Badi Samaniego Overview Overview

which have made the one of the Figure 1 Map of the Coral Triangle (Source: DENR-PAWB-CMMO, 2012) Chapter 1 most vulnerable social and economic states in OVERVIEW Southeast Asia (Yusuf and Francisco, 2009). It is, therefore, imperative to accelerate efforts The Philippines, which is located at the apex and produce synergistic impacts to overcome of the Coral Triangle, is acknowledged as the threats at the local and national settings. the world’s center of marine biodiversity (Carpenter and Springer, 2005). Its coastal As a signatory to the Convention of Biological waters are teeming with species of corals, Diversity (CBD), the Philippines promotes the reef , seagrasses and mangroves. conservation of biodiversity for sustainable Other marine vertebrate, invertebrate and development. The Department of Environment plant organisms, as well as their terrestrial and Natural Resources (DENR) – Protected Areas counterparts are also reported to be richly and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) regularly reports diverse. Their significance to human well- to the CBD on the loss of biodiversity as well being is undeniable, as millions of Filipinos some specific gains in protecting biodiversity, depend on coral reefs and their associated promoting sustainable use, addressing threats, ecosystems, providing food and livelihood to maintaining goods and services, among others. small-scale artisanal and subsistence as well as commercial fisheries. Many of the Learning from the various initiatives, such as coastal communities have low incomes and the CBD, the Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral those below the poverty threshold are often Reefs, Fisheries, and Food Security (CTI-CFF) dependent on the coastal habitats’ ecosystems addresses these imperatives through concerted goods and services. These ecosystems provide efforts and multi-lateral partnership among diverse and valuable functions and services, the six member countries ― the Philippines, such as coastal protection, fisheries production, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and regulation services as well as recreational, Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste. The CTI aims plans of action. The Philippine SCTR presents on how to connect related corollary actions to educational and aesthetic values, contributing to safeguard the marine and coastal biological the state and condition of the resources at achieve the higher level outcomes. significantly to the tourism sector (Padilla, resources of the region for future generations, coastal ecosystems exposed to various degrees 2009). If these ecosystems are damaged and to protect them from overfishing, of threats. This report purports to present the The Philippines, as one of the countries of the beyond restoration, there would be profound destructive practices, unsustainable baselines at the start of the CTI, against which Coral Triangle Initiative is committed to the consequences to the Filipino people. coastal development, pollution, and impacts future reports may be compared to provide a CTI through its National Plan of Action (NPOA) of climate change, and other emerging issues measure of progress. The report also highlights and Regional Plan of Action (RPOA) as agreed The degradation of coastal ecosystems has which destroy the richness, productivity and the relevant government policies and programs by the six countries in the Coral Triangle. The already been observed in the Philippines ecosystem services of the Coral Triangle. The on conservation, fisheries and aspects of five goals of the CTI as stated in the National (Gomez et al., 1994) and has been recognized CTI National Coordinating Committee (NCC) governance both at the local and national levels Plan of Action are: as the hottest of the hot spots in marine is chaired by the Department of Environment appropriate to the problems and drivers in the biodiversity (Roberts et al., 2002). This is and Natural Resources (DENR) and co-chaired archipelago. The SCTR utilizes the Pressure- n “priority seascapes” designated and revealed by high levels of threats (overfishing, by the Department of Agriculture – Bureau of State-Response (PSR, OECD 1994) approach effectively managed (large-scale destructive fishing practices, unsustainable Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DA-BFAR). to discuss opportunities and mechanisms to geographies prioritized for investments coastal development, sedimentation and address the threats. Moreover, it assists in and action, where best practices are pollution) on coral reefs (Burke et al., 2002, a systematic summarization and linking of demonstrated and expanded; 2011). Increasing in coastal areas 1.1 Rationale of the Study key benchmarks (circa 2009) and monitoring n Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries are amplifying these threats, compromising indicators on the progress and implementation Management (EAFM) and other marine food security and the socio-economic stability The State of the Coral Triangle Report of targets of the National Plan of Action (NPOA) resources fully applied; of the communities. This alarming state is (SCTR) aims to document and promote the of the CTI. Lastly, the PSR integration of the n Marine Protected Areas (MPA) further exacerbated by the impending impacts commitments to CTI through the goals and benchmark conditions initiates the discussion established and effectively managed of climate change (e.g., McLeod et al., 2010) (including community-based resource

2 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 3 Overview Overview

utilization and management); 2011) and regime shifts in fisheries (Chavez et Many laws and policies have created and threshold went up to PhP16,841 per capita per n climate change adaptation measures al., 2003, Villanoy et al., 2011). improved the organizational and institutional annum (NSCB 2012). achieved; and mechanisms of the coastal and marine sector, n threatened status improving. The Philippines’ estimated 26,000 km2 of coral particularly those relating to fisheries (RA The Philippine capture fisheries production reef area is the second largest in Southeast 8550), biodiversity conservation (RA 7586 and ranked 9th in the world in 2008 (FAO, 2008). Actions in the NPOA/RPOA are expected to Asia. Some 500 species of scleractinian or EO 578), and integrated coastal management In 2010, the sector produced 2.6 million contribute to achieving higher level outcomes, “stony” corals are known to exist, 12 species (EO 533). MT (51% of total Philippine production) such as sustaining coral reef ecosystems and of which are considered endemic (e.g., Veron, valued at PhP138.4 billion. The municipal services, establishing sustainable fisheries and 1995), around 3,053 species of fish (Herre, The in the Philippines was sector accounted for 1.37 million MT valued improving food security and livelihood. 1953, Allen et al., 2003, Allen & Erdmann, 2009, projected in 2009 at 92.1 million. The increase at PhP77.6 billion, while the commercial Fishbase.org, 2009), 2,724 of which are marine- in population translated to an average growth sector had 1.25 million MT valued at PhP60.7 Development of coastal areas is crucial in the based. species number around rate of 2.04% annually during the period billion. fisheries account for 12% of the Philippines, where 78% of the 80 provinces 177 whereas demersal species total 2,351 2000 to 2007, but slightly fell to 1.9% very total fisheries production in the Philippines and 56% of the 1,634 cities and municipalities, (1,658 of these are reef-associated and 693 recently in 2011. The growth rate is a factor and contributes 4% to the GDP, and about one are located along its archipelagic coasts. are associated with other nearshore habitats). in determining how great a burden would be million people are involved in the industry (i.e., These coastal settlements are exposed to There are 277 deep- fish species, while 173 imposed on a country by the changing needs the work force includes fishers, middlepersons, climate variability. The dominant wind system species are found in freshwater environments. of its people for resources, infrastructure, traders, fish processors, transportation sector, over the Philippines is the Asian monsoon For marine plants, 16 species of seagrass are and jobs. The population density in 2009 etc.). Total annual landings were estimated which blows from the northeast between known to occur and the estimated total area was estimated at 307 people per km2, which at 400,000 MT in 2009, of which 120,000 MT December and March (amihan) and from of seagrass bed habitats is 978 km2 (Fortes, was about 10% higher than the population (30% of total) was caught in Philippine waters the southwest between June and October unpublished). The Philippines has one of the density in 2003. It is estimated that more than whereas 280,000 MT (70%) was from adjacent (habagat). This monsoonal wind system affects highest number of mangrove species with 42 60% of the ’s total population lives in international waters. the temperature, wind, and rainfall patterns in species representing 18 families (Spaldinget al., the coastal areas. Increasing population is a the country, demonstrating four distinct dry 2010, Polidoro et al., 2010). Natural mangrove serious problem because of the implications Small pelagics are the main sources of cheap and wet classifications along a north-south, cover has declined to 247,268 hectares, while on the limited natural resource base and may protein for lower income groups in the east-west gradient. Recent analysis (RESILIENT planted mangroves have already reached up lead to over-exploitation of coastal and marine Philippines. These include , , Program, David et al., unpublished) using to more than 44,000 hectares (Samson and resources. Fish continues to be the principal round , roundscads, , and data on precipitation, sea surface temperature, Rollon, 2008, Primavera et al., 2011). Several source of protein for the country’s population, fusiliers. They comprise about 60% of the total and sea surface height shows 11 distinct species are considered threatened, such as the accounting for 70% of the total animal protein capture production of the country as climate clusters across the country. The ocean dugong, cetaceans, whale , manta rays, intake and 30% of the total protein intake. of 2003 (FAO, 2008) and estimated to have a circulation around the Philippine archipelago other sharks and marine turtles (Alava and Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) of 550,000 is a product of the complex dynamics among Cantos, 2004). metric tons from the levels reported by the bathymetry, the seasonally reversing 1.2 State of Fisheries in the Philippines Dalzell et al. (1987). However, the catch per monsoons, as well as the tidal and non-tidal There is a wide range of Philippine laws (e.g., unit of effort (CPUE) for small pelagic fishes circulation between the West 1987 Philippine Constitution) and policies that In 2009, the fisheries sector accounted for continued to decline since the 1950s. Within and the Western Pacific (Wang et al., 2008; deal with issues pertaining to: 2.2% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product the small pelagic fisheries, sardines are one Han et al., 2009; Gordon et al., 2011 as cited in (GDP) at current prices, and 4.4% in constant of the commercially targeted species which Villanoy et al., 2011). Winds blowing through n food security, livelihood and socio- prices. Recent data indicate that the sector accounted for a combined 442,045 MT valued gaps between islands can induce upwelling (e.g. economic conditions of the population; declined by 3.84% in 2011 due to decreases in at approximately PhP10.5 billion. However, off northern coast of Zamboanga Peninsula) n environment and natural resources, production of the commercial and municipal present stocks in the Philippines are and downwelling along the leeward sides of the and habitats and the need for sectors. It is a common observation that showing signs of depletion. islands (Chavanne et al., 2002). Climate change their protection, conservation and fishers earn incomes that are usually below the variation is influenced by the Pacific Decadal development; and poverty threshold levels which was reported The state of the demersal stocks in the Oscillation (PDO) that profoundly affect Sea n related issues on security, safety, in 2002 at PhP11,906 per capita per annum, Philippines has been characterized by a decline Surface Temperature (SST) and exhibits thermal territory (Republic Act. No. or RA 9522, or an equivalent of PhP1,000 per month, with in biomass and a change in species composition anomalies that result in coral bleaching (e.g. Baselines Law) and law enforcement. fisher density range of 4.4 to 6.5 fishers/sq. (Armada, 2004). The major changes in catch Arceo et al., 2001; RESILIENT SEAS Report, km (SUPFA Report, 2007). In 2009, poverty composition include an increase in abundance

4 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 5 Overview Overview of squids, shrimps and small pelagic species and Philippine-wide catches peaked in the mid- relies heavily on the domestic and international by these and other causes. These include substantial declines in the abundance of large 1990s and gradually dropped since then. This shipping industry to link the islands and to inappropriate land use practices, irresponsible commercially valuable species like groupers, decline in LRFT is demonstrated specifically in transport goods and people. In 2009, the gross mining practices, deforestation (including snappers, sea catfish, etc. The present rates of Palawan, a major source of live fish and hence revenue of the Philippine Ports Authority (PPA) illegal logging activities), improper waste exploitation of demersal fishes are reported where assessments are largely undertaken reached PhP7.129 billion, an increase of more disposal, etc. There was also significant growth to be beyond the MSY levels (Silvestre and (PCSD, 2011). than half-a-billion pesos (PhP503.37 million or in coastal development manifested by the Pauly, 1987 and Dalzell et al., 1987). Also, the 7.60 %) from 2008. increase in coastal populations, built-up areas, current level of production occurs at a higher Aquaculture contributes 38% to the annual and urbanization, among others. In contrast, level of effort indicating overcapitalization fisheries production and is currently the biggest The significance of traditional knowledge is the level of destructive fishing practices that is typical of a common property regime sector in the fisheries industry. The industry increasingly being recognised including its value appears to decrease through time in many sites of exploitation in Philippine fisheries (Padilla, is growing rapidly, exhibiting a growth rate of as a complement to scientific findings that may indicating some successes in MPAs and fishery 2009). Other recent data on artisanal catch 10.2% per year. In 2010, the aquaculture sector well provide valuable insights (e.g., Magos, managements in several municipalities. (e.g., Mamauag et al., 2009) appear to show a contributed 2,543,720 MT valued at PhP82 1994). Customary marine tenure systems and predominance of species with small sizes and billion. Seaweed and sea cucumber have traditional practices, for instance, can be seen Still, the impacts of overfishing and to some low market prices. gained in food security, employment, quality as viable alternatives to approach problems in extent destructive fishing practices on coral products and profit in the export industry. In fisheries management. Building on traditional reefs are evident in the biomass of reef- The value of sustainable production from 2010, seaweed production in the Philippines knowledge on marine management strategies associated fish. It is reported that more than capture fisheries (excluding invertebrates and ranked second in production at 1.8 million MT or activities in the context of national policies 50% of the reef sites in the Philippines assessed aquatic plants) reached up to an estimated next to Indonesia at 3 million MT. provides benefits to human communities between 1991 and 2004 are overfished (Nañola PhP128 billion per year (based on 2006 data; in and biodiversity, or the national and/or et al., 2004). Overfishing is also observed in Padilla, 2009). However, due to the open-access Coastal tourism brings substantial economic international conservation efforts including the live reef fish fishery especially in Palawan. exploitation regime, the net value is placed at benefits to the Philippines. It is a source of climate change adaptation. For issues on Given the moderate to heavy fishing pressure about PhP13 billion. The annual potential yield foreign exchange and a significant part of gender equality, these are actively promoted in that the groupers have been experiencing in from species, based on a coral national and local economies. Based on the the Philippines be it in the government or other recent years, the groupers’ rate of depletion reef area of 26,000 km2 (initially reported as WTTC satellite accounting, tourism accounts sectors outside of the government. There are has, therefore, been increasing and the current 33,000 km2) ranges from 351,000 to 429,000 for 9.1% of GDP in the country, and like other enabling policies and mechanisms that support harvests are no longer sustainable. MT. The estimated current yield using a reef Asian Coral Triangle Countries (CTC), tourism gender equality in the Philippines. area of 26,000 km2 is placed at over 169,000 is one of the fastest growing sectors of the Recent estimates showed that there are about MT with potential net values of about PhP2 economy, already worth US$16.3 billion. 2.2 million MT of organic pollutants released billion to PhP2.5 billion and actual net value at 1.3 Threats to Biodiversity into the marine environment annually. These less than PhP1 billion using the average price Domestic production of oil in the Philippines pollutants come from the domestic, agricultural for coral reef-associated species in 2006 of began in 1979 but has been very limited. Until Poor coral cover in the Philippines has and industrial activities from the land. PhP57 per kg. These values were observed to 2010, the country has produced 61,860,820 increased to 40% while areas with excellent be slightly lower compared to the estimates billion barrels (bbl) of oil, 1,011,267 mmscf of cover has steadily declined to less than 1% A major threat to marine turtles, one of the using reef conditions from the previous years. natural gas, and 45,312,937 bbl of condensate. in 2000-2004. This can be attributed to the threatened species in the Philippines, is large- The gross value of potential production from The Philippines holds an estimated 3.48 trillion continuing threats from coastal development, scale illegal harvest of eggs and collection of mangrove fisheries in 2006 decreased to the cubic feet (Tcf) of natural gas reserves, most marine-based pollution, sedimentation, adults for the ornamental trade. Marine turtles range of PhP1.49 billion to PhP6.09 billion/ of which are found in the Malampaya gas overfishing, and destructive fishing. In 2002, are also threatened by coastal development yr. The estimated contribution of mangrove field in Palawan (contains an estimated 2.6 overfishing was the largest threat (about 40%) and fisheries practices, including foreign fishers ecosystems to actual fisheries production in Tcf of natural gas). According to the 2008 BP to the coral reefs in the Philippines followed poaching and targeting marine turtles within 2006 reached 23,269 MT. Statistical Energy Survey, the Philippines had by destructive fishing practices (approximately Philippine waters. natural gas consumption of 3.42 billion cubic 36%). In 2012, however, destructive fishing The live reef fish trade (LRFT) is an important meters. The country has two crude oil refining gradually decreased whereas the other threats Malpractices in aquaculture result in fishery in the Philippines which mostly targets facilities which had a refining capacity of increased considerably. Levels of high and debilitating effects both to the environment groupers (Mamauag, 2004). While generating 282,000 bbl/d as of January 2008. medium threats, particularly sedimentation and the stocks, such as massive fish kills which significant export revenue and incomes for and pollution grew significantly suggesting have economic consequences through losses fishers/cagers, there is an observation that As an archipelagic country, the Philippines the escalation of problems brought about in investments.

6 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 7 Overview Overview

continue in many municipalities. There Other initiatives that are also considered in the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management Given the impacts on ecosystems by the are some mangrove areas with 100% (full) NPOA include capacity-building, sustainable (EAFM) and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA), threats and pressures, endeavours, such as protection. There is an increase in the number financing schemes, and public awareness. and the inter-hierarchical set-up of adaptive reef restoration, are considered to rehabilitate of Marine Key Biodiversity Areas (MKBA) in the One innovation is the university mentoring management cycle. damaged habitats and conserve biodiversity. marine biogeographic regions except in the program which aims to transfer knowledge Reef restoration activities are being initiated Southeastern Philippine Sea which remained and skill from centers of excellence to Finally, emphasis must be placed on capacity- in the Philippines to conserve local coral the same compared to 2009 data. Majority mentee higher education institutions for the building to sustain resilient CT knowledge- diversity and ecosystem productivity. Another (about 66%) of the MKBAs are found in the latter to better assist local government units based communities. These initiatives are consideration is restocking efforts, the main Visayan Seas (Visayas Region) (at the top of the (LGUs) on the technical aspects of coastal envisaged to produce results that will be goal of which is to maintain production of list), and West Philippine Sea. resource management and enhance NPOA relevant to the higher level outcomes through target species at sustainable levels from implementation. On sustainable financing, a process that forms a link between these two depleted conditions due to overexploitation. Initial outputs to characterize climate change there is a set of mechanisms (e.g. Payments aspects. This process involves several elements Giant clams, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, vulnerabilities of the marine and coastal for Ecosystem Services)identified to generate integral to this linkage. and scallops are some of the species that are environments have been provided as initiatives funds for the national and local governments undergoing restocking initiatives. to address Goal 4 – Climate change adaptation. in order to undertake activities addressing the n First is to consider the operational The RESILIENT SEAS Program of the Department NPOA goals. framework of Integrated Coastal of Science and Technology (DOST) and the Management (ICM) with emphasis 1.4 Updates on the Goals of the CTI Marine Science Institute of the University of on coastal governance. The the Philippines established the framework and 1.5 Findings and Conclusions interdisciplinary, multi-sectoral, and The final section of this report presents the the subsequent initial activities to undertake ridge to reef approaches of ICM will five goals of the CTI, their indicators, targets vulnerability assessments (VA) of nearshore In summary, the ecological, socio-economic allow the linkage between initiatives and initiatives undertaken. For Goal 1 (Priority habitats, coastal beaches, fisheries and and governance characteristics of the coastal and outcomes. Seascapes — improved governance and fishing communities. Climate typologies in the and marine realm in the Philippines are briefly n Second, given the importance of the effective management), two seascapes (Sulu- Philippines were described to provide exposure presented in relation to the relevant pressures economic valuation of ecosystem Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion and West Philippine factors to complement the existing climatologic and threats and the on-going initiatives or services, efforts to identify synergistic Sea) were designated. For Goal 2 (Ecosystem- classification. Researches under the program actions, i.e., referred to as responses, which actions under this aspect are also based fisheries management), national policies established oceanographic, biophysical, aim to address the issues and examine the crucial steps towards achieving the on EAFM (i.e., policy for tuna management) fisheries and socio-economic indicators that desired impacts (Table 1.1). This manner of outcomes. and live reef food fish trade are being drafted. are integral in the VA. The program also started presentation provides insights into identifying n Third, employing EAFM in attaining to engage the participation of national and where the gaps and opportunities for sustainable fisheries is also a significant For Goal 3 (Improved management of Marine local governments as well as other academic improvement are in order to achieve outcomes, step. Protected Areas, or MPAs), 0.1% or 270,000 institutions in the various activities ofthe such as sustaining the health of coral reefs and n Fourth, initiatives that will enable has. or 2,700 kms2. are under some form of program especially in the formulation of ecosystem services and fisheries production, equitable access and use rights in protection (total coral reef area is 26,000 sq. adaptation strategies. and improved food security. coastal governance should also be kms.). Ten percent of the 2% target by 2015 envisioned. and 10% of the 10% target by 2020 are to NPOAs have been prepared to conserve and The summary presented below provides insights n Finally, there should be systemic be strictly protected. Recent assessment by monitor threatened species, such as sharks, on identifying the gaps, and the opportunities to integration in bottom-up and top-down Marine Protected Area Support Network (MSN) under Goal 5 – Threatened species status link these gaps to the outcomes. These include approaches in the management. in 2011 showed 1,620 MPAs across the country monitoring. Action plan for other species, the the importance of valuation and accounting are established and managed locally (Dizon et Turtle National Action Plan and the Marine of the ecosystem goods and services applied al., 2011). MPA Effectiveness Assessment Tool Mammal Action Plan are under development. over several areas of interest from research (MEAT) was used to assess 110 MPAs which is By 2015, the NPOA is slated to have produced and monitoring to enabling environments (i.e., 7% (31,520 has.) of the total area of 393,994.46 Species Action Plans on seabirds, and advocacy and constituency building). Another has. of these MPAs. For mangroves, around other reef fishes. Other threatened species is the need to set up processes, systems and 57% (80,000 has.) of the remaining mangroves that are considered for restocking efforts standards of good CT practices. These can (140,000 has.) is under some form of include giant clams, scallops, and top shells, be operationalized through the platforms of protection, and mangrove replanting activities among others. the Coral Triangle MPA System (CTMPAS),

8 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 9 Overview Overview

Table 1 State-Pressure-Response-Impact Matrix of the Philippine SCTR REFERENCES Burke, L., K. Reytar, M. Spalding, and A. Perry. 2011. Reefs at Risk Revisited. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., State Pressure Response Impact Alava, M.N., and J.A.B. Cantos. 2004. “Marine U.S.A. Protected Species in the Philippines.” In Carpenter, K.E., and V.G. Springer. 2005. Conditions of coral reef and other Overfishing (O), Number and size of protected Highlight the DA-BFAR (Department of Agriculture- “The Center of the Center of Marine ecosystems (e.g., coral cover, sedimentation (S), areas (MPA) have gradually estimated benefits Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Shorefish Biodiversity: the Philippine mangrove cover) are hardly coastal development increased. Initiatives and policies derived from Resources), Turbulent Seas: The Status Islands.” Environmental Biology of improving. 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Depletion of fish management are being the banning of large, In Reefs through Time 2008: Initiating Dalzell, P., P. Corpuz, R. Ganaden, and D. populations of target species, changes developed. Provincial and commercial fishing the State of the Coasts Reports: pp. Pauly. 1987. Estimation of Maximum in size and catch compositions, and to municipal ordinances pertaining boats inside municipal 145e152. Coral Reef Information some extent local extinction of species to fisheries management (e.g. waters. SustainableYield and Maximum Network of the Philippines (PhilReefs), Economic Rent from the Philippine Small- (target and by catch). gear restrictions) have been MPA Support Network, Marine established. pelagic Fisheries. BFAR Technical Paper Environment & Resources Foundation, Series Vol. X (3). Bureau of Fisheries Inc. and the Marine Science Institute, Socio-economic condition of fishing O and CD (e.g., Identification of other Identification of and Aquatic Resources, Quezon City, University of the Philippines, Diliman, communities remains in a dire increasing means of livelihood (income demographic and Philippines and International Center for Quezon City. situation. Majority of fishers are population size, diversification). Finding economic status Living Aquatic Resources Management, below the poverty threshold and have decreasing opportunities towards enhancing among fishing Manila, Philippines. very few alternative livelihood options. income and food education especially for next communities. Arceo, H., M. Quibilan, P. Alino, G. Lim, and consumption, thus generations. Mariculture Potential areas for W. Licuanan. 2001. “Coral Bleaching David, L.T. 2012. (unpublished). “Climate increasing poverty initiatives for selected species assistance. in thePhilippine Reefs: Coincident Topologies in the Philippines.” Final level, inequitable (seaweed, sea cucumber, Evidences with Mesoscale Thermal Report. ReSILiENT Seas Program. UP utilization of groupers, rabbitfishes, etc.). Anomalies.” Bull. Mar. Sci. 69(2): pp. Marine Science Institute and DOST- resources) National government assistance 579–593. PCAARD. (e.g., conditional cash transfer mechanism). Armada, N.B. 2004. “State of the Demersal Dizon, E, R. Geronimo, and E. Miclat. 2011. Fisheries.” In DA-BFAR, Turbulent “Benchmarking of Marine Protected Seas: TheStatus of Philippine Marine Areas in thePhilippines: Understanding Governance on coastal resource Weak governance ICM being introduced There is a need Fisheries: pp. 42–46. Coastal Resource management needs to be system (needs to fully implement Level of Management Effectiveness strengthened. MPA with management more transparency, governance standards Management Project, Cebu City, of MPAs.” Presented during the rating is only 7% to total MPA size. accountability, and also to address Philippines. National Conference on Marine participatory, etc. issues, such as lack Burke, L., E. Selig, and M. Spalding. 2002. Reefs Sciences, Tagaytay, October 19-22, mechanisms), of political will, lack of at Risk in Southeast Asia. Washington, 2011. Fishbase.org. 2009. http://www. lack of knowledge, systemic integration D.C.: World Resources Institute. .org FAO. 2008. http://www. absence of of governance among Information on the Philippines: pp. fao.org/fishery/countrysector/FI-CP_ budgetary government entities PH/en mechanisms, etc. (local and national), 45 – 48. http://www.reefbase.org/ etc resource_center/publication/main. aspx?refid=12496

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Fortes, M. 2012. Unpublished report. Marine McLeod, E., R. Moffitt, A. Timmermann, et University of the Philippines, Philippine Science Institute, University of the al. 2010. “Warming Seas in the Coral Council for Agriculture, Aquatic Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City. Triangle: Coral Reef Vulnerability and and Natural Resource Research and Development, and Department of Gomez, E.D., P.M. Aliño, W.R.Y. Licuanan, and Management Implications.” Coastal Science and Technology , Bicutan, H.T. Yap. 1994. “A Review of the Status Management 38: 518–539. Taguig City. of Philippine Reefs.” Marine Pollution Nañola, C., A. Alcala, P. Alino, et al. 2004. “Status Bulletin 29(1-3): 62-68. of Coral Reefs in the Philippines.” In Roberts, C.M., C.J. McClean, J.E.N. Veron, J.P. Hawkins, G.R. Allen, D.E. McAllister, et Gordon, A.L., J. Sprintall, and A. Ffield. 2011. Status of Coral Reefs in the East Asian al. 2002. “Marine Biodiversity Hotspots “Regional Oceanography of the Seas Region: 43-51. Global Coral Reef and Conservation Priorities for Tropical Philippine Archipelago.” Oceanography Monitoring Network. Ministry of the Reefs.” Science. 295:1280-1284. 24 (1): 14–27. Environment, Japan. Samson, M.S., and R.N. Rollon. 2008. “Growth Han, W., B. Zhang, H.G. Arango, E. Curchitser, National Statistical and Coordination Board Performance of Planted Mangroves E. Di Lorenzo, A.L. Gordon, and J. (NSCB). 2011. Philippine Statistical in the Philippines: Revisiting Forest Lin. 2009. “Seasonal Surface Ocean Yearbook. NSCB, Philippines. Management Strategies.” Ambio 37: Circulation and Dynamics in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation 234–240. Philippine Archipelago Region during and Development (OECD). 1994. 2004-2008.” Dynamics of Atmospheres Environmental Indicators. OECD Core Sampang, A. G. 2005. “Ethnoichthyology and Oceans 47: 114–137. Set. OECD: Paris, . and Conservation Practices of the Calamian Tagbanwa in Coron Island, Herre, A.W.C.T., 1953. Check list of Philippine Padilla, J.E. 2009. “Part II. Analysis of Coastal Palawan, Philippines.” Graduate Thesis. Fishes. Res. Rep. U.S. Fish Wild. Serv., & Marine Resources. A Contribution to University of the Philippines, Los Baños. (20): 977 p. the Philippine Country Environmental Analysis.” In Readings in the Economics Spalding, M., M. Kainuma, and L. Collins. 2010. Magos, Alicia P. “The Concept of Mari-it of Climate Change & Natural Resources World Atlas of Mangroves. Earthscan inPanaynon Maritime Worldview.” In: Management, pp. 81-147. Edited by. Publication, U.K. Iwao Ushijima, and Cynthia N. Zayas, N.C. Lasmarias, Z.M. Sumalde, and SUPFA Report 2007. 1994. Fishers of the Visayas (Visayas E.E. Tongson. Resources, Environment Maritime Anthropological Studies I), & Economics Center for Studies, Inc. Villanoy, C.L., O.C. Cabrera, A. Yñiguez, M. pp.305-355. Quezon City, University of (REECS), Quezon City, Philippines. Camoying, A. de Guzman, L.T. David, and P. Flament. 2011. “Monsoon-driven the Philippines. College of Social Sci- Polidoro, B.A., K.E Carpenter, L. Collins, N.C. ences and Philosophy. Coastal Upwelling off Zamboanga Duke, A.M. Ellison, et al. 2010. “The Peninsula, Philippines.” Oceanography Mamauag, S., P. Aliňo, R. Gonzales, and M. Loss of Species: Mangrove Extinction 24(1): 156–165. Deocadez. 2009. “Patterns of Demersal Risk and Geographic Areas of Global PLoS ONE Wang, G., D. Chen, and J. Su. 2008. “Winter Eddy Fish Distribution Derived from Line Concern.” 5(4): e10095. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010095. Genesis in the Eastern Fishing Experiment in Calauag Bay, due to Orographic Wind Jets.” Journal Philippines.” Philippine Agricultural Primavera, J.H., R.N. Rollon, and M.S. Samson. of Physical Oceanography 38: 726–732. Scientist 92(4): 370-387. 2011. “The Pressing Challenges of Mangrove Rehabilitation: Pond Yusuf, A., and H. Francisco. 2009. Climate Mamauag, S. 2004. “The Live Reef Food Fish Reversion and Coastal Protection.” Change Vulnerability Mapping Trade in the Philippines.” In DA-BFAR Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal for Southeast Asia. Economy and (Department of Agriculture-Bureau Science, Vol. 10, pp. 217–244. Edited Environment Program for Southeast of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources) by E. Wolanski and D.S. McLusky. Asia (EEPSEA), Singapore. Turbulent Seas: The Status of Philippine Waltham: Academic Press. Marine Fisheries, pp. 53–59. Coastal Resilient Seas (Remote Sensing Information for Resource Management Project of Living Environments and Nationwide the Department of Environment Tools for Sentinel Ecosystems in our and Natural Resources, Cebu City, Archipelagic Seas). 2011. Project Philippines. Report (final). Marine Science Institute,

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14 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 Badi Samaniego Biophysical Characteristics Biophysical Characteristics

city is Manila, which is located along the coast of Manila Bay, an embayment on the western Figure 2.1 Map of the Philippines with territorial boundaries as of 2009 (Source: NAMRIA, 2011) Chapter 2 central section of . Five prominent bodies of water surround the archipelago, namely: the BIOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Philippine Sea, the West Philippine Sea , the Sulu Sea and the and . Biophysical features provide crucial information on the current states of habitats and resources in the country. These states influence their 2.3 Geology patterns of occurrence, distribution, and abundance. In the past, the Philippine archipelago was submerged underwater, except for the Sierra 2.1 Extent and Boundaries Madre mountain range and other volcanic chains on the eastern part, until it was formed The Philippine archipelago lies between 4o25’ along the margin of southern China during the and 21o7’ north of the equator (NAMRIA, late Cretaceous period (Magdaraog, 1998). 2011) (Figure 2.1). Made up of 7,597 islands, It is bounded by large lithospheric plates: the it stretches 1,880 kilometers from north to Philippine Sea plate and the Pacific plate to south, and forms one of the largest island the east; the Eurasian plate to the west; and groups in the world. It has a total land area the Australian plate to the south, buffeted of approximately 300,000 square kilometers by the Indonesian plate. The convergence (sq. kms.) and a total territorial water area and interaction of these plates resulted in including the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) the geologic and tectonic evolution of the of about two million sq. kms. Its coastline is Philippine archipelago. about 37,008 kilometers long. It is bordered in the north by the Luzon Strait (Bashi Channel), in the south by the Celebes Sea, in the east by The archipelago is made up of variably the Pacific Ocean, and in the west by the West aged lithospheric blocks known as terranes Philippine Sea (i.e., the Philippine part of the (Magdaraog, 1998). These blocks formed South China Sea). during the Tertiary period (i.e., about 65 million years ago) and originated from various places. These may be composed of slivers of oceanic 2.2 Geography crust, island arc and continental material.

