0.036** Shows stress management skill 3.7869 2.9818 3.5147 0.000* Cross functionalcommunication 3.5574 3.1636 3.3971 0.000* Manage change efficiently 3.5984 3.3727 3.4265 0.05** Encourage at least 80% of the orga- nization's communications to close 3.2705 3.1182 2.8824 0.001* immediately in some form listen without pre-judging 3.7049 3.3545 3.1765 0.000* Is accessible to communication 3.7459 3.7091 4.0147 0.051** Allow differing opinions 3.7705 3.5273 4 0.001*

*, **, and *** mean the coefficient is significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% (2-tailed) level of significance respectively. Above table-3 shows thatcomparison among the subordinates perception on leadership style of managers of CBs, DBs, and FCs. P value (0.001) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding the agreement factor like “manager’s honesty”with respect to organization status (CBs, DBs, and FCs) at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates ofCBs (mean=3.9426), DBs (mean=3.8) and FCs (3.7647) have positive perception towards manager’s honesty than subordinates of DBs (mean=3.7) and FCs (mean=3.6176). P value (0.000) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “manager leads by example as in ‘doing what I ask it others to do’ ” with respect to organization statusat 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of DBs (mean=3.8818) have more positive perception than subordinates of CBs (mean=3.7) andFCs (mean=3.4853). P value (0.005) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’

45 perception regarding “states expectations clearly” at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs (mean=3.8361) have more positive perception in this regardthan subordinates of DBs (mean=3.7091) and FCs (mean=3.5). P value (0.000) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “expects people to be accountable and offer support” at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of DBs (mean = 3.8364) have more positive perception in this regard than subordinates of CBs (mean=3.7787) but subordinates ofFCs (mean=3.3971) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.000) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “translate organizational goals practically and meaningfully” at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of FCs (mean=2.9853) are not satisfiedin this regard. Subordinates of CBs (mean=3.4836) andDBs (mean=3.3909) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.000) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “quickness in decision making” 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of FCs (mean=2.9853) are not satisfied. Subordinates of CBs (mean=3.5656) are a bit positive andDBs (mean=3.4909) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.003) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “conflict resolving skill” at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs (mean=3.7295) are satisfied. Subordinates of DBs (mean=3.4273) and FCs (mean=3.4265) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.001) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “communicates with charisma” at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs (mean=3.6803) and DBs (mean=3.5) are satisfied. Subordinates of FCs (mean=3.1912) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.000) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “decision making without finger pointing” at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs (mean=3.5656) and DBs (mean=3.5364) are satisfied. But Subordinates of FCs (mean=2.9853) are not satisfied. P value (0.000) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “manager involves others in planning process” at1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of DBs

46 (mean=3.5364) are satisfied. Subordinates of CBs (mean=3.3852) and FCs (mean=3.0147) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.011) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “praises people for work well done” at 5 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of FCs(mean=4.0588), are more positive than subordinates of CBs (mean=3.7787) and FCs (mean=3.6273). P value (0.016) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “manager delegates in a way that encourages others to have full ownership” at 5 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs (mean=3.5164) are satisfied. Subordinates of DBs (mean=3.2273) and FCs (mean=3.2941) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.001) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “delegation of authority”at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs (mean=3.5082) are satisfied. Subordinates of DBs (mean=3.1364) and FCs (mean=3.3088) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.002) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “manager believes in and provide training that teaches leadership, teamwork and technical skills” at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of FCs (mean=3.5735) are satisfied in this regard. Subordinates of CBs (mean=3.4918) and DBs (mean=3.1273) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.012) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “manager’s innovativeness” at 5 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs (mean=3.541) are satisfied in this regard. Subordinates of DBs (mean=3.2182) and FCs (mean=3.2647) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.000) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “manager’stolerance power” at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of FCs (mean=3.6618) have positive perception. Subordinates of CBs (mean=3.2182) andDBs (mean=3.2364) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.036) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “celebration of organizational successes” at 5 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of FCs (mean=4.0441) have more positive perception in this regard than subordinates of CBs (mean=3.9508) and DBs (mean =3.7364).

47 P value (0.000) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “stress management skill” at 1 % level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs (mean = 3.7869) and FSs (mean = 3.5147) are satisfied. But Subordinates of DBs (mean = 2.9818) are not satisfied. P value (0.000) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “efficiency in cross functional communication” at1% level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs (mean = 3.5574) have positive perception. Subordinates of DBs (mean = 3.1636) and FCs (mean = 3.3971) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.05) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “change management skill” at 5% level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs (mean = 3.5984) have positive perception. Subordinates of DBs (mean = 3.3727) and FCs (mean = 3.4265) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.001) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “at least 80% of the organization’s communications to close immediately in some form” at 1% level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of FCs (mean = 2.8824) disagree in this regard. Subordinates of CBs (mean = 3.2705) and development companies (mean = 3.1182) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.000) shows that there issignificant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “listening without pre-judging” at 1% level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of CBs(mean = 3.7049 have positive perception. Subordinates of DBs (mean = 3.3545) and FCs (mean = 3.1765) are neutral in their perception. P value (0.001) shows that there is significant difference in the subordinates’ perception regarding “acceptance of differing opinions” 1% level of significance. The mean values show that subordinates of FCs (mean = 4) have more positive perception regarding this factor than subordinates of CBSs (mean = 3.7705) and DBs (mean = 3.5273).

4. Conclusion and Recommendation . The study revealed that there is significant impact on the subordinates’ perception on the leadership styles of BMs regarding the “trusting environment”,

“manager’s courage in all transaction”, “manager’s expectation for people to be accountable”, “quickness in decision making”, “decision making without finger pointing”, “manager’s innovativeness”, “change management skill”,

48 “listening power without pre-judging”, relationship with work associates”,

access to manager”, acceptance of differing opinion” with respect to gender. . The mean value indicates that subordinates of CBs are more satisfied with

creation of trusting environment, honesty in transaction, clarity in sharing

of vision, and explaining expectation, than subordinates of DBs and FCs. Subordinates of DBs agree with involvement of others in planning process and manager’s leading style by letting employee do what he or she is asked

to do, whereas subordinates of CBs and FCs are neutral in their perception.

Subordinates of DBs are more satisfied with manager’s courage in transaction, and expectation for people to be accountable than subordinates of CBs whereas subordinates of FCs are neutral in their perception. Subordinates of FCs are not satisfied with manager’s capacity in translating goal for

people of different level, and at least 80% of the communication for people in some form. But subordinates of CBs and DBs are neutral in this regard. Subordinates’ of CBs are satisfied with manager’s quickness in decision making but not subordinates of FCs whereas subordinate of FCs are neutral in their perception. Subordinates of CBs are satisfied with manager’s conflict resolving

skill, delegation of authority, implementation of innovation, balancing capacity

between leadership responsibility and employee, efficiency in cross-functional

communication, change management skill, efficiency in use of time, listening people without pre-judging but subordinates of DBs and FCs are neutral in their perception. Subordinates of CBs, DBs and FCs are satisfied with celebration of organizational success, manager’s relationship with employees, employees’ access to communication, and acceptance of differing opinion. This study revealed thatgender has influence on their perception on leadership behavior of managers regarding the factors like trusting environment, manager’s courage in transaction, expectation for people to be accountable, quick decision making skill, implementation of innovation, decision making without finger pointing, change management skill, listening people without pre-judging, maintaining relationship with subordinates, access to communication, acceptance of differing opinion. So managers of organizations can be recommended to focus consciously on above mentioned leadership behavior. Furthermore subordinates of FCs are not agree with manager’s capacity in translating goal meaningfully, quickness in decision making, decision making without finger pointing, and 80% of the communication in some form. In case of subordinates of DBs, they are not agree with stress management skill. So managers of FCs are suggested to improve in above mentioned leadership

49 behaviors. Acknowledgement I would like to thank Pokhara University Research Center (PURC) for funding this research. References

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50 Study of Role Stress in Employees of Yellow Pagoda Hotel

Devi Lal Sharma

Lecturer, TU

ABSTRACT

Organizations are an important source of stress, and employees’ workloads and professional deadlines have increased manifold. These advancements have created stress among employees in the

form of role stress, as the harmful physical and emotional responses that arise when the demands of a job do not match the worker’s

abilities, resources, or needs. Role stress results from problems encountered in role performance. This study aimed to examine the role stress and its effect in the performance among the employees of the hospitality industry. For this research relating role stress among the employees a qualitative research has been carried out. This study was targeted among the employees working in different levels in

different departments of Yellow Pagoda Hotel. Hence, a descriptive and interpretive research design was followed. The purpose of this study was to verify existing theories or test hypothesis developed. The target populations of this study were the employees working in

different level in different departments of the sample unit, Sample size was 50 employees working in different level and positions were taken

for survey, which represent 33% of total population. The participants were provided questionnaire personally along with the direction to fill

the answers. Specially, in the hospitality industry, the employees have

to face the customers in each and every second, and can directly affect

the satisfaction of the customers. Only with the satisfied employees,

the hospitality industry can have satisfaction of the customers. So, the management should provide organization-wide stress avoidance and coping techniques like providing incentives and opportunity to advancement that would help the employee to manage their stress and in turn can have a well reputation among the customers for their optimum satisfaction.

Key Words: Role Stress, Self efficiency, Task autonomy, Role ambiguity, Role conflict, Job Satisfaction 51 Context with Literature

Stress has become a very common phenomenon of routine life, and an unavoidable consequence of the ways in which society has changed. The word ‘stress’ conveys the basic idea of a perceived imbalance in the interface between an individual, the environment and other individuals (Lesonitz, 1997). When the external environment is unable to be adequately responded, a reaction of the organism is activated to cope with the situation. The term “stress” was first used by Selye in the literature on life sciences, describing stress as “the force, pressure, or strain exerted upon a material object or person which resist these forces and attempt to maintain its original state.” Stress can also be defined as an adverse 24 Bushara Bano and Rajiv Kumar Jha reaction that people experience when external demands exceed their internal capabilities

(Kilic & Okumus, 2005). Role stress is specifically defined with reference to organizational context. Role stress is anything about an organizational role that produces adverse consequences for the individual. In other words, role stress is thought of as something that is undesirable, something that produces all sorts of negative consequence in people’s working lives. This change has occurred in terms of science and technology, industrial growth, urbanization, modernization, and automation on one hand; and an expanding population, unemployment, and stress on the other.

Organizations are an important source of stress, and employees’ workloads and professional deadlines have increased manifold. These advancements have created stress among employees in the form of role stress, as the harmful physical and emotional responses that arise when the demands of a job do not match the worker’s abilities, resources, or needs. Stress in organization arises from the interaction of people and their jobs, and characterized by changes within people that force them to deviate from their normal functioning. Role stress results from problems encountered in role performance. When these problems are confronted or resolved, the resulting role stress reduces or gets eliminated. This in turn promotes enhanced well being of the role occupant and enhanced performance and effectiveness at the individual and organizational levels. Homogeneity of role stress indicates that the same kind of problems is prevailing throughout the organization and the same kind of solutions/ interventions hold good for all parts of the organization. Heterogeneity of role stress, on the other hand, signifies that different kinds of problems are prevailing in different parts of the organization and different kinds of solutions/ interventions are required for different parts of the organization.

52 A role occupant encounters problems, constraints, deficiencies or conflicts in some form or the other during the course of his/ her role performance. The role occupant is expected to perform and deliver on his/ her role expectations in spite of impediments, such as the following: role occupant finds it difficult to interact with the related roles; role is unimportant and does not make an impact in the organization (this is highly de motivating for the role occupant); role occupant is not clear about his/ her role expectations; adequate resources have not been provided for performing in the role; role occupant does not have the competence required for performing in his/ her role; role involves conflicting expectations; role occupant is compelled to do what he does not like; role does not offer opportunities for growth and development of the role occupant; role occupant cannot utilize his/ her strengths in the assigned role; role involves excessive workload. Occupation of an organizational role is, therefore, a potential source of stress. Stress experienced in roles is referred to as Role Stress. High role stress is the result of a poor role design or poor ‘person environment fit’. Work stress jeopardizes the role performance and wellbeing of the role occupant. Hospitality sector has almost been ignored in role stress studies though it plays a large part in service industry. It is very demanding because of its extremely high turnover rate and unusual working hours. Hotel employees frequently report low level of job satisfaction and a high intention to quit their jobs (Yang, 2010). They have to interact with customers and other stakeholders at the boundaries of organization where they have to receive incompatible job demands from his or her role partners, such as customers, co-workers, and managers, and are incapable of satisfying all the demands simultaneously (Fried et.al., 1988). It is also likely that some orders from supervisors will conflict with the hotel’s regulations. Additionally hotel industry is heavily depended on low experienced employees in service frontline due to competitive market and puts higher stress on employees. The young and low experienced employees are prone to incompetency to handle the situations and their personal stress. The dissatisfaction to income level, personal and social life also can cause stress in an individual. Edwards (2008) examined the relationship between job satisfaction and performance among 444 employees working in a manufacturing plant. Results indicated that there was a significant relationship between overall job satisfaction and overall performance. Boles, Wood & Johnson (2003) determined the relationship between job stress and the Organizational commitment among 110 nursing managers in 9 educational hospitals of 69

53 Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. A significant correlation between job stress and organizational commitment was observed. Carpanzao & Mitchere (2005) examined the relationship between psychological climate and job satisfaction among 357 senior level, middle level and junior level executives working in manufacturing and service sector organizations. Study results revealed that psychological climate comprised of six factors, namely: supportive management, role clarity, contribution, recognition, self expression and challenge is statistically significant predictor of job satisfaction. Clen (2006) investigated the relationship between demographic factors (age, tenure and level of education) and organizational commitment among the employees of knitwear organizations. Analysis of data showed that length of service is significantly associated with organizational commitment, whereas, education level is negatively correlated with organizational commitment. Furthermore, it was conceded that no significant correlation between organizational commitment and age. The results of this study also showed that the managers and the supervisors are more committed than the workers.

Role conflict had a negative effect on job performance, and others observed that role conflict produced a positive effect on job performance. Lackof understanding about job responsibilities and knowing what is expected in terms of one’s job performance is identified as role ambiguity or a lack of role clarity. Employees who experience role ambiguity tend to perform at lower levels than employees who have a clear understanding of job requirements and what is expected of them. Role stress includes: Inter- role distance (IRD): Conflict between organizational and non organizational roles, Role stagnation (RS): The feeling of being “stuck” in the same role, Role expectation conflict (REC): Conflicting expectations and demands between different role senders, Role erosion (RE): The feeling that functions that should belong to the respondent’s role are being transformed/ performed or shared by others, Role overload (RO): The feeling that more is expected from the role than the respondent can cope with, Role isolation (RI): Lack of linkages between the respondent’s role and that of other roles in the organization,

Personal inadequacy (PI): Inadequate knowledge, skills, or preparation for a respondent to be effective in a particular role, Self-role distance (SRD): Conflict between the respondent’s values/ self-concepts and the requirements of his or her organizational role, Role ambiguity (RA): Lack of clarity about others’ expectations of the respondent’s role, or lack of feedback on how others perceive the respondent’s performance and Resource inadequacy (RI): Non availability of resources needed for effective role performance.

54 Self efficacy is one such variable as it would greatly impact how people react to external life changes and is one of the most powerful motivators of behavior. It has also been found to be a significant determinant of role stress

(Jackson and Schuler, 1985) in much of the stress literature. Another factor is self efficiency, which reflects an individual’s momentary belief in his or her capability to perform a specific task at a specific level of performance.

However, the formation of the level of self-efficacy usually emerges through the experiences that an individual accumulates over time. Empirical evidence also corresponds to the above argument. For instance, observed that individuals possessing lower self-efficacy tend to avoid confronting causes of job stress. Edwards (1988) contends that an individual who possess high self- efficacy selects a coping strategy that offers maximum likelihood of reducing strain. For instance, people can actively manage the appraisal of the stressful situation or deal with the situation directly. Nevertheless, self-efficacy is not the same as skill level of employees. Self-efficacy reflects the willingness and ability of individual to integrate previous working experience and skills to current work settings and to be socialized into a new environment. Skills, on the other hand, describe a more objective character employees possess in work settings. Next element is the job factors of current study, task-related variables have been found to be able to influence role stress to a certain level

(Jackson and Schuler, 1985). The expected relationship between job variables and role stress allows managers to design or change work environment so as to reduce, if not eliminate, the deleterious effects of role stress on employees. Task autonomy has been examined as one such job factor in as another. Task uncertainty, or input uncertainty. Input uncertainty stems from the external environment can accurately predict what the inputs to his or her job will be, and when and where those inputs will arrive’. In the hospitality industry context, input uncertainty could arise from the customers’ side, in the form of the unpredictability of the various customer needs. Bowen (1986) pointed out that when customers become more proactive in the whole service delivery process, they will potentially constrain operating efficiency to some extent. A higher level of customer participation means higher level of task variety and task difficulty. Those experiencing higher levels of job autonomy (the freedom to take initiative and exercise discretion in decision-making), low task complexity, supervisory support, and the internal locus of control (a tendency to attribute events to one’s own control; such as, the tendency to attribute a success to internal causes, like one’s ability or effort, rather than external causes, such

55 as good luck), tend to experience lower degrees of emotional exhaustion, but the lack can cause adverse consequences in the employee ranging from physical, psychological to social effects. Job dissatisfaction results when a job, for some reasons, fails to fulfill job-related values (Fisher, 2001). As role clarity and harmony are generally valued, one would expect them to be associated with job satisfaction in the work environment. Conversely, one would expect that existence of perceived role ambiguity and role conflict to be associated with job dissatisfaction. It has been concluded that in general, job satisfaction is significantly negatively correlated with both role ambiguity and role conflict

(Jackson & Schuler, 1985).

Such role stressors lead to emotional exhaustion (Terry, Gregson & John,

1994), depersonalization and diminished personal accomplishment leading to job dissatisfaction and intention to quit. One of the job resources that can reduce the abovementioned relationships is managerial support (Zohas,

1994; Hobfoll, 1989, 2001). That is, a good rapport between the employee and management can mitigate the detrimental causes and effects of role stress for employees. The hospitality industry has common characteristics of its services, customers and the expectation. Thus the Yellow Pagoda Hotel is selected as representative taking into consideration the flow of customers and the services it claimed to provide, number of employees working, to find out the level of role stress among the employees. “The Yellow Pagoda” is a name that reflects hospitality, unique friendly service and comfort comparable to the best since its establishment in 1995 among the hotels in Kathmandu valley. The hotel has become a first choice for its national and international customers because of the delivery of variety of services, affordability and accessibility. It is located in the heart of the city of Kathmandu, minutes’ walk to the historical seat of Nepal- Kathmandu Durbar Square, where every nook and corner is a showpiece of Nepali history and culture, moreover the modern global backpacking travelers most preferred hub in Kathmandu — Thamel is also just minutes walk from this hotel. Not to be outdone, the location is surrounded by casinos, world class restaurants, branded shops, the sights and sounds of the modern world and the ancient bazaars from this part of the world. The hotel is employing 150 staffs in different departments. The hotel is providing services like restaurant and bar, lodging, party and seminar, physical exercise clubs and so on. Problem and objective

Role stress can be experienced in hospitality industry. For instance, employees

56 on the one hand need to obey the rules set by the organization and the orders from their supervisors; they are on the other hand, required to meet the various demands from customers’ side which might be not allowed by the hotel and their supervisors. It is also likely that some directions from supervisors have conflict with the hotel’s regulations. So the study tried to measure what are the kinds, levels, causes, and impact of role stress faced by the employees in the yellow pagoda hotel? This study aimed to examine the role stress and its effect in the performance among the employees of the Yellow pagoda hotel.

Data and Methods The research was planned with the objective to explore the kinds and levels of role stress among the employees of Yellow Pagoda Hotel and their effect in the personal and working lives of the employees. There are two factors that are related to role ambiguity and role conflict. Self-efficacy is the individual personality factor whereas task autonomy and task uncertainty are job related factors. People with higher self-efficacy tend to believe that they can control work targets and they are less likely to be afraid of the difficulties or be unhappy with them (Tardner & Piece, 1991). Furthermore, people with higher self-efficacy tend to be highly motivated and cognitively resourceful. They are able to acquire the maximum effective ways to deal with stressful situations.

In sum, the higher the self-efficacy level, the lower the experienced role stress level. So it can be summarized that self efficacy will have negative relation with role ambiguity and role conflict. Previous researchers have provided the empirical support for the relationship between role stress, role ambiguity and job satisfaction (Flanagan N. & Flanagan T., 2002; Donovan, 2003). The employees who have conflicting roles and have unclear job roles are found not to be satisfied with their job. With the increase in role conflict and role ambiguity the level of job satisfaction decreases and vice versa. Therefore, it is expected that role conflict and role ambiguity will have negative relation with job satisfaction. And at the same with the increase or decrease in role conflict and ambiguity the intention to quit increases or decreases.

Figure 1: Research Model

57 The research model indicates, the independent variables are role conflict and role ambiguity whereas self efficacy, task autonomy and task uncertainty are the antecedents. Dependent variables are job satisfaction and intention to quit. So this research is based on the following hypothesis.

H1: Higher the self efficacy, lower the role stress and vice versa.

H2: Higher the task autonomy, lower the role stress and vice versa

H3: Higher the task uncertainty, higher the role stress and vice versa

H4: Higher the role stress, lower the job satisfaction and vice versa

H5: Higher the role stress, higher the intention to quit and vice versa

For this research relating role stress among the employees a qualitative research has been carried out. This study was targeted among the employees working in different levels in different departments of Yellow Pagoda Hotel. Hence, a descriptive and interpretive research design was followed. The purpose of this study was to verify existing theories or test hypothesis developed based on the previous research and survey. The random and convenient sampling method has been used in this research study. The respondents were selected as per convenience from different level and different departments due to constraint of time and resources. The findings were derived based onthe data that was absolute, that was based on the answers to the questionnaires given by the respondents. The fundamental objective was to get a deeper understanding of the studied problem; collecting, analyzing and interpreting data that cannot be expressed in numbers. On the basis of the questionnaire, personal interviews and case studies data were collected and those data were analyzed and interpreted by constructing a statistical model to come to the desired result.

The target populations of this study were the employees working in different level in different departments of the Yellow Pagoda Hotel. The total number of 50 employees working in different level and positions were taken for survey. 13 employees from house- keeping department, 3 from maintenance department, 20 from F & B (food and beverage) department,

5 from laundry department, 2 from human resource department, 5 from purchase department, 2 from security department were taken employees were taken. The representation of employees from all the departments is 33% of the total. The employees were selected from random convenient sampling

58 for the convenience of the study to collect the data. The participants were provided questionnaire personally along with the direction to fill the answers.

