CEU eTD Collection A Heterotopia of Deviation –Representations Submitted to Central European University Department of Gender Studies DepartmentofGender Submitted toCentralEuropeanUniversity In partialfulfillment oftherequirements forthedegree ofMasters ofArts The “Unique”The Juchitán de Zaragoza inDocumentary Films Gendered and Sexed Spaces through Representation Supervisor: Professor Hadley Renkin Hadley Supervisor: Professor of Juchitán Diana EscobedoLastiri Budapest, Hungary 2011 By CEU eTD Collection hegemonic notions of gender and sexuality organizingas features modernof society. their represention of Juchitan constructs it as an Other space and, in fact, ends up reinscribing of liberatory films,the the argue, despite Thus, projects visibility I through the deviant. the of refracted control and order societal of mechanisms the examine me to enables premise is the norm this behavior outside Foucaultfor existenceand whose the of argues people latter, Inthe deviation.” of a“heterotopia or a“heterotopia,” calls what intoMichel Foucault it turn understand, andthus “we” to as aplace are unable Juchitán thefilmsrepresent examine how look into the asymmetry of power between the Other and the dominant culture. Furthermore, I I gender, and sexuality, ethnicity, nature, about ideas with intersection its and authenticity, of notion the Through system. sexuality and gender distinct seemingly its on based West, dominant the from is Other that itas aspace constructs Juchitán of representation the visualhow of studies anthropology,and category. Buildingon post-colonial this Iexamine associated with male cross-gender behaviorhomosexuality, and Iproblematize the salient use has emphasized its alleged matriarchy gender” category,and “third history that with representation arich of of Oaxaca,state Mexico, in acity the de Zaragoza, In this thesis I examine four documentary fourIn films madein documentary Iexamine thesis this 21 the ii st century about Juchitán about century muxe . Typically Abstract CEU eTD Collection for the team spirit.And, thank fruit stand outside the station, to the professors that inspired me, and especially thank you Mer I could write extensively in this section… I am thankful to my family, tomy friends, to the you Hadley, you became my (and Mer’s) cricket. iii Acknowledgements CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 87 Bibliography...... 80 Conclusion...... 4 Chapter 63 Juchitán as aheterotopia: ...... an Other real space 3 Chapter The “Authentic:” 43 Representing the ...... Inside and Outside of Juchitán 2 Chapter 32 Documentary film: mediating ...... imaginary realities 1 Chapter Juchitán (in Mexico): identity, gender, sexuality 15 and representation...... Introduction...... 6 iii ...... Acknowledgements Abstract...... ii akrudFls...... 91 Background Films Films about Juchitan...... 91 4.2 Gender and Sexuality in Juchitán, aheterotopia of deviation...... 69 4.1 The dominant and the Other, “our” inability ...... 64 tounderstand 3.4 Authenticity and the two sides of the same coin...... 57 3.3 “Insiders” and “Outsiders,” Sexuality and Gender...... 52 3.2 Nature and the Frontier, the Authentic in a Different Place...... 46 3.1 The ...... 44 “Authentic” Other 2.3 Whose reality is it?...... 36 2.2 Saving the Native from being salvaged...... 34 ...... 32 2.1 The origin ...... 26 1.5 What is “muxe”? 1.4 More than two genders/sexes...... 24 1.3 “Like the queen-bee, the mother rules in Tehuantepec”...... 21 1.2 Sexuality and Gender...... 19 1.1 A Glimpse of History, Indigenous Groups inMexico...... 15 Films overview...... 12 Methods and Research Design...... 11 Structure...... 10 ...... 63 ...... 43 ...... 32 ...... 15 ...... iv Table of Contents of Table CEU eTD Collection Figure 6. Figure 5. Figure 4. Figure 3. Figure 2. Figure 1. Watching. Film Still, 2000 Church. Film Still, 2007 Party. Film Still, 2002 Half man half woman. Film Still, 2005 Map of Mexico. Film Still, 2002 Eisenstein in Film Mexico. Still, 2000 Queer Paradise Queer Muxes ofJuchitan. Queer Paradise Queer v Queer Paradise . Blossoms of Fire of Blossoms Authentic, Intrepid Seekers of Danger. IntrepidSeekersof Authentic, . . . List of Figures of List CEU eTD Collection distinct aim. Building on post-colonial studies and visual anthropology, I examine how of ideas about, and the relationship between, imagined and real spaces - social and geographic. and social - spaces real and imagined between, the relationship and about, ideas of construction in the Iaminterested equivalents, essential as place and space using Thus, space. an active in order be can there that idea the ignore to want I do neither place, a it by calling space a fixate to want do not I because interchangeably terms these use I arrangement, and order implies place and elements,” “mobile with place" 2 1 the gender,” its uniqueness:respect to its“third allegedmatriarchy community’sand the recognized male homosexuals are visible and socially Two thingsaccepted. have beenhighlightedwith and power, have women immeasurable flowers, where colorful is asaplace of Juchitán seen music, forms of poetry, andother representation, accounts, popular paintings, photography, film, Through and traditions. order, its social religion, andCatholic culture Zapoteca of representations Juchitán syncretism emphasizedhave landscape,the its tropical between a the Tehuantepec, of Isthmus the of mountains the between Hidden “exotic.” and “unique” both is that a place as culture, their maintaining and representation their in re-claiming films made in the 21 in the made films based its system,on gender andsexuality in Iexamine its representation four documentary Chapter 1 and problematize throughout my thesis. muxe Mexican and by foreign artists, media, international the and evenby the city in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico that since the early 20 early since the that Mexico of Oaxaca, state in city the Aware of the distinction between space and place Michel de Certeau argues for, where "space is a practiced is "space where for, argues deCerteau Michel place and space between distinction of the Aware Juchitecos Interested in how Juchitán is exoticised and represented as a unique cultural space asa uniquecultural in is Juchitán how represented Interested and exoticised In my thesis I focus on documentary films made about Juchitán de Zaragoza, asmall Juchitán de Zaragoza, made about films focus on documentary In my I thesis is an identity language in identity is indetail I discuss in an whoserepresentation category Zapoteca muxe is my Iwant spaceasa tobein middle, that men dotoo, the their have place, “Women designates the people from Juchitán. from people the designates , thatspace is mine.” –Felina explainsin 2007filmthe muxe. Typically associated with male cross-gender behavior and homosexuality, and behavior cross-gender male with associated Typically st century by directors coming from different countries, each with a 6 th century has been represented by has been represented century Muxes of Juchitan. of Muxes Juchitecos Introduction 1 interested 2 CEU eTD Collection intrépidas, buscadorasdelpeligro inJuchitán started in fact, from 2007, 2005documentary the watching in interest My ideologies, etc. promote social change, promote raise awareness, a tool to to reality, and the imaginary. truth, Documentary filmmakinghas been used and discussed as its connection about debates toongoing hassubject filmmaking been time,first documentary over and constrains genderis andsexuality.Juchitán, acity indigenous that primarily and coats morality Catholic-induced heteronormative and a women are subordinate, protagonists, society andmatriarchal a is it that - Juchitán about a gayassumptions common most two the paradisechallenges and presents Althoughfilm this structures. social gender and relations to approach different – it still Juchitánandits first people andvisuals narrative encountered asaplace a seemingly I with distinguishes it from the rest of Mexico where men are 4 collectively. or individually listed, I places allthe to refers West the films, the of my analysis in As such, made.” being claims onthe “depending moves that “project” a and site support Juchitán from people the in theirthat own “West” representation the of in the films. understanding My the on understanding also, but of thisorigin of term is,country as Trouillot bestfilmmaker’s puts it, a changing 3 sexuality as organizing features of modern society. and in sexual social endfact, notions of upreinscribinghegemonic order, and gender gender distinct aseemingly with Other as Juchitan a unique by yet, and,culture representing explore how the documentaries, I so, Indoing “ours.” from is different space that itOther as an construct yetand culture, dominant the with has throughit similarities and differences the presenting by different Juchitán of image means, create“West.” as the defined culture, a critique“dominant” the call will I what of of construction, theand reflection, film’s in the dominant absent seemingly is that fluidity andheterogeneity with acertain andarerepresented gender which sexuality is through Juchitán produced, vehiclethe as imagined of documentaries, space in cultural an English language title, onthe depending States United the and Canada, Europe, Mexico, to torefer guardedly “West” term the use I Since the late 19 Since the Muxes: Authentic, Intrepid Seekers ofDanger. th century century when moving Lumièrethe brothers projected imagesfor the 3 In particular, I look into how the films create acomplex films create how the into look I Inparticular, 4 by the Mexican director Alejandra Islas. Through Alejandrathe Through director Islas. by Mexican the 7 Muxes: Auténticas, CEU eTD Collection Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin (London: Routledge,2003). 