The three main island groupings of the country The islands are characteristically volcanic in are: Luzon in the north, Visayas in the central origin (Figure 2.2). The large volcanic islands are portion, and Mindanao in the south. Of all traversed by mountain ranges. The mountains the islands, the largest are Luzon (40,420 in Luzon include the Sierra Madre, Cordillera square miles or 104,687 sq. kms.), Mindanao Central, the Caraballo Mountains, and the (36,537 square miles or 94,631 sq. kms.), and Zambales Mountains. The Diwata Mountains Samar (5,124 sq. mi. or 13,271 sq. kms.). As and , which is the highest peak of 2011, the country has 13 regular and four in the country (altitude = 2,954 meters), are special administrative regions, 80 provinces, both found in Mindanao. On the other hand, 138 cities, 1,496 municipalities and 42,026 the Palawan Micro-continental block (Palawan barangays (NSCB, 2011). Of the provinces, 62 and Mindoro) and Zamboanga, are marginal (or 78 percent) are coastal, while only 17 are continental blocks of the Eurasian plate. landlocked. Of the cities/municipalities, 832 (or 56%) are coastal (CRMP, 2001). The capital

16 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 17 Biophysical Characteristics Biophysical Characteristics

Islands with 20 or more active volcanoes from June to September. Type II exhibits no Figure 2.2 Distribution of some of the active and inactive volcanoes in the Philippine archipelago often experience seismic activities. The most distinct dry season with maximum rains from (Source: modified from http://www.chanrobles.com/philippinemapofvolcanoes.htm recent volcanic eruptions were in 1993 ( December-February, and minimum monthly Volcano in the , southeastern rainfall from March-May without a distinct Luzon, dormant for 600 years) and in June dry month. Type III does not show a distinct 1991 and July 1992 (, in central maximum rainfall with a dry season of around Luzon). three months either in December-February or March-May, resembling Type I with its short Philippine plate convergence occurs in three dry period. Type IV resembles Type II having main locations: the west-dipping Philippine no dry season and having evenly distributed trench and the east Luzon trough to the east; the rainfall throughout the year. east-dipping subduction zones of the Manila- Negros-Sulu-Cotabato trench system; and the left-lateral Philippine Fault that cuts across the Recent work by the Remote Sensing Information length of the archipelago (Magdaraog, 1998). for Living Environments and Nationwide Tools The Philippine trench and east Luzon trough are for Sentinel Ecosystems in our Archipelagic convergent tectonic plate boundaries located Seas Program for Climate Change (RESILIENT about 100 km. from the eastern coastline of the Philippines. Earthquakes are experienced SEAS Program, 2009-2012), funded under the along these trenches as the Philippine Sea DOST-PCAMRD, provides a complementary plate is being subducted or pushed under the classification of the seas around the archipelago. This westward subduction of the archipelago (Figure 2.4). This 10-11 category Philippine Sea plate also results in volcanic classification is crucial to understanding land activities in Bicol and Leyte. and sea interactions in the coastal marine environments (see further discussion in Chapter 5: Threats and Vulnerabilities). An integrated perspective of the two patterns and processes 2.4 Climate is imperative to meeting the challenges of climate change and adapting wisely to a rapidly The climatology of the Philippines as an changing environment. archipelagic state is characterized by the decadal patterns of large-scale variability The distinct exposure conditions that affect the manifested in the Pacific Decadal Oscillations various areas in the Philippines have led to the (PDO) and also from the patterns of inter- creation of 11 distinct climate typologies as annual variations, e.g., at least two decades, seen in Figure 2.4 (David et al., unpublished). Data on precipitation, sea surface temperature, in the monsoons. The dominant wind system and sea surface height were considered in the over the Philippines is the Asian monsoon that typologies. blows from the northeast between December and March (amihan) and from the southwest between June and October (habagat) (Wang, Coastal and marine climate classification by et al. 2001). These processes affect the David et al. (unpublished) shows the variability temperature, wind, and rainfall patterns in of Sea Surface Temperature Change (STC) the country, and the north-south and east- (Figure 2.4). Cluster I exhibits the highest west trends are classified accordingly into four increase in observed Sea Surface Temperature Corona classifications (Type I–Type IV; Figure (SST) data. Together with Clusters II, III, VI, 2.3). Type I shows two pronounced seasons: VII and X, these show higher intensity of Sea dry from November to April and wet the rest Surface Height (SSH) anomaly during negative of the year. Maximum rains are exhibited Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) (occurring

18 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 19 Biophysical Characteristics Biophysical Characteristics

Figure 2.3 Climate map of the Philippines based on the modified Coronas classification (Source: http://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/cab/statfram.htm) Figure 2.4 ClimateTypologies in the Philippines (Source: David et al., unpublished)

2.5 Hydrology

The Philippines receives an average rainfall cropland. Domestic consumption amounts to every 10 years). Cluster II shows the negative extend from north to south mostly exposed of 2,500 millimeters per year (Magdaraog, 4.62 mcm per day, while the remaining 8% is SST anomaly during El Nino and positive during to the southwest monsoon, wherein Clusters 1998). Taking into account the effect of uneven used for commercial and industrial purposes. La Nina. Together with Clusters III and IV, they I-III nearly corresponds to Type I climate of distribution (Figure 2.5), slope, permeability are characterized by a pronounced rainfall the modified Philippine Coronas Classification and other factors on water availability, the during the southwest monsoon. Most clusters (PCC) in Figure 2.3. Cluster III overlaps with average annual supply of surface runoff is Among the primary sources of surface have cooler SST during the northeast monsoon Clusters IV, V and some parts of VI nearly estimated at 125,790 million cubic meters freshwater are rivers, lakes and marshes except Clusters V, VI and VII wherein lowest coincide with Type III of PCC. Type IV of the (mcm). Based on estimates of surface runoff (Magdaraog, 1998). The Philippines has over 70 SST increase is observed in Cluster VI. Winds PCC is comparable with Clusters VI-VIII and and ground infiltration, the amount of water lakes, including Laguna Lake (located southeast of Manila), which is the second largest lake in are highly monsoonal in Clusters I, VIII, IX some parts of IV. The Clusters (VIII-X) that available for consumption is around 431 mcm per day. The estimated total demand for water Southeast Asia. and X with strong winds during the northeast are predominantly exposed to the northeast in the country is 77 mcm per day. Around 84% monsoon. monsoon are similar to Type II of the modified of this is utilized by the agriculture sector PCC. for irrigation of the 1.5 million hectares of Coastal and marine climatology Clusters I-V

20 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 21 Biophysical Characteristics Biophysical Characteristics

Figure 2.5 Daily mean rainfall distribution in the Philippines Figure 2.6. Major river basins in the Philippines (Source: modified from Magdaraog, 1998) (Source: RESILIENT SEAS Project, DOST-PCAMRD, 2011)

There are around 421 principal river basins Santo Tomas, Busol, Lonoy, Angat, Marikina, around the country, the total area of which Kaliwa, Umiray, Maasin, Mananga, Kotkot- comprise 66% of the country’s total land area. Lusaran, Binahaan, Pasonangca, Ambogoc, River basins with total area of 990 square Mahoganao, Malagos, Koronadal, Lake Lanao. kilometers or more are considered major river basins (Figure 2.6). These major river basins are sustained by more than 400 watersheds, Another major source of freshwater is which are areas of land that catch rain and groundwater from aquifers underneath the drain or seep into a marsh. Rivers include the earth’s surface. Groundwater accounts for Abram River, River, , Bicol 14% of the total water resource potential River, , , Pasig- of the Philippines (Philippines Environment in Luzon; Ilabangan River, Jalaur Monitor, 2003). The safe yield or the amount River, River in the Visayas; and Agus of groundwater available for abstraction River, , Buayan-Malungun River, without resorting to groundwater extraction Cagayan (de Oro) River, , and the is estimated at 31,554 mcm per annum Mindanao River in Mindanao. (Magdaraog, 1998). Areas with very high groundwater potential are Regions II (Cagayan Valley), VIII (Eastern Visayas), XI (Southeastern There are around 21 million hectares of Mindanao), and X () (The watersheds around the country, comprising World Bank Group, 2003). Shallow wells cover 70% of the Philippines’ total land area. Some of 57,787 hectares while about 123,064 km2 are these watersheds are exposed to anthropogenic deep well (www.psdn.org.ph). About 50% influences (caused by man), such: as logging, of the population utilizes ground water for upland farming and pollution, bringing 17 drinking. The agricultural sector has the highest major watershed areas in the country on the demand for groundwater resources. critical list. These 17 critical watersheds are:

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2.6 Oceanography 500-m-deep topographic sills ventilates the Figure 2.7 Water circulation around the Philippine archipelago (Source: modified from David et al., unpublished) depths of isolated basins, the Sulu Sea, and the The ocean circulation around the Philippine smaller Bohol and Sibuyan Seas. Archipelago (Figure 2.7) is a product of the complex dynamics among the bathymetry, the Monsoonal winds (Northeast and Southwest) seasonally reversing monsoons, as well as the forced through the complicated topography tidal and non-tidal circulation between the can give rise to lee eddies and wind stress curl West Philippine Sea and the Western Pacific zones, particularly during monsoon surges (Wang et al., 2008; Han et al., 2009; Gordon et (Pullen et al., 2008, 2011). Winds blowing al., 2011 as cited in Villanoy et al., 2011). through gaps between islands can induce upwelling (e.g., off the northern coast of The direct connection of the Philippine seas Zamboanga Peninsula) and downwelling along to the Western Pacific is through the San the leeward sides of the islands (Chavanne et Bernardino Strait and the . The al., 2002). North Equatorial Current bifurcation near 14oN (Nitani, 1972; Toole et al., 1990; Qiu and Lukas, 1996; Qiu and Lukas, 2003) forms the western boundary for the equatorward- 2.7 Coral Reefs flowing Mindanao Current and the nascent poleward-flowing Kuroshio. Pacific water seeps The Philippines lies within the Indo-Malayan into the Sibuyan and Bohol Seas by way of the Triangle, which is the center of marine shallow San Bernardino and Surigao straits, biodiversity (Burke et al., 2002). Marine water respectively, and in greater volume through the resources are found within the total territorial water area of two million sq. kms., shelf area 2,200 meter-deep Luzon Strait into the West of 184,600 sq. kms., coral reef area, and Philippine Sea (Metzger and Hurlburt, 1996, coastline of 17,460 sq. kms. The latter includes 2001; Centurioni et al., 2004; Qu et al., 2006). swamplands of 246,063 hectares (has.) and On the western side of the archipelago, water fishponds of 253,854 has. flows from the West Philippine Sea through the Mindoro and Panay Straits. The Mindoro/Panay throughflow reaches into the Sulu Sea and The Philippines has the second largest coral adjacent Bohol and Sibuyan Seas via the Verde reef area in Southeast Asia (Burke et al., 2002) Island Passage and the Tablas and the Dipolog (Figure 2.8). Estimates of the areal extent Straits. The West Philippine Sea also connects of Philippine coral reefs range from 10,750 to 33,500 sq. kms. depending on the varying to the southern Sulu Sea via the . assumptions of the maximum depth limits to The Sibutu Passage links the southern Sulu Sea which corals can be found (Carpenter, 1977, to the Sulawesi Sea (Celebes Sea). Swedish Space Corporation, Bryantet al., 1998, Gomez et al., 1994, Burke et al., 2002, 2011). The estimate of 26,000 sq. kms. by Burkeet al., Once within the confines of the Philippine (2002) is the value that will be considered in Archipelago, circulation and stratification this report, given the resolution in the method are subjected to monsoonal winds that appropriate within the scale of the Philippine are textured by passages between island archipelago. Some 500 species of scleractinian geomorphologies (land forms that evolved or “stony” corals, 12 of which are endemic, through time) (Pullen et al., 2008, 2011; May have been identified(e.g.,Veron 1995). Annex A lists the number of species per family of corals et al., 2011), by sea-air heat and freshwater identified in several sites in the Philippines fluxes including river outflow, and by regions (collections in the Coral Laboratory of the with strong tidal currents. Overflow across < Marine Science Institute, University of the

24 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 25 Biophysical Characteristics Biophysical Characteristics

Figure 2.9 The six biogeographic regions in the Philippines based on coral reef fish communities and Figure 2.8 Distribution of coral reefs in the Philippines (Source: CT Atlas.reefbase.org) associated benthic characteristics: WPS -West Philippine Sea, SS - Sulu Sea, CS - Celebes Sea, VR - Visayas Region, NP - Northeastern Philippine Sea, SP - Southeastern Philippine Sea (Source: Nanola et al., 2002)

Philippines, headed by Dr. Wilfredo Licuanan). Sea, and a small part of the West Philippine Sea biogeographic region. On the other hand, the latter covers only the West Based on the biophysical attributes of the reef Philippine Sea biogeographic region. communities, six biogeographic regions have been identified: the West Philippine Sea (South China Sea), Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, Visayas The six biogeographic regions are further Region, the Northeastern Philippine Sea, and subdivided into 17 sections based on the extent the Southeastern Philippine Sea (Nañola et al., of coral reef habitat as illustrated in Figure 2.9 2002). and Table 2.1. The SSME seascape has 11 of these sections, while WPS seascape has seven.

Under the Coral Triangle Initiative, the Philippines declared two priority seascapes: (1). The Palawan group of islands, including the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), the Kalayaan Islands Group has the highest which has an existing formal cooperation proportion of coral reefs (41.52%), followed agreement with Indonesia and Malaysia, by the Visayas region (29.07%), and Mindanao and (2). the West Philippine Sea (WPS). The (18.14%), while Luzon and Mindoro have the former encompasses the Sulu Sea, Celebes least (11.27%) coral reef area (Table 2.1).

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Table 2.1 Estimated cover of coral reef area among the different sub-divisions depicted in figure 2.9 Nañola et al. (2011) provided the total number Aulostomidae, Callionymidae, Carcharhinidae, (Source: Ong et al., 2002, Nañola et al., 2011) of reef fish species observed by family in the Centriscidae, Centropomidae, Clupeidae, six biogeographic regions in the Philippines Echeneidae, Fistulariidae, Gobiosocidae, listed in Table 2.2. The list excludes all families Kyphosidae, Leiognathidae, Malacanthidae, REGION Area (km2) % of total area with only one species observed (i.e., Alopiidae, Platycephalidae, Plotosidae, Zanclidae.

WEST PHILIPPINE SEA Table 2.2 Total number of species of reef fish observed by family in the six biogeographic regions in the Philippines (Source: Na ola et al., 2011) West Philippine Sea 306.5 2.85 ñ Kalayaan Islands 3,257.7 30.3 All Number Family CS NP WPS SP SS VR Regions Western Palawan (NW Palawan Shelf) 147.9 1.38 SULU SEA Class Osteichthys Sulu Sea 468.8 4.36 1. Acanthuridae 26 28 27 21 24 18 36 222.7 2.07 2. Apogonidae 14 16 15 11 13 21 30 3. Balistidae 13 7 10 5 11 6 17 Calamianes/ Balabac transition 108.2 1.01 4. Blenniidae 8 9 15 7 9 7 21 Visayas transition 143.4 1.33 5. Caesionidae 7 11 10 5 11 7 12 Sulu archipelago transition 114.6 1.07 6. Carangidae 5 5 6 1 11 3 15 7. Chaetodontidae 32 35 30 34 34 27 41 CELEBES SEA 811.3 7.55 8. Cirrhitidae 3 3 4 3 4 3 5 Mindanao 9. Diodontidae 2 1 1 0 1 1 3 VISAYAN REGION 10. Ephippidae 2 1 1 0 3 2 3 South Luzon facing Visayas Region 229.3 2.13 11. 2 6 9 1 3 6 15 12. Haemulidae 5 5 7 6 8 6 9 298.7 2.78 1,750.8 16.29 13. Holocentridae 8 10 8 9 13 2 18 Central Visayas 14. Labridae 75 70 82 57 84 69 105 Eastern Visayas 1,075.1 10 15. Lethrinidae 3 3 6 3 5 2 7 Northern Mindanao (including Southern Bohol) 317.3 2.95 16. Lutjanidae 14 11 12 9 14 7 21 17. Microdesmidae 2 3 4 2 3 3 6 NORTHEASTERN PHILIPPINE SEA 18. Monacanthidae 11 8 9 6 5 8 13 20.4 0.19 19. Mullidae 9 9 8 7 11 7 12 Eastern Luzon 655.5 6.1 20. Muraenidae 2 0 1 1 2 0 4 21. Nemipteridae 11 8 14 5 13 12 17

SOUTHEASTERN PHILIPPINE SEA 22. Ostraciidae 4 3 4 3 3 4 4 Eastern Mindanao 821.6 7.64 23. Pempheridae 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 TOTAL 10,749.8 100.00 24. Pinguipedidae 5 4 5 2 6 3 6 25. Pomacanthidae 11 15 14 11 13 10 18 26. Pomacentridae 83 85 79 64 87 72 125 Around 3,053 species of fish are found in the (125 species), Labridae (105), Serranidae 27. Priacanthidae 0 1 1 0 2 1 3 Philippines (Herre, 1953, Allen et al, 2003, Allen (48), Chaetodontidae (41), Acanthuridae (36), 28. Pseudochromidae 2 3 4 3 2 2 5 & Erdman, 2009, Fishbase.org 2009), 2,724 of Scaridae (36), and Apogonidae (30). These 29. Scaridae 23 27 29 19 28 23 36 30. Scombridae 1 1 2 0 0 0 3 which are marine-based. Pelagic fish species families comprised 58% of the total number 31. Scorpaenidae 3 3 3 1 3 3 7 are around 177 whereas demersal species total of species observed. Other important families 32. Serranidae 26 16 31 12 33 19 48 2,351 (1,658 of this are reef-associated and 693 observed with considerable number of species 33. Siganidae 9 10 8 9 10 8 11 are associated with other nearshore habitats). were Lutjanidae (21), Blenniidae (20), Balistidae 34. Sphyraenidae 2 1 2 0 3 2 3 There are 277 deep-sea fish species while 173 (18), Pomacanthidae (18), Holocentridae 35. 1 2 2 1 0 2 3 species are found in freshwater environments. (17), Nemipteridae (17), Carangidae (15) and 36. Synodontidae 3 4 4 2 3 3 5 Nanola et al., (2011) identified a total of 721 Gobiidae (15) (Table 2.2). Allen et al. (2011) 37. Tetraodontidae 9 9 10 5 6 8 13 species of reef-associated fishes from their identified at least 800 reef fish species in Other families 8 7 6 5 9 7 16 study transects in 205 genera belonging to Calamianes Islands, Palawan alone. These Class Chondrichthys 52 families, and four species of cartilaginous numbers may not represent the actual total 1. Dasyatidae 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 fishes in three genera in two families. The number of species in the Philippines given the 721 most speciose families were Pomacentridae limited size of sampling sites. Total species 445 441 484 331 494 386

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Fortes and Santos (2004) reported that based Table 2.4 List of mangrove species in the Philippines species of fish, some of which are commercially A time series monitoring (bi-annual) of coral on data from 96 sites around the country, the (Source: Spalding et al. 2010, Polidoro et important (PNMC, 1987 in PCAMRD, 1991; De reefs in the Philippines has been carried out existing seagrass beds have an estimated total al., 2010, Samson and Rollon, 2011) la Paz and Aragones, 1985). Mangrove areas since 2002 and showed declining trends in area of 978 km2., of which around 36% (or 343 are utilized for aquaculture, salt production, the species diversity of reef fish in some sites km2) were identified using combined satellite and human settlement, and are important (Reefs Through Time, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2008, images and ground truth surveys, while the rest FAMILY SPECIES sources of forest products (e.g., timber) as 2010). are based on satellite images only (Annex B). well as fishery products (e.g., fish, shrimps, The Seaweed Laboratory of the Marine Science mollusks, crabs, fry) (Jacinto et al., 2000). Institute, University of the Philippines-Diliman ACANTHACEAE Acanthus ebracteatus (headed by Dr. Miguel Fortes) is presently Acanthus ilicifolius 2.8 Seagrass undertaking an assessment on the updates of ARECACEAE Nypa fruticans However, the intensive utilization of mangroves seagrass status in the Philippines. AVICENNIACEAE Avicennia alba has resulted in the decline of their cover. An Avicennia marina estimated 337,000 hectares (75%) of mangrove The Philippines has 16 seagrass species as Avicennia officinalis areas have been lost, the bulk (278,657 has. or shown in Table 2.3 (Fortes, Unpublish, PNSC, In the Philippines, seagrasses have been used as Avicennia rumphiana 66%) of which occurred between 1950–1990 2004, Burke et al, 2002). packing material, children’s toys, compost for BIGNONIACEAE Dolichandrone spathacea (Samson and Rollon, 2008). In the mid-1980s, fertilizer and animal feed. However, the major BOMBACACEAE Compostemon philippinense the highest rate of exploitation was recorded importance of seagrass beds to the livelihood Campostemon schultzii in the Visayas (at 72%) followed by Luzon (at Table 2.3 List of the seagrass species found CAESALPINIACEAE Cynometra iripa in the Philippines of coastal populations lies in its ecological COMBRETACEAE Lumnitzera littorea 64%). Lesser degree of utilization was found (Source: Fortes, Unpublished) functions and support to fisheries and, toa Lumnitzera racemosa in Mindanao and Palawan, at 10% and 21%, certain extent, tourism. Seagrass beds provide EUPHORBIACEAE Excoecaria agallocha respectively. By 2005, natural mangrove habitat for juvenile and small adult fishes (e.g., LYTHRACEAE Pemphis acidula cover had declined to 247,268 hectares, while rabbitfish), invertebrates, reptiles (turtles) and MELIACEAE Xylocarpus granatum planted mangroves have already reached up to FAMILY Species mammals (Dugong). They also serve as buffer Xylocarpus moluccensis more than 44,000 hectares (Primavera, et al., against waves and storm surges by maintaining MYRSINACEAE Aegiceras corniculatum 2011). Satellite images showed that 29% of the sediment stability, hence, protecting the Aegiceras floridum country’s total mangrove area can be found MYRTACEAE Osbornia octodonta CYMODOCEACEAE Cymodocea rotundata neighboring mangrove ecosystem and coral PLUMBAGINACEAE Aegialitis annulata in Mindanao. Old growth mangrove forests Cymodocea serrulata reefs. In addition, the high organic matter PTERIDACEAE Acrostichum aureum are only found in Mindanao (4,582 has.) and Halodule pinifolia production of seagrass beds serve as nutrient Acrostichum speciosum Palawan (5,317 has.) (Zamora, 1990), while the Halodule uninervis source for these associated ecosystems. RHIZOPHORACEAE Bruguiera cylindrical rest are secondary growth. A few of the most Syringodium isoetifolium Bruguiera exaristata diverse and extensive mangrove areas in the Bruguiera gymnorhiza Thalassodendron ciliatum Bruguiera hainessi Philippines are listed in Table 2.5. Bruguiera parviflora 2.9 Mangroves Bruguiera sexangula RUPPICEAE Ruppia maritima Ceriops decandra Table 2.5 Diversity and estimated area of the Ceriops tagal important mangrove areas in the Philippines HYDROCHARITICEACE Halophila becarii The Philippines had around 400,000-500,000 Kandelia obovata hectares of mangrove area in the early 1900s Rhizophora apiculata (Source: UNEP, 2004) Halophila decipiens Rhizophora mucronata Halophila minor (Brown and Fischer, 1998). The country is one Rhizophora stylosa of the richest in mangrove species, with 42 Present True Halophila minor var nov. Rhizophora x lamarckii mangrove species representing 18 families RUBIACEAE Scyphiphora hydrophylaceae Site area mangrove Halophila ovalis (Table 2.4) (Spalding et al. 2010, Polidoro et al.) SONNERATIACEAE Sonneratia alba (km2) species Halophila spinulosa Sonneratia caseolaris 2010, Samson and Rollon 2011). Busuanga, Palawan 12.98 24 Halophila sp. Sonneratia ovate Sonneratia x gulngai Coron, Palawan 12.96 26 Enhalus acoroides STERCULIACEAE Heritiera littoralis Thalassia hemprichii San Vicente, Palawan 1.33 14 Ulugan, Palawan 7.90 16 The estimated mean production rates of San Jose, Mindoro 4.83 25 Philippine mangroves range from 1-2 gram Carbon m-2 d-1 (Jacinto et al., 2000). Mangrove Subic, Zambales 1.48 23 forests serve as habitat to at least 54 species Pagbilao, Quezon 19.39 32 of crustaceans, 63 species of mollusks, and 110

3014 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 3115 Biophysical Characteristics Biophysical Characteristics

2.10 Other Coastal Wetlands been destroyed and are now rarely observed Bryant, D., L. Burke, J. McManus, and M. Coral Reef Information Network of the in most reefs in the Philippines (Alino et al., Spalding. 1998. Reefs at Risk. A Map- Philippines (PhilReefs). 2005. Reefs Wetlands, as defined in the Ramsar 2004). Five species of marine turtles are found based Indicator of Threats to the Through Time:2004 Biennial Report on Convention, encompass both inland in the Philippines, namely: green, hawksbill, World’s Coral Reefs. World Resources the Status of Philippine Coral Reefs. (e.g., lakes, rivers, swamps, marshes, etc.) olive ridley, loggerhead and leatherback. Institute, Washington D.C., U.S.A. Coral Reef Information Network of and coastal wetlands (coral reefs, seagrass Only green, hawksbill and olive ridley turtles the Philippines (PhilReefs) and the beds, mangroves, tidal flats, estuaries, coastal nest in the Philippines and the rest forage in Burke, L., E. Selig, and M. Spalding. 2002. Reefs Marine Science Institute, University of lagoons, etc). The Philippines has extensive Philippine waters. Green and hawksbill turtles at Risk in Southeast Asia. Washington, the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, areas of both wetland types, four of which are nest throughout the Philippines year round, D.C.: World Resources Institute. Philippines. now designated as Wetlands of International while olive ridley turtles nest mostly in the Information on the Philippines: pp. 45– Importance or Ramsar sites—Olango Island provinces of Zambales, Bataan and Batangas, 48. Online: http://www.reefbase.org/ Coral Reef Information Network of the Wildlife Sanctuary, Naujan Lake National Park, particularly from August to September. Other resource_center/publication/main. Philippines (PhilReefs). 2008. Reefs Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary, Tubbataha species are targeted for their eggs, leather, oil, aspx?refid=12496 Through Time2008: Initiating the Reefs Natural Park. Scott (1993) reported an skin, fat and bones, which are either consumed State of the Coasts Reports. Coral Reef overall wetland loss of 78% for the Philippines, as food or used as bait to catch other species. Burke, L., K. Reytar, M. Spalding, and A. Perry. one of the highest in Southeast Asia. The Some of these body parts are also believed to Information Network of the Philippines 2011. Reefs at Risk Revisited. World (PhilReefs), MPA Support Network, proposed National Wetland Action Plan of have various medicinal properties. Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., the Philippines (NWAPP) 2011-2016 identified Marine Environment & Resources USA. priority wetlands based on criteria agreed upon Foundation, Inc., and the Marine during consultations. These priority wetlands For more information on threatened/ Carpenter, K.E. 1977. “Philippine Coral Reef Science Institute, University of the endangered species, see Chapter 5 of this for the period covered have been identified Fisheries Resources.” Philipp. J. Fish. 15: Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City. to optimize resources and achieve maximum report (section 5.1.4). 95-126. impacts and outcomes from the activities in Coral Reef Information Network of the the NWAPP. Annex C lists the priority coastal Centurioni, L.R., P.P. Niiler, and D.K. Lee. 2004. Philippines (PhilReefs). 2010. State of and marine wetlands. “Observations of Inflow of Philippine the Coasts: Promoting the State of the Sea Surface Water into the South China Coast Reporting. Coral Reef Information Sea through the Luzon Strait.” Journal Network of the Philippines (Phil of Physical Oceanography 34: 113–121. Reefs), MPA Support Network, Marine 2.11 Endangered/Threatened Species Environment & Resource Foundation, Inc., and the Marine Science Institute, It is crucial to determine a list of species that University of the Philippines, Diliman, are at risk of extinction due to threats because REFERENCES Chavanne, C., P. Flament, R. Lumpkin, B. Quezon City. it serves as a tool for conservation planning, Dousset, and A. Bentamy. 2002. management, monitoring, and decision making. “ScatterometerObservations of Wind CRMP (Coastal Resource Management A number of marine species are recognized as Alava, M.N. and J.A.B. Cantos. 2004. “Marine Variations Induced by Oceanic Islands: Project). 2001. Coastal Management threatened, endangered or extinct (IUCN Red Protected Species in the Philippines.” In Implications for Wind-driven Ocean Orientation and Review. Philippine List, 2004). Threats to these species have to be DA-BFAR (Department of Agriculture- Circulation. Atmospheric Research 28: Coastal Management Guidebook Series categorized to guide conservation investment 466–474. No, 1. Cebu City, Philippines. among them. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources) Turbulent Seas: The Status Coral Reef Information Network of the David, L.T. 2012. (unpublished) “Climate of Philippine Marine Fisheries. Coastal Philippines (PhilReefs). 2003. Philippine Topologies in the Philippines.” Final Annex D shows the various species in the Resource Management Project, Cebu Coral Reefs through Time: Workshop Report. ReSILiENT Seas Program. UP Philippines that need protection because of City, Philippines. their endangered or threatened status based Proceedings Second of the Atlas of MSI and DOST-PCAARD. Allen, G. 2011. Reef Fishes of Calamianes Philippine Coral Reefs Series. Coral on the IUCN Red List, 2011 and CITES, 2011. Dela Paz, R. and N. Aragones. 1985. “Mangrove Dugong, cetaceans, whale sharks, and manta Islands, Philippines. Reef Information Network (PhilReefs), Fishes of Pagbilao (Quezon Province, rays are among the species that are being University of the Philippines Marine caught and killed mainly for their high quality Brown, W.W., and A.F. Fischer. 1998. “Philippine Science Institute, Quezon City, Luzon Island), with Notes on their but inexpensive meat (Alava and Cantos, 2004). Mangrove Swamps.” Bull. Bur. For. Philippines and the Marine Parks Abundance and Seasonality.” Natural Sharks, which are the top reef carnivores, have Philipp. Is. 22: 9-125. Center, Tokyo, Japan. and Applied Science Bulletin 37(2): 171-

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190. An Environmental Evaluation. Edited 9750-6. Waltham: Academic Press. by C.R.C. Sheppard. Volume II Regional Fortes, M. 2012. Unpublished report. Seagrass Chapters: The Indian Ocean to the Nitani, H. 1972. “Beginning of the Kuroshio.” Pullen, J., J.D. Doyle, P. May, C. Chavanne, Laboratory, Marine Science Institute, Pacific, pp. 405-423. In Kuroshio: Its Physical Aspects, pp. P. Flament, and R.A. Arnone. 2008. University of the Philippines, Diliman, 129-163. Edited by H. Stommel and K. “Monsoon Surges Trigger Oceanic Eddy Quezon City. Magdaraog, G.L. 1998. Environment and Yoshida. University of Tokyo Press. Formation and Propagation in the Lee Natural Resources Atlas of the of the Philippine Islands.” Geophysical Fortes, M.D, and K.F. Santos. 2004. “Seagrass Philippines. Environment Center of the NSCB (National Statistical and Coordination Research Letters, 35, L07604, doi: Ecosystem of the Philippines: Status, Philippines Foundation (ECPF). Board). 2011. Philippine Statistical 10.1029/2007GL033109. Problems and Management Directions.” Yearbook. NSCB, Philippines. In DA-BFAR (Department of Agriculture- May, P.W., J.D. Doyle, J.D. Pullen, and L.T. David. Pullen, J.D., A.L. Gordon, J. Sprintall, C.M. Bureau of fisheries and Aquatic 2011. “Two-way Coupled Atmosphere- Ong, P.S., L.E. Afuang, and R.G. Rosell-Ambal, Lee, M.H. Alford, J.D. Doyle, and P.W. Resources) Turbulent Seas: The Status Ocean Modelling of the PhilEx Intensive Editors. 2002. Philippine Biodiversity May. 2011. “Atmospheric and Oceanic of Philippine Marine Fisheries: pp. 90- Observational Periods.” Oceanography Conservation Priorities: A Second Processes in the Vicinity of an Island 95. Coastal Resource Management 24(1): 48–57. Iteration of the National Biodiversity Strait.” Oceanography 24(1): 112–121. Project, Cebu City, Philippines. Strategy and Action Plan. Department Metzger, E.J., and H.E. Hurlburt. 1996. “Coupled of Environment and Natural Resources- Qiu B., and R. Lukas. 1996. “Seasonal and Gomez, E.D., P.M. Aliño,W.R.Y Licuanan, and Dynamics of the South China Sea, the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Interannual Variability of the North H.T. Yap. 1994. “A Review of the Status Sulu Sea, and the Pacific Ocean.”Journal Conservation International Philippines, Equatorial Current, the Mindanao of Philippine Reefs.” Marine Pollution of Geophysical Research 101:12, 331- Biodiversity Conservation Program- Current and the Kuroshio along the Bulletin 29(1-3): 62-68. 12,352. University of the Philippines Center for Pacific Western Boundary.” Journal Integrative and Development Studies, of Geophysical Research 101:12,315- Gordon, A.L., J. Sprintall, and A. Ffield. 2011. Metzger, E.J., and H.E. Hurlburt. 2001. “The and Foundation for the Philippine 12,330. “Regional Oceanography of the Nondeterministic Nature of Kuroshio Environment, Quezon City, Philippines. Philippine Archipelago.” Oceanography Penetration and Eddy Shedding in the Qu, T., Y. Du, and H. Sasaki. 2006. “South 24(1): 14–27. South China Sea.” Journal of Physical Philippines Environment Monitor. 2003. Water China Sea Throughflow: A Heat and Oceanography 31:1,712 – 1,732. Quality. The World Bank Group. Freshwater Conveyor.” Geophysical Han, W., B. Zhang, H.G. Arango, E. Curchitser, E. Research Letters, 33, L23617, doi: Di Lorenzo, A.L. Gordon, and J. Lin. 2009. NAMRIA (National Mapping and Resource PNSC. 2004. Seagrasses of the Philippines: 10.1029/2006GL028350. “Seasonal Surface Ocean Circulation Information Authority). 2011. NAMRIA Country Report. UNEP/GEF SCS Project: and Dynamics in the Philippine Main Office. Taguig, Philippines. Reversing Environmental Degradation Qu, T., and R. Lukas. 2003. “The Bifurcation Archipelago Region during 2004-2008.” Trends in the South China Sea and of the North Equatorial Current Dynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans Nañola, C.L., P.M. Aliño, A.L. Dantis, M.C.G. Gulf of Thailand. PNSC Publication, in the Pacific.” Journal of Physical 47: 114–137.http://www.chanrobles. Rañola, V.V. Hilomen, and J.B.P. Philippines. Oceanography 33(1): 5–18. com/philippinemapofvolcanoes.htm Cabansag. 2002. “Understanding http://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/cab/ Philippine Reef Fishes: A Key to Fisheries Polidoro, B.A., K.E. Carpenter, L. Collins, N.C. Samson, M.S. and R.N.Rollon. 2008. “Growth statfram.htm/http://www.pcamrd. Management and Marine Biodiversity Duke, A.M. Ellison, et al. 2010. “The Performance of Planted Mangroves dost.gov.ph/ Conservation.” In Atlas of Philippine Loss of Species: Mangrove Extinction in thePhilippines: Revisiting Forest Coral Reefs, pp. 22-26. Edited by P.M. Risk and Geographic Areas of Global Management Strategies.” Ambio 37: IWRB. 1993. Wetland Inventories and Aliño, E.F.B. Miclat, C.L. Nañola, H.A.R. Concern.” PLoS ONE 5(4): e10095. 234-240. Assessment of Wetland Loss: A Global Quiaoit, and R.T. Campos. Goodwill doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010095. Overview. Edited by D.A. Scott. Bookstore, Philippines. Samson, M.S., and R.N. Rollon. 2011. “Mangrove Proceedings of the IWRB Symposium Primavera, J.H., R.N. Rollon, and M.S. Samson. Revegetation Potentials of Brackish- in St. Petersburg, Florida, November Nañola, C., L. Aliño, M. Porfirio, and K.E. 2011. “The Pressing Challenges Water Pond Areas in the Philippines.” 1992. IWRB Special Publication 26. Carpenter. 2010. “Exploitation-related of Mangrove Rehabilitation: Pond Aquaculture and the Environment―a Reef Fish Species Richness Depletion in Reversion and Coastal Protection.” Shared Destiny. Chapter 3, pp. 31-50. Jacinto, G.S., P.M. Aliño, L. Talaue-McManus, the Epicenter of Marine Biodiversity.” In Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal and E.D Gomez. 2000. “The Environmental Biology of Fishes, 90(4), Science, Vol. 10, pp. 217–244. Edited Spalding, M., M. Kainuma, and L. Collins. 2010. Philippines.” In Seas at the Millenium: 405-420.doi:10.1007/s10641-010- by E. Wolanski and D.S. McLusky. World Atlas of Mangroves. Earthscan

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Zamora, P.M. 1990. “Philippine Mangroves: Their Depletion, Conversion and Decreasing Productivity.” Wallaceana 58.