As per the requirements of the study, data used in this study is primary and secondary. Structured questionnaire was administered to collect the data and information. The respondents were handed over the questionnaire by visiting them personally in the hotel. The interactive respondents were allowed to add their own opinion along with the response to the given options and it was of great help in analyzing the data gathered. Five point rating scale was used in the questionnaire. The responses if inclined more towards 5, it means respondent strongly support the statement to be true and if the responses are found more inclined towards 1, it means respondent strongly disagree the statement. The questionnaire was handed to the respondents by visiting the hotel personally. For data analysis and interpretation, statistical tools like maximum and minimum, mean and standard deviation was used. The data was processed by using IBM SPSS Statistics 20. Result and Discussion Analysis is based on primary data which were collected through the questionnaire filled up in the departments of the employees they are connected too and their coverage among the total employees of the hotel. 13 employees were taken from house- keeping department, 3 from maintenance department, 20 from F & B (food and beverage) department, 5 from laundry department, 2 from human resource department, 5 from purchase department, 2 from security department were taken employees were taken. The representation of employees from all the departments is 33% of the total. Work experience of the respondents shows that most of the respondents 35 that come around 70% of the respondents have only 1-2 years with the hotel;

7 respondents were working for 2-5 years in hotel, 5 respondents since 5-10 years and 3 above 10 years. The classification suggests that the hotel doesn’t have experienced staffs as it needed to be. This assessment among the employees was made to find out their own belief on their experience and personal competitiveness to perform any task at a given level.

Table 1: Self Efficacy Assessment N Min Max Mean Std. X ̅ S.E. σ S.E. 1. I have confidence in my 50 2 5 3.46 0.17 1.22 0.17 ability to do my job

59 2. I have all the skills needed 50 2 4 2.44 0.12 0.84 0.12 to perform my job 3. I could have handeled a 50 2 4 3.00 0.09 0.67 0.09 more challenging job than my current job 4. I am very proud of my job 50 2 3 2.10 0.04 0.30 0.04 skills and abilities 5. My current level of 50 2 5 3.54 0.16 1.16 0.16 competence is probably not engough to excel in this job 6. Most people in my line of 50 2 3 2.68 0.07 0.47 0.07 work can do the job better than me 7. I often feel that i don’t 50 2 5 3.22 0.17 1.18 0.17 have right type of skills for this job 8. I don’t feel comfortable 50 2 5 3.32 0.16 1.13 0.16 when other people watch me doing my job 9. I can’t do well in some of 50 2 5 3.98 0.16 1.15 0.16 the tasks required by my job Valid N (listwise) 50

In the above table, there were altogether 9 questions designed to measure the level of self efficacy among the employees of hotel for which the questionnaire was distributed among the designed sample. Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 are positive questions. That means the responses tilted towards 5 (strongly agreed) has positive connotations whereas responses tilted towards 1 (strongly disagreed) has negative connotation. The mean value of the response of Q1 is 3.46 with standard deviation of 1.22 that means the response is tilted towards 5 (strongly agree). So we can say that majority of the employees have self confidence. But the mean of responses of Q2, Q3 and Q4 is less than 3 i.e 2.44, 3, 2.10 with standard deviation of 0.84, 0.67, 0.30. That means the responses are tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree). Thus the implication is that the employees lack the necessary skills as per response for Q2. Most of the respondents are neural in Q3. Though they have self confidence, they lack certainty in the quality of the skills they posses required for their job as per their response for Q4. Q5, Q6, Q7, Q8, Q9 are negative questions so their connotations is also negative that means if the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree), the implications is positive whereas if the responses tilted towards 5 (strongly

60 agree), the implication is negative. The mean value for Q5, Q7, Q8 and Q9 is more than 3 i.e. 3.54, 3.22, 3.32., 3.98 with standard deviation of 1.16, 1.18,

1.13, 1.15 respectively. That means the responses tilted towards 5 (strongly agree). By analyzing the responses we can say that the employees agreed on the lack of competency required for their job, and less knowledge, skills and experiences, they feel hesitant to expose their skills and to be exposed in front of others, and they don’t have enough skills to require any type of work in the employee. The mean value of the responses of Q5 is 3.54 with standard deviation of 1.16 that means the responses are tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree). The implication here is they don’t agree that other employees in the same hotel can do the job better than them. The implication of majority of responses suggested that the employees have problem of self efficacy. If we compare the responses in relation to their experience and age, it can easily assume that job experience and age have played a significant role for the lack of self efficacy among the employees at the hotel. This assessment was done to access the extent to which the employees can accurately predict what the inputs to their job would be, and when and where those inputs would arrive.

Table 2: Task Uncertainty Assessment

N Min Max Mean Std. X ̅ S.E. σ S.E.

1. In my job, the work is 50 1 5 4.06 0.19 1.35 0.19 more or less the same from day to day.

2. On any given day, I am 50 1 5 2.14 0.16 1.14 0.16 required to focus on only one type of job, and I do not need to do a variety of jobs.

3. On a given day, I end up 50 1 5 4.00 0.14 0.97 0.14 doing many completely different jobs. 4. The procedures and 50 1 5 3.66 0.18 1.24 0.18 techniques I use are relatively straightforward and simple.

61 5. I am able to handle 50 1 5 3.58 0.17 1.18 0.17 most of the situations in my job using very similar procedures and techniques.

6. In my job, I know in 50 1 5 2.14 0.13 0.95 0.13 advance where to expect a problem or an unusual

situation. (Example:

Housekeeping problems, problems at the front desk).

7. In my job, problems 50 1 5 4.26 0.11 0.80 0.11 arise at unexpected times.

(Example: Housekeeping

problems at odd hours, sudden problems with clients or with supplies ). 8. I can easily solve any 50 1 4 1.98 0.12 0.87 0.12 problems by following the rules and procedure manuals.

9. In my job, I frequently 50 1 5 3.76 0.15 1.04 0.15 face problems that are very difficult to solve. Valid N (listwise) 50

In the above table there were there were nine questions designed to measure the level of task uncertainty that the employees feel in the hotel. The questions are as in above table are of two nature i.e positive and negative.

For the positive questions if the responses tilted towards 5(strongly agree), the implication is that the problem described in the statement persists in the hotel and if the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree) the problem as mentioned in the statement doesn’t persist there. Whereas for the negative

questions, if the responses tilted towards 5 (strongly agree), the implication is that the problem described in the statement doesn’t persist in the hotel and

if the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly agree), the problem persists there.

Q2 and Q3 carry the negative connotations whereas Q1, Q4, Q5, Q6, Q7,

Q8, Q9 carry the positive connotation for their implications. The mean value for the questions Q1, Q7 and Q9 is above 3 i.e 4.06, 4.26 and 3.76 with the standard deviation of 1.35, 0.80, 1.04. These responses tilted towards 5 that

62 mean the work in the hotel for the employees have similar nature every day. The employees face different types of problems and they can’t be predicted and the problems are difficult to be solved by the employees alone. The mean value for Q2 and Q3 is 2.14 and 4.0 with standard deviation of 1.14 and 0.97. That means Q2 tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree). The implication is that the employees in the hotel have a variety of jobs to be done in some particular day. The response to Q3 tilted towards 5 that mean the employees have to do a variety of jobs in some particular day. The responses for Q4 and Q5 tilted towards 5 (strongly agree) with the mean value 3.66 and 3.58 having standard deviation of 1.24, 1.18. The implication is that the technique and procedures of work in the hotel are easier and can be handled easily by the employees. The mean value for Q6 and Q8 is 2.14 and 1.98 with the standard deviation of 0.95 and 0.87. That means the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree). The implication is the problems are unpredictably arises the rules and procedure manual are insufficient to solve the problems. To sum up, majority of responses for questions, 7 out of 9, suggest that the employees are having the issues of certainty in their job. This assessment was made to assess the extent to which the employee make job related decisions on their own.

Table 3: Task Autonomy Assessment N Min Max Mean Std. X ̅ S.E. σ S.E. 1. This organization gives me 50 1 5 2.06 0.10 0.68 0.10 the freedom to get the job done rather than insist on following rules and procedures. 2. Most of the decisions in my job 50 4 5 4.76 0.06 0.43 0.06 are made by my supervisors. 3. I have the authority to decide 50 1 5 2.22 0.14 1.00 0.14 on how to handle work exceptions

(Example: any problems, unusual situations). 4. I do not have the authority to 50 1 5 3.58 0.14 0.99 0.14 ignore or overlook a hotel rule even I feel that ignoring the rule will let me solve a problem on the spot.

63 5. If there are any exceptions, I 50 3 5 4.26 0.07 0.53 0.07 have to consult my supervisor. I am not allowed to decide on my own. Valid N (listwise) 50

In the above table there were altogether 5 questions designed to measure the task autonomy among the employees. The questions are as in above table are of two nature i.e positive and negative. For the positive questions if the responses tilted towards 5(strongly agree), the implication is that the problem described in the statement persists in the hotel and if the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree) the problem as mentioned in the statement doesn’t persist there. Whereas for the negative questions, if the responses tilted towards 5 (strongly agree), the implication is that the problem described in the statement doesn’t persist in the hotel and if the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly agree), the problem persists there. The mean value of Q1 and Q3 is 2.06 and 2.22 with standard deviation of 0.68 and 1.00. That means the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree). The implication is that the employees don’t have freedom to decide on their own rather have to follow the rules and procedures of the hotel and they don’t have the authority to decide on their own to handle the exceptions whenever occurred. The mean value for Q2, Q4 and Q5 is 4.76, 3.58, 4.26 with standard deviation of 0.43, 0.99 and 0.53. The responses tilted towards 5 (strongly agree). The implication is that most of the decisions are made by the supervisors, the employees don’t have authority to overlook hotel rule and regulation to solve any problem and the employees have to follow and obey their supervisors. To sum up, all the responses suggest that there is no autonomy for the employees to make decisions on their own regarding their job. The assessment was done to assess the type of role demand that occurs when two or more sets of role pressures exist in the workplace.

Table 4: Role Conflict Assessment N Min Max Mean Std. X ̅ S.E. σ S.E. 1. I often have to break a rule or 50 1 5 2.30 0.10 0.74 0.10 policy in order to carry out an assignment.

64 2. I have to do things that should 50 2 5 4.02 0.10 0.74 0.10 be done differently under different conditions. 3. I often receive an assignment 50 1 5 4.00 0.12 0.88 0.12 without the manpower to complete it. 4. I often work with more than 50 1 5 3.44 0.15 1.05 0.15 one section / department that operate quite differently. 5. I often receive incompatible 50 1 5 4.24 0.11 0.80 0.11 requests from two or more people, and these requests are equally important. 6. I need to do things that are apt 50 2 5 2.98 0.13 0.91 0.13 to be accepted by one person and not by others. 7. I often receive an assignment 50 1 5 4.04 0.14 0.99 0.14 without adequate resources and materials to execute it 8. I sometimes work on 50 1 5 3.86 0.12 0.86 0.12 unnecessary things. Valid N (listwise) 50

In the above table there were altogether 8 questions designed to measure the task autonomy among the employees. The questions are as in above table are of two nature i.e. positive and negative. For the positive questions if the responses tilted towards 5(strongly agree), the implication is that the problem described in the statement persists in the hotel and if the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree) the problem as mentioned in the statement doesn’t persist there. Whereas for the negative questions, if the responses tilted towards 5 (strongly agree), the implication is that the problem described in the statement doesn’t persist in the hotel and if the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly agree), the problem persists there. The mean value of

Q1 and Q6 is less than 3 i.e 2.30, 2.98 with standard deviation of 0.74 and 0.91. This means that the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree). The implication is that the employees don’t have to break rules often to carry out their assignment and they don’t have to do things that would be accepted by

65 one person only. The mean value of Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q7 and Q8 is more than 3 i.e. 4.02, 4.0, 3.44, 4.24, 4.04, 3.86 with standard deviation of 0.74, 0.88, 1.05,

0.80, 0.99, 0.86. This means the responses tilted towards 5 (strongly agree). The employees have to do different types of jobs; the employees are assigned the job without the adequate resources to complete it; they need to work in different sections that requires different skills; the employees have to follows instructions from different people i.e from supervisors, customers, managers at the same time and the employees feel that they sometime have to work on unnecessary things because of the instructions they receive. To sum up majority of responses (6 out of 8) suggests that the employees face issues related to role conflict in the hotel.

The assessment was made to access the lack of clarity about others’ expectations of the employee’s role, or lack of feedback on how others perceive their performance

Table 5: Role Ambiguity Assessment N Min Max Mean Std. X ̅ S.E. σ S.E.

1. I have clear, planned goals and 50 1 5 2.46 0.16 1.11 0.16 objectives for my job. 2. Things are so clear that I am 50 1 5 2.18 0.14 1.02 0.14 able to divide my time properly between various activities at work. 3. I clearly know what my 50 1 5 2.86 0.14 0.97 0.14 responsibilities are. 4. I know exactly what is expected 50 1 5 2.64 0.15 1.05 0.15 of me on the job. 5. I am quite sure about how 50 1 5 2.04 0.13 0.90 0.13 much authority I have on the job. 6. My supervisors have explained 50 1 5 2.58 0.14 0.97 0.14 clearly of what has to be done on the job. Valid N (listwise) 50

In the above table there are altogether 6 questions. All the questions are of positive nature. So the implications are that if the responses tilted towards 1

(strongly disagree), the issues mentioned in the question doesn’t persist and if the responses tilted towards 5 (strongly agree), the issues mentioned in the

66 questions persist in the hotel. The mean value of Q1 to Q6 are 2.46, 2.18, 2.86,

2.64, 2.04, 2.58 with the standard deviation of 1.11, 1.02, 0.97, 1.05, 0.90, 0.97. All the responses tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree). So the implication is the employees don’t have clear plan and goals for their job; the employees are unable to divide their time properly between various works due to the unclarity of their job and role; the employees don’t know clearly about their

responsibilities, they don’t know what is expected of their job, they don’t have

idea on how much authority they have regarding their job, the supervisors don’t provide clear instructions and feedbacks to the employees while giving

assignment. To sum up, all the responses suggest that the employees are facing role ambiguity issues in the hotel.

Job satisfaction:

This assessment was made to assess the employees’ positive/ negative feelings regarding their existing job.

Table 6: Job Satisfaction Assessment

N Min Max Mean Std. X ̅ S.E. σ S.E. 1. I am quite satisfied with my50 2 5 2.66 0.12 0.82 0.12 supervisors. 2. I am quite satisfied with my50 1 5 2.52 0.13 0.89 0.13 organization’s policies. 3. I am quite satisfied with 50 1 5 2.32 0.13 0.89 0.13 the support provided by my organization. 4. I’m quite satisfied with my50 1 5 1.86 0.13 0.90 0.13 opportunities for advancement with this organization.

5. Overall, I am satisfied with my 50 1 5 2.58 0.15 1.07 0.15 job. Valid N (listwise) 50

In the table above there are altogether 5 questions designed to measure the level of job satisfaction among the employees. All the questions are of positive nature. So the responses that tilted towards 1 (strongly disagree) have negative implications and those responses that tilted towards 5 (strongly agree) have positive implications. All of the responses in the above table have less than three mean value .i.e 2.66, 2.52, 2.32, 1.86 and 2.58 with the standard deviation of 0.82, 0.89, 0.89, 0.90, 1.07. That means all of the responses tilted towards 67 1 (strongly disagree). To sum up the employees are not satisfied with their supervisors and the policy the organization is following. They responded that they are not satisfied with the support the organization was providing them to accomplish the assigned task. The mean value for Q4 is the lowest among 5 questions. That means the employees are getting very less opportunities for their advancement. Overall the responses suggest that the employees are not

satisfied with the their job, supervisor, organization policy and advancement opportunities.

Intention to quit assessment: The assessment was made to refer to the feelings of employees to

continue/ discontinue their existing job.

Table 7: Intention to Quit Assessment Mean Std. N Min Max X ̅ S.E. σ S.E. 1. I am quite satisfied with my 50 2 5 2.66 0.12 0.82 0.12 supervisors. 2. I am quite satisfied with my 50 1 5 2.52 0.13 0.89 0.13 organization’s policies. 3. I am quite satisfied with the support provided by my 50 1 5 2.32 0.13 0.89 0.13 organization. 4. I’m quite satisfied with my opportunities for advancement 50 1 5 1.86 0.13 0.90 0.13 with this organization.

5. Overall, I am satisfied with my job. 50 1 5 2.58 0.15 1.07 0.15 Valid N (listwise) 50

In the above table, there are altogether 4 questions designed to measure the level of intention of employees to quit their existing job. Since the ‘intention to quit’ is in itself a negative attitude and has an adverse effect for the organization, though the statements are of positive nature they have inverse implication. That means if the responses are tilted towards 1(strongly disagree) its implication is positive whereas if the responses tilted towards 5 (strongly agree) the implication is negative on behalf of the organization. All the responses in the above table have mean value of more than three i.e.

2.66, 2.52, 2.32, 1.86 and 2.58 with the standard deviation of 0.82, 0.89, 0.89, 0.90 and 0.81. This means that the response tilted towards 5 (strongly agree). This suggests that the employees are intending to quit their existing job and 68 looking for new job. They are expecting a new job sooner.

Conclusions From the above discussion role stress is a part of chain made up of from its antecedents and consequences. The heart of the chain is the antecedents where there is a lot an individual and organization can do to reduce role stress such that the organization can have satisfied employees and in turn satisfied customers. From the analysis and interpretation of data it is concluded that the main cause of role conflict and role ambiguity among the employees is providing variety of roles to an individual without proper orientation and adequate resources to complete it. It is concluded that young age, lack of experience and exposure affect the self efficacy of the employees andnot providing the independence to deal with the situation and problems can cause task autonomy whereas lack of job specialization in the organization can bring task ambiguity and de-motivate the employees. Pressure can also be a good thing leading to increased productivity. However, when this pressure becomes excessive, stress is caused. The problems occur when the stress on an individual seem to be overwhelming or out of controls. That is, they perceive themselves as being unable to cope and not to possess the necessary skills to combat their stress and decrease the level of job satisfaction and ultimately forces the employees to quit the job. The organization, in a whole, is both employees and management, so both of them support each other for the benefit of each other. Specially, in the hospitality industry, the employees have to face the customers in each and every second, and can directly affect the satisfaction of the customers. Only with the satisfied employees, the hospitality industry can have satisfaction of the customers. So, the management should provide organization-wide stress avoidance and coping techniques like providing incentives and opportunity to advancement, that would help the employee to manage their stress and in turn can have a well reputation among the customers for their optimum satisfaction.

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71 Translation of Cultural References in Jhaṭāro

Dr. Nabaraj Neupane Reader

Department of English Education, TU

ABSTRACT Translation has been an integral part of academic and literary activity

home and abroad. In the context of Nepal, random practices of translation require theorizing them. To develop a theory-cum-practice

interface, both the theories and practices of translation should go

simultaneously. In this scenario, Jhaṭāro (a collection of 160 quatrains)

has recently been translated. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the strategies used in translation of cultural references in the selected

text. To achieve this goal, survey research design was followed, in which cultural references were envisaged in the source text and their translations in the target text. The findings showed that these

four strategies were used for translating the references: (a) literal

translation, (b) importation of reference, (c) cultural transference, and (d) manipulation and meaning adaptation. The results also revealed

the problems in translation like personalized expressions, loss in

cultural load, break in rhyme, and mistranslation. These results imply that the translators should be aware of pitfalls and problems while translating cultural references.

Keywords: culture, problem, strategy, translation

Context of the Study

Since time immemorial, Nepali culture has been enriched with the transfer of knowledge from the oral tradition to the written form of the Vedas.

Religious values and assumptions, and sermons were disseminated by means of translation since the Vedic periods. Nepali art, culture and literature are rich because of multiple allusions and references of ancient sources of knowledge. Such a glorious history of Nepali literature should be translated into English to bring it to the fore of wider readers in the globalized context of the present world as can be seen in the case of Umar Khaiyyam and Tagore, for example. Umar Khaiyyam became renowned only when his quatrains were rendered into

72 English after 200 years of his own creation; and Tagore’s popularity mounted on the peak only after transcreation of his Bengali poem Geetanjali into English, which resulted in achieving the most coveated Nobel Prize for literature in

1913(Espmark, 1991). In such a situation, translation of Jhaṭāroin English is relevant and contextual.

The author of Jhaṭāro, Teertha Raj Adhikari, who was born in Durādāndā,

Lamjung, served as a teacher in different schools of Nepal and retired as an under-secretary of Nepal Government. He composed poems, folk songs, and quatrains. This is evidenced from his creations like Junkiri [ Firefly] (1996), Ainā

[ Mirror] (2000), Teen Laya Terha Geet [ Three Rhymes Thirteen Songs] (2003),

Jhaṭāro[ Slingshot] (2013), and Yo Kasko Hāt Ho [ Whose Hand It Is!] (2014). Of these works, Jhaṭāro(2013) is his collection of 160 quatrains, which are written with various themes like irony, grandeur of mother, politics, religion, culture, nature, absurdism, fantacy, daily grinds of life and the like. These themes are the reflections of his own experiences and imaginations. Jhaṭāro (2013) is rich in Nepali language and culture specific references.

To translate these references in English, adequate knowledge of both Nepali (source language) and English (target language) is required. In the translation of Tirtha Raj Adhikari’s Jhaṭāro, Bhoj Raj Neupane appears to have fulfilled this requirement. Mr. Neupane was born in Hanspur-2, Kaski, became English teacher for 14 years, and served in CTEVT in the capacity of Nepal Government’s Gazetted first class equivalent position. Both the author and the translator have experienced the bureaucratic system of Nepal for a pretty long time in their own life. Therefore, their commonalities have enabled them to compose Nepali culture-laden quatrains and translate them into English. The Nepali version was published in 2013 and the English translation in 2015. This justifies the issue of contemporariness (Bhattarai, 1997) of creation and translation, which is essential for good translation.

Statement of the Problem Translation has been integral part of the globalized context asthe world is becoming like an aging orange because of the use of information and communication technologies (Engle & Engle, as cited in Das, 2005). In the context of Nepal, where 123 languages are in use (CBS, 2011), multilingualism and multiculturalism are common phenomena. This situation exhibits the urgency of rendering texts across languages used in Nepal. Furthermore, Nepali, the main language of communication in Nepal, should go beyond its frontiers for the recognition of cultural heritage and glorious history of Nepali art, culture and literature.

73 Moreover, the global context of translation shows the use of three

types of theories such as linguistic, extra-linguistic/ prelinguistic and cultural

(Neupane, 2015). The current demand is the use of collaborative method, which

necessitates the active involvement of the author, the translator, the editor and the like. This method has been proved the best method in translating literature

(Bhattarai, 1997). Out of numerous Nepali translations into English, Jhaṭāro is an

example of the use of collaborative method, in which the author, the translator

and the editor are equally active in its English production (Adhikari, 2015).

Therefore, I am interested to seek the answers of these questions in this study: • What are the strengths and weaknesses of this translation ? • How are the Nepali cultural references rendered into English ? • Why did the translator choose collaborative method ? • What problems were encountered by the translator and how did he overcome them ? • Has this translation got any implications (including pedagogical) ?

Objectives The general purpose of this study is to appraise the translation quality

of Jhaṭāro. Based on the questions raised in the statement of the problem, the present study aims to offer comments in light of translation strategies and

problems; and to present some implications for translation and teaching/ training.

Significance of the Study This study will feed the related stakeholders of translation activities at

home and abroad. Firstly, it is a matter of satisfaction for the author. Secondly, the translator will obtain feedback and get opportunity for further amendments

in his translation. Thirdly, other translators, authors, editors, proofreaders, would be translators and related personalities can achieve some guidelines for their translation works. This study can be equally significant for pedagogical purposes too since it raises awareness in the teachers, learners and the related stakeholders such as policy makers, curriculum designers, textbook writers and the others towards linguistic and cultural differences across languages, which enable them to be sensitive towards teaching languages. Further, this study can be a model for the researchers, willing to go deeper in their related fields.