8 7 the Modern World identities in film representations. focus film, isfrom T.Minh-Ha’sexamination on Idraw Trinh the“authentic” absence on of Becausemy andits normative order. allocated within culture dominantgets the as power discourses of sexuality and gender result that inmarginalization the of actual groups of people a cultureto attached whether “authenticity,” of notions how show I my analysis orthrough representation, an identity,perpetuatingnotions of group’s dominantthe superiority. intersect in representation of role the examined have who Pratt Louise Mary like authors at look with notions of the “past,” Otherness, and hegemonic through through which,he explains, theWestlegitimizes power and its universalizes its order. with mechanism contrasts a “savage”Other, a that “asa projection” utopian representations Trouillot’s itselfhow theWestunderstanding hashistorically of through constructed Important for my analysisimperialistic and judgments imagine, assumptions tointerpret, and East. representthe on the construction of different spaces, I consider Michel-Rolph 6 5 1978 book from hegemonicthrough draw elements andrepresentations.Edward Said’s I discourses Other an and culture Western dominant a of construction the from resulting relationships colonialismits on-going and processes.I examine establishmentof Specifically,unequal the current interest, thus, started with my first encounter with Juchitán through film. identity,a male andMy whichistheproductof one Indian conqueror asubmissive woman. of nationalismcultural of following theRevolution have the 1910, favored geographically secluded, marginsthe remains ofMexican at thatsincepolitics theemergence Trinh T. Minh-Ha, “No Master Territories,” in Mary Louise Pratt, Michel-Rolph Trouillot, “Anthropology and the Savage Slot,” in Edward Said, I locate my analysis in the post-colonial effort to examine and counter the impact of impact the counter and examine to effort post-colonial in the analysis my locate I Orientalism Orientalism (New York: Palgrave MacMillan,2003), 18and 22. Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York: Vintage Books, 1979). , which thediscusses Western tradition usingof preconceived 8 Furthermore, my analysis builds on the critique to post- to critique the on builds my analysis Furthermore, The Post-colonial Studies Reader 8 Global Transformations: Anthropology and 7 As a critique on the difficulties of difficulties Asthe on acritique (London: Routledge,1992). , eds. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth mestizo Mexican 6 I also I 5 CEU eTD Collection (1995): 917-931. documentaries support? How does “otherness” intersect with normative notions of gender and gender of notions normative with intersect “otherness” does How support? documentaries understanding of social Whatsortsof relations? of andvaluerelations power dothese dominant the to alternative an provides onethat or in past the rooted seen asaplace in mean engaging does project”? documentaries that isIf a type“salvaging of so, Juchitán following: Do the documentaries represent Juchitán as a matriarchy or agay paradise? Are the the are read thedocumentaries to my guide as serve that The questions culture. dominant inbutend fact, upreflecting and social reinforcing the imagination and conditions of the partofmy important focuses documentariesanalysis onhowthe notonly Juchitán represent an cultures, of distant representations through andfurther reinforced created, was reflected, Juchitán. dominantculture imagine to andconstructitself as self “dominant” the in opposition to the enable that exotization of modes different into look I my thesis throughout Juchitán, imagines experiences and viewer the which through genre areapowerful documentaries Since tool. Othering an as genre documentary the of development the and medium from the debatesSelves. of Film theory and multipleOthers are there that suggests which “nesting orientalisms,” Bakic-Hayden’s and Visual Anthropologylook at idea,Building I of on therepresentation through this lensthe Juchitán of Milica group. Othered already an of Othering of type new a in result can thatplurality their showing discuss the thathistory erasing of thethe essentializing notions of a singular Other, like the indigenous people, and 11 Mapping Subaltern Studies and the Postcolonial 10 Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin (London: Routledge,2003). 9 from studies colonial Gareth Griffiths, “The Myth of Authenticity,” in Milica Bakic-Hayden,"Nesting Orientalisms: The Case of FormerYugoslavia," Rajnarayan Chandavarkar, “‘The Making of the ‘Working Class:’ E.P. Thompson and Indian History,” in As part of the history of documentary filmmaking, in which the colonial imagination colonial the in which filmmaking, documentary of history the of part As 11 By using documentary Bymy filmsfor issuesusing documentary of analysis on representation, draw Ialso authors likeauthors Gareth , ed., Vinayak Chaturvedi (London: Verso, 2000). Griffiths The Post-colonial Studies Reader 9 9 and Rajnarayan Chandavarka Slavic Review , eds. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth 54, no. 4 r 10 whoargue CEU eTD Collection chapter this In I Othered. is look Juchitán how of discussion the on builds at space,” real Other howan heterotopia: the documentaries, 4,“Juchitán and of as a Chapter sexuality. normative gender culture’s understandings in painting a complexdominantculture and consequently it, maintaining thus Others the powerof dominantthe image of the system community,of Juchitán. This intersection, I argue, constructs Juchitán as a different place from the andsexuality gender the of withrepresentation the intersect space and authenticity, nature, documentary films In within a framework. particular,post-colonial look athow notions I of “authenticity:” Ianalyze effect,” representation Othering an the infour Juchitán of and 3,“Representation inChapter Otherness, film inrole of creating/re-instating and filmmaker’s ideology. the doing reflect the Having sothey social established context also in but witnesses, filmmaker the that “reality” a certain not only films represent documentary constructs,reflects, maintains and relationships of Importantly, how unequal power. Inote asatool that research atits useinanthropological look filmmakingand of documentary the development and origin the trace I real” the and imaginary the of a tool and mediator a film: 2,“Documentary InChapter “third gender.” matriarchy and recognized toits alleged regards follow doesnotthat the normative gender sexuality in and system country,the of particularly hasbeenSpecifically,look athowJuchitán constructed representationsthrough asa I place of position the Juchitán, indigenous, has asprimarily within perceived aMexican context. 1, “Juchitán (in Mexico): identity, gender, sexuality and its representation,” gives an overview Structure what effects? lies is outside? How Juchitán imagined,by both and characters the the filmmakers, and with lies and insideof betweenwhat Juchitán what filmsshowaninteraction dothe effect? How sexuality? What role is given to the In order to answer to these questions I have divided my thesis in four chapters. Chapter fourin chapters. my thesis divided Ihave answer these questions to to In order Juchitecos 10 in their own representation and what is the what and representation own their in CEU eTD Collection 13 12 the camera, the between relationships perceived the filmmakers; the of and positionality andinmy at Ilooked analysis the following: the aimandmessage of film; each reflexivity the all of the above construct a “story.” mise-en-scene, and cinematography, music, montage sequences,choices, sound focusing use of editing on: a coherent whole particularly film.” synopsis or visual code,comprehend whole meanings, parts rather those of meaningwhich the are presentinverbal attention must beform.” a “significant into material and organizes creates paid to whole contentencourages of the shot, this sequence type a“syntheticPerkins Inhisbook approach.” calls of andfilm analysis becauseinterpretation, andcommunication my of Inorder results. so,to do Ifollowed whatV.F. it enables shots, of annotation observation, steps: following the the followed and films viewerthe of analysis to see how the director Design and Research Methods approach. discussand together the analysis my bring I Conclusion waysin the lastly, And society. ordered an in of features which my study can hegemonic re-instate notionsin of gender andculture sex which areorganizingand gender be taken further intents, filmmakers’ the despite of Juchitán, representation documentaries’ the how asexamine well as the limitations I deviation,” “heterotopia of “heterotopia” and terms, Foucault’s Borrowing come together. of elements incompatible my seemingly where place unintelligible, Other, an as Juchitán represent Ibid., 79. V.F. Perkins, Furthermore, in film theory there are aspects of a film that are often paid attention to, attention filmpaid are often that ofa are aspects theory in there film Furthermore, avisual myI conducted build argument and toanalyzethedocumentaries In order 13 Influencedlooked at by I the thus, Perkins, intoway documentary iseach constructed Film as Film (London: Penguin, 1972), 79. the aesthetic elements of the narrative, and how and narrative, the of elements aesthetic the 11 Film as Film 12 Perkins states, “in order to , Perkins, like Gibbs, like Perkins, , CEU eTD Collection music, the movie complements the interviews with a vast amount of footage of everyday A highly community.excellent cinematography, documentary,aesthetic up-beat and with women and some others as men, through formal and informal interviews with members of the the follows narrative The AIDS.” AgeOf “Love In The and “Virginity Marriage,” and “Careersand Vocations,” NoOneLike Mother,” There’s a Muxe,” “Rejection or Acceptance,” “ Acceptance,” or “Rejection a Muxe,” Be Bornor themes:“Toexploreto Become inter-related specific chapters in that divided short is film The Juchitán. of city the within experiences and role their about talk openly who Films overview in the films. whoappear people of the andsome Juchitán mywith familiarity and education, multicultural in biases, my rooted myinevitable background, interpretation, are and subjective Mexican felt,observed,interpreted, but positionedviewer also and reflexively myself whose asa popcorn and with others in some hand.a notebook Asof my visual part Inotonly analysis with sometimes times, innumerable films the watched I interpretation, to subject medium a is film for Because example. choices, translation them through filmmakersrepresent the how plot, the type of data the films provide, the way in which the filmed represent themselves and the to support a non-authoritative or voice all-knowing an as plays it role the and narrator theabsencevoice-over of a presenceor the narrative; inthe tensions through can be perceived films, which the of “neutrality” or “objectivity” the for clues the filmmakers; the filmed, and From Mexican director Alejandra Islas, this documentary tells the story of 13 Muxes: auténticas, intrépidas, buscadoras delpeligro buscadoras intrépidas, Muxes: auténticas, Enagua 12 ( Muxes: authentic, intrepidseekersMuxes: authentic, danger) of (Skirt) Or Pants,” “Against Transvestites, “Against Pants,” Or (Skirt) Alejandra/ 103´/ Caro Islas 2005/Mexico muxes’ stories, some of who dress as dress who of some stories, muxes CEU eTD Collection emotional relationships loneliness,and discrimination and acceptance of the the narrator notes, is like “no other” where women and homosexuals seem to be free. as of that, a city