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Photo taken by Ms. Remar Gallego, as she and the rest of the participants listen to the barangay officials and officers share their experience in running the Tandayag Marine Protected Area in Amlan during a field visit on June 8, 2012 in connection with the GIZ ACCCoast-Rare Socila Marketing Lite Workshop held on 4-9 June 2012 in Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental. Governance Governance

of different policies; and, organizations “to effective and reasonable rather than an integrative management Chapter 3 participation at all levels of social, political and framework. Hence, the governance of the n lack of capacity or resources for GOVERNANCE policy implementation, among economic decision-making” (Article XIII). Philippines’ marine sector remains, for the most others. part, fragmented and uncoordinated within Legal instruments are essential in various facets the nine years of the NMP’s implementation. Some examples of major gaps in policies 3.2 From National to Local Governance of nation-building. The processes that underlie include: governance and the issues emerging from the The Government of the Philippines developed cycle of governance are the drivers that bring n the need to clarify provisions on The National Integrated Protected Areas a draft document, titled “A Framework about the formulation of laws and policies. A the territorial limits of municipal System (NIPAS) Act of 1992 set out a national for Sustainable Philippine Archipelagic wide range of Philippine laws and policies deal waters; framework for the establishment of national Development (ArcDev)”, which aims to -- with issues pertaining to: n conflicts in jurisdiction of national parks and protected areas. Under this law, ten n facilitate ways of improving the n food security, livelihood and socio- and local authorities; and, sites were declared high-priority protected areas, including: the Turtle Island Wildlife implementation of mechanisms economic conditions of the population; n issues of access by commercial Sanctuary; Siargao Island Protected Landscapes and of harmonizing various uses of n environment and natural resources fishing interests. and Seascapes; Batanes Protected Landscapes resources and access arrangements; and habitats, and the need for and Seascapes; and Apo Reef Marine Natural n provide an enabling environment their protection, conservation and Park. in which to harness the synergistic development; and, benefits of an integrated n related issues on security, safety, 3.1 Early Development of Governance archipelagic policy; and, territory and law enforcement. Similarly, the Constitution guarantees n autonomy to local governments, including a enhance an appreciation and The Constitution of the Philippines stands system of decentralization (Article II, Section awareness of the significance Many laws and policies have created and at the highest level among the national 25; Article X, Sections 2 and 3). The Local of a holistic approach towards improved the organizational and institutional legal instruments for coastal and marine Government Code of 1992 (Republic Act 7160) addressing the various needs of the mechanisms for coastal and marine management. Article I of the 1987 Philippine was enacted providing for decentralization archipelago. governance. Sector-specific laws and policies, Constitution recognizes the archipelagic and the devolution to local government units ArcDev focuses on the coastal and marine particularly those relating to fisheries, mining, character of the country, describing the (LGUs) of the delivery services and other areas of the country, in an attempt to redress air and water use, biodiversity conservation, national territory as consisting of “the functions related to local development. Among the imbalance in the existing planning and pollution control, and solid waste management Philippine archipelago, with all the islands the specific functions devolved to LGUs are management framework that has, all along, were recently developed or revised and and waters embraced therein and all other the promotion of health and safety, and the unduly favored terrestrial areas. implemented. territories over which the Philippines has enhancement of the right of the people to a sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its balanced ecology (Section 16, Republic Act terrestrial, fluvial and aerial domains, including 7160). Policy development efforts have focused its territorial seas, the seabed, the subsoil, the 3.4 Large-scale Biodiversity Conservation on managing the environment and natural insular shelves and other submarine areas. resources, with heavy emphasis on coastal The waters around, between and connecting 3.3 Towards an Integrated Management resources and fisheries, which are vital the islands of the archipelago, regardless of Proclamation 1028 of June 1997 declared to the socioeconomic conditions of the their breadth and dimensions, form part of the the entire Sulu and Celebes Seas as an population. In general, policy approaches to internal waters of the Philippines.” In 1994, the Philippines adopted a National Integrated Conservation and Development protection, preservation and promotion of Marine Policy (NMP), which was to have Zone. The Presidential Commission for the marine resources were multi-sectoral and provided an integrated policy planning and Integrated Conservation and Development participatory. The Constitution also highlights the importance management framework for addressing of the Sulu-Celebes Seas (PCICDCS) was of environment as it declares as state policy the entire range of the country’s marine, created to formulate, review, and implement the protection and advancement of the right coastal and ocean-related interests (ARCDEV programs which ensure the conservation of The major problems that hampered the to health of the people and their right to a 2004). Although the 1994 NMP was far more the rich marine biodiversity of the area. At implementation of existing laws and policies balanced and healthful ecology in accordance comprehensive in scope than previous marine- the same time, it aims to promote sustainable include: with the rhythm and harmony of nature (Article related policies, there are still some gaps in its development in coastal communities through II, Sections 15-16). In terms of governance, agenda, such as the absence of any treatment income-generating opportunities. n lack of coordination; the Constitution established a regime that of major economic sectors, such as shipping n conflicts and gaps in the provisions recognizes the right of the people and their and tourism. In addition, it proposes a sectoral

3822 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 2339 Governance Governance

Executive Order 578 was issued by the MPAs, unclear hierarchy of objectives, adjacent professional schools and other such also to prevent illegal dumping of wastes that President in 2006 establishing the national stresses and disappointments with respect to institutions for training experts in causes pollution of waters. Other important policy on biological diversity, prescribing unrealistic expectations of the rate of biomass maritime-related issues. laws include Proclamation 2146 “Proclaiming its implementation throughout the country buildup (Aliño et al., 2004). Certain Areas and Types of Projects as Environmentally Critical and Within the Scope particularly in the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine The 1992 Declaration of the United of the Environmental Impact Statement System Ecoregion (SSME) and the Nations Conference on Environment and Establishment of alliances between Established under PD 1586.” Marine Corridor. This policy also provides Development led the paradigm shift towards for the review and updating of the Ecological municipalities or towns in the management of their MPAs in a network structure is mainly the protection, preservation and conservation Conservation Plan (ECP), the creation ofa of the environment. This was followed by Task Force on Verde Island Passage (VIP) to through Memoranda of Agreement by local The following are the key legislations that cover chief executives (mayors and governors). the formulation of Agenda 21, Chapter 17 of coastal resource management: ensure sustainable use of its resources, and which calls for the protection of the oceans, the identification of other marine biodiversity all kinds of seas, and coastal areas, as well as n Local Government Code (RA 7160) – corridors within the SSME that require urgent the protection, rational use, and development mandates development of medium- attention and appropriate conservation and 3.6 Sectoral Laws and Policies of living resources. Accordingly, the Philippines term community resource management management strategies. formulated the Philippine Agenda 21 that called plans; 3.6.1 Environment and Natural for a national marine policy, the enactment of a n Fisheries Code (RA 8550) – addresses Resources Fisheries Code, and the preparation of Coastal the need for coastal management as Zone Management Plans at national, regional fisheries and other coastal and marine 3.5 Locally Managed Marine Protected The broad policy framework for the and local levels. resources are used; Areas management of the country’s coastal and n National Integrated Protected Areas marine environment can be culled from The main goal of the Philippine Agenda 21 is System (RA 7586) – enforces national the NMP, PDP, the Philippine Strategy The Local Government Code of 1991 provides to have a “harmonious integration of a sound and local ordinances for environmental for the empowerment of LGUs to establish for Sustainable Development (PSSD), the and viable economy, responsible governance, protection; marine protected area (MPAs) within their Philippine Action Plan for Agenda 21, the 1997 social cohesion and harmony and ecological Philippine Environment Code and the various n Agricultural and Fisheries jurisdiction through municipal ordinances. The integrity to ensure that development is Modernization (RA 8435) – Fisheries Code of 1998 (RA 8550) also has a DENR administrative orders, proclamations, human development now and through future letters of instruction, etc. establishes co-management systems, provision on the designation of at least 15% of generations.” This implies that sustainability of intergovernmental relations, links municipal waters for fish refuges or sanctuaries development efforts must be ensured in order between People’s Organizations and 25%-40% of fishing grounds as mangrove The following are the major goals of the NMP for rural development to make a significant and non-government organizations, reserves. with respect to coastal management and impression on the daily lives of all stakeholders. cooperatives, and stipulates the education: provision of technical and extension services. From a community-based effort to a legally n Explore, develop and manage offshore/ Pollution has been recognized as a serious adopted strategy among local governments, oceanic resources based on the problem as early as the 1970s, thus resulting in the MPA initiative has gone a long way in the principle of sustainable development; the enactment of various presidential decrees. With respect to mangroves, Fisheries Philippines. Around 117 (10%) of the 1,208 Marine pollution control is enforced through n Develop and manage coastal resources Administrative Order No. 60 puts forward the MPAs in the country (MSN Report, 2009) were within an integrated coastal zone PD 600, PD 979, and PD 984. More recently, regulations concerning the issuance of fishpond assessed in 2011, and 44% of these were management framework; pollution problems are addressed through permits and/or leases on public forestlands, to reported to be effectively managed (CTSP Philippine Agenda 21, the 1999 Clean Air Act, prevent wide-scale conversion of mangrove n Report, 2011). These results indicate that more Develop and enhance national and the various provisions of the Philippine areas into fishponds. DENR Administrative effort is required to meet the goal of protecting marine consciousness through a Environment Code. Order No. 30 (1994) sets out the implementing at least 20% of the municipal waters by 2020 comprehensive information program; guidelines for NGO-assisted community-based (CTI NPOA, 2011). Management level in the n Encourage the development of a mangrove forest management projects for the Philippines is generally “low” (Bleakley and marine research program; The Sanitation Code (PD 856) deals with the DENR. A Joint Memorandum Circular No. 98-01 Wells, 1995) and this is attributed mainly to health problems posed by the environment, between DENR and the Department of Interior n Adopt the “polluters pay” principle in the lack of public understanding and support, particularly with respect to the supply and and Local Government (DILG) declared the ensuring the protection of the marine weak enforcement arrangements, lack of quality of water. The Ecological Solid Waste Pagbilao Mangrove Swamp Forest as a genetic environment; and, sustainable financing, unclear jurisdiction, roles Management Act of 2000 (RA 9003) enabled the resources area and national training site for shift to ecological systems not only to prevent and accountability for the implementation of n Ensure the high quality of maritime mangrove. land-based environmental degradation but

2440 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 2541 Governance Governance

The Wildlife Resources Protection and development programs, projects and activities 3.6.2 Fisheries and long-term sustainability of benefits of the Conservation Act of 2001 (RA 9147) provides must be developed in accordance with the Philippines from its fisheries. The law provides for a system for species-specific protection recognition, and protection of ancestral The importance of fisheries, being the most the strategic priorities and directions of the measures at both the national and local domain/land rights, self-governance and vital marine living resource of the country, fisheries sector (from 2006 to 2025) in response government levels. Sections 4 and 91 of RA empowerment, cultural integrity, social justice is evident in the 1987 Constitution, which to current and potential issues and challenges 8550 stipulate that it is unlawful for any person and human rights of indigenous people. declared the role of the State in protecting impacting the sector. The CNFIDP contains both or corporation to gather, possess, sell or export the rights of subsistence fishermen and local development (physical infrastructure support, ordinary, precious, and semi-precious corals, communities in the preferential use of the expansion activities, marketing assistance), whether raw or in processed form, except for On June 6, 2006, Executive Order 533 adopted communal marine and fishing resources, both and conservation (resource rehabilitation, scientific or research purposes. Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) as a inland and offshore. habitat restoration) elements. It also supports national strategy for the development of the the programmatic implementation of the country’s coastal and marine environment and “Six Critical Actions” for improving capture The Writ of Kalikasan is created from a resources. The strategy is aimed at promoting 3.6.2.1 Philippine Fisheries Code of fisheries, namely: provision in the Philippine Constitution (Article food security, sustainable livelihood, poverty 1998 II, Section 16 on the Declaration of Principles alleviation, and reduction of vulnerability to 1. reduction and rationalization of fishing and State Policies) that specifically deals on natural hazards, while preserving ecological efforts; the conservation of resources. The purpose of integrity. It sets the direction for improved Republic Act 8550, also known as the Fisheries 2. protection and rehabilitation of the Writ of Kalikasan is to protect the rights coastal management through a given Code of 1998, has specific rulings that fisheries habitats; of persons whose constitutional right to a framework and operational path towards the address the micro- or operational-level issues 3. improved utilization of harvests; balanced and healthful ecology is violated, effective implementation of ICM programs pertaining to different types of fishing and or threatened with violation that may involve at the national and local levels. ICM is being related activities. The noteworthy provisions 4. enhanced local stewardship and an environmental damage of such magnitude implemented with the participation of national of the code include: limitations to access management of resources; as to prejudice the life, health or property of government agencies, local government units, using scientifically-determined procedures; 5. supplemental/alternative livelihood for inhabitants in two or more cities of provinces. and the civil society. ICM Education, ICM integration of management systems involving fishers; and, Training for LGUs, Environmental and Natural inter-local government cooperation; and Resource Accounting and Valuation for ICM the enhancement and institutionalization of 6. capacity-building and institution- The National Climate Change Action Plan Planning, and Coastal and Marine Environment people’s participation. It also clarifies the extent strengthening. (NCCAP) was adopted in November 2011 to Information Management System are also being of LGU jurisdiction in municipal waters and the address a realistically achievable country-driven undertaken to support the implementation operations of commercial fishing within such program of action for integrated climate change of the ICM Program. Along with the other areas (RA 8550, Sections 2, 4, 23, 16). 3.6.2.3 Philippine Development Plan adaptation and mitigation for the next 18 years. national policies and laws, E.O. 533 supports (PDP 2011-2016) The NCCAP focuses on seven strategic priorities, the achievement of the Coral Triangle Initiative namely: (1) food security; (2) water sufficiency; goals, as outlined in the Regional Plan of Action Sections 4 and 91 of RA 8550 stipulate that (3) environmental and ecological stability; (4) (RPOA) and the National Plan of Action (NPOA) it is unlawful for any person or corporation Formerly known as the Medium-Term Philippine human security; (5) sustainable energy; (6) adopted through Executive Order No. 797 of to gather, possess, sell or export ordinary, Development Plan (MTPDP), the PDP (2011- climate-smart industries; and, (7) knowledge May 6, 2009. The NPOA mandates the DENR precious, and semi-precious corals, whether 2016) serves as a guide in formulating policies and capacity development. The NCCAP aims and CA to coordinate the implementation raw or in processed form, except for scientific and implementing development programs to, among others, enhance the resilience of of the NPOA and jointly act as the national or research purposes. for six years of governance. It has a strategy fisheries production and distribution system, coordinating body of the NPOA. The NPOA specifically for increased fisheries production and that of fishing communities; develop, looks to integrate priority actions of all local through the implementation of the Agriculture promote and sustain climate change mitigation government units ― especially those located 3.6.2.2 Comprehensive National and Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA) of and adaptation strategies for key ecosystems; in coastal areas ― in the preparation and Fisheries Industry 1997. The present PDP’s vision is a competitive, increase and sustain management and implementation of their local development Development Plan sustainable, and technology-based agriculture and fishery sector driven by productive and conservation of key biodiversity areas; ensure plans and budgets. (CNFIDP) strict implementation of environmental laws; progressive farmers and fisherfolk, supported and, promote and sustain ecosystem-based by efficient value chains and well-integrated management approach in protected areas and in the domestic and international markets. key biodiversity areas. The adoption of CNFIDP through a Fishery Strategies also include institutionalization of Administrative Order (FAO) of the DA is climate change adaptation and disaster and Republic Act 8371 (1997) or the Indigenous risk reduction. People’s Rights Act (IPRA) states that designed to provide the comprehensive framework for promoting optimal development

2642 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 2743 Governance Governance

3.6.3 Energy, Mining, and other Subsectors 3.6.4 Marine Transportation peace and order are protected, conserved traffic control system; and poor weather and enhanced (NMP 1994). Maritime safety, forecasting and information dissemination. Relevant laws on energy include Executive To date, there is no comprehensive law or in standard usage, relates to the conditions Order 462, which seeks to enable private sector policy document that covers shipping and of shipping, navigation and transportation participation in the exploration, development, maritime transport activities in the archipelago. with respect to freedom from natural hazards, Republic Act No. 7898, known as the Armed utilization and commercialization of ocean, One reason may be that the sector is highly unforeseen accidents, acts of piracy or other Forces of the Philippines (AFP) Modernization solar and wind energy resources for power fragmented, with the needs and interests of crimes. Nevertheless, maritime safety and Act of 1995, provides the Philippine Navy generation and other energy uses. Presidential different kinds of vessels sometimes coming security together involve a combination of and Air Force the opportunity to develop its Decree 87, Presidential Proclamations 72, 1412 into conflict with each other. Several initiatives preventive, law enforcement, and defense surveillance, reconnaissance, and electronic and 1413, and Republic Act 5092 also address in shipping by way of policy development activities. capabilities, which are vital for the protection specific sources of energy, such as oil, gas, are in direct implementation of international of the extensive maritime areas and the petroleum, and geothermal energy. Republic standards. growing transnational threats posed by Act 9136 (Electric Power Industry Reform Act The Philippines, together with Singapore, piracy, smuggling, poaching and illegal of 2001) ensures social and environmental Japan, China, Hong Kong and the United States, fishing. However, bureaucratic entanglements compatibility of energy sources and Administrative issuances and circulars from the is among the top 15 flag states which control arising from cumbersome procurement and infrastructure, and promotes the utilization Maritime Industry Authority (MARINA) provide close to three-quarters of the world’s shipping acquisition procedures have hampered the of indigenous and new and renewable energy guidelines in the absence of detailed laws. A fleet. As ocean traffic increases, the Philippines implementation of this Act. resources in power generation in order to number of Marcos-era presidential decrees is confronted with many issues, including reduce dependence on imported energy. also covered different aspects of the industry, ballast water exchange, trafficking of hazardous RA 9513 (Renewable Energy Act of 2008) such as, PD 666 and 667-A, which provided cargoes, air pollution, oil spill, training and The Philippine Coast Guard Law of 2009 was accelerates the exploration and development incentives for the shipbuilding industry; PD 760 qualification of inspectors, equipment and, passed to establish the Philippine Coast Guard of renewable energy resources, such as ocean and 761 covering foreign vessel registration; most importantly, rising number of accidents charged with enforcing laws promulgated, and energy sources. and PD 857 and 1284 organizing the functions at sea, the reporting of such accidents and administering rules and regulations for the of MARINA, the Philippine Ports Authority compliance with international standards. protection of the marine environment and (PPA) and other concerned agencies. RA 8544 declares it the policy of the State resources from offshore sources, or pollution The mining of seabed minerals, including to “promote and insure the safety of life and within the maritime jurisdiction of the sand mining, is covered by Presidential property at sea, protect and serve the marine Philippines. Proclamation (PP) 370 and administrative Issues relating to the growing traffic of both environment and ecology, and prevent marine orders of the Department of Environment Philippine and foreign ships in surrounding pollution and accident at sea.” However, it and Natural Resources (DENR), RA 7076 waters that need to be addressed include: only covers the examination, registration 3.6.6 Territory and Jurisdictional Concerns (People’s Small Scale Mining Act of 1991), hazards arising from normal shipping and certification of competency of merchant RA 7942 (Philippine Mining Act of 1995). The operations (oil spill, red tide contamination, marine officers, and in overseeing compliance Philippines is also guided by the International toxic materials); regulation of foreign military with an international Convention on Standards The delineation of the Philippine maritime Maritime Organization (IMO) Code for the movements in nearby waters; inter-island of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for jurisdiction is established and defined in the Construction, Equipment of Mobile Offshore shipping; shipbuilding; construction of tunnels, Seafarers (STCW, 1978, as amended), to which following main national laws. Drilling Units, the 1982 UNEP Guidelines bridges, causeways, passenger routes; oil the Philippines is a signatory. n Article 1, National Territory, The tankers; bulk cargo; and waste disposal. For concerning the Environment Related to Constitution of the Republic of the ports, the existing laws appear to be sufficient Offshore Mining and Drilling within the Limits Philippines, 1987; of National Jurisdiction, and Global Guidelines and the only identified gaps concern issues There are three major maritime safety issues on Environmental Protection Measures of when the decision to build a port is not in the country that need to be addressed. n Republic Act No. 9522, 10 March 2009— Offshore Mining and Drilling Operations. supported by the surrounding community. First is the unclear delineation of government An Act to Amend Certain Provisions of functions. A large number of agencies are Republic Act No. 3046, as Amended by involved in maritime safety administration Republic Act No. 5446, to Define the RA 8550 criminalizes the gathering, sale or 3.6.5 Maritime Safety and Security in the country, which results in conflicts and Archipelagic Baseline of the Philippines export of white sand, silica, pebbles and any overlap of duties and responsibilities. Second and for Other Purposes. RA 9522 other substance which make up any marine Further to the enactment of a Maritime is the fact that the industry operates within defines the baselines around the main habitat. Industry in 1974 (Presidential Decree 474) and an outdated and inapplicable framework of archipelago and declares a “Regime the Domestic Shipping Development Act of maritime safety regulations. Lastly, safety of of Islands” under the Republic of the 2004 (RA 9295), maritime security is a state navigation is jeopardized by inadequate aids Philippines, consistent with Article 121 wherein the country’s marine assets, maritime to navigation, such as lighthouses; insufficient of the United Nations Convention on practices, territorial integrity and coastal search and rescue capability; lack of a vessel the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), including

2844 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 2945 Governance

the Kalayaan Island Group (KIG), as REFERENCES constituted under Presidential Decree No. 1596, and the Bajo de Masinloc, also known as Scarborough Shoal; Aliño, P.M., M.P. Atrigenio, M.C.C. Quibilan, and n Presidential Decree No. 1596, 11 June 1978—Declaring a Certain Area M.G.J.P. Tiquio. 2004. “The Significance as Part of the Philippine Territory and of Coastal Ecosystem Stewardship to Providing for Their Government and Fisheries Productivity.” In DA-BFAR Administration (PD 1596 constitutes (Department of Agriculture-Bureau the KIG); of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources) Turbulent Seas: The Status of Philippine n Presidential Decree No. 1599, Marine Fisheries. Coastal Resource 11 June 1978—Establishing an Exclusive Economic Zone and for Other Purposes; Management Project of the Department and of Environment and Natural Resources, Cebu City, Philippines. n Presidential Proclamation No. 370, 20 March 1968—Declaring as Subject ArcDev. 2004. A Framework for Sustainable to the Jurisdiction and Control of the Philippine Archipelagic Development. Republic of the Philippines All Mineral Department of Environment and and Other Natural Resources in the Natural Resources, Quezon City, Continental Shelf. Philippines, pp. 3-1 – 3-67.

Bleakley, C, and S. Wells. 1995. “East Asian 3.7 Climate Change Initiatives in Seas.” In A Global Representative Management System of Marine Protected Areas. Edited by G. Kelleher, C. Bleakley, and S. Wells. Vol. 3. World Bank, Washington, Republic Act 9729, or the Climate Change Act of DC, USA. 2009, created the Climate Change Commission, a policy-making body attached to the Office of Dizon, E, R. Geronimo, and E. Miclat. 2011. the President. The commission is tasked with “Benchmarking of Marine Protected coordinating, monitoring and evaluating both Areas in the Philippines: Understanding short- and long-term programs and action Level of Management Effectiveness of plans relating to climate change and disaster MPAs.” Presented during the National reduction, and risk management. Conference on Marine Sciences, Tagaytay, October 19-22, 2011.

Republic of the Philippines. National Plan of Action for the Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security. DENR-PAWB, Quezon City, Philippines.

4630 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 Pablo Rojas Jr. Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics

The total number of people residing in coastal The growth rate is a factor in determining males for every 100 females, slightly higher ­Chapter 4 areas was about 36 million in 1990 (60% of how great a burden would be imposed on a than the sex ratio of 101 males per 100 females the total), 41 million in 1995 (60% of total), 46 country by the changing needs of its people for in 2000. Regions VIII and XIII posted the highest SOCIO-ECONOMIC million in 2000 (60% of total), and 49 million in infrastructure (e.g., schools, hospitals, housing, sex ratio of 106 each. Moreover, NCR, Region CHARACTERISTICS 2004 (60% of total). roads), resources (e.g., food, water, electricity), IV-A, and ARMM were the only three regions and jobs. which reported more females than males, that Population size and growth rate. The is, with sex ratios of less than 100. This section shows the trends in the use of population in the Philippines as of mid- Population density. The population density in various coastal marine resources in relation to 2011 was projected at 95.7 Million (2011 2011 was estimated at 339 people per square Age structure. Based on the 2011 estimate, the magnitude of users (i.e., population size). World Population Datasheet). The increase in kilometer, which was 20% higher than the about 34.6% of the population had ages less Of great importance are capture fisheries and Philippine population translated to an average population density in 2003 at 282 people per than 14 years old, 61.1% were between 15- aquaculture in the lives of coastal communities population growth rate of 2.04% annually sq. km. (Figure 4.2). 64 years old and 4.3% were 65 years old and that cut­­ across a wide spectrum of society, during the period 2000 to 2007. The rate of above. The median age was 22.9 years old for including indigenous groups with their natural increase was estimated at 1.9% in 2011. both sexes, 22.4 years old for males and 23 Figure 4.2 Population density (number of people km2 traditional ways. The use patterns, supply Past census data on population and projected from 2003 t0 2011 years old for females. level and value of resources are discussed in population in 2011 are shown in Figure 4.1. (Source: National Statistics Office) relation to declining trends and food security. Life expectancy at birth. Based on 2011 The monetary values of these resources estimates, the life expectancy at birth for the and habitats are placed in the context of Population Density, population per whole population was 71.66 years old. Males Figure 4.1 Population of the Philippines sq. km their ecosystem functions and services. The from 1900 to 2011 have a life expectancy at 68.72 years old, while 400 significance of other sectors, such as coastal (Source: National Statistics Office) 350 women are at 74 years old. tourism, sea transportation, and mineral, oil 300 250 and gas explorations is also examined vis-a- 200 Literacy. About 92.6% of the whole population vis the dynamics of the social, economic and Population (no. of people) 150 aged 15 years old and over can read and write, 120.00 100 ecological impacts. 50 based on 2011 estimates. Literacy in males 100.00 0 was at 92.5% while 92.7% for females. 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 80.00 4.1 Demographics 60.00 Percent of population below $US2 per day 40.00 PPP 2000/2009. About 45% of the population The country’s island groups are divided into 17 20.00 Average household size. The average household are living on less than US$2 purchasing power regions. Each of these is further subdivided into 0.00 size in the Philippines in 2007 was 4.8 persons. parity (PPP) a day at 2005 international prices. successively smaller political units: provinces, 1903 1939 1960 1975 1990 2000 2011 There are seven regions that had average cities and municipalities. To date, there are 80 household sizes higher than the national figure, Coastal population. With its thousands of provinces, 138 cities, 1,496 municipalities and namely: the Autonomous Region in Muslim islands, the Philippines has one of the longest 42,026 barangays in the country. Of these, Mindanao (ARMM), 5.8 persons; Region XIII coastlines in the world at 37,008 kilometers. coastal provinces comprise 78% while only In 2009, the Philippines had an estimated 22% are landlocked. Coastal cities comprise (Caraga), Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula), About 25 major cities lie on the coast. It is total population of 92,153,028, an increase of 62%, and coastal municipalities comprise 56%. and Region V (Bicol), each with 5.0 persons per estimated that more than 60% of the nation’s 15,648,951 over the 2000 population count of household; and Region X (Northern Mindanao), total population lives in coastal areas. In 2000, 76,504,077. The 2009 census figure is almost Region VI (Western Visayas), and Region VIII the total coastal population was 36 million. The Coastal areas are defined in the “Framework twelve times the Philippine population in 1903 (Eastern Visayas), each with 4.9 persons per population density in coastal population was for Sustainable Philippine Archipelagic (7,635,426 persons), when the first census household. Meanwhile, the NCR had the at 286 persons km-2 in 2000, and 227 persons Development (ArcDev, 2004) as: ‘those falling was conducted. By mid-2025 and mid-2050, it lowest average household size of 4.4 persons. km-2 in 1990. It was estimated that in 2000, the within the administrative zones of coastal is projected that the population will increase number of people km-1 of coastline is at 2,467 municipalities or municipal administrative to 120 million and 150 million, respectively. It Males outnumbered females. Based on the persons. Increasing population is a serious zone definition with 60 percent of the national was estimated that there are about 25 births population living in coastal towns and cities.” 2007 census, of the 88,304,615 household problem because of the implications of the per 1,000 population and six deaths per 1,000 population, 50.5% were males while 49.5% limited natural resource base. Rapid population population as of 2011. were females. This resulted in a sex ratio of 102 growth aggravates the over-exploitation of

3248 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 4933 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics coastal and marine resources. per capita per annum or an equivalent of Figure 4.3 Per capita incomes of fishers in the 10 Sustainable Philippine Fisheries Agenda(SUPFA) PhP1,000 per month. This is the estimated bays (Source: SUPFA Report) Incomes and poverty levels. The country’s income required to purchase a basket of food GDP for the period 2006-2010 averaged and non-food commodities essential to basic PhP7.582 trillion, of which 13% is accounted human survival. From the SUPFA analysis, four for by the agriculture, fisheries, and forestry bays yielded income levels that, on average, Per capita income per year sectors which have been on a steady decline surpassed national poverty threshold levels. in their contributions since the late 1990’s Three explanatory factors were highlighted: 45000 Puerto (NSCB, 2011). Of this amount, the fisheries (1) higher productivity levels, as in the case of National poverty threshold in 40000 2002 equivalent to P11,906 per sector contributes 20% to Gross Value Added Honda and Puerto Princesa; (2) higher level of annum in agriculture and fishing. In 2009, the fisheries per capita incomes from both fishing and non- 35000 sector accounted for 2.2% of Gross Domestic fishing sources, as in the case of Puerto/Honda, Honda