Methodology The present study has followed survey research design as it catered with representative samples (Nunan, 2010). For the execution of this design, I have developed the following conceptual framework (Figure 1). This study explores

74 and appraises strategies and problems for translating cultural references in

Jhaṭāro, especially words, phrases, idioms and proverbs. Translation of these references have been observed in terms of strategies and problems of meaning transfer. The strategies observed in this study have been adopted from Newmark

(1981 & 1988), Baker (2011), and Chesterman (2000), such as manipulation and meaning adaptation, literal translation, transportation of reference and cultural transference. The first category subsumes omission, addition, and translator’s creation. Likewise, problems in translation have been envisaged and analyzed in terms of personalized expressions, loss in cultural load, break in rhyme and mistranslation. Based on the conceptual framework (Figure 1), the present study explored and discussed exemplary samples which were selected purposively to fulfill my limited purposes of observing strategies and gaps only.

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework

For the analysis and interpretation purpose, I have applied descriptive- analytical method, in which exemplars from the selected texts have been discussed in light of the designed framework.

Results and Discussion The study is limited to observe and analyze cultural references in terms of words, phrases, idioms, and proverbs. Therefore, this section deals with comments in terms of translation strategies and problems.

Strategies of Translation

As translation is a linguistic, cultural, pragmatic, literary, philological, philosophical, and other activity, many problems encounter while translating across languages. Therefore, certain strategies or tricks in translation are required to apply. Strategies of translation refer to the ways in which a SL text

75 is transferred into a TL text so as to maintain similarity of message and spirit

between the two texts, i.e. SLT and TLT. In this study, four different strategies were found in use.

Literal Translation. Literal translation is SL-oriented, in which straightforward

meaning of SL is rendered into TL. However, it is different from word-for-word

translation, in which “SL word-order is preserved” (Newmark, 1988, p. 45). In literal

translation, “SL grammatical constructions are converted to their TL equivalents

but lexical words are again translated singly out of context”(Newmark, 1988, p.

46). In light of this explication, I have found some instances of literal translation in Jhaṭāro (Table 1).

Table 1: Literal Translation in Jhaṭāro SL References TL References yadi ma swapna bhaidieko bhae (p. 5) were I a dream (p. 5) amrit (p. 12) nectar (p. 12) uḍnapāe (p. 21) if I could fly (p. 21) timro manbhitra ta churā rahecha (p. 29) inside your heart is the knife (p. 29) gās kāṭera khuwāunu (p. 43) to eat the food from your share (p. 43) kān samāunu(p. 43) to catch my ears (p. 50) hātbāṭa umkinu (p. 52) to slip through the fingers (p. 52) uddeśya candramālāi chune hunu your sole aim should be to reach the parcha (p.79) moon (p. 79)

mulā kāṭesari mānis kāṭieko cha (p. 97) human beings are killed like rats, dogs and snakes (p. 97)

Note: The page numbers in the brackets of the left hand side indicate page numbers of Nepali version whereas the ones of the right hand side indicate page numbers of the English version. Most of the quatrains are literally translated as it is the easiest way for the translators. To be specific, cultural references are rendered literally despite the fact that some are the cases of mistranslation, too. For instance, amrit

(ambrosia) has been rendered as ‘nectar’, which has less cultural load. Generally, for rendering common terms and expressions there are few problems. However, idioms and proverbs are culture specific and their literal translation is not appropriate in many cases. For the first and the third examples in table 1 prove that literal translation is approximate but for other cases, translation is not proper.

For example, Timro manbitra ta churā rahecha literally means ‘inside your heart

76 is the knife’ but this Nepali idiomatic expression could be better translated as

“Honey tongue, sea of gull.” Similarly, gāskāṭerakhuwāunuconnotes devotion of

mother, who feeds her kids remaining herself hungry. In fact, mother is satisfied if her children are satisfied. Literal translation has not reached this meaning. The

same case has happened in translations of kānsamāunu(to give up something),

hātbāṭaumkinu(to be released from hand), mulākāṭesarimāniskāṭieko cha (mankind is killed like cattle). This explication proves that literal translation is inappropriate for translating culture references across languages.

Importation of Reference. Importation of reference in translation is also

called transference (Catford, 1965), or use of loan words (Baker, 2011) or transliteration. This technique is mainly used to translate “culture-specific

terms, modern concepts and buzz words” (Baker, 2011, p. 23). The translators use this technique by adjusting source language pronunciation and orthography

into target language pronunciation and orthography. In translation, such

transferred words become loan or imported words. For example, English words

like coat, jacket, lantern and school have been loan words in Nepali like kot,

jākeṭ, lālṭin, and skul respectively. Likewise, Nepali words like subedār, baidār,

sāl, silājit, gundruk, selroṭi andpandit have been English loan words. Due to

the lack of proper translation and cultural substitution, such strategy is used in

two ways: mere borrowing, and borrowing plus explanation. In the former way,

SL references are merely borrowed as they are, whereas in the latter way, SL references are borrowed along with a brief explanation.

Following this concept, I have explored this technique and have found some terms borrowed in English (Table 2). This technique has been used to translate (a) allusions from Hindu mythology like Abhimanyu (a great warrior of

Mahābhārat) cakrabyuh (intrigue, a circular array of troops in a war), hanumān

(a gallant warrior in monkey’s shape), Bhāgirath (a Hindu king who is supposed to have brought the Ganges down from the heaven to the earth by his austerities) (b) typical Nepali cultural terms like rati (a small round ball that can be kept

in eye without difficulty), jhaṭāro (sling or slingshot), Gore ra Rātmāte (typical

Nepali calling names), Dhungesā͂gu(a place in Pokhara where fun fair for haat

bazaar), Phewa (a beautiful lake of Pokhara), and others. The translator may have borrowed these Nepali terms to preserve their cultural load. Nonetheless, he should have given brief explanation for each of them for those ones, which are difficult for translation as has been done for rati, dhoi, and jhaṭāro. Furthermore, he should have rendered the terms, which can be found in English culture. For example, jhaṭāro itself can be ‘sling-shot’, kimā can be ‘minced flesh’, ākāśbeli can be ‘dodder’ and so on (Lohani & Adhikari, 2011). 77 Table 2: Use of Loan Words in Translation of Jhaṭāro SL References TL references rati (p. 6) rati (small red seed) (p. 6) jhaṭāro (p. 25) Jhaṭāro (a local wooden weapon thrown to fell

down fruit, vegetables, etc. from a tree or a creeper) (p. 25) kimā (p. 28) kima (p. 28) Abhimanyu (p. 45) Abhimanyu cakrabyuh (p. 45) chakrabyuh (p. 45) ḍhoi (p. 48) dhoi (female elephant) Pashupatināth (p. 76) Pashupatinath (p. 76) Gore ra Ratmāte (p. 89) Gore and Ratmate (p. 89) Dhungesā͂gu (p. 102) Dhungesanghu (p. 102) ākāśbeli (p. 105) akashbeli (p. 105) Bhāgirath (p. 129) Bhagirath (p. 129)

Hanumān, Yudhisthir Hanuman, Yudhisthir (p. 120) Phewā (p. 166) Fewa (p. 160) These delineations show that the translator has not properly followed the principle of borrowing in rendering cultural references (specifically terms only).

Cultural Transference. When SL terms and expressions do not have matching

TL ones, the translator transfers cultural approximants. To put in Baker’s (2011) words, “This strategy involves replacing a culture specific item or expression with a target-language item which do not have the same propositional meaning but is likely to have a similar impact on the target reader” (p. 29). For example, ‘Christmas’ in English culture evokes the similar context of ‘Dashain’ in Hindu culture in the sense that both are the greatest festivals of their respective cultural groups. Likewise, English people do not use syākhu as Nepali people do but ‘umbrella ‘creates similar context as both of them have similar function of protecting people from rain. Similar cultural references in terms of words, phrases, idioms, and proverbs are found translated using this strategy in Jhaṭāro (Table 3).

Table 3 : Cultural Transference in Jhaṭāro 78 SL References TL References cuḍel (p. 3) succubus (p. 3) danta bajhān (p. 33) petty dispute (p. 33) aruko lakh āmāko kākh (p. 40) mother’s lap is greater than other’s bounty (p. 40) rājlipi (p. 57) legal script (p. 57) satsaṇ (p. 71) kind fellowship (p. 71) chadma bheṣmā (p. 82) a clock (p. 82) laḍḍu dekhāyera mukkā dinu (p. 82) to dangle a carrot to rob from the back (p. 82) tagārāharu bhā͂cnu (p. 100) to break the hurdles (p. 100) kaccāvaidyako mantra (p. 102) the nostrum by a quack (p. 102) caurāsivyanjan (p. 106) the great feast (p. 106) khyāl-khyālmai (p. 134) in a jest (p. 134)

The terms such as cuḍel(a witch, a virago, an ugly and detestable woman), dantabajān(grinding of teeth in rage), chadmabheṣmā(in a disguise), rājlipi (national script), satsaṇ (good company), caurāsivyanjan(delicious varieties of food) and the like are not exactly found in English culture. To create similar situational and experiential context, the translator has rendered them as succubus (female demon having sexual relation with sleeping males), petty dispute (quarrel in minute issues), a cloak (a long robe), legal script (document of law), kind fellowship, the great feast and the like respectively. These exemplars confirm that cultural load has been carried across in translation.

Rendering idioms and proverbs too, the translator has used this strategy. The Nepali proverbs aruko lākh āmāko kākh literally means ‘mother’s lap is one hundred thousand times more valuable than others’. In English, arukolākh(other’s one hundred thousand) does not have exact replacement. Therefore, functional approximant is ‘bounty’, which shows liberal/ prodigal/ generous in affording something. This cultural substitution seems justifiable. Similarly, laḍḍu dekhāyera mukkā dinu literally means ‘to blow somebody tempting with a delicious food’.

English people do not useLaḍḍu, a delicious food. This idiom connotes to dangle something for tempting somebody in order to cheat. So, an SL idiom has rightly been transferred culturally into a TL idiom. The same strategy has been used in rendering tagārāharu bhā͂cnu (to break bars/ bolts to stop the cattle from entering into the farmland) kacchā vaidyako mātrā (dose of an inexperienced

Ayurvedic doctor) and khyāl-khyālmā (in a joke/ raillery).

79 Interpretation of these instances exhibits that the translator has rightly

transferred SL cultural references into TL, be it the case of terms or expressions.

Manipulation and Meaning Adaptation. The term ‘manipulation’ derives from the Latin word ‘manus’ which means ‘the hand’ and in words of Macdonald (1975) to manipulate means “to handle or manage something in a skillful way”

(p. 798). So, manipulation is a trick or contrivance to handle something as if readers may not notice it. Translation theorists have realized that translation is re-writing and more or less manipulation of the source language text. Hermans

(1985) has advocated the same in these words, “From the point of view of

the target literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the

source text for a certain purpose” (as cited in Nair, 2002, p. 258). In this claim,

manipulation means adaptation of SL into TL text, which includes elaboration, explanation, addition, and omission. Furthermore, with the strategies of

manipulation, a translated text can outweigh the quality and popularity of the

source text (Mohanty & Mahanand, 2000). This explication gives me an impetus that manipulation subsumes

strategies of addition, deletion, and translator’s creation. Some instances of manipulation in translation of Jhaṭāro(Table 4) show that translation of

literature, especially quatrains, call for adapting SL meaning to TL. Table 4 shows that certain terms and expressions have been manipulated. There is deletion of

khajanā (treasury/ store), bhut (ghost), and addition of ‘past’ in hiu͂daimā and

God Shiva in khai kina. In most of the instances, there is meaning adaptation in translator’s creation. In the first example pāri tare͂ (went across) has been adapted as ‘to escape’, kasingar (dirt) as ‘thorn’, bhaṇga (break down) as ‘fall down’, asphuṭ (ambiguous) as ‘unclear’, among others.

However, translation of some references have added cultural load in target culture. For example, hoarding (an action of collecting and guarding store of money, food and other treasured objects) can be sancayan in Nepali but it is, in the quatrain is thap (addition). The latter Nepali term has less cultural load than the former. So, the term has been upgraded in English. Likewise chadaichan

(there is someone) has been rendered as ‘the savior’, which connotes to the

God/ the Almighty who liberates human beings from sins. Same is done in other words like parajivi (parasite), mulkurā (main theme), dagdār (boredom), and guṇ (quality). However, I wonder why the translator has manipulated kuthurke (coppersmith barbet) as ‘the leader’.

Table 4 : Manipulation in Translation of Jhaṭāro

80 SL References TL References pāri tare͂ (p. 3) to escape (p. 3) khajanā (p. 6) - kasingar͂ (p. 7) thorn (p. 7) hiu͂daimā (p. 18) in the past winter (p. 18) bhaṇga (p. 35) fall down (p. 35) thap (p. 58) hoarding (p. 58) asphuṭ (p. 75) unclear (p. 75) cha͂daichan (p. 76) the savior (p. 76) sojhiyo (p. 80) the old track (p. 80) khai kina? (p. 85) why God Shiva migrates (p. 85) parajivi (p. 105) progress (p. 105) bhutpanchāi (p. 121) getting rid of (p. 121) mulkurā (p. 123) you reap as you sow (p. 123) jyāmiti (p. 131) maths (p. 131) kuthurke (p. 134) the leader (p. 134) digdār (p. 136) hollow (p. 136) guṇ (p. 149) best of all (p. 149) These instances show that manipulation is a strategy of translating cultural references to improvise and upgrade source language text.

Besides the four main strategies, the translator has used other strategies like back translation, for example ‘take away shop’ (p. 36), ‘Nigara falls’ (p. 129); and illustrations in all the quatrains in order to disambiguate their meanings and to unfold the invisibility of expressions/ references. Furthermore, this translation is an example of collaborative method in which the author, the translator, and the editor interact one another for pre-editing and post-editing tasks.

Problems of Meaning Transfer

As there are numerous cultural differences between Nepali and English, problems are encountered in interlingual translation. Some crucial problems, encountered in translation of Jhaṭāro are illuminated in the subsequent paragraphs.

Firstly, universally accepted thoughts have been personalized. Universal truth should be presented in present tense but the translator has rendered it into the past, such as in “Seeing opposite was youth…” (p. 1). Secondly, SL 81 quatrains are in rhyme, which have not been preserved in TL version. Thirdly, there are some cases of mistranslations. For example, ākhākonāni (pupil) has been “eyeball” (p. 6), bihanako khānā (breakfast) has been “lunch” (p. 6), anāyāsai (suddenly) has been “loudly” (p. 15), among others.

Table 5 : Loss of Cultural Load in Translation of Jhaṭāro SL References TL References amritwacan(ambrosiac word) sweet word (p. 12) churā(cleaver) knife (p. 29) bhanga (break down) fall down (p. 35) nāṭikuti(superstitions) nonsense (p. 36) awarodh(obstruction) blockade (p. 150) The next serious problem is that simple English terms have been used for translating culture-laden Nepali terms. The illustrations in table 5 show that SL cultural load has been lost in translation. These problems along with the ones illustrated in previous section show that the translation of Jhaṭāro needs further editing.

Conclusion Translation of Jhaṭāro is a good example of the use of collaborative method, which calls for the involvement of multiple heads for the ultimate production. The next significant aspect of this translation is that contemporariness has been observed. The SL version was published in 2013 whereas the translated version in 2015. This kind of contemporary task in translation is praiseworthy.

In the context of Nepal, trend of rendering Nepali texts into English has tremendously been increasing. It is required to recognize Nepali cultural heritage to the global readership. In line with this claim, this translation has made its debut recently.

In its evaluation, I have observed the use of four major strategies like literal translation, cultural transference, importation of reference, and manipulation and meaning adaptation. There are many strengths ofthis translation. However, some problems are observed. At this juncture, Derrida

(1974, as cited in Gentzler, 2010) has asserted that no any text is original as the so-called original one has already undergone translation. That is why different readings may result in varying translations. In this context, the translation of Jhaṭāro has also got some limitations and therefore it calls for further editing.

Yet, this translation can be used as a sample text for pedagogical purposes. References 82 Adhikari, T. R. (2013). Jhaṭāro muktak sa͂graha [ Jhaṭaro: A collection of quatrains] .

Pokhara: Sita Devi Adhikari.

Adhikari, T. R. (2015). Jhaṭāro muktak ͂ sagraha[ B. R. Neupane Trans.] .Pokhara: Nepal Muktak Pratisthan.

Baker, M. (2011).In other words: A coursebook on translation (2nded.). London &

New York: Routledge.

Bhattarai, G. R. (1997). In other words: Sense versus word as a unit of literary

translation. An unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Hyderabad University, Hyderabad.

Catford, J. C. (1965). A linguistic theory of translation.London : Oxford University Press.

Central Bureau of Statistics [ CBS] (2011).National population and housing census

2011.Kathmandu: The Author.

Chesterman, A. (2000). Memes of translation (2nded.). Amesterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.

Das, B. K. (2005). A handbook of translation studies (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers.

Espmark, K. (1991). The novel prize in literature.Retrieved from http: / / www.

nobelprize.org/ nobel_prizes/ themes/ literature/ espmark/ index.html.

Gentzler, E. (2010). Contemporary translation theories (Rev. 2nd ed.). New Delhi: Viva Books.

Lohani, S. P., & Adhikary, R. P. (2011). Ekta brihat Nepali-Angrejikoś [ Ekta

comprehensive Nepali-English dictionary] . Kathmandu: Ekta Books.

Macdonald, A. M. (Ed.) (1975). Chambers twentieth century dictionary.New Delhi: Allied Publishers.

Mohanty, P., & Mahanand, A. (2000). Translation as manipulation: A study of Tennyson’s Enoch Arden and Nilakanda’s Dāsa Nāeka. In A. Mehta &

L. Haribandi (Eds.), Translating alien cultures (pp. 51-60). Hyderabad: Booklinks Corporation.

Nair, R. B. (Ed.) (2002). Translation, text and theory: The paradigm of India. New

Delhi: Sage Publications.

Neupane, N. (2015). Anubādkā kṣetramā prayukta navin siddāntaharu: Saṇkṣipta

sarvekṣaṇ [New theories applied in the field of translation: A brief survey] .

A paper presented in a workshop organized by Nepal Academy, Literature and Translation Development in Kathmandu on 21st June 2015.

Newmark, P. (1981). Approaches to translation.Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Newmark, P. (1988). A textbook of translation.New York: Prentice Hall.

Nunan, D. (2010). Research methods in language learning.Cambridge, New Delhi: Cambridge University Press.

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!& j6f a'Fbfdf Joj: yf ul/ Psf] 5 . p2] Zox¿ klg sIff ( / !) df ;'gfO / af] nfO;Fu

;DalGwt *, * j6f, k9fO l;k;Fu ;DalGwt ^, ^ j6f / n] vfO l;k;Fu ;DalGwt sIff

( df ( j6f / sIff !) df !) j6f pNn] v ul/ Psf] 5 . ljwfsf] If] q / j|md tflnsf

cGtu{ t sIff ( df syf, sljtf, hLjgL, lgaGw, ¿ks lr7L, b} lgsL, efifftTj /

zAbe08f/ u/ L hDdf ( j6f ljwf tyf sIff !) df b} lgsL ljwfafx] s hDdf * j6f

ljwf / o;cGtu{ t ljleGg ljwfut If] qx¿sf] Joj: yf ul/ Psf] 5 . ljwfut ¿kdf

lzIf0f l;sfOsf] Joj: yf, ;'gfO / af] nfO l;ksf] k/ LIf0f sIffut l;sfOsf cª\usf

¿kdf ul/ g] pNn] v 5 . efifftTj jf Jofs/ 0fnfO{ ljwfut lzIf0fs} j|mddf PsLs[ t

¿kdf lzIf0f ug] { u/ L kf7\oef/ ljt/ 0f ul/ Psf] 5 .

#= dfWolds g] kfnL kf7\oj|md -@)&!_, sfof{ Gjog @)&#

cfwf/ e"t lzIff kf7\oj|md -@)^(_ sf] sfof{ Gjogkl5 g] kfnsf] ;+ljwfg

-@)&@_ sf] cfudg;Fu} dfWolds g] kfnL kf7\oj|md @)&! -sfof{ Gjog @)&#_ lgdf{ 0f

eof] . klxnf] tyf bf] ;|f] efiffsf ¿kdf ;femf ;Dks{ , k7gkf7g, ;/ sf/ L sfdsfh,

k|sfzg, ;Dkfbg nufotsf If] qdf g] kfnL efiffsf] Jofks k|of] u ePsf] kl5Nnf]

kl/ k|] Iodf ljBfyL{ x¿df l;sfO Ifdtfsf] clej[ l4 ug'{ tyf df} lvs / lnlvt ¿kdf

o;sf] ;Dk|] if0f Ifdtfsf] ljsf; ub} { ljBfyL{ x¿df eflifs ;fdYo{ / ;Dkfbg Ifdtfsf]

ljsf; ug] { p2] Zon] rf/ j6f eflifs l;ksf] ;dsIftfdf cfwfl/ t kf7\oj|mdsf ¿kdf

dfWolds g] kfnL kf7\oj|md -@)&#_ sfof{ Gjogdf NofOPsf] 5 -9sfn, @)&# M ##)_ .

g] kfnL efiffsf dfWodaf6 g] kfnL ;dfhsf] ;fdflhs, cfly{ s, ;f+: s[ lts ax'ntfsf]

;Ddfg ub} { ;fdflhs Jojxf/ sf] ljsf; ug] { tyf eflifs l;k / z} nLsf dfWodaf6

ljBfyL{ x¿df cfjZos kg] { Jofjxfl/ s sf} zn l;ksf] ljsf; ug] { nIo jt{ dfg kf7\

oj|mdn] / fv] sf] kfOG5 . l;kdf cfwfl/ t l;sfO pknlAwsf] lgwf{ / 0f, 5gf] 6 / : t/ 0fsf]

pko'Sttf, / rgfd'vL Jofs/ 0f, ;xhLs/ 0f k|lj|mofsf] lgb] { zg h: tf ljz] iftf jt{ dfg

kf7\oj|mddf b] lvG5g\ . ;'gfO, af] nfO, k9fO tyf n] vfO;Fu ;DalGwt !& j6f txut

86 ;Ifdtfsf] Joj: yf kf7\oj|mddf pNn] lvt 5 . sIff ( df syf, sljtf, hLjgL,

lgaGw, ¿ks -jSt[ tf / ;+jfb_, lr7L / b} lgsL u/ L & j6f ljwf tyf efifftTj /

cleJolStnfO{ x/ ] s ljwf;Fu} lzIf0f ug] { Joj: yf ul/ Psf] 5 eg] sIff !) df klg syf,

sljtf, ¿ks -dgf] jfb, jfbljjfb / Psfª\sL_, lgaGw, hLjgL, lr7L u/ L ^ j6f ljwf

tyf efifftŒj / cleJolStnfO{ ;dfj] z ul/ Psf] 5 . l;sfO ;xhLs/ 0f k|lj|mofnfO{

lj|mofsnfks] lGb|t / cEof;fTds agfpg vf] lhPsf] 5 . kf7\oj|mddf k9fO / n] vfO

l;ksf] d"Nofª\sg k"0ff{ ª\s &% df / ;'gfO tyf af] nfO l;ksf] d"Nofª\sg @% k"0ff{ ª\

sdf ug] { Joj: yf ldnfOPsf] 5 . h'g cfwf/ e"t lzIff kf7\oj|md -@)^(_ sf] d"Nofª\

sg k|lj|mof;Fu ldnfpg vf] lhPsf] 5 . ckfª\utf ePsf / ljz] if l;sfOsf] cfjZostf

ePsf afnaflnsfx¿sf nflu ;f] xL cg's"n d"Nofª\sg k|lj|mof ckgfpg ;lsg] Joj: yf

kf7\oj|mdn] u/ ] sf] 5 .