aportrait culture paints indigenous and Zapoteca of the character accepting and culture” “native the emphasizes film this scenes, everyday and interviews informal astory, through music animates film,where local pleasing An etc. aesthetically community, celebrations of Juchitán called follows certain themes such as: the as: such themes certain follows film any intertitles, the Without and activist, philosopher. professor, auniversity Bartolo, Eli and hairstylist, and beautician Felina, name female her by goes who Valdivieso Santiago tells the story of three community where image of a acontradictory film provides this narrative inthe tensions activities. Through other representations that once idealized Juchitán as a matriarchal society, the film traces the film traces the society, as a matriarchal Juchitán idealized once that representations other interviews, local ofpaintings, music,of nicely poems, andshots, a collage composed and women Juchitán of with give aim the to thepeople from Juchitán a voice. Presenting aseries Chilean director PatricioChilean director has wholived and worked in Henríquez, Canada since 1973, American directors, Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne, focus their attention on the on attention their focus Osborne, Ellen and Gosling Maureen directors, American muxes Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne / 72´/ 2000 / Mexico and U.S.A. seem beto accepted and yet discrimination is prevalent. muxes : Oscar Cazorla, a gay Angel agay andfather; man, business : OscarCazorla, Velas muxes , the roles and different performance of the childhood and relationship childhood with families,their the 13 PatricioHenríquez /64´/ 2002/Canada ( Juchitan Queer Paradise Juchitán delaslocas ( Ramo de Fuego Blossoms ofFire muxes in the in muxes ) ) , CEU eTD Collection to beaccepted. scenes, this film presents tensions within the community the where flow between musicalization, asmooth and narrative, aesthetic an Through HIV times.” “In and “Love,” “Violence,” creatures,” andother Chichifos “Mayates, “Clara I,” “Clara II,” “The of Queens Night,” “Gems the perfumes,” and society,” matriarchal “Aformerdanger,” muxe makesis the that work “It andrejection,” “Acceptance dowebecome,” or born “Are we muxes the of experiences the shows film This boys. young three to father Pedro, and a nurse, Andy, of whom perform and dress as women, Kika, a beautician who dresses in men’s clothes, as independent appears also people. with andone progressive story of a city that does not only seem to have a sense of cooperation the in tells thefilm community the but women, and men homosexual to acceptance community’s the and sexes, the of equality apparent an participation, political strong a its traditions, culture, Zapoteca history image With andpaintsJuchitán of anof a changing emphasis on present. the an Throughout my thesis I will refer to these films by shortened versions of their English titles. ,” “There’s nothing like a mother,” “Skirts and trousers,” “The Intrepid who search for search “The who Intrepid and trousers,” “Skirts mother,” like a nothing “There’s ,” This film follows the story of eight of story the follows film This in andinformal community the through interviews into looks thefollowing themes: muxes 14 , Bibi, Felina, Marsela, Estrella, Camelia, all Camelia, Estrella, Marsela, Felina, Bibi, , Yorgos AvgeropolousYorgos /72´/ 2007/Greece muxes Muxes ofJuchitan , nonetheless, seem CEU eTD Collection 1.1 A Glimpse of History, Indigenous Groups in Mexico in Groups Indigenous History, of Glimpse 1.1 A reinforce notions of matriarchy and acceptance of a “third gender.” exotizationfilms ofJuchitánis in influence gendered the andsexualized because they and the how examine I Thus, society. modern a of idea the from and Mexico in one normative focusing on since 19 the its how representation examine depict it as sexuality system. Whilelooking atJuchitán as a city as represented primarily I Indigenous, a placeand gender normative country’s the and formation identity with Mexican post-revolutionary a gender and sexuality system different from the Juchitán (in Mexico): identity, gender, sexuality andrepresentation gender,sexuality identity, Juchitán (inMexico): In this chapter I give an overview of the position Juchitán has within the history of the Figure 1.MapofMexico. Film Still,2002 15 th century and in the documentary films I am I films documentary the in and century Queer Paradise Chapter 1 CEU eTD Collection that the in inhisbook Minister of the 1920s,articulates Vasconcelos, Education of a politics. Mexican of margins the at remained have indigenous, primarily as culture Mexican dominant community Juchitán,in is Zapoteca Isthmus’ and asacity Mexico,the identifiedby that the communities indigenous As other culture. Zapoteca the and Catholicism between syncretism city where the community has maintained a unity and a system of traditions resulting from the ofmodernizationprocess hasJuchitán undergone particularly itsince remains 1990s, the a government atgovernment the istime, and oneof reasonswhy the Monsiváis explains, “the against the stood of political organization that Isthmus,the and Peasants, a Students Workers, not allow not from others, outside,the toconduct their destiny.” formed the Coalici the formed community united through its community history and politics. through united isa notes, Monsiváis Carlos as community, Zapoteca Isthmus’ the range, mountain 17 Lastiri, Escobedo Diana Zapoteca.” group still inhabits their particularly land, Isthmus ofthe Tehuantepec, speaks and their native language, 14 projects. development economic in interested capital international national and attracting passage as a communication it served has the lastcentury explains, since Borruso Miano why, Marinella reason Ocean, as 16 November, 2001). Mexico, City, Mexico e Historia, Antropología de Nacional Escuela the at presented (paper Muxe” los de 15 is the Zapoteca. group in the state of Oaxaca. In the region various ethnicities coexist, however the dominant cultural Ibid., 46. This Mexico… ofOaxaca, state current inthe V century the in developed that culture Mesoamerican “…A Carlos Monsiváis, “Crónica de Juchitán,” el Caso deTehuantepec, Istmo del Zapotecos los entre y Homosexualidad “Genero Borruso, Miano Marinella mestizo With emergencethe of cultural nationalism following the Revolution of idea1910, the Juchitán is betweenJuchitán de Zaragoza located mountainsthe of Isthmusthe of Tehuantepec mestizo Mexican identity Influenced Mexican Jose by liberalideawas favored. of progress, the would join would and past the presentof country the and wouldintoa lead Mexico ó n Obrera, Campesina, Estudiantil del Istmo (COCEI), or the Coalition of Coalition the or (COCEI), Istmo del Estudiantil Campesina, n Obrera, 14 The Isthmus’ region connects the Gulf of Mexico with the Pacific Entre Comadres 15 However, as an area strategically isolated within the within isolated asanstrategically However, area Cuadernos Políticos , (SanFrancisco:, Blurb, 2009), 76. 16 16 In the 1970s, for example, the 37 (1983): 46. 17 As such, despite the rapid La RazaCósmica Juchitecos Juchitecos do CEU eTD Collection Programme (UNDP) report: (UNDP) Programme Development Nations United bein 2010 readthe can consequences The “more ethnic.” be whoestablished seemedand arelationship groups of with the domination to adistinction the nation – one shared “Mexican identity” with which couldall identify.groups the idea Thus, of American countries, was to create a common identity able to encompass the plurality of the construction of a modern identity, such as the as such identity, modern a of construction contexts where uneven power relations develop. In the case of post-revolutionary Mexico, the Taylor puts it, “as a mute collective singular entity.” Analisa as out, cast were indigenous, the namely country, the of “past” the as perceived definition and focused on the future of the nation, Theidea of white European. the however, the communities that were Dishonor: Discourses of Serrano Resistance,” ofSerrano Discourses Dishonor: 21 journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 Cinematic Encounters in the Americas the “power is central to the production of social identities,” social of production the to central is “power through which aprocess Laclauhegemony Mouffe’s understandingof as Ernesto Chantal and a silentgroup against which restof the couldMexico bedefined. AnaMariaAlonso notes, addressed. Thenotion communities national indigenous as a homogeneous identity of kept the 19 The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). Mexico from colonial European the powers. oftheMexicanbuildings identity, distinguished thatemphasizedthe indigenousroots which murals topaintpublic andon David Siqueiros Orozco, José Clemente such DiegoRivera, as 18 united national future. Laclau, Ernesto and Chantal Mouffe (1982)quoted Anain MariaAlonso, “‘Progress’ as Disorder and Analisa Taylor,“Malinche and Mathiarcal Utopia: Gendered Visions of Indigeneity in Mexico.” Laura Podalsky, “Patterns of the Primitive, Sergei Eisenstein’s Qué Viva México!” in Viva Qué México!” Eisenstein’s Sergei Primitive, of the “Patterns Podalsky, Laura José Vasconcelos, mestizo mestizo The Mexican indigenous groups The have indigenousgroups history Mexican marginalization a of only recently as a “modern” identity category had a homogenizing effect. Ambiguous inits Ambiguous effect. had ahomogenizing identity asa“modern” category identity identity themixtureemphasized of races and cultures, indigenous the and the The Cosmic Race/La Raza Cósmica: A Bilingual Edition, 18 Vasconcelos’ vision led him to commission leading national artists national leading commission to him led vision Vasconcelos’ , ed.John King, Ana Lopez,Manuel Alvarado (London:BFI, 1993), 27. 