Product (GDP) at current prices, and 4.4% Davao, and San Miguel Bay; and (3) relatively 30000 in constant prices. Recent data indicate that lower fisherfolk density. For the bays that Davao the sector declined by 3.84% in 2011 due to exhibited “below poverty threshold levels”, 25000 decreases in production of the commercial and parameters, , Gingoog Bay, Sogod municipal sectors – with the commercial sector Bay, and Ormoc Bay were classic cases which 20000 San Mig registering a hefty 16% drop. contradict all conditions: these bays had low daily catch rates, per capita incomes were less 15000 Virola et al. (2009) analyzed a broader maritime than P10,000 per year, and fisherfolk densities 10000 framework of which fisheries is an important were in the range of 4.4 to 6.5 fishers/sq. km. Sapian Butuan component. The entire maritime sector consists Income opportunities in Lingayen Gulf were Ormoc 5000 Lingayen Gingoog of manufacturing, water transport, energy observed to be limited to farming, livestock Sogod exploration, mining, and business activities raising, employment, and aquaculture, which 0 that include tourism. In terms of sales receipts contributed a measly PhP400-500 to monthly 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 generated by the maritime sector, marine- incomes. related transport (water transport) contributes 16%, while tourism related business activities contribute 5%. Mining and energy contribute less than 3% in total. 4.2 Resource Use Patterns and Issues 4.2.1 Production by Sector Figure 4.4 Total fisheries production by sector It is a common observation that fishers earn from 2001 to 2010 incomes that are usually below the poverty (Source: BFAR, 2010) threshold levels. The 2007 Sustainable The Philippines is an important producer of fish in the world. Fish continues to be the principal Philippine Fisheries Agenda (SUPFA) study ― which compared fisheries profile of nine bays source of protein for the country’s population, investigated under the Fisheries Resources accounting for 70% of the total animal protein Management Project (FRMP) ― provided an intake and 30% of the total protein intake. indication of incomes of fishers against the The fishing industry’s contribution to GDP was national poverty threshold during the time the 2.3% at current and 4.3% at constant prices study was implemented. The nine bays were (Philippine Fisheries Profile, 2008). The net (1) Lingayen Gulf, (2) San Miguel Bay and (3) surplus from the international trade of fish and Honda – Puerto Princesa Bay, (4) Sogod Bay, fish products is valued at US$416 million. The (5) Ormoc Bay, and (6) Sapian Bay, (7) Gingoog fisheries sector provides direct and indirect Bay, (8) Butuan Bay, and (9) . At employment to over one million people, or the time of the study, the poverty threshold about 5% of the national labor force. Philippine Julius Guirgen for the Philippines as of 2002 was PhP11,906 fisheries consist of commercial, municipal, and

3450 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 3551 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics aquaculture sectors. The marine fishing sector Figure 4.6 Volume of Catch by Sector, 2010 grounds in the WCPO. (A. rochei), and longtail tuna (Thunnus tonggol) is divided into two sectors, namely, (Source: BAS, 2010) are abundant in inshore waters, and support large domestic fisheries. , round scad, the commercial fisheries sector (large scale, rainbow runners, mahimahi, and sharks occur using boats more than three gross tons), and with the oceanic tuna species. the municipal fisheries sector (small scale, using boats less than three gross tons). These Most of the tuna catch is taken by purse seine, are characterized by multi-species tropical ring net, and handline gears, with a variety of fish stocks and fishers using many different other artisanal gears in use, such as gillnet, troll types of gears. Figure 4.4 illustrates the total line, multiple handline, and mini-longline. The marine (commercial and municipal) fisheries commercial sector provides the majority of the production from 2001 to 2010. catch of oceanic (about 70% of the total catch). This is primarily taken by larger purse seine vessels targeting skipjack and yellowfin, Figure 4.7 Tuna fisheries production Philippine capture fisheries production ranked whereas the municipal sector catch, with (commercial and municipal) 9th in the world in 2008 (FAO, 2008). In 2010, the handline as the predominant gear (estimated (Source: BAS, 2001-2010) sector produced 2.6 million MT (51% of total 4.2.2 Fisheries Production by Major Species 70% of catches), takes similar quantities of Philippine fish production), valued at PhP138.4 both oceanic and neritic tunas. million (BAS, 2010; www.bas.gov.ph). The The major commercially important species The tuna fisheries is 12% of the total fisheries municipal sector accounted for 1.37 million MT groups include: tuna, small pelagics, and production in the Philippines. This sector valued at PhP77.6 million while the commercial demersals. contributes 4% to the GDP, and about one 4.2.2.2 Small Pelagic Fishes sector had 1.25 million MT valued at PhP60.7 million people are involved in the industry. 4.2.2.1 Tuna Small pelagics are the main sources of cheap million (Figures 4.5 and 4.6, respectively, BAS, Total annual landings was estimated at animal protein for lower income groups in the 2010). It directly employed 675,700, while The country is the second biggest producer 400,000 MT in 2009, of which 120,000 MT Philippines. These include sardines, anchovies, 56,700 fishers generated additional income of tuna and tuna-like fishes in the Association (30% of total) was caught in Philippine waters, round herring, roundscads, mackerels, and from employment in ancillary activities like of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the whereas 280,000 MT (70%) was from adjacent fusiliers. They are caught by both municipal fish processing, marketing and boat building third biggest producer of seaweeds, next to international waters. About 80% of Philippine (gill net, hook and line, ring net, beach seine, (BFAR, 2003). Its major fishery export in 2009 China and Japan. tuna production is based in Mindanao, mainly purse seine) and commercial fishing gears amounting to 196.2 million MT was valued at in General Santos City, and domestic earnings (purse seine, ring net and bag net). The major PhP31.92 milion (BAS, 2010). The Philippines is a major tuna producer in the reached PhP8 billion (US$140 million). Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO), fishing grounds for small pelagic fishes are: the Figure 4.5 Value of catch by sector, 2010 both for domestic consumption and for export. Several tuna species are targeted throughout Sulu Sea, Visayan Sea, , Lamon Bay, (Source: BAS, 2010) Tuna fisheries are exploited by both the the Philippine waters, including the three Cuyo Pass, , Western Palawan commercial and the municipal fishing sectors. large oceanic species, namely, yellowfin tuna waters, and Manila Bay. Tuna are caught throughout the Philippine (Thunnus albacores), bigeye tuna (Thunnus Historically, small pelagics have dominated waters, but the most productive fishing obesus), and skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus the coastal fisheries in terms of volume of grounds are: the Sulu Sea, the Moro Gulf, the pelamis), which are also known to landings. It comprises about 60% of the total waters extending to the North Celebes Sea, extensively but the standing biomass (and capture fishery production of the country as and the northeastern deep waters (east off catch) comprised mostly of juveniles. These of 2003 (FAO, 2010), and estimated to have a Northern Luzon). Viable tuna fisheries also oceanic tuna resources are recognized to Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) of 550,000 exist in the waters of western Negros, as well as be part of the regional stocks in the WCPO, metric tons (Dalzell et al., 1987). However, the northwestern and southern Luzon. Figure 4.7 revealed by tagging experiments. There is catch per unit of effort (CPUE) for small pelagic shows increasing tuna production from 2001 little seasonality other than that influenced fishes began to decrease in 1956, and have to 2009. However, commercial tuna production by monsoonal events and movements into experienced a continuous decline ever since in 2009-2010 showed a decline, probably due and out of the area. Neritic (continental shelf) (Barut et al., 2003). to the closure of the small pockets of fishing tunas such as eastern little tuna (Euthynnus affinis), frigate tuna (Auxis thazard), bullet tuna

3652 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 3753 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics

Roundscads (Decapterus spp.) are considered Olaño et al., 2009), although some species of it is harvested beyond optimal levels (Ramos A valuation study done by Padilla (2009) as one of the most important small pelagic fish Sardinella are reported to show recruitment et al., 2009). However, other sardine species ― the Country Environmental Analysis species in terms of its availability throughout pulses between February and September in the in Palawan are not over-exploited with size of (CEA) ― reviews and places a substantial the year. In 2010, however, sardines replaced Visayan Sea (Guanco et al., 2009). In Tawi-Tawi, captured fish greater than the length of first volume of studies in a coherent framework, roundscads as the dominant small pelagic group of islands southwest of Mindanao, S. maturity (Ramos et al., 2009). applies economic valuation across issues species in terms of production, contributing fimbriata, S. lemuru and S. albella have shown and interventions to enhance the rigor in 1,532.04 MT or 38% of the total pelagic two peak recruitment periods which is common prioritization, and thereby guides future fisheries production. in the Philippines (Aripin and Showers, 2000). 4.2.2.4 Demersal Fishes programs and projects. The CEA is not only a Maturity is reached in two to three years for document, but also a process of engagement many species. However, heavy fishing pressure Stocks of demersal fishes in the Philippines and harmonization with various stakeholders, results in sardines being captured prior to are declining in biomass and a change in including the government, other development Figure 4.8 Proportion of Total Production of Small maturation (Guanco et al., 2009). species composition has been reported partners, NGOs, academics, and the private Pelagic Fisheries (Commercial and (Armada, 2004). The major changes in catch sector. However, this section will only present Municipal) (Source: BAS, 2001-2010) Sardines occur in high abundance especially in composition include an increase in abundance the fisheries production of ecosystems and productive coastal areas or upwelling regions in of squids, shrimps, and small pelagic species, their estimated values integral to the SCTR. For the country. The strength of upwelling has been and substantial declines in the abundance the greater detail of the scope of the CEA, it is tied to recruitment where juvenile sardines of large commercially valuable species like recommended to read the full paper of Padilla obtain the greatest biomass in moderate groupers, snappers, sea catfish, etc. In the (2009). upwelling conditions (Skogen 2005). It has 1950s, biomass was estimated also been observed that in areas where there at 5-17 MT per km2. In the 1980s, it was 2-3 is high landing of sardines, there is also a high MT per km2. From 2004-2008, there were 4.2.3.1 Fisheries Production from rate of primary productivity suggesting that reports of continuing decline but lacked data Coastal and Oceanic Waters there are sardine-supporting habitats in the to support it. According to Armada (2004) the country. Upwellling, such as that along the Bicol demersal fisheries in its current state will take Padilla’s study considered the Delphi technique Shelf, occurs where strong winds push surface some time to recover and there is a need to to assess the Philippine fishery wealth, and water offshore allowing cooler, nutrient-rich manage exploitation of the demersal fishery some of the results are presented in Table 4.1. water to rise into the shallow areas resulting resources. Recently, few studies showed These estimates of maximum sustainable yield in increased levels of primary productivity indications of further decline in catch i.e., as (MSY) for conventional fishery resources have to support sardine populations (Whitehead, 4.2.2.3 Sardines low as 1-2 kg per fisher per day, and changes been reflected in national fisheries policies (in et al., 1985). Villanoy (2011) demonstrated in catch composition of demersal fishes in the Barut et al., 1997). Within the small pelagic fishery, sardines are the influence of upwelling events upon the Philippines with present catches comprising one of the commercially targeted species. For temporal variation in the catch of sardines off predominantly of small-sized species and/or instance, two sardines ― fimbriated sardine Zamboanga Peninsula in western Mindanao. fish with lower market value (Maypa et al., (Sardinella fimbriata), and the Bali sardine (S. The sardine stocks in the Philippines are 2004, Mamauag et al., 2009). lemuru) ― accounted for a combined 442,045 showing signs of depletion. Based on data MT, valued at approximately PhP10.5 billion from the NSAP, sardines in the western and (BAS, 2011). Sardines in the Philippines are 4.2.3 Fisheries Production and Economic central Visayas have been reported to be known by a variety of local names including Valuation under heavy fishing pressure with stocks of S. manamsi, lao-lao, tunsoy, turay, tamban, gibbosa, S. fimbriata, and S. lemuru (reported tabagak, etc. (Ganaden and Lavapie-Gonzales Economic valuation of marine ecosystems as S. longiceps) being overexploited (Guanco 1999). They form schools in waters over the mainly from the fisheries production estimates et al., 2009). In Bay (Southeast Bicol continental shelf with depth of less than 200 is important because it provides the net Peninsula), the dominant sardine Escualosa meters, except for Sardinella tawilis which is benefits of their goods and services to the thoracata, appears to be overfished, showing confined and endemic to freshwater Taal Lake society if they are managed well and therefore decreasing catch with increasing effort in Batangas. Peak sardine productivity and integral in management and conservation aims (Olaño et al., 2009). In Honda Bay, Palawan, spawning in the country often coincide with (Cesar et al., 2004). http://blogs.panda.org/coral_triangle/files/2010/01/ Amblygaster sirm is also over-exploited in that coraltrianglefishingwallpaper_freund231344_700px-300x201.jpg the southwest monsoon (Dalzell et al., 1990,

3854 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 3955 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics

a common property regime of exploitation in data was collected from BAS in order to Table 4.1 Estimated Potential Annual Production from Philippine Marine Waters (Source: Padilla, 2009) Philippine fisheries. At the industry level, the disaggregate the production and value data potential rents from the fisheries have been and derive breakdown by species grouping Potential Production (in MT) fully dissipated by the high average fishing and attribution by ecosystem. The latter was Area costs. In the long run, inefficient fishing vessels based on information contained in Fishbase Pelagic Demersal Total are expected to be driven out as the industry (www.fishbase.org) and through consultations moves to a point of bio-economic equilibrium with some experts from the University of the 800,000 +/- 600,000 +/- 1,400,000 +/- I. Coastal areas (up to 200 m isobath) where revenues cover total costs. Nevertheless, Philippines Marine Science Institute (UPMSI). 200,000 200,000 200,000 some rents are realized by certain sectors due The production from “resident” species within Region 1: Tayabas Sea; ; Visayan to more efficient fishing operations and higher 120,000 +/- 90,000 +/- 210,000 +/- each ecosystem are attributed fully to that Sea; ; ; Samar Seal; 30,000 30,000 30,000 remaining fish stocks. For this report, these ecosystem, while for “transient” species, a related bays intra-marginal rents or net values are estimated conservative 10% attribution was made. Values Region 2: South Sulu Sea; East Sulu Sea; 112,000 +/- 84,000 +/- 196,000 +/- at 10% of gross values for all fisheries. of total production (MT) of species groups of ; Guimaras Strait; related bays 30,000 30,000 30,000 each ecosystem they utilize throughout their Region 3: Moro Gulf; Davao Gulf; Southeast 80,000 +/- 60,000 +/- 140,000 +/- Production data obtained from the Bureau of lifecycle are presented in Table 4.2. Mindanao Coast 20,000 20,000 20,000 Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) and Region 4: East Sulu Sea; Palawan; Mindoro 264,000 +/- 198 ,000+/- 462,000 +/- (West Palawan; Cuyo Pass; West Sulu Sea; 70,000 70,000 70,000 Batangas Coast) Region 5: North and Northwest Luzon 64,000 +/- 48,000 +/- 112,000 +/- (Lingayen Gulf; Manila Bay; Babuyan Channel; 30,000 20,000 30,000 Palawan Bay) Region 6: Pacific Coast except Southeast 160,000 +/- 120,000 +/- 280,000 +/- Mindanao (; ; Lamon 30,000 40,000 40,000 the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS) were Bay; Casiguran Sound) only for the top 30 fish families. Additional 250,000 +/- 250,000 +/- II. Oceanic areas 0 50,000 50,000 1,650,000 +/- Total 200,000

Subsequent assessments of Philippine demersal or fishing grounds2, this would approximate and pelagic fisheries are close to the above the experts’ estimates (Barut et al., 1997). estimates of experts. For demersal fisheries, However, the rates of exploitation is beyond the estimated MSY for exploited resources is the MSY level as shown by the above studies of placed at 340,000–390,000 MT (Silvestre and Silvestre and Pauly (1987), Dalzell et al (1987) Pauly, 1987). Including the MSY estimate for and by resource accounting studies of Padilla unexploited and lightly fished hard bottom and de Guzman (1994) and NSCB (1999). These areas1 of 200,000 MT would bring the total to studies have confirmed considerable depletion 540,000-590,000 MT (Barut et al., 1997). For and depreciation of fishery resources. exploited pelagic fisheries, MSY estimate is In the context of the biological surplus yield placed at 550,000 MT (Dalzell et al., 1987), and model that these studies used, the current level when combined with MSY estimates of 250,000 of production occurs at a higher level of effort MT for lightly fished small pelagic resources indicating overcapitalization that is typical of Offshore hard bottom areas around Palawan, 1 2 Waters off Palawan, parts of the country’s Pacific http://www.greenpeace.org/international/ReSizes/OriginalWatermarked/PageFiles/25361/colourful-basslets.jpg southern Sulu Sea and central part of the country’s coast and some parts of Mindanao. Pacific coast.

4056 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 4157 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics

Table 4.2 Total production (MT) of species groups of each ecosystem utilized throughout their lifecycles Table 4.3 Potential capture fisheries production and their corresponding values (Source: Padilla, 2009) (Source: Padilla, 2009) Total gross Ecosystem Table 4.3. Potential Capture Fish- Average Potential Fisheries Production value Net value in Coastal price in annual and their Corresponding Values in 2006 2006 (million Species group 2006 production Other Oceanic Total (Source: Padilla, 2009) (million PhP) Mangrove Seagrass Coral reef Sub-total (PhP/MT) (MT/yr) coastal PhP) 10,100 83,272 950,743 1,044,115 - 1,044,115 I. Coastal (small pelagic species) Small pelagic - Low Estimate 600,000 33,344 3,334.42 178 - 1,355 - 1,532 603,372 604,904 High Estimate 55,574 1,000,000 55,574 5,557.36 Large Pelagic Average 800,000 44,459 4,445.89 12,991 3,089 34,272 299,097 349,448 - 349,448 II. Coastal (demersal species) Demersal Low Estimate 400,000 26,329 2,632.88 - - - 9,883 9,883 - 9,883 Other fish High Estimate 65,822 800,000 52,658 5,265.76 Average 600,000 39,493 3,949.32 23,269 3,089 118,898 1,259,723 1,404,978 603,372 2,008,350 Sub-total III. Oceanic (large pelagics species only) 1.16 0.15 5.92 62.72 69.96 30.04 Low Estimate 200,000 13,035 1,303.46 % to row total 100.00 High Estimate 65,173 300,000 19,552 1,955.19 6,833 5,292 75,851 52,805 140,781 - 140,781 Average 250,000 16,293 1,629.33 Invertebrates Total - - 536 4,822 5,357 - 5,357 Low Estimate 1,200,000 72,708 7,270.76 Mammals High Estimate 2,100,000 127,783 12,778.32 Aquatic plants - 29 285 - 314 - 314 Average 1,650,000 100,245 10,024.54 Sub-total 6,833 5,320 76,672 57,626 146,452 - 146,452

Notes: Tota 30,102 8,410 195,570 1,317,349 1,551,430 603,372 2,154,802 *Production from coastal areas (pelagics and demersal species) includes those associated with mangroves, seagrass, and coral reefs. Attribution of production to these ecosystems will be made in succeeding sections. Prices are computed % to row tota 1.40 0.39 9.08 61.14 72.00 28.00 100.00 from the Philippine Fisheries Statistics . l ** Net value refers to the economic rents from fishing assumed to be 10% of the gross value (refer to discussions).

Total fisheries production in 2006 (Table 4.2) pelagics are primarily large pelagic species reached over 2,154,000 MT, up from 1,750,000 and coastal pelagics are small pelagic species. Using 2006 wholesale prices,3 the gross value MT in 2002. This represented an average Actual production of demersal species of PhP100 billion with the net value at 10%. A of potential production is shown in Table annual increase of over 5% during this period. about 350,000 MT is just half the potential of subset of the fisheries production data is the 4.3. This shows that the value of sustainable Over half of the total fish catch was accounted 600,000 +/-100,000 MT. Large pelagics catches quantity and value of live ornamental fish that production from capture fisheries (excluding for by small pelagic species, followed by large of about 605,000 MT are more than twice the is collected primarily from coral reefs. This is invertebrates and aquatic plants) could reach pelagic and demersal species. Non-fish catches annual potential yield of a 250,000+/-50,000 a huge industry and accounts for much of the about PhP128 billion per year. However, due in 2006 exceeded 146,000 MT, accounted for MT. The production from small pelagics at value of fisheries in this coral reef ecosystem. to the open-access exploitation regime, the primarily by invertebrates. By ecosystem, the about 1,044,000 MT is 15% higher than the The total quantity reached a peak of almost net value is placed at about PhP13billion. On biggest share is from near-shore areas (other annual potential yield of 800,000+/-100,000 7,000 MT and tapered down to 6,660 MT in the other hand, the value of actual fisheries coastal), excluding mangrove forests, seagrass MT. Total fisheries production of over 2 million 2006, with total value of over PhP371 million production shown in Table 4.4 is placed at over beds, and coral reefs. MT is close to the maximum potential yield of in the same year (Table 4.5). 1,900,000 MT. 3 All price data used in this chapter refer to wholesale For the comparisons, it is assumed that oceanic prices, except otherwise stated.

4258 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 4359 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics

Table 4.4. Gross and net values of actual production in 2006 (Source: Padilla, 2009) 4.2.3.2 Fisheries Production from Gross Value (in million pesos) Coral Reefs

Species group Coastal The status of Philippine coral reefs from 1981 Oceanic Total to 2004 is shown in Table 4.6. These were Mangrove Seagrass Coral reef Coastal based from on-site monitoring of a number of coral reef sites in the Philippines conducted Small pelagic 248.2 - 2,947.9 37,114.5 - 40,310.6 by local institutions, primarily academic Large Pelagic 12.4 - 77.7 - 31,769.0 31,859.0 institutions. Coral reefs in the Philippines have been continuously degraded, reaching Demersal 650.9 183.8 1,952.5 17,231.5 - 20,018.7 Other fish - - - 650.2 - 650.2 alarming proportions. The proportion of poor Sub-total 911.4 183.8 4,978.2 54,996.1 31,769.0 92,838.5 coral cover has increased, while areas with excellent coral cover has steadily declined from % to row total 1.0 0.2 5.4 59.2 34.2 100.0 over 5% in 1981 to 4% in 1997 and less than 1% Invertebrates 520.0 380.5 4,566.0 3,775.7 - 9,242.2 in 2000-2004. Relatively better reef cover may Mammals - - 39.2 352.4 - 391.5 be found in Celebes Sea, Southern Philippine Aquatic plants - 2.1 21.3 - - 23.5 Sea, Sulu Sea and the Visayas biogeographic Sub-total 520.0 382.7 4,626.4 4,128.1 - 9,657.2 regions (Nañola et al., 2002). The estimates at giz Total: All Species 1,431.5 566.5 9,604.6 59,124.2 31,769.0 102,495.7 the national scale were used. % to row total 1.4 0.6 9.4 57.7 31.0 100.0 Net Value (in million pesos) Table 4.6 Status of Philippine coral reefs (% of Total Area) (Source: Padilla, 2009) Small pelagic 24.8 - 294.8 3,711.5 - 4,031.1 Large Pelagic 1.2 - 7.8 - 3,176.9 3,185.9 Category Demersal 65.1 18.4 195.3 1,723.1 - 2,001.9 Location Other fish - - - 65.0 - 65.0 Poor Fair Good Excellent (75- Sub-total 91.1 18.4 497.8 5,499.6 3,176.9 9,283.8 (0-24.9%) (25-49.9%) (50-74.9%) 100%) Invertebrates 52.0 38.1 456.6 377.6 - 924.2 1981 (Gomez et al., 1981) Mammals - - 3.9 35.2 - 39.2 Luzon 31.4 42.8 22.3 3.5 Aquatic plants - 0.2 2.1 - - 2.3 Visayas 29.6 36.9 26.1 7.3 Sub-total 52.0 38.3 462.6 412.8 - 965.7 Mindanao 48.8 30.2 14 7 Total: All Species 143.1 56.7 960.5 5,912.4 3,176.9 10,249.6 All 31.8 38.8 23.6 5.7 1997 (Licuanan and Gomez,2000) All 27 42 28 4 2000-2004 (Nanola et al., 2002; Nanola et al., 2006) West Philippine Sea 46 54 0 0 Table 4.5. Quantity and value of live ornamental fish exports (Source: BFAR, 2002-2006) Northeastern Philippine Sea 48.1 51.9 0 0 Year Quantity (MT) FOB Value (million PhP) Net value (million PhP) Southeastern Philippine Sea 31 60.2 8.8 0 2002 5,632 333.13 33.31 Visayas Region 47.6 50 2.4 0 Sulu Sea 56 36 8 0 2003 5,912 348.17 34.82 Celebes Sea 20.5 48.7 28.2 2.6 2004 6,941 380.05 38.01 2005 6,698 368.91 36.89 All 40.8 53.3 5.7 0.2 2006 6,660 371.14 37.11 Note: Percentages enclosed in parentheses after each category refer to live hard coral cover. * Net value/economic rent is assumed at 10% of the gross value

4460 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 4561 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics

Fisheries production from key coastal habitats, from 351,000 to 429,000 MT. The estimated 4.2.3.3 Fisheries Production from 4.2.3.4 Fisheries Production from such as coral reefs, depends largely on its health, current yield using reef area of 27,000 km2 is Mangroves Seagrass/Algal Beds extent of area, and biodiversity attributes. placed at over 169,000 MT. Potential net values McAllister (1988) estimated the sustainable stood at about PhP2 to PhP2.5 billion, while The estimates of fisheries production from It is recognized that seagrass beds are habitats annual production per 2 km from coral reefs actual net value stood at less than PhP1 billion mangrove forests are based on local studies for numerous fish species and serve as food for based on the condition category: excellent using the average price for coral reef associated which are summarized in Table 4.8. Fisheries sea turtles, hundreds of fish species, several condition at 18 MT; good condition at 13 MT; species in 2006 of PhP57 per kg. The estimated productivity4 covers a wide range (142-578 species of waterfowl, and the manatee and fair condition at 8 MT; poor condition at 3 MT. contribution of coral reefs to coastal and kg/ha/yr). It is site-dependent, while the Dugong (Short et al., 2004). The endangered Using the figures from McAllister (1988) and marine fisheries production in 2006 is slightly influence in the quality of mangrove stands is Dugong feed almost entirely on seagrasses the recent information on coral reef condition lower compared to the estimates using reef not definitive. The value of mangrove fisheries (Spalding et al., 2003). Seagrasses also support and the area of coral reefs, the quantity and conditions from the previous years. This may be is estimated using the reported mangrove complex food webs on account of their physical value of potential and actual fisheries yields due to the continuing degradation of coral reef cover in 1918, in 1980 corresponding to the structure and primary production. Seagrasses from coral reefs are shown in Table 4.7. The cover between 2000-2004 and 2006 resulting time of the estimation of potential fisheries are an important part of the detrital food chain, annual potential yield from coral reef species, in further decline in coral reef productivity. yields in the FIDC/NRMC report, and in 2006. they filter nutrients, and contaminants from based on a coral reef area of 33,000 km2 ranges With the original mangrove cover of 5,000 the water, stabilize sediments and dampen km2 (500,000 has.) in 1918, the gross value of water currents. There is no study available potential production from mangrove fisheries to provide an estimate of potential fisheries ould range from PhP3.57 billion to PhP14.56 production from seagrass beds. Thus, the Table 4.7 Calculated potential production quantity and value from Philippine coral reefs at 2006 Prices billion per year in 2006 prices. In 1980, with estimated contribution of seagrass and algal (Source: Padilla, 2009) mangrove area was reduced to an estimated beds to fisheries production is based primarily 215,793 has., potential production value is on the attribution of the fisheries catch to about PhP1.54billion-PhP6.28 billion/yr. The various coastal and marine ecosystems. For Reef Condition Total reef area (km2) Present corresponding gross values in 2006 decreased 2006, the contribution is placed at about Potential yield calculated yield Sustainable to PhP1.49billion-PhP6.09 billion/yr. Net values 3,089 MT of finfishes and additional 8,410 MT if reefs are in using current production (tons/ are 10% of the gross values. The estimated of invertebrates and aquatic plants. The total Maximum “good” condition area and reef Current km2/yr) contribution of mangrove ecosystems to actual value is estimated at PhP379 million, about Condition % Area possible (MT/yr) conditions (MT/ area fisheries production in 2006 reached 23,269 29% accounted for by finfishes. area yr) MT. With the inclusion of invertebrates to fish production, the total contribution reached 4.2.4 Timber, Fuelwood, and other Raw Poor 40.8 3 429,000 33,048 30,102 MT. This estimate is close to the 29,681 Materials (using maximum MT estimated potential production in the same Fair 53.3 8 115,128 area) year using the lower end of the range in Table Timber production data from surveys and 4.8. studies done in Philippine mangroves and Good 5.7 33,000 27,000 13 351,000 20,007 reported in several studies are shown in Table 4.9. These are either determined from potential sustainable harvests or actual harvests based Excellent 0.2 18 (using current area) 972 on the level of dependence of adjacent communities for various household purposes, Total 100 169,155 such as for house construction, fencing, and (using maximum area) 24,449 fuelwood. The range of sustainable harvests Gross value of potential production 3 9,640 is from 1.2 to 13.5 m /ha/yr. The volume of (PhP million/year) (using current area) 20,003 wood production from mangroves for the entire country may be estimated based on (using maximum area) 2,445 the various studies and using mangrove forest Net value of potential production 964 (PhP million/year) cover in 2006. (using current area) 2,000 4 The higher figure from Walton et al. is not considered as it assumed a very high dependence (at 80%) of coastal fisheries to mangrove ecosystems.

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Table 4.9 Timber production data of Philippine mangroves in 2006 (Source: Padilla) Table 4.8 Comparative Fisheries Production, Gross and Net Values from Mangrove Forests (Source: Padilla, 2009) Janssen and Padilla Walton et al. Author Schatz (1991) PIDS (1997) (1999) (2005) Janssen and Author Schatz (1991) PIDS (1997) Walton et al. (2005) Padilla (1999) Reference year 1990 1992-1995 1995 2004 Reference year 1990 1992-1995 1995 2004 Pagbilao Bay and Pagbilao Bay and Pagbilao Location Central Visayas Pagbilao Bay Aklan Location Central Visayas Aklan Ulugan Bay Ulugan Bays Bay Managed and Old growth (Ulugan) Managed Old Secondary Secondary Mangrove Unmanaged Mangrove Naturally Growth Growth Secondary Mangrove Type of vegetation unmanaged and secondary Type of Vegetation Understocked growth reforestation Plantation Regenerated (Ulugan (Pagbilao growth reforestation mangroves growth (Pagbilao) Stands Strands Bay) Bay) Fisheries production 667 175.4 141.9 578-2568 (kg/ha/yr) Timber Production (m3/ha/yr) 13 7.5 3.5 3.075 2.575 2.4 13.4 Gross value (PhP/ha/yr) 13,450 6,743 1,940 25,307-121,072 for reference year Gross value (PhP/ha/yr) Net Valued for 2006: Average price = 33,597 8,835 7,149 29,114-129,350 (PhP/ha/yr) for 1,950 1125 525 1283 1182 971 1638 50.37/kg reference year

Mangrove area in 1918 500,000 (ha) Average price in reference year 300 300 300 834 918 819 244 Fish production (MT) 70,969 – 289,000

Gross value in 2006 3,575 – 14,557 (PhP million/year) Average price in 2006 (PhP/kg) 908 908 908 1836 2021 1540 265 Net value in 2006 358 – 1,456 (Php million/year) Net value (PhP/ ha/yr) for 2006 5903 3406 1589 2823 2602 1825 1776 Mangrove area in 1980 215,793 (ha) Philippine Fish production (MT) 30,629 – 124,728 mangrove area Gross value in 2006 (ha) 209109 209109 209109 209109 209109 209109 209109 1,543 – 6,283 (PhP million/year) Net value in 2006 154 - 628 Total Net Value (PhP million/year) (PhP million/yr) 1234 712 332 590 544 382 371

Mangrove area in 2006 209,109 (ha) a - Timber production corresponds to degrees of dependence of households to the mangroves: 30%, 50%, 75%, 100%. Gross value is based on shadow prices of next best alternative to the mangrove timber products. Fish production (MT) 29,681 – 120,865 b - Timber production is based from subsistence forestry extraction. Gross value is based on shadow prices of the next best alternative to Gross value in 2006 1,495 – 6,088 the actual use of mangrove timber products. (PhP million/year) c - Based from thinnings used apparently for fuelwood. Net value in 2006 150 - 609 (PhP million/year) d - Values depend on uses of mangrove timber products, such as fuel wood, construction, fencing, etc. Net value is assumed 50% of gross value. Notes: * Upper bound value of production per year is the lower bound from Walton et al., (2005) study.