$= ;dfg kIf÷ljz] iftfx¿

dfWolds g] kfnL kf7\oj|md @)^$ / @)&@ df / x] sf ;dfgtfx¿nfO{ lgDgfg';f/

a'Fbfut ¿kdf k|: t't ug{ ;lsG5 M

1) b'j} kf7\oj|mdnfO{ ;do;fk] If, pkof] uL, Jofjxfl/ s / k|of] ufTds agfpg k|of;

ul/ Psf] 5 .

2) b'j} kf7\oj|mdaf6 ljBfyL{ x¿df eflifs l;k tyf kIfsf] ljsf; ug] { nIo

/ flvPsf] 5 .

3) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf p2] Zox¿nfO{ l;kut 9fFrfdf lgwf{ / 0f ul/ Psf] 5 .

4) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf kf7\oj: t'sf] 5gf] 6 / : t/ 0fsf] pko'Sttfdf Wofg k'¥ofOPsf] 5 .

5) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf ljwf / Jofs/ 0fsf] If] q / j|md : ki6 pNn] v ul/ Psf] 5 .

6) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf ljlzi6 p2] ZonfO{ l;k / ljwf;Fu PsLs[ t u/ L lj: t[ tLs/ 0f

ul/ Psf] 5 .

7) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf efiffsf] k"/ ssf ¿kdf efifftTTj÷Jofs/ 0fnfO{ ;dfj] z

ul/ Psf] 5 .

8) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf lzIf0f l;sfO k|lj|mof÷l;sfO ;xhLs/ 0f k|lj|mof lbOPsf] 5 .

9) eflifs Jojxf/ tyf af] w cleJolSt Ifdtf clej[ l4 ug{ : jtGq / rgf,

zAbe08f/ h: tf ljifoj: t' / flvPsf] 5 .

10) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf eflifs d"Nofª\sg k|efjsf/ L x'g ;sf] ;\ eGg]

b[ li6sf] 0fn] d"Nofª\sg cª\sef/ sf] lgb] { zg lbOPsf] 5 .

87 11) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf sljtf, syf, hLjgL, ¿ks -;+jfb, jfbljjfb, Psfª\

sL, jSt[ tf / dgf] jfb_, b} lgsL, lgaGw / lr7L u/ L % j6f ljwfx¿ / ltgsf ljljw

If] qx¿sf] pNn] v ul/ Psf] 5 .

12) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf sIff ( df b} lgsL ljwfnfO{ ;dfj] z ul/ Psf] 5 .

13) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf efifftŒjsf If] qx¿df zAbju{ , sfn, kIf, efj,

Jofs/ l0fs sf] l6, sf/ s, ljelSt, n] VolrGx, j0f{ ljGof; nufotnfO{ ;dfj] z

ul/ Psf] 5 .

14) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf lgDg dfWolds tx k"/ f u/ L cfpg] ljBfyL{ nfO{

b[ li6ut u/ L tyf pRr lzIff k|j] zsf] k"jf{ wf/ lgdf{ 0f ug] { vfnsf kf7\oj: t'sf]

rog ul/ Psf] 5 -kf} 8] n, @)^^ M $*$_ .

15) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf ljleGg kf7x¿sf] lzIf0fsf nflu cg'dflgt 306L

lzIfs lgb] { lzsfdf pNn] v ul/ g] elgPsf] 5 .

16) b'j} kf7\oj|mddf efifftTj÷Jofs/ 0f lzIf0fsf nflu 5'6\6} 306L glbO{

ljwfut lzIf0fs} j|mddf PsLs[ t ¿kdf lzIf0f ug] { u/ L kf7\oef/ ljt/ 0f ul/ Psf]

5 -zdf{ / kf} 8] n, @)^* M kl/ zli6 #&_ .

17) b'j} kf7\oj|mdsf] d"Nofª\sgdf ljleGg kB tyf uB ljwfsf kf7sf]

ljifoj: t', d"n efj, 36gf, ;Gb] z, kfq cflbsf ;DaGwdf k/ LIf0f ul/ g] elgPsf] 5 .

18) b'j} kf7\oj|mdn] ljBfyL{ sf] : t/ , ?lr, Ifdtf / cfjZostfnfO{ Vofn

ug{ vf] h] sf] kfOG5 .

19) b'j} kf7\oj|mdn] ;'gfO / af] nfOnfO{ eGbf k9fO / n] vfOnfO{ dxTj lbPsf 5g\ .

20) b'j} kf7\oj|mdn] g] kfnL efiffnfO{ g] kfnsf] ;+ljwfgn] Joj: yf u/ ] cg';f/

;femf ;Dks{ efiff, ;/ sf/ L sfdsfhsf] efiff, k7gkf7g, k|sfzg, ;Dkfbgsf] efiffsf ¿kdf dxTj lbPsf 5g\ .

%= c;dfg kIf÷ljz] iftf

dfWolds g] kfnL kf7\oj|md @)^$ / @)&! sf c;dfg kIf jf leGg

ljz] iftfx¿nfO{ lgDgfg';f/ a'Fbfut ¿kdf pNn] v ug{ ;lsG5 M

@)^$ sf] g] kfnL kf7\oj|md @)&! sf] g] kfnL kf7\oj|md

1) ;+/ rgfTds k|s[ ltsf] kf7\oj|md 1) ;Dk|] 0ffTds k|s[ ltsf] kf7\oj|md

88 2) klxnf] efifL ljBfyL{ s] lGb|t 2) klxnf] / bf] ;|f] efifL ljBfyL{ s] lGb|t

3) kf7\oj|mdnfO{ ;do;fk] If, 3) efiff lzIf0fnfO{ pkof] uL,

pkof] uL / Jojxf/ d"ns agfpg] k|of; k|of] ufTds / Jofjxfl/ s agfpg k|oTg

ul/ Psf] -zdf{ / kf} 8] n, @)^* M kl/ lzi6 ul/ Psf] -9sfn, @)&# M ##!_ @^_

4) eflifs l;kdf cfwfl/ t kf7\oj|md 4) rf/ cf] 6f l;ksf] ;Ifdtfdf

cfwfl/ t kf7\oj|md

5) g] kfnL ;dfhsf] k/ Dk/ fut 5) g] kfnL ;dfhsf] cfly{ s, ;fdflhs,

wf/ 0ff / dfGotf cg's"nsf] kf7\oj|md ;f+: s[ lts ax'ntfsf] ;Ddfg ul/ Psf] kf7\ oj|md

6) kf7\oj: t'sf] 5gf] 6 / : t/ 0fdf 6) kf7\oj: t'sf] 5gf] 6 / : t/ 0fdf

Vofn / flvPsf] -kf} 8] n, @)^^ M $$*_ kof{ Kt Wofg k'¥ofOPsf] -9sfn, @)&# M #!!_

7) ljBfyL{ x¿df eflifs bIftf 7) eflifs l;k / z} nLsf dfWodaf6

clej[ l4sf ;fy} af] w / cleJolSt kIfsf] ljBfyL{ df cfjZos kg] { Jofjxfl/ s sf} zn

ljsf; ug'{ kf7\oj|mdsf] d"n nIo l;k ;d] t k|bfg ug] { kf7\oj|mdsf] d"n nIo

8) ljwfsf] If] q / j|md : ki6 kfl/ Psf] 8) ljwf / Jofs/ 0fsf] If] q / j|md

: ki6 kfl/ Psf]

9) efifftTj÷Jofs/ 0fsf If] qnfO{ 9) ljwfsf] k|s[ ltsf cfwf/ df pko'St

cnu ¿kdf / flvPsf] efifftTj / flvPsf]

10) eflifs l;kut ;fdfGotfdf hf] 8 10) eflifs l;kut ljlzi6tfdf hf] 8

lbOPsf] lbOPsf]

11) lzIf0f l;sfO k|lj|mofsf] pNn] v 11) l;sfO ;xhLs/ 0f k|lj|mofsf]

ul/ Psf] pNn] v ul/ Psf]

12) kf7\oj|mddf zAbe08f/ nfO{ 5'6\6} 12) zAbe08f/ nfO{ kf7;Fu} zAbsf] cy{

ljwfut If] qsf ¿kdf pNn] v ul/ Psf] / ;Gbe{ k"0f{ k|of] usf] cEof; u/ fpg] egL

b|i6Jodf pNn] v ul/ Psf]

89 13) eflifs l;k lzIf0fdf ljwfsf] 13) l;sfO ;xhLs/ 0f k|lj|mof cGtu{ t

pkof] u x'g] ePsfn] ljleGg ljwf lzIf0fsf] k|: t'tLs/ 0f, cEof;, pTkfbg, k7gaf] w,

k|of] hg / k|of] uljlw pNn] v ul/ Psf] n] k|of] ufTds sfo{ , k[ i7kf] if0f h: tf sfo{ snfk

lzIf0f l;sfO sfo{ snfk ljBfyL{ s] lGb|t tyf ;xsfo{ , cfnf] rgfTds ;f] r, ljwfsf

dfWodaf6 l;kx¿sf] lzIf0f / l;kx¿df

cfwfl/ t lj|mofsnfksf] : ki6 pNn] v

ul/ Psf] n] kf7\oj|md t'ngfTds ¿kdf a9L

ljBfyL{ s] lGb|t

14) ljBfyL{ d"Nofª\sg k|lj|mof k9fO 14) ljBfyL{ d"Nofª\sg k|lj|mofdf ;'gfO

/ n] vfOdf s] lGb|t / af] nfO l;kut If] qnfO{ @% cª\s tyf

k9fO n] vfOnfO{ &% cª\s 5'6\ofOPsf] n]

d"Nofª\sg l;kut ;Gt'ngdf s] lGb|t

15) ;'gfO / af] nfO l;ksf] k/ LIf0f 15) ;'gfO / af] nfO dfkgdf cfwfl/ t

sIffut l;sfOsf cª\usf ¿kdf ul/ g] k|Zgx¿ ;f] wL ljBfyL{ sf] ;'gfO / af] nfO

l;ksf] k/ LIf0f ul/ g]

16) ljBfyL{ d"Nofª\sg k|ltztfª\s 16) ljBfyL{ d"Nofª\sg k|lj|mof cIf/ fª\s

k4ltdf cfwfl/ t x'g] k4lt cg';f/ x'g]

17) d"Nofª\sgdf lgdf{ 0ffTds / 17) d"Nofª\sgdf lg/ Gt/ , lgdf{ 0ffTds

lg0f{ ofTds d"Nofª\sg Joj: yfsf] pNn] v / lg0f{ ofTds u/ L # lsl;dsf d"Nofª\sg

Joj: yfsf] : ki6 pNn] v

18) ljj] rgfTds k|Zgdf 18) k|Zgx¿n] ljBfyL{ sf] eflifs sf} zn

ljZn] if0ffTds / l;h{ gfTds Ifdtfsf] -l;k_ sf cltl/ St cfnf] rgfTds ;f] rnfO{

k/ LIf0f ul/ g] klg ;Daf] wg ug'{ kg] {

19) Jofs/ 0f, j0f{ ljGof; / zAbe08f/ 19) Jofs/ 0f, zAbe08f/ / j0f{ ljGof;

;DaGwL k|Zgx¿ ljleGg If] qaf6 lnO{ ;DaGwL k|Zgx¿ / rgfdf cfwfl/ t x'g'kg] {

cnu cnu k|Zgsf ¿kdf ;f] lwg]

20) d"Nofª\sgdf ;f] lwg] af] w k|Zg 20) d"Nofª\sgdf ;f] lwg] k7gaf] w

b[ i6f+z jf cb[ i6f+zaf6 ;f] lwg] ljleGg ljwfsf uB ;fdu|Laf6 ;f] lwg] 21) 21)

22) kf7\of+zef/ pNn] v ul/ Psf] 22) kf7\of+zef/ pNn] v gul/ Psf]

23) l;sfO / d"Nofª\sgdf ;a} 23) ckfª\utf ePsf / ljz] if l;sfOsf]

Ifdtfsf ljBfyL{ nfO{ ;dfg dflgPsf] cfjZostf ePsf afnaflnsfsf nflu

pko'St d"Nofª\sg k|lj|mof ckgfpg'kg] {

pNn] v

90 24) j} slNks ljifosf af/ ] df kf7\ 24) sIff (–!) df j] b ljBf>d /

oj|md df} g ;+: s[ t ljBfnox¿n] : jf: Yo, jftfj/ 0f

/ hg;ª\Vof ljifosf ;6\6f ;+: s[ t efiff

ljifo cWoog cWofkg ug{ ;Sg] Joj: yf

25) l;ks] lGb|t ljifoj: t' tyf 25) / rgfd'vL ljifoj: t' tyf Jofs/ 0f

cEof;s] lGb|t Jofs/ 0f

26) sIff ( sf] af] w If] q b[ i6f+z jf 26) b'j} sIffdf k7gaf] w If] q ljleGg

cb[ i6f+zaf6 / sIff !) af6 cb[ i6f+z ljwfdf uB ;fdu|Laf6 d"Nofª\sgdf ;f] lwg]

/ rgfaf6 d"Nofª\sgdf ;f] lwg]

^= lgisif{

dfWolds g] kfnL kf7\oj|md lgdf{ 0fsf] nfdf] k/ Dk/ fdf @)^$ / @)&! sf]

g] kfnL kf7\oj|mdnfO{ Jojl: yt, l;kk/ s, ;do;fk] If / pkof] uL kf7\oj|md dflgG5 .

p2] Zo, ljwfsf] If] q / j|md, lzIf0f l;sfO k|lj|mof / d"Nofª\sgcGtu{ t kf7\oj|mdn]

lgb] { lzt u/ ] sf ;Gbe{ x¿ @)^$ sf] t'ngfdf @)&! sf] dfWolds g] kfnL kf7\oj|md

Jofjxfl/ s, l;kut ;Ifdtfdf cfwfl/ t, k|of] ufTds / ;Dk|] if0ffTds b] lvG5 . @)^#

/ @)&@ sf] ;+ljwfgn] Joj: yf u/ ] cg';f/ g] kfnL efiffsf] e"ldsfnfO{ @)^$ sf] kf7\

oj|mdn] eGbf @)&! sf] kf7\oj|mdn] a9L cfTd;ft u/ ] sf] b] lvG5 . ax'njfbL ;dfh,

;dfj] zL nf] stGq, gf/ LjfbL efjgf, ;LdfGts[ t ju{ sf ;d: of, ;"rgf k|ljlwsf] a9\bf]

k|of] unfO{ @)&! sf] dfWolds g] kfnL kf7\oj|md / o;sf] sfof{ Gjogaf6 k|sflzt sIff

( sf] g] kfnL -@)&#_ n] ;Daf] wg u/ ] sf] b] lvG5 . / rgfd'vL ljifoj: t' / Jofs/ 0fsf]

cjwf/ 0ff, l;kut ;Gt'lnt l;sfO pknlAwsf] Joj: yf, ;Dk|] if0ffTds kf7\oj|md / ;f]

cg's"nsf] af] w cleJolSt sf} znsf] ck] Iff, l;sfO ;xhLs/ 0f k|lj|mof jf ljBfyL{ s] lGb|t

l;sfO sfo{ snfksf] pNn] v tyf klxnf] efifL tyf bf] ;|f] efifL ;fy} ljz] if / ckfª\ud} qL

kf7\oj|md @)&! sf] g] kfnL efiff kf7\oj|mdsf gjLg ljz] iftf x'g\ . dfWolds g] kfnL

kf7\ok': ts -sIff (, @)&#_ df eg] s] xL sdhf] / L b] lvG5g\ .

;Gbe{ ;"rL

clwsf/ L, x] dfª\u/ fh -@)%&_, efiff lzIf0f M s] xL kl/ k|] Io tyf k4lt, sf7df8f} F M

ljBfyL{ k': ts e08f/ .

91 cfwf/ e"t lzIff kf7\oj|md -@)^(_, eStk'/ M kf7\oj|md ljsf; s] Gb| .

9sfn, zflGtk|;fb -@)&#_, g] kfnL efiff kf7\oj|md M kf7\ok': ts tyf lzIf0f k4lt,

sf7df8f} F M lkgfsn klAns] ;g .

ltldlN;gf, tf/ fk|;fb / dlgifs'df/ >] i7 -@)&@_, g] kfnsf] ;+ljwfg -;ª\lIfKt_,

sf7df8f} F M : jb] z k|sfzg .

lqkf7L, ;'wf / cGo -@)&#_, g] kfnL -sIff (_, sf7df8f} F M kf7\oj|md ljsf; s] Gb| .

g] kfnL sIff ( -@)^&_, sf7df8f} F M kf7\oj|md ljsf; s] Gb| .

kf} 8] n, s] bf/ k|;fb / dfwjk|;fb -@)^*_, g] kfnL efiff lzIf0fsf ;Gbe{ x¿, sf7df8f} F M

ljBfyL{ k': ts e08f/ .

kf} 8] n, g] qk|;fb -@)^^_, efiff lzIf0f, sf7df8f} F M k} / jL k|sfzg .

kf} 8] n, dfwjk|;fb -@)^&_, efiff kf7\oj|md, kf7\o;fdu|L tyf lzIf0f k4lt .

zdf{ , lr/ ~hLjL / lgd{ nf zdf{ -@)^$_, kf7\oj|md / of] hgf, sf7df8f} F M Pd=s] =

klAn;;{ PG8 l8l: 6«Ao'6;{ .

zdf{ , lji0f'k|;fb -@)^(_, efiff lzIf0fsf s] xL ;Gbe{ , kf] v/ f M l;h{ gzLn nf] stflGqs k|lti7fg .

======-@)&#_, ædfWolds g] kfnL kf7\ok': ts -@)&#_ sf] ljZn] if0fÆ, ofqf

-cª\s &_, k[ i7 !@&–!## .

92 d} gfnL / sf] O/ fnfsf syfdf ;f+: s[ lts kIf M t'ngfTds cWoog

8f= nIdLz/ 0f clwsf/ L

;x k|fWofks, g] kfnL, lq=lj=

;f/

o; cfn] vdf ;+: s[ ltsf] kl/ rofTds cWoog u/ L To;} sf cfnf] sdf

u'¿k|;fb d} gfnLsf] gf;f] syf ;ª\u|xsf] syf / ljZj] Zj/ k|;fb sf] O/ fnfsf

@))& ;fnk"j{ k|sflzt syfx¿sf] ;f+: s[ lts kIfsf] t'ngfTds cWoog

ul/ Psf] 5 . b'j} syfsf/ sf] syfsf] cWoog ubf{ d} gfnLsf syfdf dWo

o'uLg ;f+: s[ lts r] tgf b] lvof] eg] sf] O/ fnfsf syfdf cfw'lgs ;+: s[ ltsf]

lgdf{ 0fdf hf] 8 lbPsf] b] lvof] . efUojfb, nf] swd{ sf] kfngf ug'{ , rf] vL

gLlt ug'{ , ;d: of k/ ] b} j u'xfg'{ , sd{ sf08 tyf ljlwljwfgk|lt rgfvf] x'g',

cfbz{ jfbnfO{ : yfg lbg', s'n vfgbfgnfO{ dxTj lbg', kfqsf] b] jTjs/ 0f ug'{

d} gfnLsf syfsf ljz] iftf x'g\ . ;Qf;Fu ;ª\3if{ ug'{ , dfgjtfjfbsf] jsfnt

ug'{ , clehfTojfbnfO{ b'?T;flxt ug'{ , nf} lss hLjgnfO{ dxTj lbg', ;dfh

;'wf/ dfG5] s} sd{ af6 x'G5 eGg] ;+: s[ ltsf] : yfkgfdf hf] 8 lbg', nf} lss

d'lQmsf lglDt dWoo'uLg hLjgsf d"No kG5fpg sf] l;; ug'{ sf] O/ fnfsf

syfsf ljz] iftf x'g\ . d} gfnL / sf] O/ fnfsf syfsf] ;f+: s[ lts kIfsf] cWoog

ubf{ d} gfnLsf syfn] k|e'TjzfnL cyf{ t\ ;dfhdf x} sd rnfpg] x¿sf] ;+: s[ lt

cg's/ 0f u/ ] sf] e] l6of] eg] sf] O/ fnfsf syfn] eO/ x] sf] ;+: s[ ltsf] cj: yfnfO{

r'gf} tL lbFb} gofF ;+: s[ ltsf] lgdf{ 0fdf hf] 8 lbPsf] kfOof] .

d'Vo zAb – ;+: s[ lt, ;fdGtjfb, g} ltstf, k/ Dk/ f, dfgjtfjfb, d'lQm .

!= ;+: s[ ltsf] kl/ ro

;+: s[ ltn] dfgj hLjgsf a[ xQ/ kIfnfO{ ;d] 6\5 . To;} n] ;+: s[ ltsf] d"t{

kl/ efiff lbg ;xh 5} g . ;+: s[ ltljb\n] ;+: s[ ltsf] kl/ efiff cd"t{ jf pbfx/ 0fsf ¿kdf

lbg] u/ ] sf 5g\ . ;+: s[ lt zAbnfO{ wd{ , ;+: sf/ , rf8af8, hfqf cflbsf ¿kdf lrgfpg]

ul/ Psf] 5 . ;+: s[ lt zAbsf] cª\u|] hL cg'jfb culture x'G5 . c+u|] hL zAb sNr/

hd{ gL zAb s'N6'/ (culture) af6 cfPsf] xf] . o;sf] cy{ dflg;sf] hLjgz} nL Pj+

dfgl;s b[ li6sf] 0f x'G5 . of] ;+: s[ ltsf] kf/ Dkfl/ s lrgf/ L xf] .

93 jt{ dfgdf ;+: s[ ltsf] Jofks kl/ efiff ug] { kl/ kf6L aGb} 5 . k/ Dk/ fut

cy{ nfO{ 5f8] / x] g] { xf] eg] ;+: s[ ltn] dfgj hLjgsf a[ xQ/ : j¿knfO{ ;d] 6\5 . dfG5] sf]

;dfhnfO{ kl/ ro u/ fpg] Ps dfq d'Vo tTj ;+: s[ lt dfq xf] . dfG5] nfO{ k|f0fL hut\

af6 ;+: s[ ltn] cnUofpF5 . ;+: s[ lt eg] sf] ;dfhn] k': t] gL ¿kdf k|fKt u/ ] sf] 1fg xf] .

o;leq / Lltl/ jfh, k/ Dk/ f, hLjgz} nL, ljZjf; h: tf s'/ fx¿ ;d] l6G5g\ . ;dfhdf

JolQm, kl/ jf/ , ;d'bfo, ;ª\u7g, ju{ x'G5 / oL ;a} cª\udf ;+: s[ lt lglxt / x] sf] x'G5 .

dflg;n] ;+: s[ ltsf] l;h{ gf u5{ / gofF hlGdg] dfG5] ;+: s[ lts} kof{ j/ 0fleq hGdG5 .

dflg; afx] s cGo k|f0fLx¿ ;f+: s[ lts kof{ j/ 0fleq ghlGdP/ k|fs[ lts kof{ j/ 0fleq

hGdG5g\ . To;} n] ;+: s[ lt dfG5] sf] df} lns u'0f xf] . dfG5] n] k|s[ ltaf6 k|fKt u/ ] sf s] xL

zf/ Ll/ s Ifdtf -h: t} M b'O{ v'6\6fn] pleP/ lxF8\g ;Sg] , 3'dfpg ;lsg] xft / 5'6\6}

rl/ q af] s] sf] a'9L cf} Fnfsf] agfj6_ / s] xL dfgl;s Ifdtf -cfFvf s] lGb|t ug{ ;Sg] ,

d] wfjL dl: tis / k|tLsx¿sf] lgdf{ 0f tyf efiff;DaGwL Ifdtf_ sf sf/ 0fn] dflg;n]

;+: s[ ltsf] lgdf{ 0f ug{ ;Sof] . ;+: s[ lt zAbsf cg] sf} F lsl;dn] JofVof ePsf 5g\ .