31, no. 3(2006): 836. mestizo Critique of Anthropology model, similar to its development in other Latin 19 17 Built upon the notion of a shared indigineity, mestizo 20 , fit the idea of fit idea the , andof progress thus, 21 helps us ethnicitythink about in 8, 1 no. (1988): 13. trans. Didier T. Jaén (Baltimore: Mediating twoworlds : Signs: CEU eTD Collection nationalism,” 25 24 demanded human cultural and rights autonomy. Zapatistas the state, Mexican the against revolt a non-violent As effect. into came (NAFTA) Agreement heritage, human part of a common as diversity cultural of preservation the promotes that context aninternational Within identity. indigenous subordinate the construct to continues also but maintains only not discourse and buildingIn fact, Alonso’spower ethnicity, a multiculturalism of on understanding based onethnicity. power of unbalanced noterase the previously established relationship does example is focused on agriculture.” andexport-oriented labor on increasingwage dependence labor, one can see how reform anand have worked emphasisto forcibly incorporate indigenous communities into relationson of the landimplement plurality to peasants’ attempts indigenous have subverted [that] policies economic of the country of neoliberal context must broader “…[This] within the beanalyzed she further states: mestizo, 23 desigualdad de oportunidades Program (UNDP) 22 indigenous groups. the to voice a gave literally, and symbolically both movement, Zapatista the when 1994 in strength gained particular multiculturalism. This development and Mexico’s diversity ethnic on emphasis put regime latepost-revolutionary Mexican the community, an international spreadof the and with interaction model, globalization, the with markets, the opening of the of ahomogenizing promoting time. identity Instead a Mexicannational changed over For further reading refer to Mary Taylor, “Intangible Heritage Governance, Cultural Diversity, Ethno- Diversity, Cultural Governance, Heritage “Intangible Taylor, Mary to refer reading further For 836. Utopia,” Mathiarcal and “Malinche Taylor, The Zapatista movement initiated on the same day, January 1 January day, same on the initiated movement Zapatista The Throughout this thesis, unless otherwise noted, all translations are my own.United Nations Development With the socio-economical developments of the country, the notion of what constitutes what of notion the country, the of developments socio-economical the With theyhave objectedto. and been to thediscrimination exclusion situation is notonly totheirdue differential access topublic resources/services, butalso be inignoredcharacterized to group the andmarginalized. most Their population the language. preserveidentity havehave they and their their been managedto However, In alargenumberMexico ofindigenous and engagedinstead in of a discourse indiversity toindigenous movements, response Focaal – European Journal of Anthropology , Informe, sobre Desarrollo Humano de los Pueblos Indígenas en México: El reto de la 23 Although the government, as Taylor explains, moved away from the , UNDP Report (October 2010), 6. 25 the multicultural discourse of Mexico has emphasized 18 pueblos 55 (2009): 41-58. st 1994, as NorthThe American Free Trade [towns or peoples]and communities or [towns 22 24 Although this mestizo CEU eTD Collection Thus, while the masculine is attributed tothe masculineis attributed the Thus, while passive andAlonso explains, “became women symbols of an sexualethnic and purity.” woman is a reflection of the ideal of Mary in the Holy Family—chaste, devout, self- devout, Family—chaste, in Holy the Mary of ideal the of iswoman areflection a“good Winkelmanexplains, As Michael sexuality. regulates Mexico and mostpermeates of that morality by aCatholic-induced reinforced isfurther binary sphere. private the This is belongsand who survival who asecondary cultural andsubordinated to passive character active protagonist of publicthe andsocial sphere, the feminine isassociated with motherhood corporate community.” indigenous “barbarian” and one associatedanother with “accessland to andmembershipin a identities in Mexico and thus, Alonso argues there were two constructions of masculinity, an earlier inAs noted role however, ethnicity animportant this played Chapter, in defining indigeneity with associated with and passivity Hispanicand amanassociated the conqueror. 29 Anthropology to homosexuality, the have seem thanin parts to of more power other country linkedthe and athird gender category women where as aplace stands Isthmus the representations, through done Often systems. to the representation ofthe representation to the Gender and Sexuality 1.2 28 27 26 by of colorful the gowns the communityZapoteca has been distinguishedin this type ofmulticultural not only discourse, TheIsthmus’ “diversity.” of music, becomeMexico’s part have and articrafts gowns, indigenousIn such groups. between cultural as traditional differences particular, visible traits Ibid., Ana Maria Alonso, “‘Progress’ as Disorder and Dishonor: Discourses of Serrano Resistance,” Serrano of Discourses Dishonor: and Disorder as “‘Progress’ Alonso, Maria Ana 834. Utopia,” Mathiarcal and “Malinche Taylor, Tehuanas Embedded in Mexicanthe social imaginary, gender the organization Mexico isof linked 15. designates Zapoteca women from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico. in of Tehuantepec Isthmus the from women Zapoteca designates 8, 1 (1988):no. muxe, 28 While constructions of masculinity are active, the women remained women the are active, masculinity of While constructions 15. seems to be accepted. seems to tehuanas mestizo identity as resulting from the union between a woman a between union the from resulting as identity 26 but seeminglyalso byits distinct genderandsexuality 19 macho , a virile man and dominator who is an Critique of 29 27 CEU eTD Collection society. women the in ideathe ithas the community, is thus, nurtured and thatJuchitán matriarchal a the of representation areas.” masculine are themselves], amongst and socialize drink,eat, to men gather where [establishments cantinas production, artistic and intellectual representation, political factory, field, the feminine; predominantly are and action of areas are system community’s functionality is clearly defined by gender: “thehouse, market, [and] festivities inis the noted Juchitán has that Miano Borruso that differences the One of 3and4. chapters binary and displaymore instead, fluidity and heterogeneity further examinein as I will normative the by bound not are identities gender and sexual in which order social different like Juchitán, which falls outside of the norm. and isin sexuality system prevalent of parts other the world andstandsplaces in opposition to gender Mexico,normative this to specific are examples Although these option. “normal” the areencouragedheterosexual anddesires have beenlegitimized andMexico, as relationships what AdrienneRich,pioneer ofsexuality calledstudies, “compulsory heterosexuality,” family has sexualityalso privileged normative ideasabout and social relationships. Similar to Feminista 33 and Society 32 Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. macho. and a being of aconqueror masculinefeeds role asit the encouraged sanctioned andeven 31 University of Illinois Press, 1999),79. in Settings,” Field 30 her family.”to sacrificing, and devoted Adrienne Rich, "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence," Lesbian and Heterosexuality "Compulsory Rich, Adrienne For further For reading refer Matthew to Gutmann,C. Mexican from Perspectives Fieldwork: in Adaptations Social-Sexual “Cross-Cultural Winkelman, Michael Marinella Miano Borruso, “Gays tras bambalinas. Historia de la belleza, pasiones eidentidades,” pasiones belleza, dela Historia bambalinas. tras “Gays Borruso, Miano Marinella In contrast to the dominant model, Juchitán has been represented as a place that has a that asaplace been represented has model, Juchitán dominant the to In contrast 31 9, no. 18 (1998): 1. Furthermore, the Catholic belief that one man, one woman, and children constitute a 5, 4 (1980):no. 178. Sex, Sexuality, andthe Anthropologist tehuana has been influenced by the visibility and active engagement of engagement active and visibility the by influenced been has 30 On the contrary, men’s sexuality seems to be less The Meanings of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City Mexico in Man a Being Macho: of Meanings The 20 , ed. Fran Markowitz and Michael Ashkenazi (Urbana: Ashkenazi Michael and Markowitz ed. Fran , Signs: Journal ofWomen in Culture 33 In this sense, the sense, this In Debate , 32 in CEU eTD Collection 37 University Press, 1967). such structures, led anthropologists such as Robert H. Lowie father. the than rather mother the on fell power and authority the where model social primeval 36 University Press, 2002), xi. of patriarchy.” rather it being butused in started encounters 19 ethnographic the Tehuantepec” in rules mother the queen-bee, the “Like 1.3 of Juchitán as amatriarchal idealizedsociety and agay representations paradise. 35 34 country, Borruso states, make Borruso states, fall Juchitán of the out as Miano that peculiarities These paradise.” a“gay Juchitán as of idealization tothe attributed seem to interfere of the aspect homosexual the how filmsemphasize the Furthermore, neither. fit yet and “woman” and “man” categories both under with fall them makes which production, their visibility and social the standing roles and visibility the how emphasize films four all aims, different their of Regardless order. in the community,muxes whichmatriarchy, films looking the I am atdepictan accepted inthird gender community,the the has also show how rolethe of films the represent Although Robert H. Lowie, J. J. Bachofen, Peggy Reeves Sanday, preface to Miano Borruso, “Gays tras bambalinas,” 186. muxes The notion matriarchy,of asPeggy Reeves developSanday not explains, did from While most of the past representations of focused have on of myth of Juchitán the of representations pastWhile most the , in addition to the naturalized binary man and woman that constitutes naturalizedin thatnormativethe binarymanand tothe constitutes woman addition , 36 The equation of the rule of women to a primitive state and a primitive Theequation lack of forof to rule women state the the evidence of 34 and as I will examine, make it distinct from the normative order, have fueled the fueled have order, normative the from distinct it make examine, will I as and play within the community are linked to the role and public standing of women. Myth, Religion, and Mother Right: Selected Writings of J.J.Bachofen 35 muxes In his 1861 book Das Mutterrecht, J.J. Bachofen defines “mother right” as a “mother Das J.J. right” defines Mutterrecht, Bachofen book Inhis 1861 Primitive Society Primitive are currently involved in the realms of politics, intellectual and artistic and intellectual politics, of realms in the involved currently are Women atthe Center: Life in a Modern Matriarchy (London: Routledge and KeganPaul, 1921). muxes 21 mainly associated to the feminine, the films the feminine, the to associated mainly mestizo model that permeates most of the 37 and Schneider David th century image as a“mirror century (Princeton: Princeton (Princeton: (New York: Cornell muxes 38 does not toreject CEU eTD Collection earlier and clearest examples can be found in Sergei be can earlier and clearestexamples film foundEisenstein’s unfinished inSergei emphasized beauty, independence, the power, andpublicstanding of the have artists foreign and Mexican both years the Throughout exotization. sexualized and itsemphasized seemingly untouched andindigenous landscape butit has been also a gendered only not has century 20th early the since Juchitán of exotization The flowers. colorful women with compares narrator asthe landscape tropical the with in community the presence based ontheassociation of of Juchitán women’s previousexotizacing the back pattern into the 2000 film people talk.” the let and utopia matriarchal the “overcome to aims words, narrator’s in the that, film a for tothe response previous and visually myth reinforced matriarchy.of Eisler 45 44 1974). the sexes was balanced or “linked” instead of sexes “linked”the of instead wasbalanced or “ranked” asMarija Gimbutas between power using todescribe wherethe started such words authors communities different explains, As matricentric,Sanday etc. matristic, matrifocal, such matrilineal, as words challenginganthropologists and started feminists substituting the term they alsoit started with 43 42 41 Lamphereand (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974), 3-15. Lamphere, 40 39 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961), 1-29. 