** Net values are estimated at 10% of gross values.

4864 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 4965 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics

The valuation of non-marketed mangrove 4.2.5 Live Reef Fish Fishery 4.2.6 Aquaculture Table 4.10 Aquaculture production by culture forest products depends on their use, and environment in the Philippines Philippine aquaculture involves the farming shadow prices adjusted to 2006 equivalent Live reef fish fishery is important in the (Source: DOST-PCAMRD Report, 2010) of at least 18 species in inland and coastal were used. The higher gross value per unit Philippines which mostly targets groupers waters. This sub-sector of the fisheries industry volume for the mangrove forest in Pagbilao (Mamauag, 2004). This fishery is also dependent contributes 38% to the annual fisheries and in Ulugan Bay is due to its use in house on the health of the coral reef. While generating Brackishwater Weight (MT) production and is currently the biggest sector construction, while the lower gross value significant export revenues and incomes in the fisheries industry (BAS, 2010). The in Aklan is because it is used as fuelwood. for fishers/cagers, there is an observation industry is growing rapidly, exhibiting a growth Fishpond 302,850 Production costs of alternative timber products that Philippine-wide catches have peaked in rate of 10.2% per year. In the Philippines, it is are assumed at 50%, hence net values are half the mid-1990s, but have gradually dropped widely recognized to have the highest potential of gross values. Net value of timber production through time (Figure 4.9). This declining trend Fishcage 2,241 in alleviating poverty from production and in 2006 ranged from a low of PhP 332 million in the LRFT is further demonstrated specifically processing activities. In 2010, the aquaculture to a high of PhP1.23 billion. The average for all in Palawan, where assessments are largely Fishpen 3,350 sector contributed 2,543,720 MT, valued at the estimates is about PhP596 million for the undertaken (Figure 4.10). PhP82 billion. entire Philippines in 2006. Total 308,440 The Philippines ranked 9th in the world in Freshwater Weight (MT) Figure 4.9 Total volume for export in the LRFT in the Philippines (1994-1999) aquaculture production, contributing 741,142 (Source: Mamauag, 2004) million MT, valued at US$1,576,141 (FAO, 2008). It is a key producer of seaweeds, Fishpond 144,724 milkfish, tilapia and black tiger shrimp species in which the Philippines has developed seed Fishcage 101,611 production technologies to sustain production. Fishpen 62,002 Aquaculture production comes from brackishwater fishponds, freshwater fishponds, Total 308,337 fish pens, and fish cages in fresh and marine waters and mariculture. Total aquaculture production by culture environment is 2,477,392 Marine waters Weight (MT) MT. Fish cage 59,026 Figure 4.10 Total production in the LRFT in Palawan in 2002-2011 Fishpen 21,574 (Source: PCSD Report, 2011) 4.2.7 Marine Aquaculture Total 80,600 In addition to fish, seaweeds and sea cucumber are also receiving much attention, and Oyster, mussel and Weight (MT) technologies are developed that create growth seaweed in the countryside and improve industry competitiveness (DOST-PCAMRD Report, Oyster, mussel and 1,779,862 2010). Both taxa have gains in food security, seaweed employment, quality products and profit in the export industry. Total 1,779,862

Grand Total 2,477,392 MT

5066 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 5167 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics

4.2.7.1 Seaweeds Figure 4.11 Location of existing mariculture parks in the Philippines (Source: modified from PCAMRD, 2010)

Research and Development support on seaweeds include culture technology enhancement to improve production capacity of Philippine seaweed farms, generation of new and improved seaweed strains for farming development using branch and spore culture technologies, micropropagation and cryopreservation. It will also improve seaweed post harvest and carrageenan extraction, recombinant production of carrageenase and To date, there are 51 established MPs covering agarase and production and characterization of 49,553 hectares and 11 MPs for launching in oligocarragenan and oligoagar and production 2011, covering 876 hectares in different regions of novel red algal poly- and oligo- saccharides of the country. There are about 5,000 cages for various applications. In 2010, seaweed with a total investment of PhP950 million. production in the Philippines ranked second Panabo MP in Davao, for example, is producing in production at 1.799 MT next to Indonesia at rabbitfish (danggit) in polyculture with milkfish 3.082 MT. (bangus). Other species in the MPs are pompano, jack (talakitok) and grouper (NAST, 2011). 4.2.7.2 Mariculture Parks

The present administration of President Aquino, through the DOST, has set the Five Priority Programs for 2011-2016, namely, 1. S and T solutions to pressing national problems; 2. Developing appropriate technologies that create growth in the countryside; 3. Improving industry competitiveness; 4. Use of S and T to enhance delivery of government and social services; and, 5. Building capacity in emerging technologies.

R and D in aquaculture focuses on The Philippines is charting a new direction for “superfarms” of shrimp, milkfish and tilapia. mariculture development and exploring new The National Milkfish R and D program focuses horizons of opportunities through the creation on enhancement of milkfish broodstock of Mariculture Parks (MPs). The objective of MPs management for production of good quality is to promote sea farming as a major livelihood fry through refinement of broodstock of coastal fishers. In addition to mariculture management and improvement of milkfish production, there are also ancilliary services hatchery technology using food enrichment that provide business and job opportunities for and bio-encapsulation. Grow-out technology is also being enhanced for sustainable the community. milkfish industry through improved culture

5268 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 5369 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics management practices for milkfish in ponds national and local economies. Based on the Table 4.12. Number of foreign tourists in the extensively used in road building, abounds and cages, improving feed formulation, control WTTC satellite accounting, tourism accounts Philippines from 2009 to 2011 in Leyte. Asbestos exists in Ilocos Norte and of off-flavor and enhancement of milkfish for 9.1 % of GDP of the country, and like other (Source: DOT, 2011) Zambales, although this mineral has been culture operations through mechanization. Asian Coral Triangle Countries (CTC), tourism abandoned because it has been found to TOURISM STATISTICS is one of the fastest growing sectors of the cause cancer. Laguna, Rizal, Camarines Sur, and Pampanga abound in stone, gravel and The National Shrimp R and D program puts economy, already worth US$16.3 billion (Alice Year Foreign Tourists emphasis on the development of good Crabtree, Nov. 2007, Coastal Marine Tourism sand, clay and cement. There are rich marble quality captive Penaeus monodon broodstock Trends in the Coral Triangle and Strategies for 2009 3,017,099 deposits in Mindoro, Romblon, and Palawan. and spawners, ecology-friendly production Sustainable Development Interventions). Surphur deposits exist in Island, technique, and handling protocols and value 2010 3,520,471 Cagayan, Leyte, Negros Occidental, Davao, and chain analysis for fresh/chilled/frozen shrimps The major coastal tourism destinations in the Mountain Province. reared in commercial and organic culture. 2,887,715 Philippines are shown in Table 4.11. Jan–Sep 2011 Of the 30 million hectares of land area of *Excluding Filipinos from abroad the country, 30% or 9 million hectares is To boost the production capacity and Table 4.11 Major coastal tourism destinations considered to have high mineral potential. To competitiveness of tilapia production systems in the Philippines date, only 2.7% of this area is being explored for the global market, the national Tilapia R and (Source: Alan White et al., 2002. D program focuses on innovative approaches and developed. The promotion of mining Coastal Tourism in the Philippines: The 4.2.9 Minerals, Oil, and Gas investments and streamlining of the permit for tilapia culture, such as hatchery and grow Sustainability Challenge) out management schemes, use of prebiotics issuance has led to US$2.98 million in 2010 and probiotics, alternative feeding strategies Minerals, both metallic and non-metallic, in terms of exports of minerals and mineral abound in the Philippines. The country is rich for greener production and culture schemes White Sand Beaches products, with investments reaching US$2.8 for the fillet market. In addition, red tilapia in mines producing gold, copper, manganese, billion in 2009. In 2009, the mining industry production will be enhanced through breeding mercury, nickel, lead, paladium, platinum, employed 166,000, which is 0.5% of the total to increase the production capacity of the • Boracay Island, Aklan iron, silver, and zinc. Our non-metallic minerals employment in the country. Mining contributed tilapia industry. • Siargao Island, Surigao include: coal, barite, clay, diatomite, feldspar, 1.3% to GDP or a gross value added of PhP96.9 • Samal Island, Davao limestone, mica, silica, magnesite, sulphur, billion (current prices) (DENR-MGB). • Bohol Springs and beaches talc, adobe, marble, gravel and sand, mineral • Beaches of Palawan oil (petroleum), natural gas, and rock asphalt. 4.2.8 Coastal Tourism in the Philippines • Glan, Saranggani The Philippine offshore area including the • Subic Bay, Zambales Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is estimated 2 The Philippines’ tropical climate and diverse • Anilao, Batangas The provinces of Mountain Province, Masbate, at 2.0 million km . Potential mineral offshore coastal environment with a variety of • Puerto Galera, Mindoro and in Mindanao are the leading sources of resources are placer minerals, including gold, ecosystems and extremely rich biodiversity • Hundred Islands, Pangasinan gold in the country. The best known copper- chromites, magnetite, silica and aggregate have made it an important area for coastal producing areas in the archipelago are: resources (sand and gravel), decorative tourism development. Coral reefs, clean sandy Resorts Cebu, the Mountain Province, Albay, Negros, stones, manganese nodules/encrustation with beaches, crystal clear waters, and resorts that Samar, and Zambales. Rich iron ore deposits associated copper, gold, zinc, and cobalt. are also found in Bulacan, Camarines Norte, offer the classic attractions continue to draw • Puerto Azul, Cavite Marinduque, and Samar. Chromite, manganese, tourists. • Camiguin Island There is also exploration, mining, and lead, and zinc abound in the provinces of production of iron ore in the Philippines, with The coastal environment provides wildlife Zambales, Masbate, Ilocos Norte, Pangasinan, 36,000 hectares of offshore magnetite iron ore viewing, such as whale watching, turtle nesting, Caves and Antique. Surigao del Norte has one of the sites in Northern Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, bird watching, and fish spotting. Coral reefs are world’s richest nickel deposits, while Zambales and Ilocos Sur). a haven for SCUBA divers and snorkellers. • Puerto Princesa City Underground River, is the site of the world’s biggest deposit of high Palawan quality chromite. The Philippines also has potential in Coastal tourism brings substantial economic petrochemical oil or petroleum production benefits to the Philippines. It is a source of Coal, an important mineral for fuel, abounds to meet its needs. There are 16 sedimentary foreign exchange and a significant part of About 2,887,715 foreign tourists visited the in Mindoro, Masbate, Cebu, Sorsogon and basins in the country, 13 of which are located Philippines from January to September, 2011. some parts of Mindanao. Natural asphalt, offshore (Philippine Department of Energy).

5470 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 5571 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics

Sedimentary basins are geologically formed p0005.htm Northern Mindanao, and five in Southern 4.2.11 Knowledge and Practices of through various chemical and physical Mindanao) (Philippine Ports Authority, PPA). in Coastal Areas processes and have accounted for a number The Philippines consumed natural gas in 2009 These ports play a major role in the growth Communities that are original or aboriginal of economically viable oil reserves on earth. at around 3.33 billion cubic meters, 0.11% of the national economy as they are sources to a specific area have a body of knowledge These include: Sulu Sea and Eastern Shelf of the world total (2010 BP Statistical Energy of revenues from wharfage, dockage, port called Indigenous Knowledge (IK). It may also of Palawan ― the largest areas at around Survey). The Philippines has 3.2 Tcf of proven dues, usage fees, storage, pilotage, terminal be a long history of practice, in which case it 200 square kilometers. The list also includes: natural gas reserves which started producing fees, rental, share in arrastre/stevedoring, is often called Traditional Knowledge (TK). Southwest and Northwest Palawan, Mindoro- in 2001. While natural gas is mainly used for management fees, and other ancillary services. Among the aspects of IK or TK (NUFFIC-IK-Unit Cuyo Platform, Bicol Shelf, and Southeast Luzon, electric power generation, providing more than In 2009, PPA’s gross revenue reached PhP7.129 and UNESCO-MOST, 1999 and 2002) are the following: among others. Current estimate shows the a third of the power requirement of the Luzon billion, an increase of more than half-a-billion country has an undiscovered resource of 7,920 Grid, the government is continually pushing pesos (PhP503.37 million, or 7.60%) from 2008. a. locally-bound, native to a specific million barrels oil equivalent, while discovered other uses, such as in the transport sector, From PPA’s total port revenue PhP6.986 billion area; resource is 972.9 million barrels oil equivalent. particularly for public utility buses. in 2009, the Manila International Container b. culture- and context-specific; As of 2010, thirty-four (34) Service Contracts Terminal (MICT) operator International c. non-formal knowledge; are in operation, mostly in exploration stages. Malampaya is the largest natural gas Container Terminal Services, Inc. (ICTSI) d. orally transmitted and generally There are 302 wells drilled prior to the Service development project in Philippine history, and contributed 36% (PhP2.53 billion), whereas not documented; Contract System as introduced by PD 87 in one of the largest-ever foreign investments in 12% (PhP840.25 million) was contributed by e. dynamic and adaptive; 1972, while 261 wells have been drilled under the country. Shell Philippines Exploration (SPEX, Asian Terminals, Inc. (ATI) in south harbor. f. holistic in nature; and, the System. operator, with a 45% stake), Texaco (45%), and g. closely related to the survival and subsistence of many people. the PNOC (10%) have come together to form Table 4.13 Top 10 Port Management Offices (PMO) Domestic production of oil in the Philippines the $4.5 billion Malampaya Deepwater Gas- in terms of traffic volume in 2009 Today, the significance of IK/TK is getting more began in the 1979 but has been very limited. to-Power Project. Malampaya is located in the (Source: PPA,2010) recognition, including its value as a complement Until 2010, the country has produced West Philippine Sea, off the northern island to scientific findings. Customary marine tenure 61,860,820 bbls of oil, 1,011,267 mmscf of of Palawan, and contains an estimated 2.6 2009 Top 10 PMOs in terms of Traffic Volume systems and traditional practices, for instance, natural gas, and 45,312,937 bbls of condensate. Tcf of natural gas. A 312-mile (504-kilometer) can be seen as viable alternatives to existing To date, there are five producing fields, namely: pipeline links the field to three power plants approaches in fisheries management. Malampaya, Nido, Galoc, Matinloc and North in Batangas. The pipeline is among the longest Rank Category The country has two types of IK or TK. One Matinloc, all in offshore Northwest Palawan deep-water pipelines in the world, with half of includes practices of aboriginal groups Cargo Container Passenger Shipcall Basin. According to the 2008 BP Statistical its length more than 600 feet deep. scattered over the Philippine Islands. The other, Energy Survey, the Philippines consumed an 1 Batangas MICT Batangas Batangas those of populations that may or may not be average of 298 thousand barrels a day of oil in marginalized members of mainstream society 2007. 4.2.10 Transportation and Shipping 2 North South Calapan Dumaguete lining the Philippine coasts. In cognizance Harbor Harbor of the potential good that best practices of The Oil and Gas Journal has reported that, As an archipelago, the Philippines relies heavily 3 MICT North Zamboanga Pulupandan indigenous cultural communities (ICC) can as of January 2008, the Philippines holds on the domestic and international shipping Harbor contribute to society — cases that illustrate an estimated 3.48 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of industry to link the islands and to transport 4 Limay Davao Tagbilaran Davao the good use of IK in developing desirable natural gas reserves, most of which are found goods and people. Shipping contributes to cost-effective and sustainable strategies — 5 Surigao Cagayan de Pulupandan Calapan the Philippines’ Indigenous Peoples Rights Act in the Malampaya gas field. According to the the economy by generating foreign exchange Oro (IPRA) was enacted in 1997. The IPRA law not 2008 BP Statistical Energy Survey, the natural earnings and revenues through taxes and fees 6 South General Dumaguete Legazpi only recognizes the rights of ICCs but also aims gas consumption of the Philippines in 2007 was paid on bareboat chartered vessels, providing Harbor Santos to protect and promote these rights. 3.42 billion cubic meters. The country has two jobs, and facilitating technology transfer from 7 Davao Pulupandan Legazpi crude oil refining facilities, and had refining shipping operations to ship management Out of the Philippines’ population of 85 capacity of 282,000 bbl/d as of January 2008 (http://www.marina.gov.ph). In 2010, the 8 Pulupandan Iloilo Ozamiz Tagbilaran million a few years ago, 12 million were at Petron Corporation’s plant in Limay, Bataan, country has 25 Port Management Offices considered indigenous from approximately 9 Iloilo Zamboanga Iloilo Iligan and Shell’s Tabangao refinery. (PMOs) (five in Manila/Northern Luzon, four 110 different ethnolinguistic groups, or “cultural communities” (Colchester & Ferrari, http: //www.mbendi.com/indy/oilg/as/ph/ in Southern Luzon, six in the Visayas, five in 10 Cagayan de Nasipit Iligan Ozamiz Oro 2007 and Corazon, 2005). Following are some

5672 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 5773 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics of the many indigenous cultural groups in the Fishing, hunting and foraging define the fishing activities of these migrants. On the other hand, the sea is also vital to Philippines and their potential contributions to Tagbanua’s way of life. The majority of them the Ivatan’s way of life (Rowthorn, 2003). An fisheries management. employ hook-and-line fishing either for By the mid-1980s, the waters surrounding the interesting feature of theIvatan fishing culture subsistence or trade. The fishing season runs island were being degraded at an alarming is the tatayak, which legend describes as a 4.2.11.1 Calamian Tagbanwa from June to mid-November. A few families are rate by dynamite, cyanide, and other illegal vehicle that slices through the largest ocean Ivatan engaged in small-scale commercial trading of and destructive fishing methods. The influx waves with ease. s depend on the flying The Calamian Tagbanwa inhabits Coron groupers, fresh fish and octopus; the harvest is fish (dibang) and dolphinfish (arayu), which of migrants and the use of illegal fishing Island, one of the Calamianes Islands of North determined by what can be sold or consumed are abundant along the shores of Batanes from methods caused the decreasing fish harvest Palawan. Ethnoichthyological studies provided immediately, due to the absence of electricity March to May (Datar, 2008). among Calamian Tagbanwa. The situation evidences that traditional fishers have a rich in the island. Interestingly, the Tagbanuas are was so serious that the Tagbanwas faced food The following review describes the beliefs knowledge of fish and fishing (Sampang, 2005). unselfish and share their fish catch with other and practices of fishers in the Batanes Islands, community members when their catch exceeds shortages. The Tagbanwa classifies fish based on habitat, known as mataws, who engage in the capture what their family needs. Coron Island is well- of seasonal . schooling behavior, morphological appearance known for the fine quality of its edible swiftlets’ In response to this ecological assault, and market value. Their knowledge of the nest (Callocalia troglodytes) which are found the Tagbanwas organized the Tagbanwa n Harnessing the ecological knowledge habitat and the diet of the fish may contribute in caves. The Tagbanuas have been gathering Foundation of Coron Island in 1985 which of fishers. There is a high respect for the to the fishery management strategy. The folk these bird nests to trade with the Chinese since applied to the DENR for a Community Forest environment, communal cooperation, taxonomy of the Tagbanwa includes fish as a life the 11th century. Such a hunting method is Stewardship Agreement. This agreement and belief in the sacredness of form, and their naming system is constructed governed by an open and closed season for an would provide a 25-year legal tenure to the relationships among the Ivatans. in terms of their interaction with the marine improved harvest of the population of swiftlets. Tagbanwa people and allow them to manage n Harnessing Observance of taboos and environment. Hook and line, spear gun and The nests are also sold to local dealers in Coron their natural resources through a community the performance of rituals as tools Market for PhP6,000-P18,000 per kilogram gillnet are the commonly used fishing gear forest management plan (Ferrari and de Vera, for resource management. The rights (approximately US$125 to $380). vanua during southwest and northeast monsoon, 2004). to fish and use the safely are respectively. gained by conducting an exchange There are three factors that explain the The Calamian Tagbanwa, having been given through ritual sacrifices with the anitu ecological balance in Coron Island until the The Tagbanua believes in panyain or spirits the overall authority, plays a major role in the or invisible spirit beings. The vanua mid-20th century: a low population vis-à-vis conservation and protection of their ancestral that dwell in nature, including the lakes, trees becomes a sacred area for the duration the resource base; a subsistence economy; homeland. Poverty, the influence of migrants and the seas. They hold to various sacred and/ of the fishing season, and fishing and cultural norms that made it taboo for the and the introduction of are seen success is explained within a framework or conservation-related practices relating to Tagbanuas to indiscriminately exploit their as a hindrance to continuing their beliefs and of purity and pollution. resource use. For example, certain areas are forest and coastal resources. During the early practices in their ancestral waters. Information protected as sanctuaries. They are sacred sites 1970s, however, the Municipal Government campaign, consistent implementation and Indigenous peoples consider deities as where the panlalabyut (a giant human-like sequestered many -caves when the recognition of their customary laws will help in well as environmental and ancestral octopus) is believed to dwell, and who may Tagbanuas failed to pay the taxes imposed the protection of their ancestral domain. spirits as owners of the natural bring harm to those who trespass on these on them. Tax payments were used by the resources. Thus, users need to consult sites. In Coron Island alone, there are over Municipal Government as a proof of ownership 4.2.11.2 Ivatan to the land, and since most of the Tagbanuas them. Consultations take the form of 10 inland lakes that are considered panyaan could not afford the annual payment, the lands The Ivatan is a Filipino rituals, which may include chanting, (sacred waters). Also, the Tagbanuas have a were auctioned off to tourist resort developers predominant in the Batanes Islands, whose singing, dancing, praying, killing of cultural belief that some fish species should be and real estate agents. culture has largely been influenced by the animals (e.g. chickens and pigs), wine avoided for consumption since they may pose a prevailing climate in the islands. Exposed to drinking and food sharing during health risk. This belief is passed down through In the 1980s, declining fisheries in the high risks of disruption to their agriculture, the communal meals. One possible result generations by oral tradition. Cutting trees adjoining Visayas islands and southern Luzon Ivatans have adopted strategies that would of rituals is the declaration of an area as near streams or springs is prohibited as the coasts triggered the movement of fishers enable them to sustain themselves and live a sacred site. As a result, sacred places Tagbanua recognize the value of watersheds westward into the Calamianes waters. The reasonably well. Traditionally, because of the Tagbanua become “de facto” protected areas. for irrigation of their crops and preventing soil s were again threatened by migrants frequent typhoons and drought, they plant encroaching in their area, particularly in Delian erosion. Traditionally practiced punishments root crops that are able to cope with the Island, thus forcing them to move upland in environment (Bankoff, 2002). The Ivatan also n Observing economic arrangements to are panglaw — hands are tied in a wooden Coron Island. The struggle of the Tagbanuas to protect the environment. Reciprocity contraption for five days — and burdun — 12 studies the behavior of animals, sky color, wind access their resources was aggravated by the and clouds to predict the weather. and mutual help arrangements are the lashes of rattan cane. onset of declining fish catches due to illegal traditional base of Ivatan economy.

5874 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 5975 Socio-Economic Characteristics Socio - Economic Characteristics

This is partly because cash is scarce in 4.2.11.3 Visayan Fishers In the context of fisheries management, both management program has been narrowly Batanes. A person might give a mataw property rights and are focused, its prescriptions have been more into onions or a sack of rice at the onset of Certain folk beliefs and practices among Third two important principles that recognize the relieving symptoms rather than dealing with the fishing season, which the mataw World societies are found to be beneficial in potential of indigenous peoples in managing causes (Magos, In: Ushijima and Zayas, 1994). will reciprocate at the end of the season. terms of preserving ecological balance. This resources and influencing institutions towards IK/TK can help bridge the gap. Sustainable The seasonal mataw fishing activity is is especially true in the case of the concept policy advocacy and reform. Property rights development can be achieved by exploring closely integrated with farming which of mari-it in the island of Panay (Magos, In: are entitlements that have great impact on the some folk concepts and associated beliefs is a year-round activity. Mataws, who Ushijima and Zayas, 1994). Since these areas ability of indigenous communities to exercise and practices that encourage environmental are also farmers, contract out the care are considered sacred, natives would never their ancestral rights and manage resources. preservation and ecological balance. of their cattle or livestock and fields to dare ravage them, preventing their possible Similarly, the legal recognition of community- enable them to concentrate on fishing exploitation. There are also certain taboos based property rights should be understood during summer. observed by fishermen to protect themselves as a goal that reflects an ideal outcome for against the rage of sea spirits. many local communities that are or will be 4.2.12 Gender Issues n Implementation of organizational negotiating management agreements with the Shared beliefs and rituals contribute to the rules formulated by the association. Government. Consequently, any management Gender equality is being actively promoted solidarity of the society (Cuadra In: Ushijima Mataw organizations regulate access mechanism for fisheries resources needs to in the Philippines be it in the government or and Zayas, 1994). And through the various and exploitation of resources within the acknowledge the importance of incentives for other sectors outside of the government. rituals, prescribed patterns of behavior that are vanua and traditional fishing grounds cooperation and individual self-interest, as well There are enabling policies and mechanisms repetitive in nature, the fishers both internalize under the leadership of the ideal fisher as balancing the claims of multiple uses and that support gender equality in the Philippines, and express social values, such as respect for who makes the first fishing trip of the users. among them are: property ownership and sharing. The rituals season, and who has the power to n The 1987 Philippine Constitution - enable the communities to exercise a measure ritually set precedents for the season. upholds equality before the law of men of control over their life source and conquer Many island communities have traditionally The main objective of the vanua and women and recognizes the role of what could otherwise be the harshest living used area-based restrictions to facilitate the women in nation building; organization is to protect the mataw recovery of marine resources. Fisherfolk i.e conditions. n The establishment of the National fishing endeavour, ., to have a good experiences were always taken into season of fishing with as few accidents Commission on the Role of Filipino In general, what the fishers fear most are consideration in establishing procedures (e.g., as possible. Mataws must organize to Women in 1975 and its transformation the forces of nature beyond their control, prepare the vanua for the fishing season, the fisherfolk knowledge of water circulation into the Philippine Commission on to perform communal rituals for the like storms, strong winds and big waves. In around the island, traditional fishing operations, Women in 2009 - acts as catalyst for benefit of the entire group, to assist one everyday life, the presence of sharks also adds and fish behavior helping in determining the gender mainstreaming, authority on another in case of emergency, and to to their fears. And since big ships often sail the establishment of MPAs) (Flores In: Ushijima women’s concerns, and lead advocate resolve conflicts among members. One sea surrounding the island of Panay, the fishers and Zayas, 1994). of women’s empowerment, gender are likewise afraid of their presence at night for equity, and gender equality in the important function of the vanua group Yet, while there is increasing recognition of is to formulate rules and regulations for fear that these might hit their fishing boats. country; the value of these management systems in n fishing. The rules concern the behavior The Philippines is signatory to the conservation programs, government legislation international Convention on the of the mataws, many spell out taboos is sometimes in conflict with community and penalties for violations. Mataws Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination 4.2.11.4 IK and Marine Resource resource allocation systems, and traditional against Women (CEDAW); are bound to help one another in case Management community-based efforts may not be recognized of accidents. Mataws who break taboos n Republic Act 7192, Women in enough for their contribution to national and Development and Nation Building Act have to provide the sacrificial animal to international marine protected areas, and be used in “cleaning” the vanua. The greatest challenge to conservation of - provides guidance and measures that marine biological diversity and sustainability, development strategies and targets. Traditional mobilize and enhance participation of beliefs have not been given the attention they In summmary, the mataw indigenous fishing as in the case of fisheries, is the understanding women in the development process in of the behavior of the users of the resources. deserve as a rich source of options and cues for ways equal to that of men; tradition is a very specific way of deriving a living carrying out changes in people’s life-ways and And influencing the behavior of the users is n The incorporation of the Gender and from the sea that integrates: (a) harnessing habits. The reasons for this oversight are many, the ecological knowledge of fishers; (b) the imperative in the management of an area. Development budget in the annual one may be the tendency of some modern General Appropriations Act. observance of taboos and the performance Moreover, there is a need to understand the environment planners and decision makers to of rituals; (c) the observance of economic reasons behind cultural and spiritual beliefs distrust indigenous ecological belief systems as Moreover, a PATH Foundation study on arrangements to protect the environment; and their motivations. backward. and, (d) the implementation of organizational the links between reproductive health and rules formulated by the association. Thus far, the government’s own fisheries integrated coastal management revealed two

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Maritime Anthropological Studies I), p0005.htm Technical Paper Series 12: (5) 1-31. Ramos, M.H., M.B. Candelario, E.M. Mendoza, pp.305-355. Quezon City, University and F. Lavapie-Gonzales. 2009. “The of the Philippines. College of Social McAllister, D.E. 1988. “Environmental, Padilla J.E. 2009. “Part II. Analysis of Coastal Honda Bay Fisheries: An assessment.” Sciences and Philosophy. Economic and Social Costs of Coral Reef & Marine Resources. A contribution to BFAR NFRDI Technical Paper Series 12: Destruction in the Philippines.”Galaxea the Philippine Country Environmental (2) 1-45. 7: 161-178. Mamauag, S. 2004. “The Live Reef Food Fish Analysis.” In Readings in the Economics Trade in the Philippines.” In: DA-BFAR of Climate Change & Natural Resources Rowthorn, Chris 2003. Philippines. Lonely Melana, D.M. 2008. “Private Tools for (Department of Agriculture-Bureau Management, pp. 81-147. Edited by Planet. ISBN 1740592107. http://books. Mangrove Conservation in the of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources) N.C. Lasmarias, Z.M. Sumalde, and google.com/books?id=3XUy3bUTNQs Philippines, A Private Sector Approach- Turbulent Seas: The Status of Philippine E.E.Tongson. Resources, Environment C&pg=PA203&dq=Ivatan+in+Batanes& Conservation Agreements in Support Marine Fisheries, pp 53–59. Coastal and Economics Center for Studies, Inc. sig=nc_B11_BqneELDUhNfK6y3StgUA. of Marine Protection,” June 16-19, Resource Management Project of (REECS), Quezon City, Philippines. Retrieved 2008-04-06. 2008. (http://www.mcatoolkit.org/pdf/ the Department of Environment PMCA_Workshop/9_MCAWorkshop_ and Natural Resources, Cebu City, Padilla, J.E. and F. de Guzman. 1994. Sampang, A.G. 2008. “The Calamian Tagbanwa AsiaPacific_Philippines.pdf) Philippines. “Fishery Resources Accounting in the Ancestral Domain (Coron Island, Palawan, Philippines): Evaluation of Nañola C.L., P.M. Aliño, A.L. Dantis, M.C.G. Philippines: Application to the Small- Mamauag, S., P. Aliňo, R. Gonzales, and M. Rañola, V.V. Hilomen, and J.B.P. pelagic Fisheries.” Environmental and Traditional Fishing Practices Towards Deocadez. 2009. “Patterns of Demersal Cabansag. 2002. Understanding Natural Resources Accounting Project Biodiversity Conservation and Fish Distribution Derived from Line Philippine Reef Fishes: A Key to Fisheries – Phase 2. Sustainability.” The WorldFish Center. Fishing Experiment in Calauag Bay, Management and Marine Biodiversity http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/ Philippines.” Philippine Agricultural Conservation. In Atlas of Philippine Palawan Council for Sustainable Development sampang_alcoa_final_report_2007.pdf Scientist. 92(4):370-387. Coral Reefs, pp. 22-26. Edited by P.M. (PCSD) Report. 2008. “Coral Reef Health Aliño, E.F.B. Miclat, C.L. Nañola, H.A.R. and Extent as Estimators of Maximum Sampang, A. 2007. “The Calamian Tagbanwa MARINA. http://www.marina.gov.ph Quiaoit, and R.T. Campos. Goodwill Sustainable Yield for the Live Reef Ancestral Domain (Coron Island, Bookstore, Philippines. Fish Food Industry, Palawan Province, Palawan, Philippines): Evaluation of Maypa, A.P., A.C. Alcala, and G.R. Russ. 2002a. Philippines.” Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Traditional Fishing Practices towards NAST. http://www.nast.ph/ ”Preliminary Notes on Mantigue Island Philippines. Biodiversity Conservation and Capture Fisheries: Implications of a NRMC/FIDC. 1980. “Assessment of Philippine Sustainability.” Project report submitted Marine Reserve.” Silliman Journal Fishery Wealth (Marine Sector): A PCAMRD. http://www.pcamrd.dost.gov.ph/ to the Alcoa Foundation Sustainability 43(1):168-188. Delphi Approach.” Natural Resources and Fellowship Programme and the Management Center and Fishery Philippine Ports Authority (PPA). http://www. World Conservation Union, Gland Maypa, A.P., G.R. Russ, A.C. Alcala, and H. Industry Development Council, Quezon ppa.com.ph/ Switzerland. Calumpong. 2002b. “Long Term Trends City (mimeographed). in Yield and Catch Rates of the Coral Pollnac, R.B., and, B.R. Crawford. 2000. Sampang, Arlene G. 2005. “Ethnoichthyology Reef Fishery at Apo Island, Central NSCB. 1998. Philippine Asset Accounts: Discovering Factors that Influence and Conservation Practices of the Philippines.” Mar. Freshwater Res. Forest; Land/Soil; Fishery; Minerals; the Success of Community-based Calamian Tagbanwa in Coron Island, 53:207-213. Water Resources. National Statistical Marine Protected Areas in the Visayas, Palawan, Philippines.” Graduate Thesis, Coordination Board. Philippines. Coastal Management University of the Philippines Los Baños. Report No. 2229. PCMARD Book Series MBendi Information Services. 2012. “Natural Olano V.L., M.B. Vergara, and F.L. Gonzales. No. 33. Coastal Resources Center, Series Vol. X (3). Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Gas Liquid Extraction in Philippines – 2009a. Assessment of the Fisheries of University of Rhode Island, U.S.A., Resources Quezon City, Philippines, and Overview.” http://www.mbendi.com/ Sorsogon Bay (Region 5). BFAR NFRDI and Philippine Council for Aquatic and International Center for Living Aquatic indy/oilg/gas_/as/ph/p0005.htm Technical Paper Series 12: (4) 1-33. Marine Research and Development, Resources Management, Manila, Philippines. http://www.crc.uri.edu/ Philippines. MBendi Information Services. 2012. “Oil and Olano V.L., M.B. Vergara, and F.L. Gonzales. download/VIS_004F.PDF Gas in Philippines - Overview.” http:// 2009b. Assessment of the Fisheries of Short, F.T., R.G. Coles, E.K. ,Koch and M. www.mbendi.com/indy/oilg/as/ph/ Lagonoy Gulf (Region 5). BFAR NFRDI Fortes. 2004. “Western Pacific Seagrass