;+: s[ lt zAbsf] a] noftdf w] / } JofVof eof] . a] nfotsf] ljZjel/ ;fd|fHo

ePsfn] ;+: s[ lt, hfu/ 0f, ljsf;, ;Eotf h: tf zAb ljZje/ lkmFhfpg] sfd a] nfotn]

u¥of] . pGgfO;f} F ztfAbLsf g[ tTjj] Qf O=aL= 6] n/ ;\n] ;+: s[ ltsf] ljsf;jfbL JofVof

u/ ] kl5 o;sf] dxTj cem a9\of] . cd] l/ sfnL g] t[ Tjzf: qL dfu{ / ] 6 le8n] ;+: s[ ltnfO{

1fg / z} lIfs ;+: sf/ elgg\ . g] kfndf klg ;';+: s[ t x'g' eg] sf] k9] n] v] sf] x'g' xf] .

lSnkmf] 8{ uh{ n] cg] sf} F n] vdf ;+: s[ lt : yfgLo x'G5 eg] sL 5g\ -;'j] bL, @)^* M !@*_ .

k|mfG;] nL bfz{ lgs ld;] n km'sf] n] ;+: s[ ltnfO{ ljb|f] xL r] tgf eg] sf 5g\ . d] Yo' cfgN8n]

dflyNnf] / tNnf] ;+: s[ ltsf] JofVof u/ ] sf 5g\ . ljnoD; / xf] uf6{ n] pRr / tNnf]

;+: s[ ltsf] lje] b ug] { k/ Dk/ fnfO{ cdfGo ljifo eg] sf 5g\ . ljlnoD;n] k|e'TjzfnL,

cjz] if / eljtfd'vL u/ L ltg lsl;dsf ;+: s[ lt b] vfPsf 5g\ . ch'{ g cKkfb'/ fO ;+: s[ lt

phf{ zLn ljifo ePsfn] ljut / eljio ;DaGwL ljrf/ o;leq ;dflxt eP/ x's] { sf x'G5g\ eG5g\ .

;+: s[ ltsf] kl/ efiff ljleGg ljåfgx¿n] leGg b[ li6sf] 0fn] u/ ] sf 5g\ . j|mf] a/

/ Sn'vxgn] ;+: s[ lt zAbsf] kl/ efiffx¿ !)* 5g\ eg] sf 5g\ . ;+: s[ lt ;DaGwL s] xL

kl/ efiffx¿ lgDg adf] lhd / x] sf 5g\ M

s_ Xj] n – ;+: s[ lt dflg;n] ;dfhdf l;s] sf ;Dk"0f{ Jojxf/ Pj+ k|ltdfgx¿sf] of] u

xf] -Xj] n, !(%% M &_ .

v_ x;{ sf] lj6\; – ;+: s[ lt eg] sf] kof{ j/ 0fsf] dfgj lgld{ t c+z jf efu xf] -x;{ sf] lj6\;, !(%& M !&_ .

u_ sf] Olg+u – ;+: s[ lt eg] sf] dflg;åf/ f kof{ j/ 0fnfO{ cfˆgf] cg's"n agfpg / cfˆgf]

94 hLjgz} nLnfO{ pGgt ug{ ul/ Psf ;Dk"0f{ k|oTgx¿sf] ;dli6 xf] -sf] Olg+u, !(^! M $#_ .

3_ DofsOa/ / k] h – ;+: s[ lt eg] sf] d"Nox¿, dfGotfx¿, efjgfTds nufjx¿ /

af} l4s cleofgsf] ;+;f/ g} xf] . o; afx] s xfd|f hLjgj|mdx¿, lrGtg k4ltx¿,

snf, ;flxTo, wd{ , dgf] / ~hg cflb s'/ f xfd|f ;f: +s[ lts cleJolQmx¿ x'g\ -DofsOa/

/ k] h, !((* M $((_ .

ª_ r} tGo ld> – ;+: s[ ltleq cf: yf, cfbz{ , d"No dfGotf / sfo{ k|lj|mof ;a} lglxt

x'G5g\ -ld>, !($_ .

r_ cle ;'j] bL – o; -;+: s[ lt_ zAbsf] Jo'TklQ ug] { xf] eg] ;+: sf/ , ;+: s[ lt, rfnrng,

hLjgk4lt / bz{ g h: tf cg] sf} F ljifosf cy{ v'N5g\ -;'j] bL, @)^* M !@%_ .

5_ xl/ s'df/ cf] emf – ;+: s[ lt eg] sf] s'g} If] qdf a;f] af; ug] { dflg;x¿sf] hLjg

lgjf{ x k|0ffnL xf] hf] ;a} ;dodf Psgf; / l: y/ / xFb} g -cf] emf, @)&! M !$#_ .

dflysf kl/ efiffsf d'Vo a'Fbfx¿ lgDg lnlvt 5g\ –

s_ ;+: s[ lt dflg;n] l;s] sf] Jojxf/ x¿sf] of] u xf] .

v_ ;+: s[ lt hLjgz} nLnfO{ pGgt kfg{ ul/ Psf] k|oTg xf] .

u_ ;+: s[ ltleq d"No–dfGotf, af} l4s cleofg, cfbz{ Jojxf/ lglxt x'G5g\ .

3_ ;+: s[ lt l: y/ / xFb} g .

;+: s[ ltnfO{ o;/ L kl/ eflift ug{ ;lsG5 – ;+: s[ lt hLjg z} nLnfO{ pGgt kfg{

ul/ Psf To: tf d"No, snf / Jojxf/ x¿sf] of] u xf] hf] ;do j|mddf ljlgld{ t eO/ xG5 .

@= ;+: s[ ltsf ljz] iftfx¿

;+: s[ ltsf] : j¿k / ljz] iftfx¿nfO{ lgDg lnlvt a'Fbfx¿df k|: t't ul/ G5 M

@=! ;+: s[ lt dfgj lgld{ t x'G5 M dflg;n] ;+: s[ ltsf] lgdf{ 0f u/ ] sf] xf] . dflg;n]

dfq ljlzi6 vfnsf] dfgl;s / zf/ Ll/ s Ifdtf k|fKt ug{ ;s] sf] x'gfn] ;+: s[ ltsf]

lgdf{ 0f ug{ ;s] sf] xf] . ;+: s[ ltsf] lgdf{ 0fn] dflg; cGo k|f0fLeGbf >] i7 ePsf] xf] .

@=@ ;+: s[ lt l;Sg] s'/ f xf] M ;+: s[ lt hLjzf: qLo u'0fsf cfwf/ df k|fKt ul/ g] s'/ f

xf] Og, ;fdflhs kl/ j] zdf l;lsg] s'/ f xf] -/ fj, @)!@ M !()_ . lgbfpFbf cfFvf lrDng'

hGdhft u'0f xf] eg] e] 6 x'Fbf xft ldnfpg', gd: sf/ ug'{ jf 9f] ue] 6 ug'{ ;+: s[ lt

xf] . ;fd'lxs Jojxf/ af6 dfG5] n] / Lltl/ jfh, vfglkg, klx/ g, k9fOn] vfO, gfrufg

l;S5g\ . dflg;n] vfgf vfG5, t/ s] vfg] , slta] / vfg] , slt vfg] cf–cfˆgf] ;+: s[ lt

x'G5 . a|flhnsf dfG5] n] tftf] b'wdf s8f skmL lkpF5g\ eg] pQ/ cd] l/ sLx¿ lr;f]

95 b'wdf xNsf skmL lkpF5g\ -sf] tfs, @))$ M *(_ . ;+: s[ ltsf] kl/ dfh{ g, ljsf; /

lj: tf/ x'G5 .

@=# ;+: s[ lt ;fdflhs x'G5 M ;+: s[ lt ;fdflhs pTkfbg xf] . o;sf] hGd PsfGtdf

x'Fb} g / PsfGtdf o;sf] cl: tTj klg x'Fb} g . ;fdflhs cGtlj{ |mofaf6 g} o;sf] pTklQ

/ ljsf; x'G5 . dflg;sf lghL Jojxf/ x¿ ha ;d"xut Jojxf/ sf k|ltdfg x'g k'U5g\

/ dflg;sf] of] Uotf a9fpg ;xof] u u5{ g\ ltgLx¿ ;+: s[ lt aG5g\ .

@=$ ;+: s[ lt ;femf pkof] usf] j: t' xf] M ;+: s[ ltnfO{ JolQmn] cfˆgf] ;DklQ agfpg

;St} g . ;+: s[ lt ;dfhsf] ;femf pkof] usf] j: t' xf] . k/ Dk/ f, ljZjf;, / Lltl/ jfh,

d"No–dfGotf, g} ltstf cflb ;f+: s[ lts tTjx¿ ;dfhsf ;femf pkof] usf j: t' x'g\ .

sfn{ dfS;{ sf] bz{ g jf dxfTdf ufGwLsf] bz{ g JolQmut geP/ ;fdflhs ;DklQ x'g\

lsgls oL ljrf/ x¿sf] ;dfhdf pkof] u ul/ Psf] 5, oL ljrf/ x¿sf cg'ofoL 5g\ .

;+: s[ lt eg] sf] PseGbf a9L dflg;x¿n] ljZjf; u/ ] sf] , pkof] u u/ ] sf] / ;ª\u|x u/ ] sf]

j: t' xf] .

@=% ;+: s[ lt x: tfGtl/ t x'G5 M ;+: s[ lt l;Sg ;lsg] x'gfn] Pp6f k': tfaf6 csf] {

k': tfdf x: tfGtl/ t x'G5 . afa'cfdfn] cfˆgf ;GtfgnfO{ efiff / k|tLsx¿sf dfWodaf6

;+: s[ lt x: tfGt/ 0f u5{ g\ . efiff ;+: s[ ltsf] ;+jfxs xf] . cl3Nnf] k': tfsf s'/ f k9] / jf

;'g] / csf] { csf] { k': tf;Dd of] x: tfGtl/ t eO/ xG5 . efiff ;+: s[ ltsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{

tTj klg xf] . ljZjf;, d"No, cg'ej / ;Demgfx¿ xfdL efiffs} dfWodaf6 csf] { ;d"x

jf k': tfnfO{ x: tfGt/ 0f u5f} { F .

@=^ k|To] s ;dfhsf] cfˆgf] ;+: s[ lt x'G5 M k|To] s ;dfhdf Pp6} ;+: s[ lt x'Fb} g .

x/ ] s ;dfhsf] cfˆgf] ;+: s[ lt x'G5 . ;dfhsf / Lltlylt, k/ Dk/ f, cf: yf, d"No–dfGotf,

ljZjf;, lgif] w, g} ltstf ;a} 7fpFdf p: t} x'Fb} gg\ . xfF: g] , af] Ng] , a: g] , vfglkg ug] { ,

nufpg] , dgf] / ~hg ug] { cf–cfˆg} z} nL x'G5g\ . x/ ] s ;dfhsf] ;fdflhs tyf ef} uf] lns

kl/ l: ylt leGg–leGg x'g] x'Fbf ;+: s[ lt klg leGg} x'g] u5{ . ;+: s[ ltsf ;femf ljz] iftfx¿

klg vf] Hg ;lsG5 .

@=& ;+: s[ lt clt h} ljs x'G5 M : k] G;/ eG5g\ – ;+: s[ lt g h} ljs xf] g ch} ljs xf] ,

a? o;sf] : j¿k oL b'j} s'/ f eGbf dfly x'G5 -/ fj, @)!@ M !(@_ . ;+: s[ lt ef} lts

kbfy{ / bfz{ lgs tTjeGbf dflysf] j: t' xf] . / fli6«o em08f Pp6f sk8fsf] 6'j|mf dfq

geP/ Pp6f / fi6«sf] k|tLs g} xf] .

@=* ;+: s[ lt ;d"xsf lglDt cfbz{ x'G5 M ;dfhdf cGo ;d"xsf] eGbf cfˆgf]

;d"xsf] u'0fufg ufpg] k|j[ lQ x'G5 . ;dfhdf ;fd'lxs cfbtx¿ x'G5g\, tL cfbtx¿af6

g} ;+: s[ ltsf] lgdf{ 0f x'G5 . ;dfhn] lgdf{ 0f u/ ] sf] ;+: s[ lt g} ;dfhsf] cfbz{ x'G5 .

;dfhsf] cfbz{ sf] ljk/ Lt x'g] u/ L s'g} klg ;b: on] cfr/ 0f gu/ f] ;\ eg] / cg] sf} F

96 lgif] wsf] Joj: yf ul/ Psf] x'G5 .

@=( ;+: s[ lt ultzLn x'G5 M ;dfhsf cGo If] q h: t} ;+: s[ lt klg kl/ jt{ gzLn

x'G5 . s'g} klg P] ltxfl;s v08sf] , s'g} klg ;dfhsf] ;+: s[ lt : y'n / lgVv/ ¿kn]

Pslqt / Ps5qLo x'g ;St} g . ;dfhdf / x] sf ljleGgtf / c;dfgtf aLr x'g]

cGtlj{ |mof / åGån] ;f+: s[ lts cGtlj{ / f] w l;h{ gf ub} { ;f+: s[ lts kl/ jt{ gsf] 9f] sf lg/ Gt/

v'nf / fv] sf x'G5g\ -ld>, !(&_ . bz} F e] 63f6sf] / tLh gfrufgsf kj{ aGb} uPsf]

b] lvG5 . cy{ tGq / / fHoJoj: yfdf eO/ x] sf] kl/ jt{ gn] ;+: s[ ltnfO{ kl/ jt{ g u5{ g\ .

k|ljlw, ko{ 6g, a;fOF ;/ fO, ljZjJofkL k'FhLjfb h: tf s'/ fn] ;+: s[ lt b|'t ultdf

kl/ jt{ g x'G5 -d] / L, @))! M $@_ . ;fdGtjfb cGtu{ t hft, wd{ , n} ª\lus ;+: s[ lt eg]

kl/ jt{ gLo x'Fb} gg\

@=!) ;+: s[ ltsf] n] gb] g x'G5 M JolQm / ;d'bfoaLr ;+: s[ ltsf] n] gb] g x'G5 . dflg;sf]

a;fOF ;/ fO x'Fbf cfly{ s / / fhgLlts kf6fsf] dfq geP/ ;f+: s[ lts kf6fsf] klg ;/ fO

x'G5 . Ps y/ Ln] csf] { y/ Laf/ ] yfxf kfpg] / l;Sg] k|lj|mof a9\5 .

@=!! gofF ;+: s[ ltsf] l;h{ gf x'G5 M ;fOafafb] lv y'k|} gofF b] ptfsf] l;h{ gf eO/ x] sf]

5 . k'FhLjfbL d'n'sdf klg u} / –k/ Dk/ fut rf8af8sf] l;h{ gf eO/ x] sf] 5 . ;ª\uLt

dxf] T;j, ljZjsk km'6an, ljZjsk lj|ms] 6, ;8s gf6s, ;8s sljtf, ;8s dxf] T;j,

l6s6sf sljtf, cflbjf;L lbj; h: tf gj l;lh{ t rf8x¿ lgdf{ 0f x'Fb} 5g\ . eflifs

Ifdtfsf sf/ 0fn] ubf{ pm Ps} ;fy, e"t / jt{ dfgdf lhpF5 / gofF ;+: s[ ltsf] / rgf

klg ul/ / xG5 . kz' jt{ dfgdf lhpF5 . p;n] e"tsfnaf6 s'g} lzIff lng ;St} g g

eljiosf nflu s'g} lj/ f;t 5f] 8\g ;S5 .

@=!@ ;+: s[ lt ;fdflhs cfjZostf kl/ k"lt{ sf] dfWod xf] M ;dfhdf cfly{ s,

;fdflhs, g} lts lgodx¿, k/ Dk/ fx¿ h: tf ;f+: s[ lts PsfOx¿sf] l;h{ gf lglZrt

p2] Zox¿sf] kl/ k"lt{ sf nflu g} ePsf] x'G5 . ;+: s[ ltn] dfG5] sf dgf] j} 1flgs / ;fdflhs

cfjZostfsf] kl/ k"lt{ u5{ . ufF;, af;, sk8f, gfd, k} ;f cflb ;a} dfG5] n] ;f+: s[ lts

k|lj|mofaf6} k"/ f u5{ .

@=!# ;+: s[ ltn] gofF cfjZostf pTkGg u5{ M ;+: s[ ltn] gofF cfjZostf tyf gofF

k|] / 0ff pTkGg u5{ / o;sf ;fy} ;d"xsf ;b: osf] g} lts Pj+ wfld{ s efjgfnfO{ klg

;Gt'li6 u5{ . ;d"x ;+: s[ ltsf] C0fL x'G5 .

@=!$ ;+: s[ ltn] dfG5] nfO{ dfG5] agfpF5 M vfgf vfg] tl/ sf, af] Ng] tl/ sf, j: q

nufpg] tl/ sf, ;fyL efO;Fu Joxjf/ ug] { tl/ sf, ;xof] u dfUg] tl/ sf, k|ltof] lutf ug] {

tl/ sf k|To] s ;d"xdf cfˆg} x'G5 . ;fdflhs hLjg latfpg dfG5] nfO{ ;+: s[ ltsf af/ ] df

yfxf x'g cfjZos 5 . ;f+: s[ lts r] tgf gePdf dfG5] PSnf] x'G5 . ;+: s[ ltn] g} kl/ jf/ ,

/ fHosf] cjwf/ 0ff;Fu kl/ lrt u/ fpF5 / ;fd'lxs efjgf pTkGg u/ fpF5 .

97 @=!% ;+: s[ ltn] tNnf] ju{ sf] dfGotfnfO{ k|lti7f lbG5 M ;f+: s[ lts cWoogn] dflyNnf]

/ tNnf] ;+: s[ ltsf] lje] b dfGb} g . l;dfGts[ t / ;dfhsf] tNnf] ju{ sf dflg;x¿sf

rng / hLjg clg dfGotfnfO{ k|lti7f lbG5 -;'j] bL, @)^* M !#^_ . gf/ L ;dlnª\uL,

cZj] t, cNk;ª\Vossf] cWoog ug'{ kg] { cfjZostf o;n] b] vfpF5 .

;du|df ;+: s[ ltsf ljz] iftfx?sf] cWoogaf6 s] lgisif{ df k'luG5 eg] bf] ;|f]

lkF9Lsf nflu x: tfGt/ 0f ug{ of] Uo ljrf/ , j: t', oGq, k|ljlw, Jojxf/ , efiff, d"No, lzIff,

cy{ tGq, ;+: sf/ , rng, k/ Dk/ f, wd{ , g} ltstf, k|tLs, rfn cflb ;a} sf] ;Dk"0f{ ;ª\u|x

;+: s[ lt xf] .

#= d} gfnLsf syfdf ;f+: s[ lts kIf

u'¿k|;fb d} gfnL -lj=;+= !(%&–@)%*_ n] …gf;f] Ú -lj=;+= !((@, zf/ bf_

syfaf6 syfofqf k|f/ De u/ ] sf x'g\ . pgsf syfx¿sf] ;Fufnf] …gf;f] ] Ú -lj=;+= @)@)_

eg] w] / } kl5 k|sflzt eof] . d} gfnL ;'wf/ jfbL syfsf/ x'g\ . pgL ;fdflhs pbf/ tfsf]

st{ Jok/ fo0ftfsf] , ;fd~h: osf] , b] zk|] dsf] efjgf hufpg] syfsf/ x'g\ . JolQmsf] eGbf

;dfhsf] tl: j/ lvRg] s'/ fdf ?lr / fVg] syfsf/ x'gfn] ;f+: s[ lts k|;ª\u pgsf syfdf

km] nf k5{ g\ . d} gfnL lxGb' ;+: s[ ltaf6 k|efljt syfsf/ x'g\ .

ljjfx, g} ltstf, lzIff, wd{ , efiff / cfly{ s 9fFrf h: tf dfgjlgld{ t Jofjxfl/ s

kIfx¿ tyf ;fdflhs cfbz{ x¿sf] lrq0f d} gfnLsf] syfdf s;/ L ePsf] 5 eGg]

cWoog tn k|: t't ul/ G5 –

#=! ljjfx

g] kfndf ljleGg ljjfx k4lt sfod 5g\, tL dWo] df dfuL ljjfx / k|] d ljjfx

a9L k|rlnt 5g\ . ;DklQsf] k': t} gL ;+/ If0f ug{ / lje] b cIf'00f / fVg a/ fa/ x} l;ot

ePsf lar g} j} jflxs ;DaGw ufFl;g' clgjfo{ / Xof] . a/ fa/ L x} l;ot, s'nLgtf,

/ fhgLlts zlQm, ;fdflhs k|lti7fsf] cfh{ g / oL ;a} sf] lbuf] kgsf nflu g} ;a}

h;f] ;fdGtx¿n] kvf{ nleq dfq cfˆgf ;Gtfgsf] ljjfx to u/ ] sf 5g\ -ld>, $&_ .

u'¿k|;fb d} gfnLsf …st{ JoÚ / …k|TofudgÚ syfdf a/ fa/ x} l;ot / s'nLg;Fusf]

j} jflxs ;DaGwsf] k|z+;f ul/ Psf] 5 . …st{ JoÚ syfdf >Lw/ sf 5f] / fsf] ljjfx a/ fa/

x} l;otdf ePsf] 5 . …k|TofudgÚ syfdf klg lgd{ n cfˆgf] efOsf] j} jflxs ;DaGw 7'nf]

vfgbfg;Fu hf] l8Psfn] bª\u 5 . …lrtfsf] HjfnfÚ syfdf zzLsf] ljjfx 3/ lgof s] 6f]

vf] h] / ul/ Psf] 5 . s] 6fs] 6Ln] Ps csf{ nfO{ dg k/ fP klg cleefjs;Fu : jLs[ lt lng]

;fx; kfqdf gePsfn] ltgLx¿ k|] ddf afFlwP klg ljjfx ug] { cfF6 ub} { gg\ . …labfÚ syfdf

98 k'/ fgf vfgbfgn] gofFnfO{ OHht gug] { x'gfn] s] 6fn] 3/ df k|: tfj / fv] / klg dg k/ fPsL

s] 6L;Fu ljjfx x'g ;s] g . a] x'nfa] x'nLsf] b] vfb] vfljgf g} cleefjsn] ljjfx lglZrt

u/ ] . …k|folZrtÚ syfdf uf} / L ljwjf x'gfn] uf] ljGbn] dg k/ fP klg leq\ofpg ;s] g

/ cfTdxTof ug{ afWo eO{ . d} gfnLsf o'jfo'jtLn] dfuL ljjfxsf] ;+: s[ ltdf kl/ jt{ g

rfx] sf eP klg w] / } n] cleefjs;Fu s'/ f / fVg ;s] gg\ / s'/ f / fv] klg vfgbfgsf] k|Zg

p7\of] . d} gfnLsf kfqx¿ ;fdGtjfbL ;+: s[ ltdf x's] { sf / leh] sf x'gfn] hft, wd{ , n} ª\

lus ;+: s[ lt tf] 8\g ;St} gg\ . pgsf syf k9\bf ;fdGtjfbL ;+: s[ lt dsfpFb} uPsf]

a'lemg] eP klg o'jfo'jtLn] j} jflxs ;fyLsf] rog ug{ ;s] sf 5} gg\ . pgsf syfdf

afhf ahfP/ 3/ df lelqPsL gf/ Ln] u[ lx0fL kb kfpF5] , gq pm / vf} 6L aGg k'U5] . / vf} 6L

gf/ L hf] lugL aGg jf cfTdlj;h{ g ug{ afWo x'G5] . d} gfnLn] rl/ qnfO{ ;an, ljb|f] xL

tyf ;fdflhs dfGotfl;t 67 ug] { vfnsf agfpg ;s] gg\ -a/ fn, @)$* M !@*–!@ (_ .