38 and buthad neverbeen myths observed. Bachofen’s ideas. Schneiderfor example, arguedthatmatrilineal societies inexisted legends Riane Eisler, Marija Gimbutas, Gerder Lerner, Ibid. Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere. Introduction to Schneider, David M.(1961) quoted in Sanday, David M.Schneider, introduction to Ramo de Fuego “Juchitán has been called a matriarchy,” the voice over narrator tone the explains setting narrator over voice the amatriarchy,” has been called “Juchitán 44 argued. This type of interaction between the sexes is a central in sexes isa narrative of pointcentral This interaction the the argued. between of type 41 and Gerder Lerner and Gerder 45 The Chalice and the Blade However, as soon as the camera moves through the flower market the filmfallsthe market theflower through moves assoon as thecamera However, The Creation of Patriarchy of Creation The , directed by Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne (2000). Blossoms of Fire of Blossoms The Gods and goddesses of Old Europe: 7000-3500 B.C. 42 Matrilineal Kinship , which focuses on focuses, which on rolethe women in as play Juchitán a argued that there has never been a matriarchal society. As society. matriarchal nevera been that has there argued (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1987). (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). 39 Women at the Center Similarly, feminists like Michelle Rosaldo, Michelle like feminists Similarly, 22 , ed.David M.Schneider and Kathleen Gough Women, Culture, and Society , 227. (London: Thames and Hudson, tehuanas 43 , ed. Rosaldo . One of the and Riane and Que viva 40 Louise CEU eTD Collection associate 49 48 47 had the power, Eisenstein described this section of the film as follows: colonial imaginary as a paradise. Similar to Bachofen’s idea of a primitive state where women halfof nakedwomen resemble PaulGauguin’s of inTahiti, paintings constructed aplace the Tehuantepec.” Tigris revolutionary Mexico, and Euphrates, but rather here, somewhere between the Gulf of Mexico and 46 of Fire. Figure 2.EisensteininMexico.2000Blossoms Mexico! community community household.and filmwomen the Inthis areportrayed ashard-working in rolethe important equally their and sexes the between cooperation the emphasizes 2000 of narrative the myth, the subvert to effort an In matriarchy. overpoweringindependent femininity, all of which depend on buildand upon myth the of Graciela Iturbide Elenahave and Poniatowska emphasized Juchitán’s colorful eroticism and Ibid. Sergei Eisenstein quoted in Laura Podalsky, “Patterns of the Primitive,” 31. Laura Podalsky, “Patterns of the Primitive,” 31. Ramo de Fuego miraculously years hereformiraculously hundredsof until preserved time. our has been system tribal female The in rules mother the queen-bee, Tehuantepec. the dreamy eyelids ofLife… the moist,girls. muddy, sleepy tropics. Heavy branches Ofof fruit. Dreamy girls.waters. And Of future mothers. Of the fore-mother. Like the 46 The Russian filmmaker in this film, drawn by the “primitive” aspects of a post- of aspects in bythe“primitive” filmmaker film, this The Russian drawn tehuanas 48 , directed by Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne (2000). In his film, Eisenstein celebrates Zapoteca femininity through shots that with flowers and birds. Furthermore, as Laura Podalsky explains, the shots 47 described the Isthmus as a paradise: “Eden did not exist between existnot“Edenthe between did asaparadise: described the Isthmus 23 Khalo, Tina Moddoti, and, more recently, more and, Moddoti, Tina Khalo, Frida Rivera, Diego like artists Similarly, mythologizing of Juchitán as matriarchy.a tothe contributed area, the rules “mother” has miraculously survived where the that nature of state aprimal tribal past and Eisenstein’s rooting of Eisenstein’s rooting Isthmus of the ina 49 Blossoms of FireBlossoms of CEU eTD Collection women of women not only influenced Juchitán of theapproach film 2000 of inpower outsideplaces of Juchitán. of history The representing “out the of the ordinary” sexes a within visibly indigenous community results in samethe misrecognition of women’s the between “equality” of an –therepresentation societies in patriarchal ignored so-called the canbe–andhence nature a primalof linked acknowledged state power women’s to spaces influenced and nurtured the colonial idea that these societies were different from the West, from the different were societies these that idea colonial the nurtured and influenced encounters category. These sexual/gender with a third various communities exoticized, and world, the throughout recorded explorations anthropological and writing travel colonial sexes, man and woman, historicaland and anthropological studies that challengethus the idea that there are only two biological only two correspondingCulture and History genders, male and female. Early two genders/sexes than 1.4 More femininity. to islinks it as community has a presence in the other three films that focus on the recognized third gender of the organization community of networks informal and finances family of as administrators serve Mexico all over women Mexican society… [where] be throughout found canalso culture disregarding that “…many of purportedly the matriarchal foundelements in Zapotec Isthmus 51 50 within Mexico” is a itrepresentation problematic also“liberating becausepaints of a specific portrait group “equal” as characteristics, other amongst and, mothers, income, caring thefamily of administrators to men. However, as Taylor notes in her analysis of Ibid., 837. 838. Utopia,” Mathiarcal and “Malinche Taylor, Gilbert Herdt, in his book in his Herdt, Gilbert . ” 51 Thus, similar to how the myth of matriarchy establishes that only in the in only that establishes matriarchy of myth the how to similar Thus, 50 that may feed on the exceptionality of the place and thus, continue thus, and place the of exceptionality the on feed may that , examines the notion of a “third sex” anda “third gender” bylookinginto Third Sex, Third Gender: Sexual Beyond Dimorphism in 24 Blossoms of Fire of Blossoms Blossoms of Fire of Blossoms but also but this CEU eTD Collection (2002): 49. tute.’” “berdache,” American Indian 55 54 Gilbert Herdt (New York: Zone Books, 1994), 15. hermaphrodite.” isresidualmarginalizing whator the unclassifiable suchas to categories, thedeviant lump extraordinary to regardedas together things apart, power] equal andothers overcome sex the duality of and gender. and yetwere unable to acts of categorizing onthedifficulties Kinseyagreed Freud andAlfred representwhat the community identifiesJuchitán of as a “third the gender,” films the which in way the influences it because at looking am I films in the salient most the 53 Mary McGee (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 123. traits.” female and male of combination itsexiststate: “The own, on sex could third not butonly negation in it as a participates or challenge Herdt’s assumption model athird-sex that sexual disrupts dimorphism,instead and like Leonard Zwilling andembedded in asocialMichael order where the dualism of sex and gender are prevalent. In fact, authors J. Sweet, in their seem yet and norm from the veer away that identities different seemingly these categorizing examination of a “third problem of groupshaveall emphasized AuthorsAmerica. whohavestudiedthe these sex” in India, hijras ambiguity,” in 52 critical such the haveattention as great few groups received colonial ofidentity,the first A perceptions challenged. fixed dualistic weresome of features and 1970s the only until starteddeconstructingwhen authors theideaof genderas and sex Lynn Stephen explains “ Ibid. Gilbert Herdt, preface to preface Herdt, Gilbert Leonard Zwilling and Michael J. Sweet, “The Evolution of Third-sex constructs in ancient India: a study in study a India: inancient constructs ofThird-sex Evolution “The Sweet, J. Michael and Zwilling Leonard from India, the sworn virgins from the Balkans, and the berdaches from North Lynn Stephen, “Sexualities and Genders in Zapotec Oaxaca,” inZapotec Genders and “Sexualities Stephen, Lynn Touching upon Touching upon question the explainscategorization,of Herdt like howauthors Sigmund Invented identities: the interplay of gender, religion, and politics inIndia, 54 This marginalization can be seen through the example of the North the of example the through seen be can marginalization This the the word “berdache” is derived from aPersian word meaning ‘kept boy’‘prosti- or Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture andHistory, 55 a colonial term used to talk about people who kept their male 52 This categorization problem, thus, is perhaps one of 53 As Herdt puts it, “society and culture [have an 25 Latin American Perspectives kathoeys from Thailand, the Thailand, from ed. Julia Leslie and Leslie Julia ed. muxe . 