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Monitoring Program, Year 3 Report.” The Netherlands Organization for International SeagrassNet Program Report. Cooperation in Higher Education/ Indigenous Knowledge NUFFIC (IK-Unit) Silvestre, G.T. and D. Pauly. 1987. “Estimate and UNESCO-Management of Social of Yield and Economic Rent from Transformation Programme MOST. Philippine Demersal Stocks (1946- 2002. Best Practices Using Indigenous 1984) Using Vessel Horsepower as an Knowledge. This database is part of Index of Fishing Effort.”University of the the MOST database of Best Practices. Philippines Visayas Fish. J. 3(1-2):11-24. http://www.nuffic.nl/ik-pages/

Skogen M.D. 2005. “Clupeoid Larval Growth Ushijima, Iwao, and Cynthia N. Zayas. 1994. and Plankton Production in the “Fishers of the Visayas (Visayas Benguela Upwelling System.” Fisheries Maritime Anthropological Studies Oceanography 14: 64-70. I).” Quezon City, University of the Philippines. College of Social Sciences Spalding, M, M. Taylor, C. Ravilious, F. Short, and Philosophy. and E. Green. 2003. “The Distribution and Status of Seagrasses.” World Atlas Villanoy, C.L., O.C. Cabrera, A. Yñiguez, M. of Seagrasses. Camoying, A. de Guzman, L.T. David, and P. Flament. 2011. Monsoon-driven Tebtebba Foundation. 2008. “Philippine Coastal Upwelling off Zamboanga Indigenous Peoples and Protected Peninsula, Philippines. Oceanography Areas: A Review of Policy and 24(1):156–165. Implementation.” FPP Series on Forest Peoples and Protected Areas, Forest Whitehead, P.J.P. 1985. “FAO Species Peoples Programme. A Contribution Catalogue, Vol. 7. Clupeoid Fishes of the to the World Conservation Congress World: An Annotated and Illustrated October, 2008. The NPOA presented Catalogue of the , Sardines, the following sets of targets and Pilchards, , Shads, Anchovies and indicators under Goal No. 5:The NPOA Wolfherrings. Part 1 – Chirocentridae, presented the following sets of targets Clupeidae and Pristigasteridae.” FAO and indicators under Goal No. 5: http:// Fisheries Synopsis (125) 7. www.forestpeoples.org/documents/ conservation/wcc_philippines_pa_ review_wkg_dft_aug08_eng.pdf

The Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education/ Indigenous Knowledge (NUFFIC- IK- Unit) and UNESCO-Management of Social Transformation Programme (MOST). 1999. Best Practices on Indigenous Knowledge. This database is part ofthe MOST database of Best Practices http://www.nuffic.nl/ik- pages/

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5.1 Current Issues for Marine Resource 5.1) (MSN Threat Assessment Workshop, many expansive reefs (Kalayaan Islands Group Chapter 5 Management 2012). High and medium level threats, in the West Philippine Sea). Thus, the only THREATS AND VULNERABILITIES particularly sedimentation and pollution, reefs with healthy fish populations are either 5.1.1 Fisheries Degradation and increased manifold suggesting the escalation in MPAs, which may have been protected for Nature has the inherent ability to withstand Food Security of problems causing these. These include at least five years or those that are ‘politically- undesirable impacts. The seas, for instance, have inappropriate land use practices, irresponsible protected’ remote areas (i.e., inaccessible to strong buffering characteristics. Unfortunately, mining practices, deforestation or illegal the multitude of artisanal fishers). The status report on Philippine coral reefs etc undesirable influences, in excess or ocurring logging activities, improper waste disposal, . (Licuanan and Gomez, 2002; Tun et al., There was also considerable growth in coastal in increasing frequency, eventually harm the 2004) revealed that live hard coral cover has development manifested by the increase Table 5.1 Level of exploitation and fish coastal and and adversely decreased by 3%-5% of the total estimated in coastal populations, built-up areas, and biomass on coral reefs affect related aspects, including food security cover in the 1980s. Moreover, the proportion urbanization, among others. In contrast, the (Source: Nanola et al., 2002) and the economy. of coral reefs in ‘poor’ condition has increased level of destructive fishing practices appears to from 33% in the 1980s to the recent estimate Reef Fish Fish decrease through time in many sites, indicating Level of of 40%, whereas ‘excellent’ condition reduced Biomass (metric Biomass Current problems and issues have long plagued some successes in enforcement activities in Fishng the coastal areas and marine waters of the to 1% (Nanola et al., 2004). This decline is MPAs and fishery managements in several tons per km2) Category attributed to the continuing threats from Philippines and continue to do so today. For municipalities. 1 to 5 Very low Overfished coastal development, marine-based pollution, instance, increasing populations that intensify sedimentation, overfishing, and destructive 5-1 to 10 Low Overfished fishing pressure and exacerbate polluted fishing (Burke et al., 2002, Burke et al., 2011). 11-20 Medium Moderate conditions have been a major concern for Based on the most recent assessment, there 21-40 High Minimal years. However, recent situations have started appears to be changes in the present level of 5.1.1.1 Overfishing to aggravate already existing problems, giving threats compared with the previous data. In >40 Very high Minimal rise to emerging issues. Climate change, for 2002, overfishing was the largest threat (about Recent assessments, however, still showed that one, has added to the extent of coral bleaching 40%) to the coral reefs in the Philippines, overfishing is a significant threat in more areas. followed by destructive fishing practices and may, perhaps, owing to adverse impacts on Nanola et al., (2011) reported low abundance (approximately 36%) (Figure 5.1). In 2012, other resources, allow frequent occurrences of species at certain regions especially in 5.1.1.2 Overfishing in the Live Reef of algal blooms. This chapter aims to describe however, most of the levels of major threats rose except for destructive fishing (Figure the Visayas Region characteristic of intense Food Fish Fishery in Palawan various current and emerging threats. fishing and habitat degradation that leads to subsequent species declines. Continuous The live reef food fish fishery of Palawan is a unabated heavy exploitation is suggested to good case study to demonstrate overfishing of Figure 5.1 Estimated Level of the Major Threats to Coral Reefs in the Philippines in 2002 (left) and 2012 (right) have a cumulative effect on the overall richness [CD – coastal development, O – overfishing, DF – destructive Fishing, S – sedimentation, P – pollution] reef fishes. Indeed several assessments have (Source: Burke et al., 2002, MSN Threat Assessment Workshop, 2012) of species in the Visayas region. shown stock depletion and overfishing since its establishment given their increasing demand The impacts of overfishing and to some extent in the market. Based on the current report destructive fishing practices on coral reefs are from the Palawan Council for Sustainable evident in the biomass of reef-associated fish. Development (PCSD), the province-wide Based on the classification shown in Table 5.1, maximum sustainable yield for grouper (MSYG)1 it was reported that more than 50% of the was computed at 186 MT/year under the best reef sites in the Philippines surveyed between of conditions (i.e., assuming no overfishing, no 1991 and 2004 are overfished (Figure 5.2). The use of cyanide and other destructive methods high fish biomass category was more common for one year), while maximum sustainable in the Visayas and Sulu Sea areas, comprising export for grouper (MSEG)2 was computed at 25.9% and 32.9% of reefs, respectively. Very high fish biomass categories were observed 1. The maximum grouper productivity of a reef in an area where there was also high species diversity, in a year; measured in tons or kilograms of grouper fish such as West Philippine Sea and Sulu Sea per square kilometer or hectare of a reef per year each at 15% of the total reef area. These 2. The maximum volume of live grouper in a year that biogeographic regions contain large MPAs can be shipped out of Palawan; assumed to be 75% of the (Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park) and MSYG

8468 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 6985 Threats and Vulnerabilities Threats and Vulnerabilities

139.5 MT/year. In contrast, the volume of live Contributing to the depletion are the generally groupers shipped out of Palawan was recorded bad health condition of our coral reefs due to Figure 5.2 Percentage of Reef Fish Biomass Categories of the Biogeographic Regions in the Philippines at 309.2 MT/year in 2003 and has steadily (1) illegal methods of fishing, such as the use (Source: Nanola et al., 2002) increased to 669.1 MT/year in 2007. This of cyanide and dynamite; (2) siltation from shipment data can be taken as the minimum the land; (3) sea water temperature increase harvest considering the inherent mortality due to global warming; and (4) continuous associated with the live fish fishery. Given the overfishing over the years. Palawan has only moderate to heavy fishing pressure that the 109.2 km2 (13.4%) of reefs in excellent to good groupers have been experiencing since four condition, while the larger area of 707.513 years ago, the groupers’ rate of depletion has km2 (86.63%) is classified as under fair to poor therefore been increasing and the current reef conditions. This translates to poor reef harvests are no longer sustainable (Figure 5.3). productivity (Figure 5.4).

5.1.2 Impacts on Adjacent Habitats Figure 5.3 L ive grouper (Palawan stocks) export from 2003 to 2007 under varying levels of fishing pressure In spite of the ecological and economic value of (Source: PCSD Report, 2011) seagrasses, between 30% and 50% of Philippine seagrass beds have been lost due to industrial development, ports, and recreation in the last Actual coral reef grouper export Maximum sustainable live fish export (moderate fishing pressure) 50 years (Fortes, 1995). Seagrass ecosystems Maximum sustainable live fish export (coral reef condition maintained) are threatened by the loss of mangroves areas, Maximum sustainable live fish export (heavy fishing pressure) which act as ‘filter’ for sediment from land, 800 as well as coral reefs, which serve as buffer 700 against waves and storm surges (PNSC, 2004). 600

500 Harvesting of mangroves for fuelwood, 400 construction and charcoal-making contributed 300 largely to the destruction of the resource. 200

Grouper production (t/yr) production Grouper Illegal cutting and overharvesting subsequently 100 degraded the habitat and ecosystem (White 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 and de Leon, 2004). But conversion of Year mangrove areas to fishponds accounts for a large portion of mangrove loss (66%). In the Philippines, about 279,000 hectares of The 2007 estimated provincial level depletion mangroves lost from 1951 to 1988 were under varying levels of fishing pressure was developed into culture ponds. The rate of 624.9 MT (heavy fishing pressure), 577.5 MT mangrove loss has increased from 3,100 to (moderate fishing pressure), and 529.5 MT 8,200 despite the government ban on further conversion of mangroves to fishponds in 1980 (negligible fishing pressure). The same scenario (White and de Leon, 2004). of depletion is shown to occur on a per area cluster basis. The 2007 estimated level of depletion versus the estimated MSEG for the In order to reduce the impacts of fishpond whole province and by cluster is shown in Table development, Primavera (2000) emphasized 5.2. that mangrove-friendly aquaculture (MFA) technology that does not require cutting of trees is needed for aquaculture to be sustainable. Of the two types of MFA technology that are

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Table 5.2 Estimated level of depletion of groupers (MT) in Palawan for 2007 (Source: PCSD Report, 2011) currently known, aquasilviculture is the one Philippines. Recently, however, Samson and being practiced in the country. In 1987, a BFAR Rollon (2008) reported widespread tendency Area Live fish MSEG (MT) Depletion MSEG (MT) Depletion MSEG (MT) Depletion project established some 1.6 to 2.6-hectare to plant mangroves in large areas (44,000 has.) Export for Heavy (MT) for (MT) for (MT) milkfish ponds in Ubay, Bohol, where that are not the natural habitat of mangroves, Rhizophora (MT) fishing pres- Moderate Negligible mangroves occupy around 80% converting mudflats, sandflats, and seagrass of the area (Aypa and Bacongis, 1999 as cited sure fishing fishing meadows into often monospecific Rhizophora pressure in Primavera, 2000). The area yielded about pressure 1 MT/ha/yr of milkfish for the first five years mangrove forests (Figure 5.5). From the and became habitat to various wild fishes and evidence, it was argued that a more rational focus of the restoration effort should be the Province-wide 669.08 44.16 624.93 91.57 577.52 139.56 529.52 invertebrates, as well as wild ducks and birds. However, the mangrove prop roots hampered replanting of mangroves in the brackish- Calamianes the assessment and harvest of fish stocks. In water aquaculture pond environments, the addition, prolonged flooding was detrimental Group 233.71 6.80 226.90 14.10 219.60 21.5 212.21 original habitat of mangroves. A number to the mangrove trees, while overgrowth of of management options was explored, the Mainland and filamentous algae led to fish kills. implementation of which ultimately depended nearby island 308.15 33.20 274.95 68.84 239.31 104.93 203.22 on the political will of local and national municipalities governments. Planting mangrove trees has become a standard Cuyo Group 127.23 4.16 123.07 8.62 118.61 13.14 114.09 practice in coastal resource management in the

Figure 5.4 Percentage of live reef fish yield per condition in Palawan (Source: PCSD Report, 2011)

70.0

59.2 60.0

50.0 40 40.0 32 30.0 27.4 23 Percentage 20.0 10.5 10.0 5 2.9 0.0 Excellent Good Fair Poor Reef condition

Area distribution of reef condition (%) Volume distribution of reef production (%) TDacles

7288 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 8973 Threats and Vulnerabilities Threats and Vulnerabilities

Despite the many water-related laws that eggs produced in Morong and Bagac (Bataan) Figure 5.5 Parameters of mangrove growth planted in an unnatural habitat are already in place, efforts to protect water and in San Antonio (Zambales) from August resources from the impacts of pollution (Source: Samson and Rollon, 2008) 2004 to February 2009 (Figure 5.7). are hampered by: weak enforcement, Another well-known nesting area is the inadequate resources, poor database, and Philippines Turtle Islands (also known as the lack of cooperation among national and local Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary or TIWS) and government agencies. The Clean Water Act was created to address the inadequacies of the Sabah Turtle Islands (Malaysia), both of existing laws. which have been declared as the Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area (TIHPA). TIHPA is the first trans-frontier protected area for marine turtles in the world, and covers six islands 5.1.4 Threatened/Endangered Species administered by the Philippines and three islands administered by Sabah. It is a major 5.1.4.1 Marine Turtles nesting area for green sea turtles in Southeast Asia. Hawksbill turtles also nest in the area Nesting population and egg production are although in small numbers. From 1984 to used as indicators to assess the status and 2007, the PAWB-PCP recorded egg production population abundance of marine turtles. Data and number of complete nestings in Baguan gathered by the Parks and Wildlife Bureau Island. Fluctuations in egg production and (PAWB)-Pawikan Conservation Project (PCP) number of complete nests have been noted in collaboration with DENR Regional Office, due to changes in weather patterns brought local government units, non-government about by the El Niño or La Niña phenomena, e.g. Varanus organizations and resort owners show an and predation by monitor lizards ( , sp increase in the number of olive ridley nests and .) (Figure 5.8).

5.1.3. Excessive Nutrients and Other activities (Figure 5.6). In terms of water quality Pollution and quantity, the four critical regions are: the NCR (Metro Manila), Central Luzon, Southern Major sources of marine pollution include Tagalog and Central Visayas. In these regions, Figure 5.7 Complete nests and egg production of Olive Ridley in Bataan and Zambales domestic and industrial wastes, agrochemical the domestic and industrial sectors are the (August 2004 – February 2009) (Source: PAWB-PCP, 2009) loading, siltation/sedimentation, toxic and main contributors to water pollution. hazardous wastes (including heavy metals Figure 5.6. Organic Wastes from Domestic, Agricultural and mine tailings), and oil spills. The basis for and Industrial Sources and their Relative appraising water quality using certain physico- Contributions chemical indicators, such as dissolved oxygen (Source: Philippines Environment Monitor, (DO), fecal coliform, some heavy metals, 2003, Brown Report, 2009) pesticides and pH, is set by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Administrative Order No. 34 (Series 1990) Industrial (McGlone et al., 2004). 15% Domestic Agricultural 48% Recent estimates (Brown Report, 2009) 37% showed that there are about 2.2 million MT of organic pollutants released into the environment annually. These pollutants come from domestic, agricultural and industrial

9074 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 7591 Threats and Vulnerabilities Threats and Vulnerabilities

are most likely to catch marine turtles (DA- photo-documentation. Figure 5.8 Number of Complete Nests and Egg Production per Year at BIMTS (1994–2007) BFAR, 2007). Actual reports gathered by the (Source: PAWB-PCP, 2007) PAWB-PCP throughout the country through its Humpback whales have been observed off tagging program reveal that fish corral, gillnet Babuyan Islands located at the northernmost and hook and line are the fishing gears that tip of Luzon. Babuyan Islands is a significant capture most turtles. marine conservation area, the only known breeding ground for humpback whales that The Sulu Sea is a favourite poaching area of migrate annually to the Philippines to breed. foreign fishers targeting marine turtles. In the Over 100 individuals have been photo- last decade, over a thousand foreigners (over identified from surveys conducted since 2000 600 are Chinese) have been arrested and (Acebes et al., 2007 as cited in CREE website). charged for poaching in the waters of Palawan alone (WWF-Philippines, 2008). Irrawaddy dolphins, Orcaella brevirostris, are found in estuaries and semi-enclosed 5.1.4.2 Other Indicator Species water bodies, such as bays and sounds. They are listed in Appendix 1 of the Convention Other indicator species used by the BINU to on Migratory Species (CMS) to which the assess status of marine and coastal biodiversity Philippines is a member-party. Range states include whalesharks, humpback whales, and of this migratory species are encouraged to Irrawaddy dolphins. There are, however, develop a conservation and management insufficient data available for assessment. plan for implementation by other range countries. In the Philippines, there is only one The whale , Rhincodon typus, is one of known population of less than 100 found in two protected species in the Philippines, and Malampaya Sound in Palawan. Major threats is listed as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List to this population include accidental killing Criteria, and Appendix II of the Convention in fishing gear, habitat degradation, possibly on International Trade on Endangered Species prey depletion from over-fishing and the (CITES). Whale sharks (and manta rays) are destruction of fish spawning grounds (Dolar A major threat to marine turtles is large- accounts for about 35% of the overall income also protected by Department of Agriculture et al., 2002 as cited in BFAR-NFRDI-PAWB, scale illegal harvest of eggs and collection sources in the area (Cola, 1999 as cited in BFAR- (DA)-Fisheries Administrative Order (FAO) 193, 2005). Several mortalities have been recorded, for ornamental trade. Sixty percent of the NFRDI and DENR-PAWB, 2005). A proposal for S. 1998, which bans the “taking or catching, averaging about four a year. Experts propose turtle eggs produced in TIWS except Baguan a phase-out on the collection of turtle eggs selling, purchasing and possession, transporting to minimize fishing gear-dolphin interaction to Island (which produces more than 50%) are and phase-in of alternative livelihood projects and exporting of whale sharks and manta rays”. avoid mortalities. still being collected for trade. Prior to the in TIWS under a Memorandum of Agreement There is no study on population estimates passage of Republic Act 9147, or the Wildlife among stakeholders has been finalized and is on any species of sharks in the Philippines. Resources Conservation and Protection Act of pending approval. Anectodal claims of whale shark population in 5.2 Emerging Issues for Marine 2001, collection of turtle eggs in designated Donsol, Sorsogon in the 1990s was between Resource Use islands of the Turtle Islands was regulated Marine turtles are also threatened by coastal 50 to 100 individuals. A decline in sighting rate through a DENR permit system that allowed development and fisheries practices, including was documented in Donsol between 1998 5.2.1 Overview of Aquaculture in the Philippines collection during the open season from April foreign fishers poaching and targeting marine and 1999 using tourist-based sighting data to December. Only 60% of the eggs were turtles within Philippine waters. Developmental (Grover, 2000, Alava and Yaptinchay, 2000 as 5.2.1.1 Overstocking and collected, the rest were conserved. After the and foraging habitats of marine turtles are being cited in BFAR-NFRDI-PAWB, 2005). The World passage of the Wildlife Act, the collection of proposed for declaration as Critical Habitats Wildlife Fund (WWF)-Philippines has initiated At overstocked conditions, overfeeding and sea turtles or any of its derivatives, including pursuant to RA 9147. Fishery impact on marine participatory research to identify individuals of production cycles of cages of 5-6 months, eggs, was prohibited. This has resulted in turtles is also a major issue. From a perception the whale shark population in Donsol through conflicts within and among stakeholders since survey conducted by the DA-BFAR, gillnet, fish fish competes for space, feeds, and oxygen. distinguishing marks, sex, behaviour and Depletion of oxygen is due to decomposing feed egg collection is a source of livelihood and corral and set net are the fishing gears that

9276 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 7793 Threats and Vulnerabilities Threats and Vulnerabilities wastes and fecal matters that are deposited at of economic losses, some occurrences were 5.2.1.3 Increasing Demand in Trash with poor water exchange rates, such as in the bottom of the lake and cages. This becomes valued at a few thousand pesos while major Fish slow moving rivers, lakes and shallow bays. In fertilizer that can trigger phytoplankton or fish kills cost hundreds of millions of pesos. The these conditions, aquaculture production can algal blooms and subsequent decay, using Bolinao fish kill in 2002 was reported to have The dependence of cultured fish on wild- lead to a build up of organic sediments and oxygen and releasing toxic compounds. A cost PhP200 million, while the most recent one caught fish is astounding. Fish oil and fish addition of nutrients to the water column. “fish kill’ is a significant and sudden death of that occurred in June 2007 was estimated to meal, which are essential ingredients of feed This, in turn, can lead to secondary effects, fish or other aquatic animals, such as crabs or prawns in large numbers usually in a clearly cost between PhP40 million to PhP100 million usually come from wild stocks, a third of which such as eutrophication, algal blooms, and low defined area. There are two possible reasons (Philminaq, 2007). is used to make feed for aquaculture. On dissolved oxygen levels. of fish kill: natural (lake overturn), man-made average, it can take 5-12 kg of feed to produce or anthropogenic (such as pollution due to The inability of local and national government 1 kg of finfish, such as grouper, snapper, and 5.2.1.6 Environmental Impacts of aquaculture). agencies to regulate the stocking density of seabass (www.wwf.org). Based on 2007 Culture of Species fish led to the overcrowding of fish cages and Philminaq Report’s estimates, about 160,000 overstocking, which resulted in degradation of MT of wildfish/feed are wasted in tilapia pens, Some impacts of seaweed culture include Most fish kills in Philippine lakes occur where water quality that ended up in fish kills. cages, and ponds, while more than 160,000 changes in the marine ecosystem structure and aquaculture activities are excessive due to MT are wasted for bangus culture. While some function, alteration of currents and increasing overstocking of fish in cages. According to argue that trash fish is not suitable for human shading of bottom environments. Nutrient studies, Taal Lake (Southeast of Manila) can There is a need for proper monitoring of the consumption, in less developed countries such stress, perhaps caused by too much seaweed support (or has a carrying capacity) of only water’s physical, chemical, and biological 6,000 cages measuring 10 x 10 x 5 square conditions that cause fish kills so that the fish as the Philippines, even trash fish is eaten. culture in an area, has also been implicated in meters at a stocking rate of 50,000 fish per farmers can be given a warning to harvest their Furthermore, these small fish species have ‘ice-ice’ disease. Shading effect and the use of cage. At the time of the fish kill it was found fish to avoid further losses. vital roles in the ecosystem mainly as food for mangrove poles for stakes may adversely affect out that there were 12,000 cages stocked with larger species of fish. biological productivity in coral reefs and other 100,000-300,000 fish/cage, a clear example nearshore environments. of overstocking. The fish kill has affected over 5.2.1.2 Toxic Chemicals 5.2.1.4 Alteration of Physical 2,000 fishers around the lake, most of whom Environment Mussel and oyster farming also results in were dependent on fishing for livelihood. increased biodeposition of wastes on the Antibiotics that are used to treat diseased fish The nets of cages, pens, and associated seabed, the resulting organic enrichment may affect wild fish populations and other moorings change the environment by inducing changes in sediment chemistry and There have been 192 documented cases of organisms, although it is difficult to estimate preventing efficient water exchange and biodiversity. For shrimp culture, effluents from fish kills with almost half of the causes being these secondary effects on the surrounding changing the current patterns caused by shrimp ponds are high in both dissolved and attributed to aquaculture (Philminaq, 2007). ecology and environment. Antibiotics (e.g., friction with the water currents. Friction from particulate nitrogen and phosphorus, which chloramphenicol and nitrofurans) were applied the nets can alter the residence time of water elevate nutrient levels in receiving waters and In 1999, a fish kill occurred in Murcieliagos by shrimp farmers in the Philippines at the in a bay. Sometimes these structures can also promotes eutrophication. In brackishwater Bay, Zamboanga del Norte, due to mercury and height of disease outbreaks. In brackishwater cause obstruction to navigation routes and ponds, intensification of production methods cyanide contamination, whereas the one that fishponds, a practice of controlling snail migration paths of different species of fish. can result in greater production of wastes, occurred in Lingayen Gulf in that same year was pests (e.g., Cerithidea cingulata) and fish which unless intercepted and treated (filter due to an oil spill from an oil tanker. From 2003 predators in the past was using toxic organo- 5.2.1.5 Eutrophication from traps, settlement ponds, biofiltration beds), to 2005, there were fish kills that were of great phosphate and tin-based chemicals which are Aquaculture are discharged into the coastal environment magnitude due to overfeeding and overstocking now banned. Pesticides used in agricultural causing eutrophication and self-pollution which were observed in perennial areas, such farms, i.e., mainly organochlorines, pollute the Aquaculture, like any other animal production problems in some areas of the country (e.g., as Taal lake but also in Isabela, Cebu, and Bohol aquatic environment as run-off which is both activity, produces wastes in the form of Bolinao). and covering various species including tilapia, harmful to fish and humans. Indiscriminate use particulates (mainly the uneaten food and milkfish, shrimp and grouper. For this year, aside of such chemicals and the potential hazard to faeces) and soluble substances (excreta), which 5.2.1.7 Harmful Algal Blooms from the widely publicized Bolinao-Anda fish human health and possibility the development increase the demand for biochemical oxygen, kill, there were five other fish kill occurrences of bacterial resistance have become major nitrates and phosphates in the receiving waters. The occurrence of harmful algal blooms (HABs in Camotes, Bais, Davao del Sur, and Cotabato concerns. The risk of negative impacts of aquaculture or red tide) has become another important affecting milkfish broodstock, siganids, and wastes is greatest in enclosed waters or sites indicator of the degree of water pollution in various types of freshwater species. In terms the country. This phenomenon is caused by

9478 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 7995 Threats and Vulnerabilities Threats and Vulnerabilities seasonal high organic loadings from rivers that means that no substantial regulatory measures This program is being funded by the Department drain into the bays. To date, red tide occurrences Among the possible cases of invasion by are being imposed. Research on the flora of Science and Technology (DOST) to: (1) have been reported for 20 coastal areas and marine organisms (mostly phytoplankton) in and fauna of ship’s ballast water content and implement the conservation of biodiversity there have been 42 red tide outbreaks from the Philippine waters are the following: possible water treatments are needed to and restore damaged reefs through community 1983 to 2001. mitigate possible impacts of invasive species in involvement, develop new techniques in coral the marine environment. propagation (sexual and asexual) as a means of Harmful algal blooms are one of the marine Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum is conserving local coral diversity and sustainable environmental problems and resource a paralytic shellfish toxin-producing species source of coral materials for restoration; and (2) which caused poisoning in Malaysia, Brunei, management issues that confront the 5.2.2 Coastal Tourism develop cost effective restoration techniques. Indonesia and the Philippines. The first cases Philippines. It has been recognized as a of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) in the Community-based coral restoration techniques catastrophic phenomenon that has affected Philippines was reported in 1983 and since Although coastal tourism brings economic are ongoing in Bolinao, Pangasinan through the public health and the economy of the country then, Pyrodinium blooms have been recurring benefits, it has many consequences. Impacts since 1983. The first recorded occurrence in various parts of the country. There is a on coastal resources include: accelerated University of the Philippines’ Marine Science of blooms of Pyrodinium bahamense var. possibility that the species could have been beach erosion, deteriorating coastal water Institute Marine Laboratory involving a cost- compressum, a toxin-producing dinoflagellate transported naturally or by ships. Its life cycle quality, dumping of solid waste on beaches efficient transplantation technique in rearing was in 1983 in central Philippines, and since includes a cyst stage that can remain viable for or in near-beach areas, coral reef degradation fragments of staghorn corals (A. pulchra and it was the first time that the country has years and be the source of future blooms once through anchorage and landing facilities, salt- A. intermedia) in situ nurseries for coastal experienced such kind of phenomenon, its conditions become favorable. water intrusion, and increasing traffic noise communities. impact in terms of public health and economy and congestion (White et al., 2002). was great. Harmful algal blooms in the country, As an offshoot of the program, reef restoration Alexandrium spp. The presence of the will be pilot-tested in six demonstration sites, particularly Pyrodinium have expanded both species was documented in 2003 in Bolinao, such as Bohol, Boracay, Batangas with resort in time and space. Blooms of Pyrodinium Pangasinan. The species can invade other areas 5.3 Other Considerations (Recent owners as partners, and Masbate, Leyte and have spread to around 22 coastal areas of the through ship’s ballast water. Its life cycle also Developments) country. Paralytic shellfish poisoning due to includes a cyst stage that can remain viable for Tawi-tawi with LGUs as partners. Pyrodinium has increased in severity during the years. 5.3.1 Reef Restoration last two decades with the country experiencing more than 540 outbreaks of harmful algal blooms with subsequent shellfish poisoning Cochlodinium polykrikoides. The species bloomed on a regional scale in Southeast episodes between 1983 and 2002. Some Asia from 2004-2005. It started in Brunei in species recur in the same geographic regions November 2004, then to Sabah, Malaysia from each year, while others are episodic, leading to December 2004 to January 2005. It reached the unexpected deaths of local fish, shellfish, Palawan by February 2005. The source of mammals, and birds. Azanza (2005) observed Cochlodinium bloom in Southeast Asia is a first-time occurrence of a Prorocentrum unknown. The mode of transport may include minimum bloom in Bolinao in 2002, where natural i.e., Asian currents or anthropogenic intensive and extensive aquaculture of Chanos like ship’s ballast water or transport of infected chanos (milkfish) in fish pens and cages has seafood. been practiced for years now. The fish kill, which lasted almost simultaneously with the The Philippines has one of the longest coastal bloom of the organism, had its peak when the areas in the world and many cities that can organisms’ bloom was declining. Lack of oxygen hold an average of five ports, each of which in the cages and pens was the fundamental is vulnerable to invasion of exotic aquatic cause of the fish kill (Philminaq, 2007). species coming from ballast water discharged by foreign vessels (Azanza et al., 2006). To date, no research has been undertaken on the biological content of the tons of ballast 5.2.1.8 Invasive Species water discharged in Philippine waters, which

9680 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 8197 Threats and Vulnerabilities Threats and Vulnerabilities

5.3.2.2 Scallops 5.3.2.3 Giant Clams

5.3.2 Restocking Efforts Resource assessment, mariculture and Giant clams are significant to the Filipino management of scallops is implemented in people in terms of culture, commerce, and Marine invertebrates, such as sea cucumber, Asid Gulf, Masbate. About five species of ecology. Archaeological finds of preserved scallops, paphia and trochus are being studied scallops are commercially exploited in the shells of Tridacna maxima and Hippopus for possible mariculture/sea ranching and area, namely: Decatopecten striatus, Chlamys hippopus in the Balobok Rockshelter (Sanga- restocking efforts. senatoria nobilis, Chlamys macassarensis, Sanga Island, Bongao, Tawi-Tawi) dating back 5.3.2.1 Sea Cucumber Chlamys funebris, and Chlamys gloriosus. from the mid-Holocene epoch suggest that Scallops are fast-growing tropical species. our Neolithic ancestors may have utilized giant clam shells (Faylona et al., 2011). Fossil giant The Philippines is the 2nd largest exporter of sea clam shells may be important tools for studying cucumbers, next to Indonesia. This has become Scallops have high potential for culture and C. past climate changes in the Philippines, as has a multi-million dollar industry (Ferdouse, 2004), senatoria nobilis is one of the target species for been done by paleoclimatologists with fossil with global trade estimated at 708,207 MT and mariculture. The scallop species D. striatus is shells found in Huon Peninsula in Papua New valued at USD7, 798 million (BAS, 2010). Sea Guinea (Ayling et al., 2006). Preserving sites of th being studied as an indicator of climate change cucumber ranks 8 among the fishery export using oxygen isotopes. fossil giant clam shells is therefore important. products of the Philippines and are exported in the form of dried or salted in brine, while the rest are traded live, fresh, and chilled/frozen. In the mid-1980s, the Marine Science Institute The resource is threatened by overexploitation (MSI) and Silliman University (SUML) have due to lack of fishery and trade management conducted stock assessment surveys of giant policies that will maintain production at clams in the Philippines, finding overharvested sustainable levels. natural populations. The three large species

9882 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 8399 Threats and Vulnerabilities Threats and Vulnerabilities

―Tridacna gigas, T. derasa, and Hippopus has yet to take action. In Aparri, Cagayan, groups classified as Indigenous Peoples (IPs), n Finally, at the national level, support for porcellanus ― have become either virtually or residents recounted that on February 29, 2008, whose major sources of livelihood are farming policy recommendations and actions nearly extinct (Juinio et al., 1989). three large sea vessels docked and drilled and fishing. These groups also suffer from being undertaken both at the lower magnetite sand along the off-shore area. The government neglect, denying them of even the and upper legislative houses is deemed drillers were able to get approximately 200 most basic social services. crucial. kilograms of magnetite sand before they were 5.3.3 Oil and Gas forced to stop their operations by concerned 5.3.4.4 Policy Recommendation residents. Vigilance among stakeholders also Under this sector, anecdotal accounts showed revealed another large sea vessel reported There is a need to develop a new mining code the perceived notion of the effect of sonic to collect magnetite sand in Aparri. These that is not created for the purpose of serving boom used by research vessels to determine activities are being investigated by the Mines the interests of large mining Transnational seismic reflection profiles in oil and gas and Geosciences Bureau (MGB)-Region II and Corporations (TNC) and local elites, but for the exploration activities. Seismic blasting is may be considered as smuggling of minerals national industrialization that will cater to the reported to damage reproductive organs, burst if these do not follow government protocols, needs of the country’s populace. air bladders, and cause physiological stress in such as securing an Ore Transportation Permit marine organisms. It can also cause behavioral (OTP). 5.3.4.5 Strategies modifications, alter fish distribution by some radius, and damage planktonic eggs and 5.3.4.1 Potential Risks and Effects Given the plethora of issues pertaining to REFERENCES larvae. Fisherfolks in Tanon Strait in the Visayas mining, there is a need to develop strategies recounted that such incidences in their coastal These mining projects claim to provide that will promote responsible mining and Ayling, B.F., J. Chappell, M.T. McCulloch, M.K. seas by exploration activities for oil and gas benefits to the people but given the risks ensure the protection of coastal habitats as may have affected their fisheries. Gagan, and M. Elliot. 2006. “High- from irresponsible mining practices, several well as the welfare of the communities. resolution Paleoclimate of the MIS communities do not want to accept these 11 Interglacial (426-360 ka) Using operations based on lessons from the n One of the effective ways to promote 5.3.4 Mining-related Issues Geochemical Proxies in Giant Tridacna experiences of others who had become victims this goal is by carrying out IEC activities, Clams.” Geochimica Et Cosmochimica of bad practices. making the issues comprehensible and, Acta. 70(18): p. A26. The mining industry is also faced with various therefore, enhancing the awareness of but mostly anecdotal issues ranging from 5.3.4.2 On Sources of Livelihood and the communities. environmental matters, such as impact on Azanza, R.V., Y. Fukuyob, L.G. Yapa, and H. Food Security Takayama. 2005. “Prorocentrum habitats of dugong and whale sharks to political n A strategy to strengthen the solidarity cases ― i.e., death of a local official by security Minimum Bloom and Its Possible One of the negative effects of mining is the among concerned sectors through Link to a Massive Fish Kill in Bolinao, personnel of a mining company (BHP Billiton) loss of farmlands near the coastal areas due creation of People’s Organizations during a protest demonstration. Aside from Pangasinan, Northern Philippines.” to flooding brought about by coastal erosion (PO) and alliances in the area can be Harmful Algae 4(3):519-524. the dugong, whale sharks, commonly known and deforestation. The extent of damage may considered in order to launch concerted as butanding are present in Rapu-Rapu Island also include coastal habitats given that mine mass actions, and increase people’s BFAR-National Fisheries Research and in Sorsogon, and the local government unit tailings usually are dumped into rivers that participation in local governance. opposes a large-scale mining project because Development Institute (NFRDI) - are transported to the coasts. Consequently, Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau it potentially affects the multimillion whale this may affect the conditions of the habitats n A strategy to broaden the network watching tourism in the province. (PAWB). 2005. “Biodiversity Indicators and associated organisms that form the fishery of advocacy groups who will support for National Use (BINU): Philippine resources, thus, livelihood of communities. the mass actions and help in the Recently, residents in Pamplona, Cagayan have Report on Coastal and Marine projection of issues at the national and Ecosystems.” BINU Project supported been conducting information and education 5.3.4.3 On Indigenous Peoples’ (IPs) international levels is envisioned. campaigns (IEC) against the impending entry by UNEP (United Nations Environmental Rights Programme) – Global Environment and operation of a mining company. Four n The support for the formulation and barangays in Pamplona have submitted a Facility (GEF). BFAR, NFRDI, DA and The mining areas being targeted for legalization of resolutions in local DENR- PAWB, Philippines. petition to the municipal council against the explorations are usually those in remote areas governments for responsible mining entry of this company. The municipal council being occupied by various ethno-linguistic will be of utmost priority.