;fdGtL ;+: s[ ltdf ax'ljjfx k|lti7fsf] k|tLs jf ;Gtfgsf] sf/ 0f x'g] u5{ .

lk08bfg lbg] 5f] / f] hGdfpg ;s] : ju{ sf] clwsf/ L x'g] wfld{ s dfGotf 5 . b] jL/ d0f

;fdGt x'gfn] p;n] ax'ljjfx u/ ] sf] xf] .

#=@ g} ltstf

;fdGtjfbL ;+: s[ ltn] g} ltstfnfO{ ckl/ jt{ gLo dfG5 . ;fdGtjfbL ;+: s[ ltn]

: jtGq ¿kn] ;f] Rg] / lg0f{ o lng] Ifdtf sdhf] / agfpg] c: qsf ¿kdf g} ltstfsf]

pkof] u u5{ . s'g} 7fn'n] j|m"/ xs{ t b] vfpF5, cg] s cTofrf/ u5{ eg] To;sf] k|ltsf/

ug{ h?/ t 5} g, eujfg\n] To;nfO{ bl08t u5{ / kLl8tnfO{ ;xof] u u5{ eGg] dflgG5 .

wd{ sf] / Iff / cwd{ sf] ljgfz ug] { sfd eujfg\sf] xf] . kL8s ju{ ;Fu ljb|f] x gu/ ,

p;nfO{ Ifdf lbg' ltd|f] wd{ xf] eGg] ;+: s[ ltsf] lgdf{ 0f ul/ G5 . ;fdGtjfbn] ;f] r ljrf/

gu/ , lgod sfg'gsf] kfngf u/ , k/ Dk/ fcg';f/ rn, 7'nfn] eg] sf] dfg eGg] k/ Dk/ fut

g} lts ;+: s[ ltsf] kf] if0f u5{ . 5f] / feGbf afa', efOeGbf bfh', lzioeGbf u'? g} lts x'G5g\

eGg] syf xflnG5 .

;fdGtjfbL g} lts ;+: s[ ltn] : qLnfO{ b] jL eG5 t/ cfˆgf kfp ldRg nufpF5 .

…Ps l5gkl5 u[ x–s[ To ;dfKt u/ ] / ;'eb|f sf] 7fdf kl;g\, b] jL/ d0fsf] uf] 8f ldRg

nflug\ . of] pgsf] b} lgs sfd xf] Æ -d} gfnL, @)$& M #_ . ;'eb|fsf b[ li6df kltsf] kfp

gldRg' cg} ltstf xf] . ljwjf eP/ ue{ jtL x'g' uf} / Lsf b[ li6df cg} ltstf lyof] . To;} n]

uf} / L eG5] – æky e|i6 ePF, kltt ePF, ca k|folZrt u5'{ gfy, k|folZrtÆ -d} gfnL,

@)$& M @#_ . ;dfh;Fu 8/ fP/ uf] ljGbn] uf} / LnfO{ : jLsfg{ g;s] sf] s'/ f oyfy{ xf]

t/ uf} / Ln] cfˆgf] sfo{ nfO{ cg} lts 7fgL / cfTdxTof u/ L . …kfksf] kl/ 0ffdÚ syfdf

99 cfttfoL ;Gt] sf 3/ df l;Q} df sfd ug{ hfg] s'/ fnfO{ h'7] g} ltstf 7fG5 . o; syfdf

3tL{ ufpFdf ?jfaf;L u/ fpg] c;t\ kfqx¿ sfGt] / bLggfynfO{ ljb|f] xL kIfn] geP/

O{ Zj/ n] bl08t u5{ . …st{ JoÚ syfsf] >Lw/ / …k|TofudgÚ syfsf] / fd' bfh'k|lt cg} lts

Jojxf/ ugf{ n] la/ fdL x'G5g\ . k/ Dk/ fut g} ltstfk|lt sltko 7fpF Joª\Uo u/ ] klg

d} gfnLsf kfqn] k/ Dk/ fut g} ltstf pNnª\3g ug{ ;Qm} gg\ . lxGb' wd{ åf/ f cg'df] lbt

lgod kfng ug] { kfqk|lt d} gfnLn] >4f JoQm u/ ] sf 5g\ .

#=# lzIff

g] kfnL ;dfhdf ?9LjfbL, efUojfbL / k'/ ] tjfbL wf/ nfdf] sfn;Dd xfjL / x] .

zf;sn] zf;s ju{ ;Fu ;fdLKo / x] sf k'?ifafx] s cGo ;d'bfonfO{ lzIffaf6 jl~rt

/ fv] . lzIff pRr s'n, hflt / ;fk] lIft cfo ePsf / ;x/ L kl/ jf/ sf afnsdf ;Lldt

/ Xof] . lzIffsf] d"n p2] Zo b} ljs cf: yf / zlQm k"hfsf] j} wtf sfod / fVg' / Xof] .

cfly{ s, / fhgLlts / ;f+: s[ lts Joj: yf b} ljs k|fs[ lts b] g xf] , dfgj ;dfh l;lh{ t

xf] Og eGg] dfGotf / fVg] k'/ ftgkGyLx¿ …gf;f] Ú syfsf b] jL/ d0f, …st{ JoÚ syfsf

d'/ nLw/ sf ;d: of ;ª\3if{ ljgf g} ;dfwfg ePsf 5g\ . …k|TofudgÚ syfdf lj1fgsf]

k|f] km] ;/ / fd', …labfÚ syfdf lj1fgsf] ljBfyL{ g/ ] Gb|, …st{ JoÚ syfdf cª\u|] hLsf] ljBfyL{

>Lw/ , …lrtfsf] HjfnfÚ df pRr lzIff lng] k|ltefzfnL ljBfyL{ xl/ k|fs[ lts ljklQdf

k/ ] sf 5g\ . k'/ ] tjfbk|lt cg'bf/ kfqx¿nfO{ b} jn] bl08t u/ ] sf] 5 . ;+: s[ t gk9] sf

kfqx¿nfO{ b} jn] bl08t u/ ] sf] b] vfP/ syfsf/ n] ck|ToIf ¿kdf k'/ ftg kGy u|x0f ug] {

lzIff k4lt l7s xf] , cfnf] rgfTds r] t u|x0f ug] { lzIff k4lt a] l7s xf] eGg] ;Gb] z

lbg vf] h] sf 5g\ . cfnf] rgfTds b[ li6sf] 0f / fVg] g/ ] Gb|, uf] ljGb, xl/ h: tf kfqnfO{

;dfhsf stf{ aGg k|] l/ t u/ ] sf 5} gg\ . pgsf lh1f;' / cfnf] rgfTds r] t ePsf kfq

klg : yflkt ?9Ldf cndlnPsf 5g\ . dlxnf d} qL ;+: s[ lt gePsfn] o'jtLx¿ k|] d

kq n] Vg] eGbf dfly p7\g ;s] sf 5} gg\ . d} gfnLsf syfn] lbg vf] h] sf lzIff ;dfhsf

d"Nox¿df kl/ jt{ geGbf k/ Dkl/ t pRr g} lts d"Nosf] cfTd;ft xf] .

#=$ wd{

wd{ ;d'bfodf k|rlnt cfrf/ sf] kfngf xf] . dfS;{ jfbLx¿ wd{ ldysåf/ f tNnf]

ju{ jf hftnfO{ cnf} lss kmn k|flKtsf e|ddf kfg] { / nf} lss kmndf Psflwsf/ hdfpg]

rfnsf ¿kdf JofVof u5{ g\ . ;'wf/ jfbLx¿ wd{ JolQm / JolQmjfbnfO{ lgoGq0f ug] {

nf] s/ Llt eG5g\ . c;n dfG5] g} O{ Zj/ xf] / O{ Zj/ cfkm} Fleq vf] h eGg] dt logLx¿n]

/ fV5g\ . k'FhLjfbLx¿n] wfld{ s If] qsf cfrf/ ljrf/ ckf} ?io pb\ej xf] Ogg\ eGg] wf/ 0ff

/ fV5g\ . pgLx¿n] wd{ leq n's] sf] cfly{ s, ;fdflhs tyf ;f+: s[ lts dxTjsf If] qsf]

100 JofVof u5{ g\ .

d} gfnLsf syfsf kfqx¿ k/ Dk/ fjfbL 5g\, To;} n] cnf} lss kmn k|flKtsf

lglDt dl/ d] 6\5g\ . b] jL/ d0fn] wd{ sf] cfb] zn] bf] ;|f] ljjfx u/ ] sf] x'F eGg', k/ nf] s ;'wfg{

tLy{ j|t hfg', uf} / Ln] k'gh{ Gddf ljZjf; ug'{ , u'dfg] n] ufpFdf cfF7] km} lnPsf] 36gfnfO{

b] jtfsf] bf] if b] Vg', nf] swd{ sf] kfngf gugf{ n] sfGt] sf] kl/ jf/ emf8fafGtfn] dg'{ , k|efn]

uLtf s07 ug'{ / ;a} j|t lng', h'7] n] rf] vf] gLlt ug'{ , dfwjn] kTgL l56\6} d/ L eg] /

d/ ] / uPsLnfO{ klg kflkgL eGg', 5f] / f] x/ fPsf] lrGtf eGbf u+ufsf] cfTdfsf] >fk nfU5

ls eGg] eo x'g', d'/ nLw/ n] wdf{ Tdf lktfsf k|efjn] xfd|f] clgi7 x'Fb} g eGg] ;f] Rg',

lgd{ nn] ltgwfd u/ ] / cfpg] OR5f JoQm ug'{ , …kfksf] kl/ 0ffdÚ syf 3tL{ x¿nfO{ dfG5] n]

wd{ 5f8\b} uPsfn] cfly{ s ;ª\s6 a9] sf] ljZjf; x'g', Pd=P= k9] sf] xl/ n] klg efUodf

ljZjf; ug'{ h: tf wfld{ s ;Gbe{ d} gfnLsf syfdf 5g\ . k'gh{ Gd / k'gh{ Gd ;DaGwL

?9L, ljjfxsf] k4lt, k"hfcfhfsf] ljlw, tLy{ j|t, u+uf : gfg, PsfbzL h: tf wfld{ s

;+: sf/ sf JofVof ubf{ syfsf/ efj's b] lvPsf 5g\ .

/ fhtGqn] / fhfnfO{ eujfg\sf] cjtf/ dfG5 . d} gfnL rGb|zdz] / h: tf

clwgfosjfbL zf;sk|lt elQmefj k|s6 u5{ g\ . syfsf/ n] æ*@ ;fndf : ju{ jf;L

dxf/ fh rGb|zdz] / hª\uaxfb'/ / f0ffsf s?0ffn] bf;–hLjgaf6 d'Qm ePsL lyO{ Æ

-d} gfnL, @)$& M $_ egL gf} nLsf ljifodf rrf{ u/ ] sfn] tTsfnLg / f0ffzfxL / To;sf

clwgfosk|lt n] vssf] elQmefj / x] 5 eGg] k|i6 x'G5 -e6\6, @)^) M #*_ .

#=% efiff

efiff klg ;+: s[ lto'Qm x'G5 . tF, ltdL, tkfO{ +, xh'/ h: tf ;j{ gfdn] g] kfnL

;dfhdf / x] sf] ;3g c;dfgtfo'Qm ;+: s[ ltnfO{ JoQm u5{ . …gf;f] Ú syfdf syfjfrsaf6

dflns / dflnSgLnfO{ ltdL elgPsf] 5 eg] gf] sgL{ / afnsnfO{ tF elgPsf] 5 . kTgLn]

kltnfO{ tkfO{ F eGg' kg] { / kltn] kTgLnfO{ ltdL jf tF eGg] ;+: sf/ 5 . …l5d] sLÚ syfdf

wdf{ gGb kfWo] s'ngL / a'h|'s x'gfn] ltdL elgPsf] 5 eg] u'dfg] 3tL{ / wglht] ef] 6]

lgDg ju{ sf x'gfn] tF elgPsf] 5 . wgL x'gfn] cfzfd? u'dfg] nfO{ tF eG5 eg] lgDg

ju{ sf] x'gfn] u'dfg] cfzfd?nfO{ ltdL eG5 . …k|folZrtÚ syfdf k|] ldsf uf} / L k|] dL

uf] ljGbnfO{ xh'/ eG5] eg] k'?if x'gfn] uf] ljGb uf} / LnfO{ ltdL eG5 . …kfksf] kl/ 0ffdÚ

syfsf] bftf/ fd ;t\ kfq ePsfn] p;nfO{ ltdL elgPsf] 5 eg] sfGt' c;t\ kfq

ePsfn] tF elgPsf] 5 . h'7] ;t\ kfq eP klg lgDg ju{ / l;dfGts[ t hftsf] ePsfn]

tF elgPsf] 5 .

…k/ fnsf] cfuf] Ú syfsf] klxnf] jfSod} syfsf/ n] x: tIf] kL b[ li6ljGb'sf] k|of] u

u/ L …rfd] sL : jf: gL uf} FynL d'vfn] yL . / fd|f d'vn] af] Nof] eg] klg afª\uf afª\uf

101 s'/ f lems] / L lgpF vf] HyLÚ -d} gfnL, @)$& M %^_ egL lgDg ju{ sf gf/ LnfO{ xf] RofPsf

5g\ . lgDg ju{ n] emu8f ubf{ t'R5tfaf] ws zAbsf] k|of] u u5{ g\ eGg] b] vfpg / fF8,

sf] / ;Ns] sf] xft h: tf zAbsf] k|of] u ul/ Psf] 5 . h'7] n] …lng t kf] 8] eP hfpFnfÚ -k[ =

%(_ eg] sfn] lgDg ju{ n] clt lgDg ju{ nfO{ xf] Rofpg] ;+: sf/ 5 . kxf8L dlxnfx¿sf]

gfdaf6 af] nfpg] rng gePsfn] klt cfˆg} kTgLnfO{ 8NnL, / fdsL cfdf h: tf zAbn]

lrgfPsf] cj: yf 5 . dlxnfsf] cj: yf bogLo ePsfn] pgLx¿ k|] dLnfO{ kq n] Vbf

ofrgfaf] ws zAb -h: t} – xteflugL, bz{ g, lr/ bf;L, k|e', ceflugL, gfy, c1fgL,

b'MvL_ sf] k|of] u u5{ g\ . ;LdfGts[ t ju{ sf gf/ Ln] kltnfO{ klg …ltdLÚ zAb -dWod

cfb/ _ k|of] u u5{ g\ eg] k'?ifn] gf/ LnfO{ cgfb/ jfrs ;j{ gfd …tFÚ sf] k|of] u u5{ g\ .

#=^ cfly{ s 9fFrf

d} gfnLsf syf k9\bf tTsfnLg ;dfhdf ;fdGtjfbL cfly{ s 9fFrf / x] sf]

b] lvG5 . d} gfnL ;'wf/ jfbL syfsf/ x'g\ / pgL lgDg ju{ sf] cfly{ s ;'wf/ k|lt ;r] t

/ xFbf/ xFb} klg ;fdGtjfbL cfly{ s 9fFrfsf] cfsif{ 0faf6 km'lTsg ;s] sf 5} gg\ . pgsf]

;f] r cfnf] rgfTds geP/ k|efjd"ns b] lvG5 . sfhL, k'/ f] lxt, kl08t, d'lvof, d] h/

h: tf / fHo / pTkfbg;Fu hf] l8Psf kb ;fdGtjfbL cy{ Joj: yfdf cfsif{ s dflgG5g\ .

;dfh ljlwn] eGbf wd{ sf] cf8df rNbf k'/ f] lxtx¿ ;Ddflgt x'g' : jfefljs xf] . …

st{ JoÚ syfsf] d'lvof u+ufwf/ sf] k|z+;f ubf{ syfsf/ n] cfFvf lrDn] sf 5g\ . p;nfO{

dxfg\ k'?if, u|fdlktf, wjGt/ L, ef] sf gfª\ufsf afa', a'9fa'9L, n'nf–nª\u8f / sfgf–

vf] / 08fsf 6] Sg] n7\7L, Gofosf] aQL, cgfy–czQmx¿sf cfzf: tDe egL pgsf] rl/ qsf]

b] jTjs/ 0f u/ ] sf 5g\ . d'lvof u+ufwf/ n] ljk'n ;DklQ s;/ L hDdf ug{ / hf] ufO / fVg

;s] eGg] kIfdf syfsf/ sf] ;f] rfO k'u] sf] b] lvFb} g . wd{ / ;+: s[ ltk|lt >4f / fVg] kfq

x'gfn] d'/ nLw/ sf] rl/ qsf] b] jTjs/ 0f ul/ Psf] 5 . efO;Fu d'b\bf xf/ ] klg efO g}

p;nfO{ ;DklQ lbg cu|;/ x'G5 . …gf;f] Ú syfsL gf} nL bf;L x'g'df ;fdflhs ;+/ rgf

bf] ifL 5 eGg] a'l‰bg . rf/ j6f cIftf 5g{ kfP csf] { hGddf b'Mv gkfOg] ;f] r / fV5] .

;fdGtjfbL Joj: yf k'FhLnfO{ eGbf OHhtnfO{ dxTj lbg] Joj: yf xf] . OHht

hGdsf cfwf/ df / cy{ tGqsf cfwf/ df lgwf{ / 0f x'G5 . sfGt' hGdFbf wgL geP/

kl5 wgL ePsf] xf] . To;} n] p;nfO{ sfGt] , tF elgPsf] 5 . k'/ fgf] vfgbfgL gx'gfn]

xf] RofOPsf] 5 . d] h/ rGb|ljj|md cudl;+x vqLsf a'9f dfjnLx¿ 8f] n] lyP eg] / pm;Fu

kfl/ jfl/ s gftf hf] 8\g rfxFb} g . …lrtfsf] HjfnfÚ syfdf zzLsf] afa' s] 6fsf] Ifdtf,

rl/ q x] / ] / xf] Og vfgbfg vf] h] / 5f] / Lsf] ljjfx u5{ .

d} gfnLsf syfdf d'lvofx¿n] zf] if0f ug{ kfpg] clwsf/ k': t} gL ¿kdf k|fKt

u/ ] sf 5g\ . ufpFdf ;fFjf, Jofh / Jofhsf] : ofh lng kfpg] ;+: s[ lt 5 . ;fx'x¿n]

102 lgDg ju{ nfO{ 3/ jf/ ljxLg t'Nofpg ;S5g\ . C0fsf] ef/ n] lylrP/ lgDg ju{ ;Fu

sdfpg] hUuf 5} g . o; ju{ nfO{ cfkm" zf] lift ePsf] 1fg 5} g . dWod ju{ sf klg cfdf

u'dfPsf afns / gf/ L a9L zf] lift 5g\ . b] jL/ d0f h: tf] ;t\ kfqsL kTgL klg z'eb|f

s'g bf} ntsf] r} g u/ ] sL 5' / eGg] u'gf;f] u5] { . ;fdGtjfbn] gf/ LnfO{ bf} ntsf] pkof] u

ug{ lbFb} g . e"lddfly vfgbfgL ju{ sf] Psflwsf/ / clzIffsf sf/ 0fn] d} gfnLsf kfqx¿

cfly{ s pTkL8gdf 5g\ . ;fdGtjfbL cy{ tGqsf sf/ 0fn] kfqx¿ pTkL8gdf k/ ] sf x'g\

eGg] cfnf] rgfTds r] t syfsf/ d} gfnLdf b] lvFb} g .