29, no. 2 ed. CEU eTD Collection he is young, is he “ camera: tothe shetalks hammock as ends and the viewer is transported to a patio where a where a patio to is transported viewer andtheends in what looks inlike what a in school 2005film the designate the to homosexuals of A young Isthmus.”the we man explains seehim walking as is andthat is in word where the which ‘mulher,’ ‘mulier’ Latin pronounced 1.5 What is “muxe”? is What 1.5 essentially different from the modern world. as is areconstructed places these that films, the my of analysis I willshowthroughout as effect, The nations. the of origins the and indigineity to connected are also asthey cultures withincolonial ideas non-Western theare linked to community primitive deviant of and is challenged and genderdimorphism places sexual the where namely that representation, points atsomethingpoints important tounderstand development the of the it also berdache. but theproblem term, only the This shows of not example categorizing played under inthecommunity marginalizingwere simply“lumped one together” singular people of group this roles sexual and gender multiple the schema, man/woman male/female, demons, deviants, perverts, sinners, perverts, demons, deviants, corrupters.” nature, freaks monsters, of wereviewedasmore “berdache were they anomalies; than for Anglo-Americans the Spanish and theIndians, Devereux’Mohave of study George 57 ed. Gilbert Herdt (New York: Zone Books, 1994), 64. 56 femaleor performed as but genitals gender.a different Ibid. Gilbert Herdt, introduction to “The word muxe guiini muxe comes from the colonial Spanish word Spanish colonial the from comes , if he is older, Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture andHistory, Mampo, muxe, muxengola,guiini Mampo, muxe, muxe ngola Authentic, Intrepid Seekers of Danger. Intrepid Seekers of Authentic, 26 57 , or While not fitting under the normative muxe 56 muxenguio According to Herdt, borrowing from in full Tehuana gown swings on a . Muxeuna mujer muxe (woman), itwas (woman), of Juchitán in its in Juchitán of muxe , like me, I am a , itdepends, if comes from The scene The CEU eTD Collection eyebrows, putmake-up on,and perform in both muted andmore visible ways. to decide others some community, whilesome that apparent becomes also Juchitán and sexuality.” sex about ideas and gender of systems transnational and urban “contemporary with interaction culture Zapoteca the of mixture a see can notonly feminine in community,Lynn suggeststhat incontemporary roles the Stephen Juchitán one man.While in traditionally, as seen 2007 filmsitbecomes being apparent how a we are here is the only place where it is it placewhere only is the here mariposonas, mariposon say looks like one whoin“But explains. awoman parts of one can other Republicthe [Mexico], himself. “ 60 59 called weare Juchitán, “In city,this woman. andoneisman, is a one is a one by a appearances, transvestite, street, the conventional male with homosexuality. is yet often associated homosexual, straight, this film successfully shows that of the of 58 muxe una Stephen, “Sexualities and Genders in Zapotec Oaxaca,” 56. Muxes of Juchitan Muxes, Authentic, Intrepid Seekers of Danger maricon, puto,choto,gay maricon, Although the films show how the how show films the Although Similarly, at the beginning of Similarly,film beginning the 2007 atof the muxes muxes’ define … I want to be a woman.” Muxe ! And we don’t care about a thing… it’s a magical place.” 60 is a Zapoteca word to define people with a different sexual preference,” the sexual preference,” a different with define people word to is aZapoteca identities and difficulty of using normative terms such as woman, men, woman, as such terms normative using of difficulty and identities muxe This can be clearly seen in the way in which the three people in , directed by Yorgos Avgeropolous (2007). using words that are used elsewhere. In the scene described above, it ” – “ locas … lo maspadre iguana .” The three of them explain as they keep on walking.“But accentuate their curves, soften their voice, pluck their voice, pluck their soften their curves, accentuate 58 With introductory scenes that try to show the fluidity the show to try that scenes introductory With muxes , directed by Alejandra Islas (2005). muxe Muxes of Juchitan, Muxes of because they from go stick tostick.” –“ muxes 27 are considered athirdin areconsidered gender inJuchitán, the isalso being with synonymous a homosexual muxes (or the best), we are respected as we arerespected best), the (or dress dress men as and perform as suchin the and Catholic colonial influence, but also its alsobut influence, and colonial Catholic Muxes ofJuchitán Muxes .” the viewer hears one of them of one hears viewer the .” muxe can mean a variety of things and muxes were those who assumed who werethose three people stroll down 59 muxes Muxes of Muxes mampos, identify , and , This CEU eTD Collection both ways. both is exchanged that money for others some and marriage; until women young of virginity the salvaging and experience sexual first their them giving of tradition the follow to sometimes muxes incomplete manincomplete you because fucked haven’t a Juchitán in seen is also order normative a of maintenance and relationship of type This whichthrough menofJuchitánthe can define masculinity their own in opposition to them. normative dualism of sexuality mayand gender, actually help maintain a normative order shows howassigning gender” a“third tothe same the hears film, one of the of Zapotec slangforZapotec ‘woman’-. //weakling, coward.” // Elmiedoso,elcobarde ‘mujer’-. page:“ the focuseson loud camera asthe category Danger, Intrepid Seekersof Authentic, 61 possiblenot duringthis man’s youth. Inthis sense, 2007 was that development arecent only been has cross-dressing that learns viewer the this scene an older film where Stephen’s suggestion about thechanges Juchitán has undergone, canbeidentified in later the inconsistency performanceof andfluidity of withindefinitions asingle identity, with coupled Juchitan Queer Paradise Dictionary in hand, Zapoteca toSpanish,a in Zapoteca hand, Dictionary engage in complex relationships with “straight” young men: sometimes for love; for sometimes men: young “straight” with relationships complex in engage muxe muxe and in 2005 is deeply embedded in the idea that the that idea in the embedded is deeply throughout time. throughout muxe Authentic, Intrepid Seekers of Danger, Seekersof Intrepid Authentic, , directed by Patricio Henríquez (2002). explains: “they explains:“they make-up,it’s somethingwear Inever did.”Through muxe who held the dictionary tell another man, “you are an are “you man, another tell dictionary the held who .” The subtitle shows the translation “the effeminate – effeminate “the translation the shows subtitle The .” manages to show the development and change of the of change and development the show to manages muxe: el afeminado – muxe: elafeminado Zapotequizacion dela palabra 28 muxes puto muxe 61 Throughout this film, the representation muxe , and thus making them fall out of the of out fall them making thus and , (or fag).” This type of representation of fag).” This type (or in film the is a homosexual man. Later in the Later man. homosexual a is both of which present how the how present which of both Muxes ofJuchitán Queer Paradise , like 2005 Muxes of reads out CEU eTD Collection they need both to construct themselves as a and half Infact,all woman. filmsfour how convey carried bythe Danger be clearly seen in the representation of the of representation seen inthe be clearly combination of male and female traits,” female and male of combination examination of in their found a Sweet third and Zwilling what see can one films in the sexfemininity, positive in India, namely, that muxes this category only existscommunity, and thusas the relationship betweena the women,“negation a positive notion of femininity, and or 2000 in emphasized particularly and films the in shown as Furthermore, community. in the roles the represent third identity,itis butrather, “cross-gender behavior.” asfactorof this determiningregarded the isnot “same-sex orientation” category, find a third films. Zwilling and Sweet explain that in India, like in other parts of the world where one can parts.” A parts.” 63 62 Ibid., 123. 124. India,” inancient constructs ofThird-sex Evolution “The Sweet, and Zwilling “Being seems to legitimize the Blossoms of Fire of Blossoms where the logo at the start of the film, copied directly from an embroidered clothe muxe muxe muxe muxes says in 2007 is synonymous of issynonymous not a of working,synonymous likeof promiscuity in other asahard-working feminine closely tothe person performing roles related in a procession towards the end of the film, depicts a person, half manhalf aperson, depicts film, the endof the towards a procession in , femininity femininity appears asapositive, and in quality productive the Muxes ofJuchitan Muxes muxe category. Because category. 63 and does notchallenge sexual dimorphism. This can muxe 29 muxes , which is an idea that is emphasized in all four in all is emphasized that idea an is which , . in 2005 muxes 62 muxes Similarly,in Juchitán,films the are neither men nor women, but women, nor men neither are Authentic, Intrepid SeekersAuthentic, Intrepid of are men associated with a CEU eTD Collection dimorphism dimorphism its thirdthrough category gender and sexual challenges seemingly, that, as aplace Juchitán of representation civilized Juchitán init apre- roots also characteristic, appears asanotion past and,asapre-conquest of state. of the representation the found in Thus, can “still” be state community. the prior these says narrator the is that This Juchitán of representation the on has this impact The “civilization.” is, thus, ideaof the of arrival tothe prior was flexibility means there italso Europeans, the of arrival the to prior theflexibility gender was there says and Indian American a North of image clearest showsthe film sex.When the or onegender within easily locatable not are dress and features example Indianwhose American North a of animage depicts that Curtis, by Edward Dandy,” “Piegan out of the fours films where the The narrator of The narrator 2000 film muxe A of genders. character isthe alternative still there Juchitán flexibility. In has moregender Figure 3. Half man half woman. Film Still 2005 , in is from aperson , aman gender.” Zapoteco, characteristics, athird some female with “We discovered that in the Americas, before the Europeans arrived the concept of concept the arrived Europeans before the in Americas, the that “We discovered Blossoms of Fire of Blossoms muxe, explains, as the film pans over as a photograph of Danger constructs it from modernas a place the different constructs 30 Authentic, Intrepid Seekers of Seekers Intrepid Authentic, muxes CEU eTD Collection include “pre-civilized” flexibility between sexes and genders. does not in normative order whichthe 4, in 3and Chapters further examine world, asIwill 31 CEU eTD Collection screening of motion pictures. According to the narrations of the event, the audience was audience the event, the of narrations the to According motion pictures. of screening origin 2.1 The relationships. further establishingand unbalancedpower and constructing past, thus, the Otherness inbe notions of deemedtorooted iscultures it of salvaging a tradition of revealing, still part