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BFAR-PHILMINAQ. 2007. Managing on the Preservation of Giant Clam 840. Production of Olive Ridley in Bataan Aquaculture and Its Impacts: A (Tridacnidae) Shells from the Balobok and Zambales (August 2004–February Guidebook for Local Governments, Rockshelter Archaeological Site, South McGlone, M.L.S.D., G. Jacinto, I. Velasquez, 2009)” as Part of the 4th National pp.14-18. Bureau of Fisheries and Philippines.” Geoarchaeology. 26: 888– and D. Padayao. 2004. “Status of Water Report to the Convention on Biological Aquatic Resources (BFAR)-PHILMINAQ 901. doi: 10.1002/gea.20377. Quality in Philippine Coastal and Marine Diversity: Assessing Progress Towards Project, Diliman, Quezon City. Waters.” In DA-BFAR (Department of the 2010 Biodiviersity Project 2009. Ferdouse, F. 2004. “World Markets and Trade Agriculture-Bureau of Fisheries and Republic of the Philippines. Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS). Flows of Sea Cucumber/Beche-de- Aquatic Resources) Turbulent Seas: The 2010. Quezon Avenue, Quezon City, mer.” In Advances in Sea Cucumber Status of Philippine Marine Fisheries. PCSD Report. 2008. “Live Reef Fish for Food.” Philippines. Aquaculture and Management. Edited Coastal Resource Management Project, Live Reef Fish Food Industry. Palawan by A. Lovatelli, C. Conand, S. Purcell, Cebu City, Philippines. Council for Sustainable Development. Burke, L, K. Reytar, M. Spalding, and A. Perry S. Uthicke, J-F. Hamel, and A. Mercier. Puerto Princesa, Palawan Province, A. 2011. Reefs at Risk Revisited. World FAO, Rome, Fisheries Technical Paper MPA Support Network. 2012. (unpublished). Philippines. Resources Institute Washington, No. 463: pp. 101-118. MPA Interoperability Workshop. March D.C.,U.S.A. 21-22, 2012. Marine Science Institute, PNSC. 2004. “Seagrasses of the Philippines: Fortes, M.D. 1995. “Seagrasses of East Asia: University of the Philippines Diliman, Country Report.” UNEP/GEF SCS Project: Environmental and Management Quezon City. Reversing Environmental Degradation Burke, L, E. Selig, and M. Spalding. 2002. Perspectives.” RCU/EAS Technical Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia. World Report Series No. 6. UNEP.http://www. Nañola, C.L., P.M. Aliño, A.L. Dantis, M.C.G. of Thailand. PNSC Publ. Philippines. Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., wwf.org Rañola, V.V. Hilomen, and J.B.P. U.S.A. Cabansag. 2002. “Understanding Primavera, J.H. 2000. “Integrated Mangrove- Hüttche, C.M., A.T. White, and M.M.M. Flores. Philippine Reef Fishes: A Key to Fisheries aquaculture Systems in Asia.” Center for Rural Empowerment and the 2002. Sustainable Coastal Tourism Management and Marine Biodiversity Integrated Coastal Zone Management, Environment (CREE). “Babuyan Islands Handbook for the Philippines. Coastal Conservation.” In Atlas of Philippine Autumn edition, pp. 121-130. Humpback Whales Project.” Retrieved Resource Management Project of Coral Reefs, pp. 22-26. Edited by P.M. 31 March 2009 from http://www. the Department of Environment and Aliño, E.F.B. Miclat, C.L. Nañola, H.A.R. Samson, M.S. and R.N. Rollon. 2008. “Growth conservationforpeople.org/projects. Natural Resources and the Department Quiaoit, and R.T. Campos. Goodwill Performance of Planted Mangroves cfm?projectID=3 of Tourism, Cebu City, Philippines. Bookstore, Philippines. in the Philippines: Revisiting Forest Management Strategies.” Ambio DA-BFAR. 2007. “Philippine Report on the Junio, M.A.R., L.A.B. Menez, C.L. Villanoy, and Nañola, C., L. Aliño, M. Porfirio, and K.E. 37:234 – 240. Workshop on Assessing the Relative E.D. Gomez. 1989. “Status of Giant Carpenter. 2010. Exploitation-related Importance of Sea Turtle Mortality Clam Resources in the Philippines.” Reef Fish Species Richness Depletion in Tun, K., L.M. Chou, A. Cabanban, and V.S. Tuan, Due to Fisheries in Southeast Asia.” Journal of Molluscan Studies. 55: 41-40. the Epicenter of Marine Biodiversity.” Philreefs, T. Yeemin, Suharsono, K. March 19-23, 2007, Bangkok, Thailand. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 90(4), Sour, and D. Lane. 2004. “Global Status SEAFDEC and FAO. Lane. 2004. “Global Status of Coral Reefs, Coral 405-420. doi:10.1007/s10641-010- of Coral Reefs, Coral Reef Monitoring Reef Monitoring and Management in 9750-6. and Management in Southeast Asia.” Department of Environment and Natural Southeast Asia.” In: Status of Coral Reefs In: Status of Coral Reefs of the World: National State of Resources. 2009. of the World: 2004. Volume 1, pp. 235- PAWB-PCP. 2007. “Number of Complete Nests 2004. Edited by Wilkinson. Volume 1, p. the Brown Environment Report (2005- 276. Edited by Wilkinson. Australian and Egg Production per Year at BIMTS 235-276. Australian Institute of Marine 2007). Environmental Management 1994-2007” as Part of the 4th National Bureau, Department of Environment Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Science, Townsville, Queensland, Report to the Convention on Biological and Natural Resources, DENR Queensland, Australia. Australia. Compound, Visayas Ave., Quezon City. Diversity: Assessing Progress Towards Licuanan, W. and E. Gomez. 2002. “Philippine the 2010 Biodiviersity Project 2009. White, A.T., and R.O.D De Leon. 2004. Coral Reefs: Status and the Role Republic of the Philippines “Mangrove Resource Decline in Faylona, M. G. P. G., C.E. Lazareth, A.M. Sémah, of the Academe to Improve their the Philippines: Government and S. Caquineau, H. Boucher, and W.P. Management.” Proceedings of the 9th PAWB-PCP. 2009. “Complete Nests and Egg Community Look for New Solutions.” In Ronquillo. 2011. “Preliminary Study Inter. Coral Reef Symposium. 2:835- DA-BFAR (Department of Agriculture-

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Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources) Turbulent Seas: The Status of Philippine Marine Fisheries. Coastal Resource Management Project, Cebu City, Philippines.

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Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans

• Goal 5 ― Improve the status of Chapter 6 threatened species. Target 1.2 Intermediate Result: Number/area (in sq. km.) 1 priority seascape 0 priority seascape Marine and coastal of priority seascapes under is under sustainable is under sustainable PLAN OF ACTION INITIATIVES AND resources within all sustainable management management management. The tool to This section presents the progress and Priority Seascapes 1.2.1. Presence of a assess and measure the FUTURE PLANS performance of the NPOA implementation in being sustainably management body sustainable management terms of providing data and information on managed 1.2.2. Policies and laws of a seascape has yet to The Philippine National Coral Triangle results achieved in each of the NPOA goals. 1.2.3. Capacity be developed. Initiative (CTI) Coordinating Committee (NCCC) The Philippines NCCC TWG conducted a series 1.2.4. Financial resources envisioned a National Plan of Action (NPOA) to leveraged through sustainable of technical workshops to come up with a financing schemes and address the issues or the pressures that affect set of measurable indicators. Data on these private sector partnerships the present state of the country’s resources indicators are collected as and when available. relative to the requirements of and ecosystems. The national action plan is in investment plans accordance with the principles and guidelines 1.2.5. M&E system in set by the regional CTI. Five goals, with relation to indicators of 4 6.1 Monitoring and Evaluation Baselines other goals appropriate strategies and targets, have been with Indicators identified in the NPOA to address prevailing issues: 6.1.1 Improved Governance and Effective • Goal 1 ― Designate and effectively Management of Priority Seascapes manage priority seascapes; Under Target 1.1, the Philippines has been through stakeholder consultation, and scoping working towards the designation of two for coastal resources management approach • Goal 2 ― Apply ecosystem approach to 6.1.1.1 Achievement of Targets to seascapes, i.e., Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion for the seascape is on-going. fishery management; Date • Goal 3 ― Improve the management of (SSME), and the West Philippine Sea (WPS). The 1 million sq. km. SSME has been designated Under Target 1.2, initiatives towards capacity- marine protected areas (MPAs); The NPOA presented the following set of by virtue of a ratified Memorandum of building to ensure the sustainable management • Goal 4 ― Achieve climate change targets and indicators under Goal No. 1: adaptation; and, Understanding among Indonesia, Malaysia and of the two seascapes are currently developed. the Philippines. It is also recognized by the CTI The NPOA lists five elements that have to as a priority seascape. On the other hand, the be strengthened, namely: presence of a Table 6.1 Targets and indicators under Goal 1 (Source: National Plan of Action, 2009) WPS has been identified as another priority management body; formulation of policies Objective Description Indicator Target Actual seascape under the NPOA. Various stakeholder and laws; capacity building programs; financial consultations were conducted towards its resources leveraged through sustainable Goal 1 Designate and formal designation. financing schemes and private sector effectively manage partnerships relative to the investment plan Priority Seascapes In addition to their designations, each of the requirements; and Monitoring and Evaluation priority seascapes will have its framework and Target 1.1 Intermediate result: Number (and area in sq. 2 priority seascapes 2 priority seascapes (M&E) system in relation to indicators of four Priority seascapes km.) of priority seascapes designated (SSME designated (SSME and investments plan. The SSME has produced other goals. A guidebook on how to select, designated, with designated with 1M sq. km. West Philippine Seas) three comprehensive action plans, i.e., one for develop, and implement seascapes has been investment plans expanse and West each priority focus, namely, marine protected completed and published (Atkinson et al., completed and Philippine Seas) area (MPA), fisheries, and threatened species. 2011). At this stage, the NPOA reports that the sequenced by 2012 Number (and area in sq. km.) 2 priority seascapes 1 priority seascape Embedded in these comprehensive action two priority seascapes are yet to be sustainably of priority seascapes with with investment plans (SSME, with 1 M sq. plans are business plans to support their managed. investment plans completed (SSME and West km.) with investment implementations over a five-year period. In Philippine Seas) plans. SSME has the case of WPS, work is in progress for the 6.1.1.2 Projects, Programs, and comprehensive action plans with cost preparation of the policy and institutional Initiatives that Support Goal 1 information for three framework with investment plan. In addition, focal areas e.g., MPAs, the following initiatives are undertaken, a The SSME Action Plans for sustainable fisheries, Threatened Species and vision has been formulated, the geographic MPAs and networks, and protection of Fisheries. expanse of the seascape is being finalized threatened, charismatic, and migratory species

90106 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 10791 Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans were published and launched in 20091. These were further translated into Comprehensive Goal 2 has four targets. Target 2.1 has two Action Plans, which included costs of indicators. The first indicator measures the implementing the action plans, indicators at presence of a national policy on EAFM that the purpose level, and SSME achievements in harmonize existing laws and policy framework fisheries, MPAs and species conservation as supporting EAFM. The second indicator looks well as lessons learned2. at the area (in sq. km.) of management units with operational and effective law (fisheries) The West Philippine Sea (WPS), referring to the enforcement units. Philippine part of the South China Sea (SCS), is a newly identified priority seascape. WPS was 6.1.1.2 Projects, Programs, and selected and prioritized from three seascapes Initiatives that Support Goal 2 Table 6.2 Targets and Indicators under Goal 2 (Source: National Plan of Action, 2009) for potential development in the CTI through stakeholder consultations and a set of criteria. A major activity of this goal is the review and Objective Description Indicator Target Actual A vision for WPS was formulated in 2009 and creation of amendments for national and local seascape delineation was proposed. To date, policies on fisheries (e.g., Fisheries Code - RA Goal 2 Fully apply scoping, processing of information and site- 8550; NIPAS Act – RA 7586; Local Government ecosystem approach to based consultations are proceeding with a Code – RA 7160; National Marine Policy) management view to developing a proposed Institutional taking into consideration the Archipelagic of fisheries and and Policy Framework for WPS with a site- Development Framework (ArcDev) and the other marine resources based business plan by the year 2013. Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) to achieve EAFM. Target 2.1 Intermediate Presence of national policy on 1 national Absence of a national policy on EAFM result: Strong EAFM that harmonize existing policy on A significant development was the designation legislative, laws and policy framework Ecosystems of the Coastal and Marine Management A project funded by USAID in 2008-2010, the policy and supporting EAFM Approach Office (CMMO) of the Protected Areas and Fisheries Improved for Sustainable Harvest regulatory to Fisheries frameworks Management Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) as the focal point of Project of DA-BFAR had a country-wide scope in place for (EAFM) the Department of Environment and Natural with four pilot sites (Calamianes, Bohol, achieving an Resources (DENR) for SSME and CTI affairs. Surigao, and Tawi-Tawi) conducting activities ecosystem Area (in sq. km.) of management approach units with operational and that address EAFM goal (Armada et al., to fisheries effective coastal law (fisheries) To be determined (TBD) As for the recently released guidebook on 2009). One of the activities undertaken was a management enforcement units seascapes approach (Atkinson et al., 2011), development of policy framework for EAFM Proposed revision: Number 832 coastal WPS is in Step 2 of the three-step seascape implementation in the Philippines. A draft of coastal municipalities municipalities process, i.e., strategy development, while SSME of a Fishery Administrative Order (FAO) was with operational coastal law is in Step 3, that is, strategy implementation submitted to BFAR. CTSP has implemented a enforcement and monitoring, and is already addressing dulong fishery research as an entry point to most of the identified nine essential elements EAFM in the VIP. Community-based fish catch Target 2.2 Intermediate Nutritional status of coastal TBD TBD result: Improved families (quality of food) of a functional seascape. monitoring was established in San Juan, Mabini income, and Calatagan, all in the Province of Batangas livelihoods and Annual per capita food thresholds TBD TBD (Luzon). Data on fish catch composition and food security of and subsistence of populations people in coastal (availability of food) 6.1.2 Ecosystem-based Fisheries life stages, gears used, fishing ground, and communities fishing effort were gathered. Policy and market across the Management Per capita consumption of fish TBD TBD studies were also conducted for national and region through a new sustainable 6.1.2.1 Achievement of Targets to local policy discussions on the management coastal fisheries Annual per capita poverty TBD TBD Date of this resource and to determine potential and poverty threshold and poverty incidences sustainable livelihood options for communities reduction initiative The NPOA presented the following set of dependent on fishery. (COASTFISH) targets and indicators under Goal No. 2: The GEF-UNDP Project on Sulu-Celebes

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(Sulawesi) Seas Sustainable Fisheries Waters Learning Exchange and Resource Objective Description Indicator Target Actual Management (SCS-SFM) is implemented by the Network). Phase 1 of the project was in 2009- SSME Sub-Committee on Sustainable Fisheries. 2010 and Phase 2 continued on in 2010-2011. Target 2.3 Intermediate National policies, laws, TBD TBD The Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) Result:Effective agreements, or regulations measures adopted on allowable size limits of the Sulu-Celebes (Sulawesi) Large Marine Pertinent fishery and environmental policies for in place to for tuna species Ecosystem is presently drafted. Once finalized, mariculture was also initiated by a CTSP project. help ensure the groundwork for the development of the A sustainability assessment of mariculture exploitation Number of sites and area (sq. TBD TBD Strategic Action Plan (SAP) shall be initiated. practices in Sitangkai, Tawi-Tawi (Mindanao) of shared km.) covered by temporal closed tuna stocks is season of tuna spawning grounds and Taytay, Palawan (Luzon) served as basis for sustainable, (spawning grounds are assumed A management plan for the fish aggregrating policy formulation. with tuna to be known) device (FAD) of large pelagics (e.g., tuna) is spawning areas and juvenile Change in conservation status TBD TBD being prepared. The legal aspect of the plan To achieve an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries growth stages of tuna based on IUCN-red list is also reviewed, which involves pertinent Management, appropriate strategies or adequately criteria assessment instutional frameworks. enabling mechanisms to address critical threats protected New proposed revision: Increase by x In 2009, it was 2.2% and 4.4% at and implement viable fisheries management The fishing industry’s contribution percent from current and constant prices,respectively. A National Stock Assessment Project (NSAP) mechanisms need to be formulated. This to the country’s Gross Domestic 2009 levels (Philippine Fisheries Profile, 2009) which was implemented by BFAR produced an required a close working relationship between Product (GDP) output that served as basis for the Reduction municipal and commercial fishers, local of Commercial Fishing Vessel License (CFVL) government units, national government New proposed revision:Total tuna TBD Year 2010 nationwide. A draft FAO is being reviewed agencies and other key stakeholders. An catch (segregated by species) Commercial- skipjacks: 177,698 metric tons by the National Fisheries Research and example is the on-going Integrated Coastal Commercial – yellowfin: 85,351 MT Development Institute (NFRDI)-BFAR prior to Resource Management Program (ICRMP) Commercial- bigeye: 8,575 MT a national consultation process with NFARMC. project (2009-2013) with strong involvement of Municipal- skipjacks: 50,481 MT Municipal- yellowfin: 3,070 MT DENR-PAWB and DA-BFAR. Sampling sites are Municipal – bigeye: 387,099 MT Another major activity under this goal was distributed in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. the adoption and implementation of a Tuna catch estimate by gear TBD Commercial- Handline- skipjacks – 131 MT particularly by handline and hook Handline - yellowfin - 11,314 MT Comprehensive National Fisheries Industry Finally, local field enumerators in Dipolog, and line Handline – bigeye: 284 MT Development Plan (CNFIDP) by BFAR through Sindangan, and Dapitan (all in Zamboanga del Total tuna catch using handline and hook the USAID-funded FISH Project. An FAO was Norte in Mindanao) were trained to undertake and line: 11,729 MT created and next step activities include creation fish landing surveys under the Sardine Municipal: Hook and line – skipjacks: 25,200 MT of an operational programming budget and Enumerators Training. This activity aims to Hook and line – yellowfin tuna: 43,400 MT review of CNFIDP implementation to be carried provide capacity-building mechanisms and, Hook and Line – bigeye:1,400 MT out by BFAR. more importantly, aids in establishing policy Total Municipal tuna catch using hook and line: 70,000 MT recommendations for the sardine fishery in the A Small-Scale Fisheries Governance Project by area (i.e., close season for sardines, e.g., spatial Target 2.4 Intermediate National policies, laws, TBD WorldFish Center aimed to review governance and temporal closures/quotas). result: agreements, or regulations and fisheries management strategies to provide A more effective adopted on allowable size limits policy recommendations for national and local Target 2.2 activities focus on the improvement management for LRFT and more governance levels. It also offered opportunities of income, livelihood and food security sustainable Number and area (in sq. km.) of TBD for capacity-building mechanisms for both among fishing communities. A Regional trade in live locally managed areas for LRFT levels with pilot sites distributed throughout Fisheries Livelihood Programme (RFLP) project reef fish and the country, namely: Babuyan Channel, San (supported by the Agencia Española del reef based A set of standards for fish TBD ornaments supply to consumption Miguel Bay, Sogod Bay, Lanuza Bay, Lingayen Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo achieved Gulf, Honda Bay, Davao Gulf, and Sapian Bay. (AECID) of ) was initiated in 2010 until 2011 Change in conservation status of TBD This project was supported also by several to carry out resource and social assessments live reef fish species on IUCN-red list criteria assessment national agencies and institutions (DA-BAR, among coastal fisheries in Dipolog, Sindangan, DOST ROs, NGOs, Academe, GEF International and Murcielagos Bay covering 12 coastal towns

11094 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 11195 Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans of Zamboanga del Norte (western Mindanao). from the Philippines and caught elsewhere but Table 6.3 Targets and indicators under goal 3 (Source: National Plan of Action, 2009) transshipped in the country. Target 2.3 deals mainly with tuna fishery management. Several projects focused on For Target 2.4 of Goal 2, initiatives have Objective Description Indicator Target Actual the development of a management plan for been pursued to develop and implement exploited tuna species in the Philippines. A management plans for the live reef fish trade Goal 3 Establish and effectively manage National Tuna Management Plan (NTMP) was (LRFT) specifically in Palawan (Taytay and Marine Protected Areas updated in 2010 via the West Pacific East Araceli municipalities), Tawi-Tawi, and Surigao (MPAs) Asia (WPEA) Project that ends in 2013. The through CTSP with support funds from USAID framework for the sustainable management, and DANIDA from 2009 to 2013. It is expected Target 3.1 Intermediate Result: Percent/area of total Complete baseline Actual: equitable use of tuna resources, promotion that the local governments will improve their Region-Wide Coral marine habitat area in figures by 2010 Coral reefs: 0.1% = of responsible fishing practices by Philippine- capacity to manage LRFT employing EAFM Triangle MPA System CT region in some form 2% of coral reefs 270,000 ha. or 2,700 sq. (CTMPAS) in place of protected status protected by 2015; km. under some form of flagged vessels fishing for tuna in areas principles. An LRFT management plan has been and fully functional by 10% of each coral protection (total coral reef beyond the national jurisdiction including the developed for Taytay, Araceli and Quezon (in 2020. reef and mangrove area is 17,000 to 27,000 development of the fishing industry through Palawan) with a stakeholders’ workshop and a protected by 2020 sq. km.) the responsible trade of tuna and associated series of technical assessments that served as by-products is provided by the Plan. The basis for the plan. Partnerships between local Mangrove: Total area is 80,000 ha. (primary primary objective is to promote the effective and international LRF traders’ associations, growth). Total mangrove conservation, management, and equitable academe, other government agencies, and area remaining is 140,000 use of tuna resources for the sustainable international buyers are being established. ha. development of the industry. Also, the FISH Project (funded by USAID) Seagrass: TBD With implementation of the Philippine resulted in policy recommendations for the Target 3.2 Percent/area of each Mangroves -100% Fisheries Code of 1998 (Republic Act 8550) live reef fish trade particularly in Palawan. CTSP major marine and fully protected (on and all relevant domestic policies, legislation also embarked on the study of identifying and coastal habitat type paper) and regulations including the obligations of assessing spawning aggregation sites (spags) in strictly protected Coral reefs - 10% fully the Philippines under international fisheries of target species (e.g., groupers) and establish “no-take replenishment protected of the 2% instruments and regional fisheries agreements these as protected areas (i.e., seasonal zones”. (Note: fully target by 2015; 10% protected, i.e., no of the 10% target by to which the country is a party, the Plan has closures). Strict enforcement of fishery laws dumping also) 2020 been revised to align management measures for the LRFT, creation of an LRFT Council, and with the need for the proper conservation assessment and development of management Target 3.3 Percent/area of marine 10% of 2% target by of tuna resources and the aspirations of schemes for reef-based ornamentals are being protected areas under 2015 fully protected the Philippines for its tuna industry. The addressed. “effective” management coral reefs; 10% of objectives, principles, and management the 10% target by 2020 fully protected measures contained in the Plan applies to all coral reefs; forms of municipal and commercial fishing for Mangroves – TBD tuna up to the limit of the Philippine exclusive Seagrass - TBD economic zone (EEZ), and in particular the 6.1.3 Improving Management of MPAs capture of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacores), bigeye 6.1.3.1 Achievement of Targets to tuna (Thunnus obesus), Northern bluefin tuna Date (Thunnus thunnus orientalis), and albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga). Specific management The NPOA presented the following sets of measures also apply to the operations of targets and indicators under Goal No. 3: Philippine-flagged vessels fishing outside the jurisdiction of the Philippines, and also includes the trade of tuna products originating

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6.1.3.2 Programs and Initiatives that For the past several years, the Philippines had area of no-take MPAs had been more modest, In 2010, the MPA Support Network (MSN), Support Goal 3 exerted effort to monitor the performance with notable increases in 1983, 1988, and a group made up of national government of hundreds of MPAs through collaboration 2007, with the declaration and expansion of agencies, academe, NGOs, etc., whose The establishment of marine protected areas among academic institutions, conservation two large no-take MPAs ― Tubbataha Reef functions focus on MPA management in 2 (MPAs) is regarded as an important component organizations, people’s organizations, National Park (968 km ), and Apo Reef Natural the Philippines, rolled out the Management 2 of coastal resource management (Alcala,1998). government, and development partners. Park (275 km ). The Visayan Sea bioregion Effectiveness Assessment Tool (MEAT) as a way MPAs are set up to protect ecosystem values Monitoring tools were developed, applied, (Visayas Region) had the most number of MPAs to gauge MPA management performance for (Aliño et al. 2004), rehabilitate critical habitats, assessed and refined. (67%). Although with fewer MPAs, the Sulu Sea the 2011 Best MPA Awards. This is significant replenish fish resources, and promote tourism and South China Sea (West Philippine Sea) to CTI NPOA implementation as it provides a or recreation (e.g., Hermes, 2004). In the biogeographic regions, nevertheless, were basis for determining how well Goal 3 of the Philippines, these MPAs are classified as shown Based on 2008 data, Weeks et al., (2009) (Table best protected, with 1.25% and 0.66% of their NPOA is addressed. 6.5) reported 985 MPAs being established in municipal water area within no-take MPAs, in Table 6.4. Currently, there are 439 legally 2 established marine protected areas, and many the Philippines covering an area of 14,943 km . respectively. These bioregions (biogeographic Of these, 942 MPAs had a no-take component, regions) contained the large no-take areas of Using MEAT, MSN facilitated the assessment others are being proposed. Most of these 2 MPAs are within municipal waters, although a with a combined no-take area of 1,459 km . Tubbataha Reef National Park and Apo Reef of 110 of the 1,620 locally managed MPAs in few, such as Apo Reef and Tubbataha Reefs, are Thus, 4.9% of coastal municipal waters (within Natural Park, respectively. The size of MPAs the Philippines as part of the 2011 Best MPA 2 2 found offshore in the Sulu Sea. Some of these 15 kms. of the coastline) were protected ranged from 0.01 km to 27,89.14 km (Siargao Awards (Dizon et al., 2011). This represents MPAs have been declared through the National within MPAs, with 0.5% within no-take areas. Protected Landscape and Seascape) (mean = 8% or 31,520 of the 393,994.46 hectares (total Estimates of coral reef area in the Philippines 23.60 km2). area) of locally managed MPAs in the country. Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act 2 while others were established through various varied between 20,000 km (Weeks et al., 2009) and 22,484 km2 (Burke et al., 2011). national laws and municipal ordinances. One Table 6.5 Number and size of MPAs per biogeographic region (Source: Weeks et al., 2009) the most important protected areas in the From this range, an estimated 2.7%-3.4% of country is the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park, coral reef areas in the Philippines is protected which has also been designated by the United within no-take MPAs. Community-based MPAs Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural comprised 95% of records in their database MPA c (km2) watersb 2 Number of Organization (UNESCO) as a World Heritage with a combined estimated area of 628 km Marine Biogeographic Regiona 2 MPAs Site. and no-take area of 206 km . The increase in All No Take All No Take Table 6.4 Classification of the various declared MPAs in the Philippines (Source: Tun et al., 2004, Arceo et al., 2008) Celebes Sea 50 2,345.13 7.37 6.77 0.02

Code MPA Designation Status/Category Total Number Northern Philippine Sea 35 2,469.60 7.54 6.52 0.02 AR Artificial Reef 10 ECA Environmentally Critical Area 1 Southern Philippine Sea 102 3,500.02 33.16 12.67 0.12 RSP Reserve, Sanctuary, Park 800 South China Sea (West Philippine Sea) 1,836.93 283.71 4.26 0.66 MTS Marine Turtle Sanctuary 7 51 MSFR Mangrove Swamp Forest Reserve 120 Sulu Sea 90 3,573.35 991.29 4.52 1.25 PLS Protected Landscape and Seascape 10 SP Seashore Park 1 Visayan Seas (Visayas Region) 663 1,219.50 136.50 1.50 0.17 TZMR Tourist Zone Marine Reserve 65 WA Wilderness Area 52 WT Wetland 10 a Marine bioregions (biogeographic regions) taken from Ong et al., 2002 M Multiple (more than 1 category) 50 b Municipal water boundaries (15 km offshore) were calculated following DENR, 2001. U Undetermined 50

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MEAT results show that, in terms of number, However, in terms of area, this translates to As of end of September 2011, CTSP completed 70 or 64% of these benchmarked MPAs is only 4,305 hectares effectively managed, or the assessment of nine out of 33 NIPAS MPAs effectively managed (Level 2 - Level 4). 14% of total area of locally-managed MPAs using MEAT. The number represents 700,018 assessed by MEAT (Table 6.6). hectares, or 41% of the 1.7 million hectares of NIPAS MPAs. Three (33%) of the nine NIPAS Table 6.6 Benchmarks of management of local MPAs based on MEAT application (Source: MSN-CI-CTSP Report, 2011)