$= sf] O/ fnfsf syfdf ;f+: s[ lts kIf

ljZj] Zj/ k|;fb sf] O/ fnf -lj=;+= !(&@–@)#(_ …rGb|jbgÚ -lj=;+= !((@_

syfaf6 g] kfnL syfsf kmfF6df b] vf k/ ] sf x'g\ . lemgf] syfgs, rl/ qsf] s] Gb|Lotf

/ nf} lss kIfnfO{ dxTj lbPsfn] …rGb|jbgÚ klxnf] cfw'lgs g] kfnL syf xf] . pgsf

bf] ifL r: df -lj=;+= @))^_ / Zj} te} / jL -lj=;+= @)#(_ syf ;ª\u|xx¿ k|sflzt 5g\ .

sf] O/ fnf k/ Dk/ fdf gofF d"No k|j] z u/ fpg rfxg] cfw'lgs syfsf/ x'g\ . pgn]

;fdflhs Joj: yfnfO{ eGbf JolQmsf dg 5fDg] k|of; u/ ] . cfg'j+lzs pRr ;+: sf/ ,

kfZrfTo r] tgf, pRr lzIff, / fhg} lts cg'ej ;Fufn] sf sf] O/ fnfn] : qLk'?ifsf] aLrsf

cGtlj|m{ ofaf6 r] tgfsf ljleGg kqsf] 1fg vf] tNg] k|oTg u/ ] . ;dfhsf cJoj: yf,

lj;ª\ultaf6 dfG5] nfO{ ;t\sf] Joj: yflt/ Nofpg] k|oTg ug] { sf] O/ fnfnfO{ : yflkt

k/ Dkl/ t ;+: s[ lt : jLs[ t 5} g . pgn] ljjfx, g} ltstf, lzIff, wd{ , efiff / cfly{ s

9fFrfdf s] s: tf] ;+: s[ lt : yflkt ug{ rfx] sf 5g\ eGg] ljdz{ tn k|: t't ul/ G5 . -o;

cfn] vdf d} gfnL syf;Fu sf] O/ fnfsf] syfsf] t'ngf ug{ vf] lhPsf] x'Fbf sf] O/ fnfsf bf] ;|f]

syf ;ª\u|xdf syfsf] cWoog ul/ Psf] 5} g ._

$=! ljjfx

sf] O/ fnfsf syfdf cgd] n ljjfx k4ltsf] wHhL p8fOPsf] 5 . b] vfb] vljgf,

k"j{ k|] dljgf, cfTdlg0f{ oljgf ul/ Psf] ljjfxnfO{ sf] O/ fnfn] s6fIf u/ ] sf 5g\ . …laxfÚ

syfdf 5f] / f5f] / Lsf] : ofxf/ ;';f/ sf lglDt l5lKkPsf] sgs axfb'/ n] rf} w jif{ sL s] 6L;Fu

ljjfx ug'{ ;fdflhs ck/ fw elgPsf] 5 . 5f] / L geP/ 5f] / Lsf] / x/ k'¥ofpg t pgn]

ljjfx u/ ] sf xf] Ogg\ egL syfsf/ n] ljs[ t ;+: s[ lt pk/ 7'nf] Joª\Uo xfg] sf 5g\ .

lax] x'gf;fy klt kTgL lar k|0fosf] pb\e"lt eOxfN5 eGg] wf/ 0ff e|fds xf] eGg] s'/ f

syfsf/ n] …rGb|jbgÚ / …sg] { nsf] 3f] 8fÚ syfdf JoQm u/ ] sf 5g\ . of} jg lglv|;s] sf k|f} 9

nf] Ug] sf ;§f k'i6, alni7, x[ bo/ ~hs 3f] 8fsf k|lt sg] { NgLsf] cf;lQm Pj+ a4lrQtf

hlt;'s} lj: dosf/ L eP klg ;f] k|ltsf/ ;fdflhs ljb|f] xsf] g} ljBf] tg xf] -a/ fn,

103 @)$* M #@&_ .

sf] O/ fnf ;fdflhs / Lltl: yltnfO{ eGbf JolQmsf] OR5fnfO{ dxTj lbg] syfsf/

x'g\ . …k|] dÚ syfdf / fhs'df/ L l5d] sLk|lt cfsif{ 0fsf cfljef{ jn] Ps / ft ;fdflhs

k|lti7f, g} ltstf nTofO{ cle;fl/ sf x'G5] . of} gsfo{ b} jL jf k|fs[ lts sfo{ xf] eGg]

e|daf6 e'Qm eO{ sf] O/ fnfn] dfgj lgld{ t, ;+: s[ lt lgld{ t sfo{ xf] eGg] pb\3f] if u/ ] .

ljjfx / of} g sfo{ sf af/ ] df g] kfnL ;dfhdf u} / efUojfbL ;+: s[ ltsf] lgdf{ 0f ug{

sf] O/ fnfsf] of] ubfg ct'ngLo 5 . of} gfrf/ nfO{ kfk;Fu hf] 8\g] k/ Dkl/ t b[ li6sf] 0fnfO{

sf] O/ fnfsf syfn] nTofPsf 5g\ . ljwjf ljjfxdf nufOPsf] k|ltaGwnfO{ tf] 8\g

sf] O/ fnfsf ljwjf kfq cfkm} F cufl8 ;/ ] sf 5g\ . ljwjfsf] k'glj{ jfxnfO{ lgif] w ul/ Psf]

;dfhdf ToxL 7fpFdf ljjfx u/ ] / a: g] kl/ l: ylt / x] g / …dw] zlt/ Ú syfsL ljwjf

3/ hdsf] vf] hLdf 3/ 5f8] / lxF8L . of] kxfl8of cGwljZjf;o'Qm ;+: s[ ltsf] lj|mofTds

lj/ f] w xf] . ljwjfn] k'glj{ jfx ug'{ x'Fb} g eGg] g] kfnL ;fdflhs ;Gbe{ sf] lj?4 k'glj{ jfx

/ cfˆgf] hLjgsf] lg0f{ o cfkm} F lng cfkm} F tof/ x'G5] / p;sf] o: tf] ljrf/ n] syfdf

gofF ;ª\syg lgdf{ 0f ePsf] 5 -Gof} kfg] , @)&@ M @&@_ . o; syfsf] uf] / ] n] cfkm"eGbf

h] 7L / ljwjf;Fu ljjfx ug{ ?lr gb] vfpg' ;dfh dgf} j} 1flgs ;+: s[ lt xf] . kxf8sf]

eGbf dw] zsf] ;+: s[ ltdf k'glj{ jfxsf] nflu pko'Qm : yn / x] sf] ;Gbe{ o; syfdf 5 .

$=@ g} ltstf

sf] O/ fnfsf kfqx¿ OlGb|o lgu|xdf ljZjf; ub} { gg\, zlQmzfnLsf cufl8 3'F8f

6] St} gg\, kltsf] u'nfdL ub} { gg\ . cflTds g} ltstfdf ljZjf; u5{ g\ . ;dfhn] cg} lts

dfg] sf] 7fg] sf] sfd ug{ cfF6 u5{ g\ . …sg] { nsf] 3f] 8fÚ syfdf sg] { n a'9f] / lgwf] {

ePsfn] ta] nfdf alnof] 3f] 8f b] Vg] lalQs} p;sf] g} lts : j a] kQf x'G5 / bldt

OR5f rndnfpg yfN5 . sg] { NgLsf] sfd] R5fsf] lgsf; kfpg] ;fwg 3f] 8f aGof] .

;dfhdf g} ltstf afnaflnsf / dlxnfnfO{ sdhf] / agfpg] oGqsf ¿kdf : yflkt 5 .

dlxnfnfO{ g} ltstf zf/ Ll/ s z'4tf;Fu 5, ToxL s'/ f k'?ifsf xsdf 5} g .

dfgjLo ;+: s[ lt / ;Eotfsf] Oltxf; ;xh cfj] udfly a'l4sf] lgoGq0f xf]

eGg] k/ Dk/ fut dfGotf sf] O/ fnfsf kfqn] tf] 8\5g\ . …b'nxLÚ syfdf cfˆg} b'nxLnfO{

slxNo} wf] sf lbOg eGg] hut\jL/ ;fnLn] af] nfPsf] ;ª\s] t kfpg] lalQs} pmleqsf] of} g

cfj] u ;Nanfpg yflnxfN5 / cfˆgL b'nxL a'9L h: tL b] Vg yfN5 . …åGåk|] dÚ syfsf]

c?0f ZofdfnfO{ k|] d u5{ , pm kTgLeQm aGg] k|of; klg u5{ t/ yfx} gkfO{ a: g] tgL;Fu

k|] ddf k5{ . …syfÚ syfsf] Clifn] tk: of/ t cj: yfdf cK;/ f;Fu ljjfx u5{ . ;dfhn]

Clifsf] g} lts: j : vlnt ePsf] 7fg] klg Clif eg] ;'v / zflGtsf] cafw cg'ej u5{ .

;dfhn] u/ ] sf] cfnf] rgf, l6Kk0fL / ;dfhdf : yflkt g} ltstf;Fu sf] O/ fnfsf kfqx¿

104 kf} F7] hf] / L v] ln/ xG5g\ / gofF ;+: s[ ltsf] : yfkgfdf of] ubfg k'¥ofpF5g\ . …rGb|jbgÚ syfsL

rGb|jbgsf rfxgfnfO{ cxd\n] lgoGq0fdf lnPsf] 5} g, pm cfˆgf kltsf] a] jf: tf u/ L

h'NkmLjfnfsf] k|tLIff u5] { . pm g} lts ;fdflhs dof{ bfsf] Vofn ulb{ g . h'NkmLjfnfnfO{

cfslif{ t ug{ vf] Hbf p;n] cfgGbsf] cg'ej u/ L .

$=# lzIff

sf] O/ fnfsf syfdf k/ Dkl/ t lzIf0f k4ltsf] cfnf] rgf ul/ Psf] 5 . lzIff

lh1f;f, cfnf] rgf, sf} t'xn / gjLg vf] hsf] ljifo gag] / gLltd"ns k|jrg lbg] ,

ljBfyL{ sf] : t/ lalu|of] eg] / ljBfyL{ nfO{ bf] if yf] kg] { vfnsf] ePsf] 5 . …: s'n df: 6/ Ú

syfsf] lzIfs gGb/ fhsf] bf] xf] / f] rl/ q 5 . Psflt/ ljBfyL{ n] dg nufP/ k9] g eg] /

xsf5{ eg] csf{ lt/ ToxL ljBfyL{ n] NofPsf] ld7fO{ SjfKk vfG5 / k9\gdf t] h lyof] ,

s] eP/ lau|] 5 eG5 . lzIfs s] lGb|t k9fOsf] cfnf] rgf ub} { syfsf/ n] kf; x'g dfq

bafa lbg] vfnsf] lzIff cy{ xLg x'G5 eGg] ;Gb] z lbFb} k9fO ljBfyL{ s] lGb|t x'g'kg] {

;Gb] z lbPsf 5g\ . xfd|f] k7gkf7g ;+: s[ ltk|lt syfsf/ n] Joª\Uo ub} { ;'wf/ sf] ck] Iff

u/ ] sf 5g\ . b] xftdf ultnf k': ts kfOFb} gg\ / k7g ;+: s[ ltsf] klg cefj 5 . ;x/ df

eg] rlr{ t k': ts af] s] / lxF8\g] / km';{ b kfpg] lalQs} kl9xfNg] ;+: s[ lt 5 eGg] ;Gb] z

…k': tsÚ syfn] lbG5 . k': ts k9\g] ;+: s[ lt gx'gfn] ufpFn] x¿ : jf: Yosf If] qdf k5fl8

k/ ] sf 5g\ eGg] ;Gb] z klg syfsf/ n] lbPsf 5g\ . pgsf syfdf dlxnf 3/ wGbfdf

;Lldt 5g\ eg] k'?ifn] k9\gsf nflu 3/ 5f8] / lxF8] sf ;Gbe{ x¿ 7fpF 7fpFdf 5g\ .

$=$ wd{

sf] O/ fnf nf} lss sfo{ sf cfwf/ df dfgj ;] jf ul/ g' k5{ eGg] dfGotf : yflkt ug] {

syfsf/ x'g\ . sf] O/ fnfsf] wd{ ;DaGwL b[ li6sf] 0f …af} nfxfÚ syfdf k|: t't ul/ Psf] 5 .

syfsf] kl08t kfqdf rf] / 8fFsfx¿nfO{ uLtf, k'/ f0f, dg': d[ lt / c? wd{ u|Gysf JofVof

u/ ] / ;'wf/ ] F eGg] l: y/ e|d 5 . af} nfxf kfqsf ;DaGwdf klg To: t} wf/ 0ff / fV5 t/

jf: tljstf cs} { 5 . af} nfpg'cl3 af} nfxfn] cf] 5\ofg k/ ] sL kTgLnfO{ cf} ifwL u/ fpg

s'g} pkfo gb] v] / afs; rf] 5{ t/ s'6] klg afs; 5f8\b} g . p;dfly d'b\bf rN5 / ^

dlxgf h] n k5{ . kTgLsf] d[ To' lglZrt b] v] / dfgl;s cf3ft k5{ / af} nfxf Jojxf/

u5{ . kTgL d/ ] sf] va/ ;'g] kl5 p;sf] dl: tisdf y'lk|Psf] lrGtfsf] ef/ L la;fpg

kfpF5 / p;sf] Jojxf/ ;fdfGo x'G5 . o; syfdf syfsf/ n] kl08tsf dfWodn] wdf{ Gw

;dfhsf] yf] lqPsf] wf/ 0ff pk/ 7'nf] df/ xfg] sf 5g\ / af} nfxfsf dfWodn] dflg;n]

dflg;sf] ;xfg'e"lt / ;xfotf gu/ ] / lauf/ ] sf] , af} nfxf kf/ ] sf] efj lrlqt u/ ] sf 5g\

hf] syfdf dfld{ s 9ª\udf JolQmPsf] 5 -zdf{ , @)$) M @@^_ . sf] O/ fnf o; syfdf

105 wfld{ s cf8Da/ sf] kf] n vf] n] sf 5g\ . …xf] 8Ú syfdf z/ L/ z'4tfnfO{ wfld{ s g} ltstf;Fu

hf] l8Psf] 5 . ;dfhnfO{ cfWoflTds dfu{ tkm{ 3r] 6\g] zlQm wd{ xf] eg] nf} lss dfu{ tkm{

8f] ¥ofpg] zlQm wd{ lg/ k] Iftf xf] . sf] O/ fnfnfO{ kfk / k'0osf] , k/ nf} lss kmn, cfTdfsf]

cd/ tf, k'gh{ Gd, : ju{ / g/ ssf] cl: tTjtkm{ ?lr b] lvFb} g . …af} nfxfÚ syfsf] dd{

ck/ fwLx¿nfO{ : ju{ / g/ ssf] qf; b] vfpg'eGbf ;dfhdf ck/ fw lsg x'G5g\ egL

j} 1flgs b[ li6n] ljZn] if0f x'g cfjZos 5 eGg] ;Gb] z k|jfx ug'{ xf] . …b'nxLÚ syfsf]

hutjL/ eG5 – æcfhsnsf] wd{ t s] jn cf8Da/ xf] Æ -zdf{ , @)%) M !$&_ . x'g

t wd{ JolQm / JolQmjfbnfO{ lgoGq0f ug] { nf] s/ Llt xf] / o;n] : jR5GbtfnfO{ dGb

t'NofpF5 eGg] dfGotf klg 5 . o;sf] : j¿k ultxLg, Ifou|: t / e|i6 x'Fb} cfPsfn]

wd{ sf cf8df ul/ g] ;dfh ;'wf/ cf8Da/ dfq b] lvPsf] 5 . sf] O/ fnfsf kfqn] b] jtfsf]

k|fy{ gf ub{ } gg\ . pgsf syfdf sd{ sf08sf] j0f{ g klg x'Fb} g .

$=% efiff

;dfhsf] lje] bd"ns eflifs ;+: s[ lt sf] O/ fnfsf syfdf JoQm ePsf] 5 .

…l/ S;f tfGg] Ú syfdf wgLsf] 5f] / fx¿ l;dfGts[ t kfq wgjL/ nfO{ …3f] 8fÚ eG5g\ eg]

dflns …kf6Ú eG5 . wgL ju{ n] kz'nfO{ k|of] u efiff / pk] lIft ju{ nfO{ k|of] u ug] { efiff

p: t} b] lvPsf] 5 . s[ t1tf JoQm ubf{ pRr ju{ n] cf} krfl/ s zAbsf] k|of] u u5{ eg]

lgDg ju{ n] lªRr xfF;] / s[ t1tf k|s6 u5{ . …: j] 6/ Ú syfsf] / fd] , …kljqfÚ syfsL kljqf

xfF;] / s[ t1tf JoQm u5{ g\ . sf] O/ fnfsf ;fdGt ;+: sf/ s'nLg kfqsf dlxnf kltnfO{

xh'/ eG5g\, dWod ju{ sf klt kTgLn] Ps csf{ nfO{ ltdL eG5g\, lgDg ju{ sf kfqn] Ps

csf{ nfO{ tF eG5g\ . tTsfnLg ;dodf kTgLn] kltnfO{ xh'/ eGg] / kltn] kTgLnfO{ tF

eGg] ;do lyof] . sf] O/ fnfsf dWod ju{ sf klt kTgL b'j} n] ;dtfd"ns ;j{ gfd …ltdLÚ

k|of] u u5{ g\ . of] sf] O/ fnfn] : yflkt ug{ vf] h] sf] ;+: s[ lt xf] . kl/ j] zn] klg zAbfjnLdf

km/ skg NofpF5 . …k|] dÚ syfsL / fhs'df/ L cle;fl/ sf aGg] OR5f ePsf avt 3/ g] / sf]

a[ 4nfO{ …a|fXd0fÚ eG5] eg] of} g] R5f k"/ f ePkl5 To;} nfO{ uFjf/ eG5] .

lgDg ju{ n] klg k5fl8kl§ pRr ju{ nfO{ tF g} eG5g\ . …dxf/ fhsf] ;jf/ LÚ

syfdf lgDg ju{ sf kfqn] klg / fhfnfO{ tF eg] sf 5g\ . b/ af/ sf rfs/ x¿ eg]

b/ afl/ of efiff af] N5g\ . …bf] ifL rZdfÚ syfsf] s] zj/ fh …alS;of] ;\Ú eG5 . k'?if /

: qL af] Ng] efiffdf klg s] xL km/ s 5 . …xf] 8Ú syfdf kb\df 3'sL{ nufpFbf gfs] af] nLdf

af] N5] . clehfTo ju{ sf k'?ifnfO{ tF÷ltdL eGg gldNg] x'gfn] l/ ;fPsf, dlxnfn]

jfSo gaf] n] / zAb af] N5g\ . …sg] { nsf] 3f] 8fÚ syfsf] sg] { nnfO{ …lgb{ oLÚ egL s/ fpF5] .

…bf] ifL rZdfÚ syfdf dlxnf r'nfrf} sfdf ;Lldt ePsfn] s] zj/ fhn] cfˆgL kTgLnfO{

…h} / LÚ, …df] / LÚ h: tf zAb k|of] u u5{ . ;fdGtL ;dfhdf dlxnfsf] tx ;a} eGbf tn x'g]

106 ePsfn] p;sL kTgL s] zj/ fhnfO{ ædhL{ xf] ;\ gÆ egL cfb/ k"0f{ efiffsf] k|of] u u5] { .

;xefuLx¿n] Psn] csf{ nfO{ s;/ L x] 5{ g\, ToxL cfwf/ df zAbjnLsf] rog u5{ g\ .

ef] sf ;xefuLnfO{ lrp/ f ylklbg] Ifdtf ljwjfsf] ePsfn] ;xeuLx¿n] ljwjfnfO{

;Ddfg;"rs zAbfjnLsf] k|of] u u5{ g\ .

$=^ cfly{ s 9fFrf

;dfhdf kfOg] cfly{ s lje] bd"ns ;+: s[ ltsf] lrq0f pgsf s] xL syfdf kfOG5 .

cnf} lss zlQmdf ljZjf;, n} ª\lus e] befj, efUo, k'gh{ Gd, ?9L, wfld{ s s§/ tf,

cGwljZjf;, hftLo cxª\sf/ , ;fdGt cy{ tGqdf b] vf kg] { ;+: s[ lt x'g\ . sf] O/ fnfsf …

dw] zlt/ Ú, …bf] ifL rZdfÚ, …dxf/ fhsf] ;jf/ LÚ, …af} nfxfÚ, …l/ S;f tfGg] Ú, …rGb|jbgÚ syfdf

cfly{ s kIfsf] lrq0f 5 .

…bf] ifL rZdfÚ / f0ffsfnLg rfs/ L k|yfsf] gd'gf xf] . 7'nfsf] rfs/ L ug'{ /

;fgfnfO{ bafpg' ;fdGtjfbsf] ljz] iftf xf] . s] zj/ fh 7'nfsf] rfs/ L u5'{ eg] dfkmL

dfUg ;Nnfx lbg] kTgLnfO{ h} / L eG5 . …dxf/ fhsf] ;jf/ LÚ syfdf lgDg ju{ sf] / fhfsf]

zlQmdf ug{ ljZjf; k|s6 ul/ Psf] 5 . lgDg ju{ / fhf cfpg] eg] kl5 / fhf 7'nf xf] nfg\

egL xfQL l5g] { hqf] af6f] agfpg vf] H5g\ . ;f/ f d'n's / fhfsf] ePkl5 cfkm"n] jiff} { b] lv

sdfpFb} cfPsf] v] t klg / fhfsf] ePsf] / / fhfn] rfx] df s'g} klg a] nf vf] l;g ;Sg]

8/ n] eoeLt x'G5g\ . lgDg ju{ cfˆgf] zf/ Ll/ s >dnfO{ la;L{ s;/ L ;fdGtsf] ljnf;L

OR5f k"/ f ug{ cxf] / fq v6\5 eGg] lrq0f 5 . …af} nfxfÚ syfdf af} nfxfn] cfˆgL cf] 5\

ofg k/ ] sL la/ fdL kTgLnfO{ cf] vtLd'nf] u/ fpg st} af6 s] xL db\bt gkfpFbf rf] / L ug{

afWo 5 . …l/ S;f tfGg] Ú syfsf] d"n kfq wgjL/ e'OFdfG5] xf] . cy{ sf cefjdf c?

dfG5] n] xF;L p8fpFbf p;sf] cx+df wSsf nfU5 / xLgTju|GyL hfU5 . o; u|GyLn] ubf{

dfG5] : jkL8s aG5 . e'OFdfG5] n] lhpgsf nflu ;ª\3if{ u/ ] sf] of] syf cToGt dd{ : kzL{

5 . ;fdGtjfbL cy{ tGqn] e'OFdfG5] nfO{ dfUg] agfpF5 eGg] ;ª\s] t o; syfdf 5 . …

dw] zlt/ Ú syfdf syfsf/ n] of} gsf ;fy} k] 6sf] ef] snfO{ klg a/ fa/ L dxTjsf b[ li6n]

x] / ] sf 5g\ . pgdf k|mfo8jfbsf] ulx/ f] k|efj k/ ] sf] eP tfklg dflg;nfO{ of} gk|f0fL dfq

dfGg pgL tTk/ b] lvFb} gg\ ->] i7, @)$! M !@*_ . o; syfdf ljwjfnfO{ of} g ;d: of

5 eg] k'?if kfqx¿nfO{ k] 6sf] ;d: of 5 . syfsf] k'?if kfq uf] / ] vn k|j[ lQsf] kfq

x'gfn] uxgf rf] / ] sf] geO{ k] 6sf] ;d: ofn] ubf{ rf] / ] sf] xf] . kl/ l: yltn] sª\ufn agfPkl5

;dfhdf rf] / L ;+: s[ lt a9\5 eGg] ;Gb] z syfn] lbG5 .

%= t'ngf

cfw'lgs o'usf] : jfut ug] { / dWo o'unfO{ labf ug] { ;Gbe{ df ;f+: s[ lts r] tgf

107 d} gfnL / sf] O/ fnfsf] s: tf] lyof] eGg] kIfsf] o; cfn] vdf cWoog ug{ vf] lhPsf]

xf] . ul/ a / gf/ Lk|lt u'¿k|;fb d} gfnL pbf/ b] lvPsf 5g\ t/ nf} lss kIfnfO{ cFufNg]

;Gbe{ df d} gfnL / sf] O/ fnfaLr km/ flsnf] cGt/ / x] 5 eGg] ljifodf tn ljdz{ ul/ G5 –

%=! d} gfnLsf syfdf ljjfxsf] ljlw ljwfg, hUu] , b'nxL cGdfpg] , b'nxL leq\ofpg] ,

b'nxL lnP/ j|t hfg] ;f+: s[ lts kIfsf] ;lj: tf/ j0f{ g kfOG5 . ljjfx k4ltsf] j0f{ g

ubf{ pgdf k'/ f] lxt r] tgf b] lvG5 . afnljjfx k/ Dk/ fb] lv rNb} cfPsf] / k/ Dk/ fdf

km8\sf] xfGg] vfnsf] b[ li6 d} gfnLsf] gePsf] x'Fbf pgL afnljjfxk|lt s6fIf ub} { gg\ .

sf] O/ fnf ljjfxsf sd{ sf08Lo kIfk|lt vf;} rf;f] / fVb} gg\ . æ;'Aaf s6saxfb'/ n] !$

jif{ sLnfO{ laxf u/ ] / 3/ lnP/ cfPÆ -k[ = !@%_ eg] / ljjfxsf] sd{ sf08Lo kIfnfO{

syfsf/ n] rf;f] b] vfPgg\ . sf] O/ fnfn] l5lKkPsf] dfG5] n] !$ jif{ sL g} lax] lsg u/ ]

egL afnljjfxsf] cfnf] rgf u/ ] sf 5g\ / ;+: s[ ltsf] k'glg{ df{ 0f ug{ vf] h] sf 5g\ .