occasionally although that, asamedium filmmaking Iseedocumentary my foranalysis, Important re-enforced. and/or places arecreated ofdistant realities which imaginary through and time, space, mediates cultures, that tool apowerful filmmaking as of documentary andcontext ideology. Leadingtomy analysisChapters 3and in 4,Ishow my understanding social filmmaker’s the reflect also films documentary how emphasize I so, doing In “real.” makingthus it imaginary aconvincingcreates medium that constructions of seem places filmmaking “reality” one captures through materialitythe film the of and composes stories, anthropological itsandresearch colonial Iexaminehow origin. documentarythrough genrefilmmaking its andits of development trace usedocumentary in through which, since its origin, the real and the imaginary come together. Specifically, I look at the In lights1895, the went off and the Lumièreheld brothers inParis firstthe public through representation amedium film of as of development atthe look I In thischapter Documentary film: mediating imaginary realities imaginary mediating Documentary film: 32 Chapter 2 CEU eTD Collection Trip tothemoon, Méliès’George soonreflected fiction. work reality his the 1902film time His of through West.existed andordered civilized the outside civilizations that and feedwould from create simultaneously of barbaric, images exotic,the the backward and lands mediumof theimagination colonial a which representation, was distant of through 68 Film in Cinema,” the of Ethnography Feminist a Toward of Empire: Culture and francophone worlds bodies and spears, which resemblesresponse the scientists try slaughterto thethe barbaricmoon inhabitants, representedracial with painted representationsmoon and attackedby uponlanding inhabitants are moon the who wantthem leave,to in of African people at the time.animation and special effects to tell the story of a group of scientists who plan a trip to the time. at the literature travel the in famous already places of illustrations through Europe to world the brought and vision Lumière’s the followed they so, doing In colonies. their and China, India, Mexico, like lands, “exotic” from films short France into bringing started 1900 early the since who, was explored cameramen life events soon bytheLumière’s of trained profitability recording its colonial context meant, to bring images of the world to Europeans. The fascination and 67 http://www.bibliomonde.net/livre/gabriel-veyre-operateur-lumiere-4594.html 66 65 filmmaking, the Lumière actualities had one aim,“tooffer the world the to world,” 64 “actualities.” werecalled why they by andfilmmakers selected include andnot the did performances, actors reasons or deliberate framed events everyday depicted minute, a than longer them of none brothers, Lumière the on see life”projected “real a screen. scaredto surprised and DinaSherzer, introduction to 4,2011, June accessed Veyre” Gabriel par Lumière, opérateur Veyre, “Gabriel Ibid., 8. Erik Barnouw, Le Voyage dansla lune , ed. Matthew Bernstein and Gaylyn Studlar (London: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 1997), 29. Although film was introduced as a medium that enabled the reproduction as of enableda medium film introduced reality,Although reproduction the that was Documentary,a History of the Non-Fiction Film , ed. Dina Sherzer (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996), 3; and, Ella Shohat, “Gender 68 67 , directed by George Méliès (1902). considered one of the first science fiction films, uses sophisticated films,uses fiction science first the of one considered Thus, since its origin,film,like otherlong-established forms European Cinema, colonialism, postcolonialism: perspectives from the French and 65 As the predecessors of what we now call documentary 33 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 7. 64 Most of by films Mostof the presented Visions of the East: Orientalism in 66 which in which A CEU eTD Collection 43. Cinema of Alfred Cort Haddon and Walter Baldwin Spencer,” 70 explains, their efforts to control the data were overshadowed by the lack of power they had they power of lack the by overshadowed were data the control to efforts their explains, movementasAlisonbut, Griffiths field.Haddon andin recorded and Both rituals Spencer the filmof developedbeapproach positivistdiscipline,the the under achallenging to tool proved previously used collectdata, to andmethods touse it objectively and scientifically were fathers” of becoming film. “founding the ethnographic thatlivedcultures inlands, Haddon was soon distant followed by Baldwin thus Spencer, colonial origins the emerging and “study”fascination “know”to andto thepeople and information in an ethnographic expedition for the first time. Building on anthropology’s from beingsalvaged 2.2 SavingtheNative arecreatedand maintained.power will look into how film is amedium whichthrough relationships of anddifference unbalanced I andchapters, insection following the Thus, Other. andtribal a barbaric of representation andestablishedto the where science in get of superiority work Europe opposition the ThisinMéliès’ beseen can social context. thefilmmaker’s about reality acertain practices, imaginative and non-fictional andmaintains,through both creates, mediumreflects, a that has film been stages how its from earliest shows likeactualities, work, early the Thus, Méliès’ representation of the superiority of science in comparison to a tribal looking community. European expansionism and colonization andmore specificallyproject, the through 69 time.” of the spirit conquering the As Dina Sherzer points out, Méliès’ film, not explicitly or consciously, Alison Griffiths, “Knowledge and Visuality in Turn-of-the-century Anthropology: Early The Ethnographic DinaSherzer, introduction to Only three year after the first screening in Paris, Alfred Cort Haddonusedyear firstin Only AlfredCort the filmtogather after screening three Paris, Cinema, colonialism, postcolonialism 69 This is evident through the film’s connection to the to connection film’s the through is evident This 34 Visual Anthropology Review 70 , 3. Although photography had been “[is] emblematic of emblematic “[is] 12,no.2 (1996): 18- CEU eTD Collection film, such as the difficulty of the medium, the expenses involved, and the relationships the and involved, expenses the medium, the of difficulty the as such film, article, Mead points at some of the problems that explain theneglect of anthropologists to use herbe In beneficial. advances,could and enabledby visual words how records, technological inMead discussed anthropology how ethnographers, became ascienceof 1975 Margaret byother Supported communities. distant of aspects uncivilized and natural, eroticized, theprimitive, emphasized imagesthat through Otherness of in involvedlargely creation the hadbefore been film,ethnographic knowledge, which redefine approach a to helped that and 1970s. made anthropology fall into hasbeen what called a“crisis in duringthe representation” 1960s discipline, criticized of increasing that andorigins colonial the body work the of Europe, the the role and position of the ethnographer and, invariably, of the discipline. question inhelpedto time, and, purposes use film for ethnographic areluctance to generated world colonial in the imagined cultures the from events “real” recording of problems understanding what the record of “real”of a evententailed. duringitwas re-enacted the day,whichwasproblematic becauseitchallenged the be forexample, recorded, aritual place took that during night the couldbe recordedunless not andrecord sound. These could not limitations also had animpacton what could andcouldnot lighting, artificial or sunlight required frames, limited had flammable, highly was time, the at that, themedium of limitations on the depended records the andinstead, method, scientific an allowfilm were also of or not because raised did aperfectpositioning subjects objective RogerHillman (California: University of California Press, 1995), 261. Fields of Vision: Essays inFilm Studies, Visual Anthropology, and Photography 73 72 43. Cinema of Alfred Cort Haddon and Walter Baldwin Spencer,” 71 information recorded. they the over Faye Ginsburg,“Mediating culture: Indigenous Media, Ethnographic Film, and Productionthe of Identity,” in Ibid. Alison Griffiths, “Knowledge and Visuality in Turn-of-the-century Anthropology: Early The Ethnographic The end of the colonial era, the socio-political and economic changes in post-war 73 This crisis called for reflexivity and anew positioning researcher,anew of the 71 Furthermore, questions of interpretation ofinterpretation Furthermore,questions and meaning 35 Visual Anthropology Review 72 These limitations and the and limitations These , ed. Leslie Devereaux and Devereaux Leslie ed. , 12,no.2 (1996): 18- CEU eTD Collection 80 79 Schwartz and Jeannene M. Przyblyski (New York: Routledge, 2004). 78 immediately becoming the past. As Judith As past. the becoming immediately time, a specific at negative light-sensitive a on imprinted is world “real” the of light the which there.” been has thing the that deny never can “[one] in photography states, Barthes Roland as 77 Barthes 76 75 ed. PaulHockings (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2003), 8-9. as heroes: somewhat both anthropology “fieldworker”and the seem haveto responsibility anenormous and appear 74 of also “preservation” cultures. allowsthe for that character and“reanalyzable” “reproducible” film’s of importance the emphasized also she However, field. in the formed 2.3 Whose reality is it? is reality 2.3 Whose filmmaking, namely, the role of film in recording “reality.” documentary understandof development the modern atsomethingcrucial to points world, by the endangered civilizations non-Western those “salvage” of world the needsto words, Barthes, Roland Barthes, Roland Siegfried Kracauer (1927), “Photography,”in Walter Benjamin, "Short History of Photography," in Sontag, Susan. Ibid., 3. Margaret Mead (1975), “Visual Anthropology in a Discipline of Words,” in Mead, although she puts the anthropologist in a position of a hero that, in Franz Boas’ in Franz that, hero a of in aposition anthropologist the puts she although Mead, Authors like Susan Sontag, likeAuthors Susan 80 difficult conditions of a torrid climate. making underthe his plates or fingersown wet in climate cold, the an arctic cramped knowledge inhas hasprovided adynamic that sustainednotes thefieldworker taking heritage…This humanistic and been whole has of scientific disappear our part earth… The recognitionforms that of human behavior still inevitably extant will of making humancustoms beings of vanishingthe records andpreserving andof this responsibility the accepted explicitly and implicitly both has Anthropology… 79 The similarities of photography and film rely on the materiality of both mediums, on mediums, both of materiality the on rely film and photography of similarities The examine the relationship between examine because photography, relationship between analogue truth, the reality, and Camera Lucida On Photography Camera Lucida , 76. (New York: Penguin,1977). (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982). 