Number of MPAs Figure 6.1 Location of NIPAS MPAs benchmarked for management effectiveness using MEAT Management Effectiveness Total Area (hectares) (locally managed) (Source: Dizon et al., 2011)

Level 0 - MPA need to satisfy the requirements of Level 1 26 24,590.44 Level 1 - MPA is Established 14 956.84 Level 2 - MPA is Strengthened 48 2,922.11 Level 3 - MPA is Effectively Sustained 21 1,361.39 Level 4 - MPA is Effectively Institutionalized 1 22.91 Total 110 29,853.69

Table 6.7 Result of gap analysis of present MPA management status in the Philippines (Source: MSN-CI-CTSP Report, 2011)

Description Number of MPAs MPA MEAT % with MPA MEAT

Total Number of MPAs recorded in the database 1208 117 9.6 % Established MPAs 1072 113 10.5 % Proposed MPAs 136 3 2.2 % Biogeographic Zone Northeastern Philippine Sea 122 1 0.8 % Southeastern Philippine Sea 48 2 4.2 % South China Sea (West Philippine Sea) 107 18 16.8 % Sulu Sea 85 28 32.9 % Visayan Seas (Visayas Region) 740 41 5.5 % Celebes Sea 104 26 25.0 %

Most of the larger MPAs were observed in South China Sea (West Philippine Sea) and Luzon followed by Mindanao. Visayas has Celebes Sea, rose slightly in the Visayan Sea, the most number of small MPAs. From a gap and registered no considerable difference in analysis of the present MPA management the Sulu Sea. However, there appears to be status in the Philippines (2011), a total of a 50% reduction in the South Philippine Sea 1,208 MPAs were recorded, 1,072 of which (Southeastern Philippine Sea) which needs (89%) had an established status (Table 6.7). further verification. The analysis also included Compared with Week’s report in 2009, there MPAs that were evaluated using MEAT, an was an increase in number of MPAs in several evidence-based tool used by MSN that largely biogeographic regions. There was four times emphasized experiences of MPAs in the as many presently in the North Philippine Sea Philippines. (Northeastern Philippine Sea), double in the

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Table 6.8. Level of effective management of NIPAS MPAs in the Philippines (Source: Dizon et al., 2011) Table 6.9 2011 benchmarks of management of national MPAs based on MEAT application (Source: Dizon et al., 2011)

Area Level of Location Number of MPAs Region Name of Marine Protected Area covered management Total Area (Province) Management Effectiveness (nationally (hectare) effectiveness (hectare) managed) 2 1 Palaui Island Marine Reserve Cagayan 7,415 Level 0 - No management plan adopted Level 0 - MPAs need to satisfy the requirements of Level 1 3 16,147 3 2 Masinloc and Oyon Bays Zambales 7,568 Level 0 - No Marine Reserve management plan Level 1 - MPA is Established 3 353,301 adopted Level 2 - MPA is Strengthened 2 231,742 4B 3 Apo Reef Natural Park Occidental Mindoro 15,792 Level 2 - MPA is strengthened Level 3 - MPA is Effectively Sustained 1 98,828

Level 4 - MPA is Effectively Institutionalized 0 4B 4 El Nido Managed Resource Palawan 89,134 Level 1 - MPA is Protected Area established Total 9 700,018

4B 5 Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park Palawan 98,828 Level 3 - MPA is effectively sustained

7 6 Alburquerque-Loay-Loboc Bohol 1,164 Level 0 - No Protected Landscape and management Seascape plan adopted; No baseline Besides examining the level of effective Figure 6.2 Assessment of management status of management of MPA using MEAT, the nine NIPAS sites in the Philippines assessment (Source: Dizon et al., 2011) conducted focus or status of management was also evaluated, which includes: management ARMM 7 Turtle Island Wildlife Tawi-Tawi 242,967 Level 1 - MPA is plan, management body, legal instrument, Sanctuary established community participation, financing, IEC, Management Plan enforcement, monitoring and evaluation, and 100% Site Management 11 8 Pujada Bay Protected Davao Oriental 21,200 Level 1 - MPA is 80% site development. Thresholds of these criteria Development Body Landscape/Seascape established were further known from the total scores in 60% 40% the MEAT analysis. Figure 6.2 shows the results Monitoring 20% Legal and Evaluation Instrument 12 9 Sarangani Bay Protected Sarangani & 215,950 Level 2 - MPA is of the assessment for all national MPAs (i.e., 0% Seascape General Santos City strengthened NIPAS). Community Enforcement Participation

TOTAL 700,018 IEC Financing

Palaui Island Landscape and Seascape (Cagayan Valley)

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A short review by Panga (2011) elucidated the importance of MPA network and provided some examples in the Philippines. MPA networks are created as connected, accelerated, and synergistic efforts (Laffoley et al., 2008). Connected MPAs means that large-scale protection allows the maintenance of connectivity among ecosystems which, in turn, covers replicated and representative sites that also includes risk reduction aims aside from the basic fisheries and conservation goals. Furthermore, networks Alburquerque-Loay-Loboc PLS (Bohol) Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary (Tawi-Tawi) Pujada Bay PLS (Davao Oriental) ideally bring cooperation among managers and the community for shared stewardship responsibilities. MPA networks also accelerate the protection of the reefs through larger areas covering more ecosystems, faster bioaccumulation, and recovery rates. Finally, large-scale protection permits cost- effectiveness through the economies of scale. Opportunities are increased due to the cooperation of managers and through multiplier effects of scaling up. Objectives of MPA networks focus not only on ecological attributes but also on the economic and socio- cultural aspects (Laffoley et al., 2008). Guided Masinloc & Oyon Bays Marine Reserve (Zambales) Apo Reef Natural Park (Occidental Mindoro) El Nido-Taytay Managed Resource Protected Area (Palawan) by these principles, Panga (2011) showed some MPA management in the Philippines, which illustrated the different levels of networks by their structural framework. For example, the Masinloc Marine Sanctuary Association (in The largest MPA in the Philippines (Tubbataha Zambales, western Luzon) is a municipality- Reefs Natural Park) has also the highest level based fishers federation. The structure is of management status with high capacity single-level, with several fishers formed into a in all criteria except in the financial aspect, federation further grouped into committees, although only slightly below 80%. This reflects which are composed of fisher-members the best conditions of the site (e.g. , high fish from four different MPAs in the municipality: biomass, big sizes of fish, high species richness, Panglit, Bani, San Salvador, and Taclobo MPAs extensive and less degraded reef habitats, etc.). (Ebue, 2011). Other multi-level structures are Apo Reef Natural Park also showed relatively observed in some municipalities with their higher levels of management status indicating unique organizational set-up (Panga, 2011). similarly remarkable conditions compared to Masinloc and Oyon Bays, Albuquerque-Loay- Loboc, and Palaui Island protected sites which More sites are included in the recent Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park (Palawan) require a lot of effort in several criteria. information on marine key biodiversity areas (MKBA) in the Philippines (Fig. 6.3) (MKBA Report, 2009). There was an increase in the number of MKBAs in the marine biogeographic

120104 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 105121 Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans regions, except in the Southeastern Philippine eastern shores of the Moro Gulf (southwest Sea which remained the same in 2009 (Fig. of the Mindanao (see Figure 6.3). The total Figure 6.3 Updated MKBAs in the Philippines (Source: CI MKBA Report, 2009) 6.4). Majority (about 66%) of the MKBAs coral reef areas within the MKBA are given in were identified in the Visayan Seas, Sulu Sea Table 6.10, although this report still used the and West Philippine Sea. The Visayas Region previous data due to constraints in selecting had the most MKBAs followed by the Sulu estimates of reef extent from the present data Sea. There were even considerable increases set. Moreover, there appears to be less data in the Visayas Region and Celebes Sea (Figs. on specific habitats, such as gravel beaches or 6.3 and 6.4). However, there was still paucity rocky shores that are less likely to be studied of information from several places, such as given the lack of interest in them. Romblon (east of Mindoro Island), and the

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Figure 6.4 The Number of MKBAs Found in the Six Marine Biogeographic Regions of the Philippines (A1 - Northeastern Philippine Sea, A2 - Southeastern Philippine Sea, B – West Philippine Sea, 6.1.4 Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) C- Sulu Sea, D– Visayas Region, and E – Celebes Sea) (Source: CI MKBA Report, 2009)

6.1.4.1 Achievement of Targets to Date

The NPOA presented the following sets of targets and indicators under Goal 4:

Table 6.11 Targets and indicators under Goal 4 (Source: National Plan of Action, 2009)

Objective Description Indicator Target Actual

Goal 4 Achieve climate change adaptation

Target 4.1 Intermediate Presence/absence of national Baseline: 0 1 - adoption Result: Region- climate change adaptation plan or (2009) of a CCA plan/ wide early action framework framework (2010) for climate change adaptation plan for the near-shore Area in sq. km. covered by climate Baseline: marine and coastal change vulnerability assessment 15,000 sq. environment and identified early actions to km. (Verde and small island address climate change impacts Island Passage ecosystems Corridor, Apo Table 6.10 Reef Areas Estimates Based on Satellite Images, Found in the MKBA Areas per developed and Reef) in 2010 Biogeographic Region (Source: Ong et al., 2000, MERF, 2009) implemented Land and water areas (in sq. km.) Baseline: TBD that have integrated climate Target: TBD adaptation into local governance (plans and actions) Biogeographic Coral Reef Area within Name of Marine Biogeographic Region Zone MKBA (ha) Number of local government units Baseline: TBD (i.e., coastal municipal and cities) Target: 900 with local CC adaptation plans, coastal 3,323,649.78 A-1 Northeastern Philippine Sea budgets and implementing activities municipalities of the plan and cities

A-2 Southeastern Philippine Sea 505,111.81 Number of educational institutions Baseline: TBD integrating CC in the curriculum Target: TBD West Philippine Sea B 24,623,758.80 (KIG = 22,846,585.81) Target 4.2 Networked Number of institutions and Target: At least C Sulu Sea (TRNMP = 90,419.67) 8,302,064.16 national centers networks addressing climate one network of excellence on change adaptation coordinated with for each of the climate change national government support biogeographic adaptation for region Visayan Seas (Visayas Region) D 3,216,427.78 marine and coastal environments are established and in E Celebes Sea 875,642.18 full operation

124108 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 109125 Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans

6.1.4.2 Programs and Initiatives that implemented by six partner institutions led Project 2. Retrospective Analyses of Climate Project 3. Monitoring and Impact Research on Support Goal 4 by the University of the Philippines-Marine Change from Coastal Erosion Trend and Resilience of Reefs (MIRROR) led by Dr. Wilfredo Science Institute (UPMSI), having the following Uplifted Coral Reef Assemblages (RetroCET) led Y. Licuanan of De La Salle University (DLSU) The Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape (SSS) Program of by Dr. Fernando Siringan of UPMSI component researches on Climate Change: This study aimed to document changes in the Global Marine Division of the Conservation This research looked into sea level changes the reef, brought about by anomalously International supports the Verde Island Passage Project 1. Climate Change and the Coast: from 1992-2008 using the altimetry-derived high sea surface temperatures (SST), using (VIP) MPA Network in formulating a climate- Vulnerability of Bentho-Pelagic Productivity SSH. The SSH data have also been compared high resolution techniques of transect and resilient MPA strategy. SSS helped establish (CCC-BP) led by Dr. Laura David of UPMSI with the available tide gauge data in order to permanent quadrat monitoring. The images, the first climate-resilient (climate-smart) extract the non-oceanographic signal in the recruitment tiles, and transect data were MPA in Lubang Island and have initiated the Sites representing the different climate datasets. The vulnerability of coastal villages processed and a transition matrix and system development of climate-resilient MPA strategy typologies in the Philippines were determined in Davao and Iloilo to erosion and marine models were developed to project the for Calatagan for inclusion in their municipal from this study. Automatic weather stations inundation has been assessed. Seasonal responses of coral communities under different development plan. Two CI-Philippines projects were installed at 10 sites across different monitoring of shoreline changes, through GPS SST scenarios. Results included identification focused on climate change – USAID Coral environmental gradients in the country. The surveys and beach profiling was also done in of coral genera susceptible to climate related Triangle Support Partnership (CTSP), and IKI climate typology (see Figure 2.5 in Chapter 2) Batangas and Zambales. Figure 6.5 shows sea bleaching, effects of temperature on coral Ecosystem-based Adaptation – contribute to was derived from the modeling and simulation level change in the past 15 years. The analysis cover and diversity (loss of 50% coral cover in the SSS outcomes in the VIP. of oceanographic processes (i.e., seasonal which employed the stable isotope ratios and one site associated with a drastic increase in weather residence and material residence). equipment are further presented in Figure 6.6. SST. Further projections of reef health under The Remote Sensing Information for Living The simulation showed highly monsoonal Environments and Nationwide Tools for weather in the country. The sensitivity of Sentinel Ecosystems in our Archipelagic Seas rainfall anomalies in the southern parts of the (ReSiLIENT SEAS) Program was formerly country to Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) known as the ICECREAM [Integrated Coastal was highlighted. The sensitivity of Sea Surface Enhancement: Coastal Research, Evaluation Height (SSH) anomalies of the entire country and Adaptive Management Program. It is to SOI was also observed. In addition, types supported by the Department of Science I, II, III, IV, VII, and X (Figure 2.4 in Chapter 2) and Technology (DOST) administered by the are also sensitive to Pacific Decadal Oscillation Philippine Council of Agriculture and Aquatic (PDO) state. Research and Development (PCAARD) and

Figure 6.5 a & b Seal evel change in the Philippines 15 Years ago based on SSH difference (a) and Rate (b) (Source: RESILIENT SEAS Project Report, 2011)

Figure 6.6 a-d Coral cores (6a) are taken to compare past (6b) and present (6c) conditions and sampled per density band of the coral to analyze for stable isotope ratios to reconstruct paleoenvironments (Source: RESILIENT SEAS Project Report, 2011)

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various scenarios of climate change and human The interaction of the local site attributes such Project 7: Climate Impact and Adaptation wisely to the climate challenge. Sensitivity impacts will aid in communicating decision as the extent of reef habitat, wave exposure in the Coastal Environment (CLIMACE) led of species, habitats, ecosystems and coastal options for local governments and other and degree of fisheries exploitation have been by Victor S. Soliman, Ph.D.; Bicol University, communities to potential impacts of climate constituents. This complements with other found to be crucial to the relative vulnerability Tabaco City, Albay change variability, such as siltation related to increased precipitation, storm surge buffering efforts in the RESILIENT SEAS program utilizing of Tripnuestes gratilla vis-à-vis storminess and Together with the other fisheries project of ecosystems, and thermal anomalies vulnerability assessments with adaptation sea surface temperature variability and climate components, CLIMACE provides value-added that lead to coral bleaching and mortality, strategies e.g. MPA and fisheries management related variation. insights on the social and ecological aspects were highlighted. These were important to reduce risks in hazards through timely on the Siganid and scallop fisheries in the Bicol contributions to the vulnerability assessment actions. Project 6: Monitoring of Potentially Vulnerable region. Their engagement with the most highly (VA) and climate change simulation scenarios. Coastal Fisheries in Northwestern Mindanao climate adaptation conscious Governor Joey Project 4: Fisheries Ecosystem Connectivity (Coast Fish) led by Dr. Asuncion B. de Guzman Salceda allowed good opportunities for climate and Monitoring (Fish EConnect) / UP Visayas; of the Mindanao State University – Naawan adaptation linkages with local governments Project leader: Wilfredo L. Campos, Ph.D., and the Bicol University. One of the mechanisms of building reef resilience was through the initial engagement University of the Philippines – Visayas Coastal fisheries in the four bays of Northern Project 8: Research and Development for of a broader network of coral bleaching watch Mindanao were studied to determine Adaptive Management and Feedback partners. This has stimulated widespread This project focuses on the early life history sustainability amidst high fishing pressure. Monitoring Networks (ADAPT) led by Dr. reports of bleaching in the country. A system (ELH) of target species such as Portunus Specifically, the sardine fishery in Sindangan, Porfirio M. Aliño, of UPMSI in the internet was set up that resulted in pelagicus and Siganus fuscescens. Together Zamboanga del Norte was observed to exhibit nationwide reporting and elicited over 500 with Projects 6 & 7 (see below), comparative a variation (strong seasonality) that was linked hits of coral bleaching incidence around the seasonal variability of target fisheries is to changes in monsoons. There appeared country (Figure 6.8). The ADAPT project of the RESILIENT SEAS demonstrated. some relationships between fisheries and program (2009-2011) provided enabling oceanographic patterns to show the linkages activities towards determining adaptation Project 5: Invertebrate Fisheries Populations that can relate to climate change variability. strategies among the constituents of the sites. The publication of The State of the Coasts as Response Indicators for Climate (INVERTS) Sardine stock variability was influenced by Training, monitoring and participation of local Report (2010) (Fig. 6.9) was a crucial output of / Xavier University; Project leader: Hilly Ann the periodic changes in the oceanographic partners in relation to climate-related impacts the study to provide the status of resources and Roa-Quiaoit, Ph.D., Xavier University processes (temperature-driven upwelling were demonstrated in six sites. Participation habitats as benchmark indices vis-a-vis climate zones) (Figure 6.7). in national workshops and international change impacts. This research also focused fora have highlighted the importance of an on vulnerability assessments and identifying integrated interdisciplinary approach to adapt adaptation strategies.

Figure 6.7 Temperature-driven upwelling event off Sindangan, Zamboanga del Norte (left panel), and its influence on plankton productivity crucial to the variability of the sardine populations (right panel) Figure 6.8 Initial summary of inputs from Philippine Coral Bleaching Watch and NOAA Coral Reef Watch (Source: Villanoy et al., 2011) (Source: RESILIENT SEAS National Workshop, 2010)

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6.1.5.1 Achievement of Targets to Figure 6.9 State of the Coasts Report 2010 (left) and the Reefs in Heat – a Photo Contest (right) – Date during the RESILIENT SEAS National Workshop 2010 The NPOA presented the following sets of targets and indicators under Goal No. 5:

Table 6.12 Targets and indicators under Goal 5 (Source: National Plan of Action, 2009

Objective Description Indicator Target Actual

Goal 5 Improve the status of threatened species

Target 5.1 Intermediate Result: Number of species 2 – marine turtles and 1 - sharks Improve status of action plans and mammals by 2010; sharks, sea turtles, policies developed seabirds, wrasses and marine mammals other reef fishes by 2015 and other identified Target 5.2 threatened species Area (in sq. km.) Protected spawning Another project that focuses on climate change in-country partners and building the capacity of protected aggregation sites for fishes is the “Initiating the CTI Coastal Learning of member countries in coastal climate marine habitat and nesting sites for turtles that contributes to and birds - TBD by 2010; Adaptation Network (CLAN)” with financial change adaptation. Regional meetings and conservation of 10% of the 2% target by trainings are intended to facilitate exchanges assistance from the USAID and implemented threatened species 2015 fully protected coral by the Marine Environment and Resources on vulnerability assessment, the development and for their reefs; Foundation (MERF) of UPMSI. Its primary and implementation of coastal adaptation protection 10% of the 10% target by objective is to initiate institutional learning strategies, and monitoring and evaluation 2020 fully protected coral partnerships among Coral Triangle regional and processes (Fig. 6.10). reefs; Mangroves – TBD Seagrass – TBD

Target 5.3 Change in By 2009 – Philippine conservation status marine endemic bony Fig. 6.10 Regional workshops on Coastal Climate Change Adaptation Initiatives organized by the CTI-CLAN of threatened marine fishes; wrasses assessed; Project of UPMSI species assessed By 2010 – baseline under IUCN red-list established for priority taxa criteria By 2020 – status improved

As shown above, the NPOA Goal 5 on the status and the Marine Mammal Action Plan are under of threatened species presents one target and development. By 2015, the Species Action three indicators. Plans on seabirds, wrasses and reef fishes are scheduled to have been developed. The NPOA targets to produce three Species 6.1.5. Threatened Species Status Monitoring Action Plans. To date, the national plan of In addition, the estimation of the area in action on Sharks has been completed. Two square kilometer of protected marine habitat other Species Action Plans, particularly the that contributes to the conservation of the finalization of the Turtle National Action Plan, threatened species is being determined.

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6.1.5.2 Programs and Initiatives that A study of the biology and fishery of the subadults, and/or broodstock largely of T. education institutions (HEIs), called mentees. Support Goal 5 short-necked clam Paphia undulata in Negros gigas (MIngoa-Licuanan and Gomez, 2007) The main objective is to transfer knowledge and Occidental waters resulted in guidelines for in at least 64 sites. Natural recruitment of T. skills from centers of excellence to mentee HEIs Studies have been carried out to determine the management of paphia, which include: (a) gigas has already been reported: (1) along the for the latter to better assist local government the recovery of population of marine turtles. fishing sizes that are sexually mature, i.e., > northwestern coasts of Pangasinan (western units (LGUs) on the technical aspects of coastal In Region XI, critically endangered hawksbill 45 mm, and (b) imposing close seasons during Luzon), particularly in the Malilnep Channel resource management and enhance NPOA turtles have been observed to nest in several spawning (August – November). and waters off Cory Sandbar in Bolinao and implementation. Five centers of excellence sites (Punta , Matina Aplaya, Davao near the Panacalan marine protected area in and six mentee universities (i.e., two from City and in other areas). A 5-year Memorandum Anda, and off Quezon and Governor Islands each or three CTSP geographies, namely, Verde of Agreement (MOA) from year 2004 to 2009 in the Hundred Islands of Alaminos (Mingoa- Island Passage, Palawan, and Tawi-Tawi) were has been forged among the DENR, the Mayor Licuanan and Gomez, 2009); and (2) in waters involved in the University Mentoring Program of Davao City, and the Davao Light and Power off Cantaan in Guinsiliban, Camiguin (northern under a Memorandum of Understanding-type Company, Inc. for the conservation of marine Mindanao) (Roa-Quioait, unpublished data). of collaboration (Figure 6.11). A short course turtles and dugong (Dugong dugon). It is important to protect sites where periodic in Science in Coastal Resource Management recruitment occurs to allow the establishment Foundation focused on physical and chemical A Research & Development program for sea of T. gigas coinciding with natural hydrographic oceanography, biology, coastal habitats, cucumber is currently implemented by the patterns. There must be coincident efforts fisheries, and climate change topics. Marine Science Institute of the University of Trochus niloticus l. (Top Shell) to coordinate with the concerned local the Philippines to improve the management of government units to render the recruitment natural populations and promote sustainable site a protected area. Another ecological benefit fishing. Community-based stock enhancement of top to an area where giant clams are transplanted shell, Trochus niloticus L. aimed at enhancing is marine biodiversity enhancement. Feeding Inventory and resource assessments of sea the resource population by restocking the aggregation of Spratelloides delicatulus or cucumber in key marine biogeographic areas reef with juveniles and adult top shells, and blue on giant clam released gametes in the country have been undertaken by Higher helping restore the severely exploited trochus have been observed during in situ spawning Education Institutes (HEIs) and supported by populations in Palawan. IEC activities (training- induction of T. gigas in the ocean nursery the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). seminars on management and biology) were (Maboloc and Mingoa-Licuanan, 2011). In This program enhances the capacities of the also undertaken. This is part of the Fish addition, the giant clam shell, being of calcium HEIs to conduct resource assessment, data Sanctuary Management Plan of the community. carbonate, becomes a substrate for recruiting handling, processing, and analysis. sessile marine organisms, including seaweeds, tubicolous polychaetes, sea squirts, boring and Figure 6.11 Mentors and first batch of mentees The Bicol University in Albay (southeastern sessile bivalves, hard corals, soft corals, and of the Science in Coastal Resources Luzon) is assisting the local government unit of boring and sessile sponges. Those working on Management Foundation Course Cauayan, Masbate (Visayas Region) by restoration ecology have utilized the shell’s (Photo: CI-Philippines) providing scientific data as basis of ordinances chemical nature in developing methods for and policies in the management of scallops in transplanting coral fragments (James et al., The Coastal and Marine Management Office Asid Gulf, such as size limits, close season, 2011). of the DENR-PAWB is involved in issues zoning of scallop beds, etc. regarding management and conservation Tridacna spp. (Giant Clams) 6.2 Capacity-building of marine and coastal ecosystems. CMMO also conducts capacity-building activities to UP-MSI has undertaken a long-term restocking CI-CTSP supports the establishment and enhance knowledge and skills in biodiversity program of T. gigas using cultured seeds implementation of the University Mentoring conservation including Integrated Coastal (Gomez and Mingoa-Licuanan, 2006, Mingoa- Program. The partnership with UP-MSI allows Management. These activities are conducted Licuanan and Gomez, 2007, Hazel et al., the engagement of recognized centers of among technical staff at PAWB and PAWCZMS. 2009). MSI’s giant clam restocking program excellence on marine science and related Trained technical staff provides echo seminars in Philippine coastal waters has continued disciplines to serve as mentors in higher and trainings for provincial offices (PENRO and Paphia undulata (Short-Necked Clam) from 1990, transplanting cultured juveniles, CENRO) and local government units.

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Ecotourism, which is part of marine facilities to address the basic social are aquaculture activities and development government of Puerto Princesa. Finally, the management and conservation, is also a subject services needs of disadvantaged coastal fees for resorts or other large-scale economic Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park established a of capacity building initiatives. PAWB has communities, and support efforts of development projects located within or near sinking-ETF (contains about PhP8 million or conducted trainings focusing on ecotourism local governments to mitigate coastal MPA boundaries. Some LGUs also charge US$170,000) in 1998. concepts, principles, full site diagnostic, pollution and degradation of resources. environment or green fees among certain ecotourism planning and development process users in an area. 6.3.4 Public-Private Partnerships and business planning to capacitate Enterprise Development Assistants, DENR Technical Staff, 6.3 Financial Considerations: Sustainable The objectives of these partnerships are varied and People’s Organizations. In 2009, the Bureau Financing Mechanisms for MPAs 6.3.2 Registration and Licensing Fees and may range from simple corporate social took the lead in the capacity-building activity This is a common form of revenue-generating responsibility targets to the convergence of on the development of a Gender-Responsive This section is a quick review of existing mechanism employed for CRM. Registration values between conservation groups and profit- Ecotourism Management Plan for Pamilacan financing schemes that have directly or and licensing of fishers has been practiced in the based organizations. In the Verde Passage, two Island in Bohol (GREMPPI). The activity was indirectly contributed to the enforcement and commercial sector and is being implemented such partnerships have been formed. One is the aimed at formulating/preparing GREMPPI and maintenance requirements of various MPAs in by BFAR. The FISH Project implemented the Batangas Bay Coastal Resources Management drafting guidelines on Ecotourism Management the country throughout the years. program in one of its sites (i.e., Ubay, Bohol), Foundation (BCRMF), which is composed of and Development Planning Process. and the LGU raised almost a million pesos in industry players in Batangas Bay. Also, First 6.3.1 User Fees a year. Another USAID-funded project (i.e., Gen. Corporation (power generator company) The Integrated Coastal Resource Management Philippine Environmental Governance) also set and Conservation International-Philippines Project is being implemented by the DENR, User fees are imposed on recreational visitors up such schemes within coastal project sites. formed First Philippine Conservation, Inc. DA-BFAR, and eight partner provinces mainly in marine reserves or MPAs. This has Finally, UP-MSI has recommended registration (FPCI). The Coastal Resources Management and 80 municipalities implemented in six been started mostly in the Visayas region and a licensing scheme in the implementation (CRM) Program drafted for Verde was the priority marine biodiversity corridors and through the initiatives of Silliman University, of CRM projects in Northern Luzon. In most of main strategy for the Verde MBCC of the Sulu- ecosystems. Its goal is to manage coastal e.g., Apo Island, and the former USAID-funded these cases, revenues generated are used to Sulawesi Seascape project to provide technical resources in a sustainable manner and to help Coastal Resources Management Project, partly fund enforcement activities of Bantay supervision and guidance. Finally, FPCI signed increase the income of coastal communities. It e.g., Sumilon, Gilutongan and Olango MPAs. Dagat teams that monitor their local MPAs, or up as the main implementing agency for Verde has four components, namely: Another initiative, called Environmental and in the absence of MPAs, patrol their municipal conservation work, committing to extend work Natural Resources Accounting Project (ENRAP), waters to guard against fishing violations. in the area beyond the life of the SSS project. 1. Policy and Institutional Strengthening set the technical guidelines in estimating user and Development, which will develop fees through a DENR Administrative Order that 6.3.3 Trust Funds The El Nido Foundation was formed in El Nido, an institutional framework for national covered all protected areas under the NIPAS and local government coordination Palawan, wherein the tourism industry has system, some of which included seascapes The biggest endowment trust fund established partnered with local communities and LGUs in of Integrated Coastal Resources and MPAs including Hundred Islands National Management (ICRM); for conservation objectives locally is the the area. Park and El Nido Marine Park. Fees based on Foundation for the Philippine Environment 2. ICRM and Biodiversity Conservation, scuba diving at locally protected areas, such as (FPE). In 1992, USAID funded the purchase 6.3.5 Payments for Environmental Services which will protect and manage coastal those in the Mabini-Tingloy area in Batangas by WWF of US$19 million of commercial (PES) ecosystems in selected threatened (Luzon) and in Moalboal, Siquijor and Bohol debt owed by the Philippines. In exchange areas of high biodiversity; MPAs (Visayas Region) were determined as per for cancelling the debt, the Philippines The definition of PES includes all types recommendation by the Coastal Conservation allocated US$17 million to establish FPE. of contracts that place financial value on 3. Enterprise Development and Income and Education Foundation, Inc. (CCEF). The Interest earned from investing the funds in a stewardship services ― from one-on-one Diversification to provide municipal Mabini-Tingloy diving fee system has proven financial instrument sustained the operations informal agreements to large-scale public fisherfolk with supplementary income to be one of the more successful attempts, and projects of the FPE. The Puerto Princesa systems that shift economic investments and reduce their reliance on fishing earning more than a million pesos per year for Subterranean River National Park in Palawan towards desirable land stewardship. The PES by promoting environment-friendly each municipality. established a revolving-ETF of PhP8.9 million approach is attractive in that (a) it generates sustainable enterprises and livelihoods; Aside from recreational user fees, other (US$190,000) in 1993, with its annual revenue new financing; (b) it is sustainable; and (c) it is and, types of uses that have been subjected to a supplemented with income from tourist fees efficient. user fee scheme (or at least a study thereof) and PhP3.2 million (US$68,000) from the city 4. Social and Environmental services and In the Philippines, success stories of PES

118134 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 STATE OF THE CORAL TRIANGLE REPORT PHILIPPINES 2012 119135 Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans Plan of Action Initiatives and Future Plans schemes have been found in the terrestrial waters in computing for IRAs. In other cases, and sustainable development among Marine Fisheries, pp. 65-69. Coastal sector, particularly for watershed management. such as those experienced by FISH Project students), World Wetlands Day Resource Management Project, Cebu Such experiences have yet to be found in the sites, tapping into the Special Activity Fund event that showcases good practices City, Philippines. coastal and marine sector. An attempt was made (SAF) of LGU budgets proved successful in of partner institutions in wetland in Verde Passage to establish a wastewater providing regular budgets for CRM. Still, in management and conservation, Arceo, H.O., P.M. Aliño, and R.O.M. Gonzales. pollution permit system, which may not be areas where MPA establishment and CRM and International Day for Biological 2008. Where Are We Now with Marine exactly a PES scheme, but would approximate have been institutionalized, MPA networks Diversity, among others. Protected Areas?” In Reefs through one. Attribution could not be established have been formed, such as in Surigao del Sur Time 2008: Initiating the State of the n due to the sheer volume of domestic sources and Zamboanga del Sur (Mindanao). These Public Information and Communication Coasts Reports, pp. 145e152. Coral and the lack of wastewater management alliances are sustained by annual contributions for Behavior Development deals Reef Information Network of the infrastructure in the municipalities involved. of member municipalities and enforcement with producing IEC materials, such as Philippines (PhilReefs), MPA Support In fisheries, there is potential on individual efforts are coordinated, thus creating more posters, coffee table book, brochures, Network, Marine Environment and tradable quotas, but conclusions have always impact and synergy among members. flyers, primers, calendars, bookmarks, Resources Foundation, Inc., and the pointed to the fact that such schemes may not button pins, and stickers. These are Marine Science Institute, University of be feasible due to the multi-species character Aside from those already mentioned, taxes, disseminated to different stakeholders the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City. of the country’s fisheries. The ecotourism penalties and fines, are popular and often- to convey the urgent need to conserve sector is another potential area, but there tested modes for raising funds. biodiversity. Armada, Nygiel, Alan T. White, and Patrick is a need to establish some form of tenure Christie. 2009 “Managing Fisheries instrument to coastal dwellers and nearby Resources in Danajon Bank, Bohol, communities if PES schemes are to take effect. 6.4 Public Awareness Philippines: An Ecosystem-Based Finally, mangrove forests may have a major Approach.” Coastal Management, 37: role to play in relation to carbon sequestration Aside from pursuing capacity-building 3, 308—330, First published: 01May scheme although this may take some time as initiatives, PAWB is carrying out its Information, 2009 (iFirst). more research is needed to determine how Education, and Communication (IEC) initiatives REFERENCES Atkinson S., N. Esters, G. Farmer, K. 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