…gf;f] Ú syfdf cgd] n ljjfx ePsf] 5 . d} gfnL k/ Dk/ fjfbL syfsf/ x'gfn] cgd] n

ljjfx pgsf b[ li6df ;fdflhs ck/ fw ag] g . o; t/ xsf] cldNbf] lax] k|lt syfsf/ sf]

Wofg ghfg' oyfl: yltjfbL r] tgf xf] . sf] O/ fnfn] afnljjfxnfO{ ;fdflhs ck/ fw

dfGg' t/ d} gfnLnfO{ cgd] n ljjfxn] g5'g' eg] sf] ;dfhsf] ;f+: s[ lts kIf ldlxg 9ª\

un] a'‰g] ;jfndf b] lvPsf] leGgtf xf] . d} gfnLsf s'g} klg syfdf k|] d ljjfx ePsf]

5} g . cGthf{ tLo ljjfx klg d} gfnLnfO{ c: jLsfo{ 5 . gofF ;+: s[ lt : yflkt ug] { cfF6

d} gfnLdf gePsfn] k|] d ljjfx c;Dej b] lvPsf] xf] . sf] O/ fnfsf] …syfÚ syfdf Clifn]

k|] dljjfx u5{ / ;Gtfg pTkGg u5{ . pm ufpFn] x¿sf ;'vb'vdf ;xof] u klg u5{ .

Clifsf hf] 8Lsf] hLjg cfgGbk"j{ s lat] sf] b] vfP/ sf] O/ fnfn] nf} lss hLjgsf] dxTj

: yflkt u/ ] sf 5g\ . sf] O/ fnfn] : ju{ lt/ x] g] { xf] Og, wtL{ lt/ x] g'{ k5{ eg] .

%=@ k/ Dkl/ t g} ltstfk|lt d} gfnLdf ckf/ >4f b] lvG5 . ;fdGtjfbL ;+: s[ ltn]

gf/ LnfO{ kfp ldRg nufpF5 . 3/ sf] wGbf ug'{ gf/ Lsf] st{ Jo dfG5 . cfkm" vf6df

;'T5 / kTgLnfO{ vf6d'lg ;'Tg nufpF5 . …gf;f] Ú syfdf kltsf] kfp gldRg', kltn]

vfgf ksfpg' kg] { kl/ l: ylt lgdf{ 0f x'g cg} ltstf xf] . ljwjf eP/ ue{ jtL x'g'

uf} / Lsf b[ li6df cg} ltstf xf] . >Lw/ n] cg} lts sfd u/ ] sfn] O{ Zj/ af6 p;nfO{ bl08t

x'G5 . sf] O/ fnfn] ;dfhnfO{ eGbf JolQmnfO{ / f] h] . wd{ jfbLx¿af6, k/ Dk/ fjfbLx¿af6,

g} ltstfjfbLx¿af6 cfˆgf kfqnfO{ cnUu agfpg vf] h] . sf] O/ fnfsf syfdf ;dfh

5 t/ ltgsf] x] / fO d"ntM JolQmlgi7 xf] . sf] O/ fnfsf kfqx¿ OlGb|o lgu|xdf ljZjf;

ub} { gg\ . sf] O/ fnfsf k'?if jf gf/ L kfqsf] 7fpF kfpg] lalQs} clgolGqt aG5 t/

ToxL sfo{ nfO{ kfk 7fgL cfTdxTof ub} { gg\ . ;dfhn] : yfkgf u/ ] sf ljZjf;, g} ltstf,

sf] O/ fnfsf kfqx¿nfO{ : jLsfo{ 5} gg\ . pgsf kfqx¿nfO{ ljjfxk"j{ sf] jf ljjfxkl5sf]

108 k/ Dkl/ t of} g dof{ bf : jLsfo{ 5} g .

%=# d} gfnLn] 3'dfOlkm/ fO k/ Dk/ fjfbL lzIff k4ltk|lt ljZjf; k|s6 u/ ] sf 5g\ .

d} gfnLdf k/ Dk/ f, wd{ , ;+: s[ ltsf] hu] gf{ ;+: s[ t k9] sf JolQmaf6 dfq ;Dej b] V5g\ .

pgsf syfdf lj1fg, cª\u|] hL k9] sf JolQm cg} lts, e|i6, ktLt ePsf] b] vfOPsf]

5 . ;+: s[ t lzIffk|lt pbf;Lg JolQmnfO{ d} gfnLn] cfˆgf syfdf bl08t u/ ] sf 5g\ .

sf] O/ fnfn] …: s'n df: 6/ Ú syfdf lzIff ljBfyL{ s] lGb|t x'g'k5{ eg] sf 5g\ . lh1f;f,

cfnf] rgf, sf} t'xn / gjLg vf] h vfnsf] geO{ k|jrg lbg] vfnsf] df: 6/ sf] k'/ ftg

z} nLsf] k9fOk|lt sf] O/ fnfn] s6fIf u/ ] sf 5g\ . …k': tsÚ syfdf ;xl/ ofx¿ ;fydf

lstfa af] s] / lxF8\5g\ t/ ufpF3/ df ultnf k': ts gx'gfn] pgLx¿df : jf: Yo ;DaGwL

r] tgf 5} g eGg] ;ª\s] t u/ ] sf 5g\ .

%=$ d} gfnLdf syf k9\bf pgL O{ Zj/ jfbL x'g\ eGg] : ki6 b] lvPsf] 5 . efUo, : ju{ ,

k'gh{ Gd, tLy{ j|t, PsfbzL h: tf wfld{ s zAbk|lt d} gfnLdf ulx/ f] cf: yf 5 . cwdL{ nfO{

b] jtfn] bl08t u5{ g\ eGg] s'/ fdf d} gfnL ljZj: t 5g\, To;} n] ;f} tfk|lt cg'bf/ nIdL

d5] { , l5d] sLk|lt Oiof{ n' ;Gt] sf ;Gtfg ;vfk x'G5g\, kl08t dfwjnfO{ u+ufsf cfTdfsf]

>fk nfU5, bfh'k|lt st{ Jo k"/ f gu/ ] sfn] >Lw/ / / fd' la/ fdL k5{ g\, : ju{ k|ltsf] cf: yfn]

zzL / xl/ sf] k'glj{ jfx x'g ;Qm} g .

sf] O/ fnf b] jtf / cb[ Zo hut\ eGbf dfG5] nfO{ dxTj lbg] syfsf/ x'g\ .

sf] O/ fnfsf] n] vgdf dfG5] sf] cfljisf/ kfOG5, b] jtfsf] lg/ fs/ 0f -uf} td, @)&) M

$%_ . sf] O/ fnfsf] b[ li6df ;Tosf] cfljisf/ OlGb|on] ug] { xf] . cfw'lgstfn] ;Tosf]

;|f] t JolQm / p;sf] OlGb|o xf] eGg] dfG5 . JolQm cfˆgf] r} tGo zlQmåf/ f ljZjnfO{

abNg ;S5 eGg] ljrf/ sf] O/ fnfsf] n] vgdf e] l6G5 . sf] O/ fnf d'Qm dfgjsf cGj] ifs

x'g\ . ltgsf] n] vgsf] ;f} Gbo{ dfG5] sf] nf} lss d'lQmdf lglxt 5 . To;} n] pgsf n] vg

sd{ sf08sf] j0f{ g x'Fb} g .

%=% d} gfnLsf syfdf klt÷k|] dLn] kTgL÷k|] ldsfnfO{ ltdL eG5g\ eg] sf] O/ fnfsf

syfdf klt÷k|] dLn] klg ltdL eG5g\ / kTgL÷k|] ldsfn] klg ltdL eG5g\ . d} gfnL

;dfhsf] lrq ptf5{ g\ eg] sf] O/ fnf ;dtfd"ns ;j{ gfdsf] ;+: s[ lt : yflkt ug{ vf] H5g\ .

d} gfnLsf kfq l/ ;fP klg wfld{ s÷;f+: s[ lts zAbsf] k|of] u u5{ g\, rfd] kTgLnfO{ …/ fF8Ú

eG5, b] jL/ d0fnfO{ ;dfhn] …ck'tf] Ú eG5, wghLt] ef] 6] u'dfg] sf uf] ?nfO{ …t] / f 8fDgfÚ

eG5 . ef] 6] ;+: s[ ltdf ;fF9] 8fDg] rng 5} g . syfsf/ n] kfqsf dfWodaf6 cfˆgf]

;f+: s[ lts r] tgf cleJoQm u/ ] sf 5g\ . uf] ljGbsf cfdf uf} / LnfO{ …lg5{ nL / fF8Ú eG5] .

109 o;df a|fXd0f ;+: s[ lt emNsfpg] ufnLsf] k|of] u 5 . rfd] : jf: gLnfO{ lng hfg] ;Gbe{ df

ælng t kf] 8] eP hfpFnfÆ -k[ = %(_ eG5 . syfsf/ n] ;r] t ¿kdf lxGb' j0f{ Joj: yfsf]

;dy{ g u/ ] sf 5g\ . kl08t dfwjk|;fb ækflkgLn] b'w r': t} sf] lkp;f] 5f] 8] / u} Æ -k[ = ^&_

eG5 . cluNnf] h'gLsf] sdfOsf af/ ] df syfsf/ ljZj: t b] lvG5g\ . d} gfnLn] ;'Gb/ tfsf]

laDa klg k'/ f0faf6} lnPsf 5g\, h: t} …a'xf/ L dxfnIdL h: tLÚ -k[ = ((_, …cK;/ fh: tL

b'nxLÚ -k[ = !)$_, …cK;/ f h: tf ;'Gb/ LÚ -k[ = !(_ sf] O/ fnfsf kfq emu8f ubf{ wfld{ s

uGw lbg] vfnsf zAb k|of] u gu/ ] / …h} / LÚ, …lgb{ oLÚ, …lgi7'/ Ú, …abdf;Ú, …bufafhÚ h: tf

zAbs} a9L k|of] u u5{ g\ . kfqsf] ufnLunf] hdf klg syfsf/ sf] ;f+: s[ lts JolQmTj

k|s6 ePsf] 5 .

%=^ d} gfnL lgDg ju{ k|lt ;xfg'e"lt / fVg] syfsf/ x'g\ t/ Jofks cWoogsf] cefjdf

pgn] cfly{ s ;d: ofsf] d"n h/ f] kQf nufpg ;s] gg\ . pgn] ;fdGtjfbL cy{ tGqnfO{

wSsf glbg] u/ L cfˆgf] b[ li6sf] 0f lgdf{ 0f u/ ] sf 5g\ . d} gfnL syfdf k"0f{ dfgj klg

5g\ . d} gfnL dg k/ ] sf kfqsf] b] jTjs/ 0f u5{ g\ . rGb|zdz] / , u+ufwf/ h: tf / fhf

;fdGtk|lt syfsf/ sf] elQm b] lvG5 . s'nvfgbfg;Fu ;DaGw hf] 8\g] s'/ f syfsf/ sf

b[ li6df efUosf] s'/ f xf] . æ3/ lgofF s'6'Dasf b} nfdf jl/ oft hfg' 5Æ -k[ = (^_ . To: t}

æk'vf{ x¿n] klg cfh;Dd cfFSg g;s] sf] Tolt 7'nf] vfgbfgdf cfˆg" ;DaGw hf] l/ g]

ePsfn] lgd{ nsf] xif{ sf] l;df / x] gÆ -k[ = !)$_ . ;fdGtjfbn] wgnfO{ eGbf OHhtnfO{

dxTj lbG5 . OHhtsf] k|;ª\u cfpg;fy d} gfnL efj's aG5g\ .

sf] O/ fnfn] cfˆgf syfdf ;fdGtL cy{ tGqnfO{ pbfª\u kf/ ] . ;fdGtx¿n]

wg, s'n, k|lti7fsf cfwf/ df cgd] n ljjfx u5{ g\ . pgsf] …sg] { nsf] 3f] 8fÚ syfsf]

a'9f] sg] { n t?gL kTgLnfO{ v';L t'Nofpg] ;fdfgsf] y'k|f] nufpF5 . wgjL/ wg, s'n

/ k|lti7fn] o'Qm j/ kfpFb} g / 5f] / LnfO{ a'9L sGof agfpF5 . ;fdGtjfbsf] ljz] iftf

eg] sf] cfkm"eGbf xf] rfnfO{ rfs/ L ug{ nufpg' xf] . dflnsnfO{ rfs/ L ug] { s'/ fdf e'n

ePsfn] s] zj/ fhdf xLgTju|GyLsf] ljsf; x'G5 . kTgLsf] cf] vtLd"nf] ug{ gkfP/ …

af} nfxfÚ syfsf] af} nfxf c4{ l;NnL x'G5 . uf;af;sf] Joj: yf gePsfn] wgjL/ / ut

5fb] / d5{ . k6] sf] ;d: ofn] uf] / ] uxgf rf] 5{ . ;dfhdf cJoj: yf ePsfn] sf] O/ fnfsf

kfq ;fdGtjfbsf lzsf/ ePsf 5g\ . kfqx¿ zf] lift kLl8t x'g'df syfsf/ n] b] jtfnfO{

bf] if glbP/ ;fdflhs cfly{ s cJoj: yfnfO{ bf] if lbPsf 5g\ .

;Lldt cWoog, / f0ffsfnLg hflu/ ] hLjg, lxGb' k[ i7e"ld d} gfnLsf] jftfj/ 0fLo

r] tgf x'gfn] pgsf] x] / fO s?0f: kzL{ eP/ klg ;fF3'/ f] 5 . w] / } JolQm, kl/ jf/ /

;d'bfo;Fu ;fIffTsf/ u/ ] sf sf] O/ fnf;Fu cg'j+lzs ;+: sf/ , Jofks cWoog / / fhg} lts

r] tgfo'Qm k[ i7e"ld lyof] . To;} n] sf] O/ fnf ;dfhsf] k/ Dkl/ t cfly{ s 9fFrfk|lt cg] s

110 sf] 0faf6 k|Zg u5{ g\ .

^= lgisif{

o;df u'¿k|;fb d} gfnLsf] …gf;f] Ú syf ;ª\u|xsf syf;Fu ljZj] Zj/ k|;fb

sf] O/ fnfsf @))& ;fn k"j{ k|sflzt syfsf] ;f+: s[ lts kIfsf] t'ngf ul/ Psf] 5 .

u'¿k|;fb d} gfnLn] dWoo'uLg ;+: s[ ltnfO{ k5\ofPsf 5g\ . d} gfnLsf] x] / fO ;'wf/ jfbL

5 . pgL gf/ Lsf sf?l0fs cj: yfk|lt ;+j] bgzLn 5g\ t/ klg pgsf] x] / fO cfw'lgseGbf

k"j{ cfw'lgs a9L 5 . / fhf, dxf/ fh, ;fdGt, s'n vfgbfgnfO{ d} gfnLn] cfbz{ agfP/

n] v] . kfqx¿nfO{ efUosf] b} jsf] v6gdf lxF8fP . kfqdf kl/ jt{ g b} ljs ;Qfaf6 u/ fpg

vf] h] . vnkfqnfO{ b08 lbg : ju{ lt/ x] / ] . lj1fg / cª\u|] hL lzIffk|lt cljZjf; k|s6

u/ ] . ;fdGtx¿sf] ;Gt : jefjnfO{ lrg] t/ ;fdGtjfb l6sfpg pgLx¿n] rfNg] s'rfn

k9\g ;s] gg\ . cfˆgf] n] vgdf cfbz{ jfbnfO{ : yfg lbPsf x'gfn] a'l4 / OlGb|onfO{ : yfg

glbO{ st{ Jo / g} ltstfsf s'/ f a9L u/ ] . JolQm r} tGo zlQmåf/ f ljZjnfO{ abNg

;S5 eGg] cfTdljZjf; d} gfnLdf lyPg . hflu/ ] x'gfn] pgn] ljb|f] xL kfqsf] ;[ li6

ug{ ;s] gg\ . nf] swe{ sf] kfngf ug'{ , rf] vL–gLlt ug'{ , ;d: of k/ ] b} j u'xfg'{ , sd{ sf08

ljlwljwfgk|lt rgfvf] x'g' pgsf syfsf] cfbz{ xf] .

ljZj] Zj/ k|;fb sf] O/ fnfn] cfw'lgs ;+: s[ ltsf] lgdf{ 0ftkm{ hf] 8 lbPsf 5g\ .

pgsf] x] / fO km/ flsnf] 5 . g] kfnL syfnfO{ gofF lbzf lbg] klxnf] syfsf/ sf] O/ fnf

g} x'g\ . sf] O/ fnf dgf] j} 1flgs syf n] v] sfn] dfq cfw'lgs syfsf/ ag] sf xf] Ogg\,

Oltxf;sf] k|ultzLn kIf cFufn] / cfw'lgs ;+: s[ ltsf] : yfkgfdf ce"tk"j{ of] ubfg

lbPsfn] pgL klxnf] cfw'lgs syfsf/ x'g\ . ;Qf;Fu ;ª\3if{ , Unf] an x] / fO, cGtkf{ 7,

dfgjtfsf] k|lti7f, ;flxlTos jfs\rft'o{ df ;Lk b] lvPsfn] pgsf syf cfw'lgs b] lvP .

;fdGt d08nL, / fhf dxf/ fhfsf] s?0ff kIfsf] pbf/ tfsf] ck] Iff sf] O/ fnfsf ?lrsf

ljifo ePgg\ . sf] O/ fnfn] zlQm / wgsf andf t?gL NofP/ ef] u ug] { ;fdGt ;+: s[ ltnfO{

pbfª\u kf/ ] . zf: qLo h8tf, sd{ sf08, k'/ f] lxt r] tgf, clehfTojfbnfO{ b'?T;flxt

ug{ of] ubfg k'¥ofP . ;dfhsf cJoj: yf, lj;+ult, ljs[ lt vf] tn] / j} 1flgs Joj: yf

: yfkgfdf hf] 8 lbP . ljwjfsf] k'glj{ jfxsf] , gf/ Lsf] cfˆgf] z/ L/ dflysf] clwsf/ sf] ,

hLjgdf nf} lss cfgGbsf] , dfgj : jefj Pj+ dfgjLo d"No dfGotsf] kIfdf snd

rnfpg] sf] O/ fnf gofF ;+: s[ ltsf] : yfkgf u/ L ;dfh abNg rfxG5g\ . O{ Zj/ Lo ljZjf;sf]

lg/ fs/ 0f / dfG5] df ljZjf; ug] { syfsf/ x'gfn] ;dfhsf] ;'wf/ dfG5] s} sd{ af6 x'G5

eGg] ;+: s[ ltsf] : yfkgfdf sf] O/ fnfsf] of] ubfg dxTjk"0f{ b] lvG5 . d} gfnL ;fdflhs

/ Lltlyltsf] Joj: yfkg vf] H5g\ . sf] O/ fnf l;h{ gfdf n] vsLo : jtGqtfsf] c/ fhs

pkef] u u5{ g\ . To;} n] sf] O/ fnf clwgfosjfbL t'R5tfaf6 d'Qm 5g\ . sf] O/ fnfsf d'Qm

dfgjsf kIfw/ x'g\ . pgsf] n] vg nf} lss d'lQmdf lglxt 5 . nf} lss d'lQmsf lglDt

dWoo'uLg hLjgsf d"No / dfGotf kG5fP/ gofF ;+: s[ ltsf] : yfkgf clgjfo{ 5 . oxLg] / 111 d} gfnL / sf] O/ fnfsf] ;f+: s[ lts r] tgf k[ ys aG5 .

;Gbe{ ;"rL

cf] emf, xl/ s'df/ -@)&!_, …;do / : yfgLo kl/ j] zsf] ;Gbe{ / ;+: s[ lt Pj+ ;flxToÚ, ljrf/

k|jfx, jif{ #, cª\s #, k[ = !$#–!$% .

uf} td, s[ i0f -@)&_, …ljkL sf] O/ fnf M l;4fGt / l;h{ gfÚ, cfVofgsf/ ljZj] Zj/ k|;fb sf] O/ fnf

M k'gkf{ 7, ;Dkf= efpkGyL, sf7df8f} F M g] kfn k|1f k|lti7fg, k[ = $$–&& .

Gof} kfg] , e'jg -@)&)_, …ljZj] Zj/ k|;fb sf] O/ fnfsf syfdf ;ª\sygfTds ;ª\u7gÚ,

cfVofgsf/ ljZj] Zj/ k|;fb sf] O/ fnf, sf7df8f} F M g] kfn k|1f k|lti7fg, k[ = @%$–#)# .

a/ fn, O{ Zj/ -;Dkf=_ -@)$*_, ‰ofnaf6, kfFrf} F ;+: s=, nlntk'/ M ;femf k|sfzg .

e6\6, ;'zLnf -@)^)_, u'¿k|;fb d} gfnL M JolQm / s[ lt, sf7df8f} F M g] kfn / fhsLo k|1f k|lti7fg .

ld>, r} tGo - _, ablnFbf] g] kfnL ;dfh, sf7df8f} F M kmfOglk|G6 cfOPg;L .

d} gfnL, u'¿k|;fb -@)$&_, gf;f] , afx|f} F ;+: s=, sf7df8f} F M / fh] Gb|k|;fb d} gfnL .

ljBfe"if0f / 8L=cf/ = ;rb] j -;g\ !((&_, ;dfhzf: q s] l;4fGt, kGw|f} F ;+: s= gO{ lbNnL M lstfa dxn .

>] i7, bof/ fd -@)$!_, g] kfnL ;flxTosf s] xL k[ i7, bf] = ;+: s=, sf7df8f} F M ;femf k|sfzg .

zdf{ , k/ fh'nL -;Dkf=_ -@)%)_, ljZj] Zj/ k|;fb sf] O/ fnfsf syf, sf7df8f} F M ;femf k|sfzg .

;'j] bL, cle -@)^*_, …;f+: s[ lts ;dfnf] rgfsf] ;} 4flGts ljsf;Ú, / Tg a[ xt\ g] kfnL

;dfnf] rgf -;} 4flGts v08_, ;Dkf= / fh] Gb| ;'j] bL / nId0fk|;fb uf} td, sf7df8f} F M / Tg

k': ts e08f/ , k[ = !@$–!#(

If] qL, u0f] z / / fdrGb| / fodfemL -@)^!_, dfgjzf: q / ;dfhzf: qsf] kl/ ro, sf7df8f} F M

Pl;of klAns] ;G; .

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(2001). ed. Cowan, Janek and others. UK : Cambridge University Press. P. 31-55. th Rao, C.N. Shankar (2012). Sociology (7 Revised ed.). New Delhi : S. Chand and Company Pvt. Ltd. 112 Reviewers for this Issue 1. Prof. Dr. Shreedhar Prasad Lohani 2. Prof. Dr. Yam Bahadur Kshetry 3. Prof. Dr. Surendra Kumar Vyaas 4. Prof. Dr. Vikash K.C. 5. Prof. Dr. Arun Kumar 6. Prof. Dr. Vishnu Prasad Poudel 7. Mr. Hari Kumar Ojha 8. Mr. Devi lal Sharma

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