76 Walter Benjamin, The nineteenth-century visual culture reader Keilbach says, “photography connects reality and reality connects “photography says, Keilbach 75 36 Artforum 15,no. 6(1977): 46-51. 77 Siegfried Kracauer, Siegfried Principles of visual anthropology , ed. Vanessa R. 78 and Roland 74 For Mead, , CEU eTD Collection the historical world.” it, “at the heart of documentary a is less heartof documentary it, “atthe “truth” and “reality” entail and what is actually “there.” In this sense, as Bill Nichols best puts as Mead argued, but is also the filmthis sense, thereality result capture is not that able to only is and“reanalyzable” “reproducible” of the combination shots, ofdifferent of juxtaposition the themontage, as such filmmaker’s notion of what methods manipulation andthrough andshow processes, change, movement, hastheability to in capturing that images of isacontinuum film meaning, its “anchor” say, would Barthes “strange people” away from the troubled modern world, but through a romantic realism realism that a romantic world, but through modern from troubled the people”away “strange at looked only not camera. stagedfor the Flaherty thatwere inhuntingand practices engage film that shows a romanticized version of the everyday life of the Eskimos who build igloos start places. foris example,Nanook, to recorded stories tellingtheprotagonist aboutthe of a filmmakers enabled documentary of developmenttechnology the in andspace, happened time be as scientific, “real” to andfilmmaking events they tried While capture ethnographic early Nanook oftheNorth, chargebuilding of in railroads Canada in 1913 toldJ. Flaherty Robertin who 1922 made don’t you includein your outfit for acamera making film?” Benjamin needs to be contextualized or givenits inextract or needsBenjamin tobecontextualized meaning, to a caption order from still photography that captures a split second of “reality” and thus, according to “preserving 85 York: Palgrave, 1998), 111. Historical Truth,” 81 past,” the 84 83 82 Barnouw, JudithKeilbach, “Photographs, Symbolic Images, and the Holocaust: On the (Im)Possibility of Depicting Bill Nichols (1991) quoted in Nick Lacey, Benjamin, "Short History of Photography," 46-51. Mead (1975), “Visual Anthropology in a Discipline of Words,” 3. “You’re goinginterestinginto – strange country people –animals and all – why that 81 Documentary, aHistory of the Non-Fiction Film whichis understandsomething that Meadseemedof whenshe to spoke records of of vanishingthe records andhumanbeings customs of earth.”this History andTheory History 84 one of the first and most acclaimed films in documentary film history. film in documentary films acclaimed most and first the of one 47 (2009): 56. Image and representation: key concepts inmedia studies story 37 and itsimaginary world than an , 49. directs the viewer’s interpretation. In 85 Sir William Mackenzie, in Mackenzie, William Sir argument 82 Different , (New 83 about or as or CEU eTD Collection performance was “natural” or “artificial,” and whether anything in the film was“real.” in the anything and whether “artificial,” or was“natural” performance their whether not, or “truth” discloses film the whether themselves amongst discuss opinions, varying with and themselves watch characters film,the the end of the At camera. the high reflexivity, place “real life” people in different situations and provoke conversations for the film itself,in his 1960 film included in audience’s are the reactions where amode of cinema, participatory representation and style observational anthropological an Using imaginary. the and reality considered questioning Jean was filmmaker,started between boundary Rouch,what the ethnographic different ways on a quest to salvage the “real” for iscan how andcommunicated “reality”be neverunaltered. that the the captured benefit of the West, since the 1950s realism and storytelling mix with what Nichols calls the “ the calls Nichols what with mix storytelling and realism European imagination.”European 88 87 Press, 1991), 166. More’s lived wherethesavage within West, Thomas type of away Eskimothe troubledfrom the simpler world comes through. In a way, Flaherty’s romantic realism created an Other place 86 through historicalstorytelling, world and apracticein of actualities realism to move of the of unaltered from one finestexamples the rhetorical whichAsbeenbelongs by ofmodernity. pastandaspacehas the effects that thatnot to polluted the overtness Nicholstradition, even as an outsider of the ethnographic practice, of fixing “native” cultures in a time [that]explainsfollow the to he seems community, sense of anda nature of hardships the emphasizes convey as an theargument union aboutof “objective the world,” representations of the Trouillot, “Anthropology and the Savage Slot,” 14. Slot,” Savage the and “Anthropology Trouillot, Bill Nichols, Chronique d’un été In contrast to the work of people like Spencer, Mead, and Flaherty, who were in who were and Mead, Flaherty, like Spencer, of people tothework In contrast utopia, Nanook oftheNorth Representing reality: issues and concepts in documentary which Trouillot describes as the “ideal state” and “the prototypical nowhere and of “the prototypical state” asthe“ideal describes which Trouillot , directed by Jean Rouch, (1960). 87 Thus, this type of documentary Thus, filmmaking, type of this approach a where to Chronique d'unété, Flaherty’s discontent with modernity and search for a better a for search and modernity with discontent Flaherty’s 38 88 Rouch and sociologist Edgar Morin, with argument (Bloomington: Indiana University ” of the filmmaker, shows filmmaker, the ” of 86 CEU eTD Collection people” as if they were specimens, but it also questioned the idea that there is athingas such there it ideathat questionedbutalso the ifspecimens, people”were as they past where Europeans skull amongstbody.of parts his is other Notonly it because this a important scene discloses wouldhis measure whichhe manafter to inproceeds Paris, elderly askan African entrepreneurs travel to African countries to take measurements of “tribal the the university.youWouldmeasure me permit to you?” would need, for example. “Excuse me, sir, I am a student from Africa working on my thesis at whatsizeknow measure“them,” Europeans, the to Paris tostudy, observe,bedsthey of and life, about fly neither couple their the of of anything ways knew of them to entrepreneurs young African men decide to open hotela in Niger that will only cater toEuropeans. Because 1971 film, position the inknowledgerepresentation andproduction. subjects the of the Rouch’s role of through. come can is, “truth” what define to inability people’s like realities, larger film, through of the recorded images sounds,” and of recorded the filmmaker. In this sense, Rouch did notaimed to show“reality” but rather “a particular truth 92 91 90 MinnesotaPress, 2003), 232. from lived reality,” “cinema wasdifferent that theory 89 realism was not confused with ‘reality.’” “developmentinfluencedRouch of byVertov’s inwas realism whichtheory of a cinema clear definite and between boundary opposing seemingly elements. As Feld explains, S. a locate to trying of it difficulty the shows in so, and “fiction,” doing or “reality” “artificial,” is“natural” or what of theunderstanding filmchallenges the place, takes discussion Through Rouch andMorin’s film the and conversations throughout scene, last this the where Ibid., 98. Ibid., 13. Jean Rouch and Steven Feld, Steven and Rouch Jean Petit àPetit, Building on his approach, Rouch continued to experiment questionBuilding hisand continued to found on Rouch approach, away to Petit àPetit, directed by Jean Rouch, (1971). wittily thecolonial displays of roots representation when acouple of Cine-Ethnography/ Jean Rouch 91 cinéma vérité 89 Vertov’s onhis filmrested understanding on 39 , ed. Steven Feld (Minneapolis: University of . Thus, in his work one can see how see can one work his in Thus, . 92 90 the audience hears one of the young and it was always arranged by the by arranged always was it and CEU eTD Collection 93 sheep good?” The answer was “Then no. also why make movies?” the do movies making “Will no; was answer The harm?” any sheep do movies making “Will asks: Yazzie, Sam filmmakers, the with negotiates leaderwho community the preparations, the Throughout voice. and experience own their capture to order in film to how Navajos Through NavajoEyes, of voicepreserving andgivingabe aculture “native” tothe book can found inthe1972 Although can Otherhasshifted,the one see, salvaging the still project on. An goes example multiculturalism discourses and the idea of a common human heritage as I noted in Chapter 1. under be preserved heard butalso only need to whonot ones marginalized, the silenced and itisNow, like groups indigenous,theaboriginals,the and with natives, ahistory the beingof shifted. has Other the of notion The immigration. of influx the and areas, urban of expansion With globalization silenced. heard or voice is meaning,andwhose of the construction practices, representational in asymmetry in of power the ethics regards authenticity,with of cultural notions do to largely has representation of question the Currently, and representation. own its and production, socio-economicalits interaction questoffinding projectknowledge andledtothe with “native”voice, the salvaging Boasian the challenged societies hadinnon-European effects the colonialism changes, Others. the increaseis thembeing observed, which brings tolightlong-established their monopoly representingof of itwhen shift roles the culture, “unknown” an of of representation the in charge observers the communication, a differentthrough insteadpositioningof having of subjects, the being the white Europeans and preserved. Furthermore, in film this Rouch alsochallenges the production knowledge of the a savage Other with aninherent difference, apure child nature of who needs tobe understood Ginsburg, “Mediating culture,” 262. The crisis in anthropology and the emergence of post-colonial theorists who questioned where Sol Worth and John Adair discuss their effort to teach the 40 93 CEU eTD Collection 95 94 and contradictions of contemporary of life.”and contradictions contemporary inconsistencies the accommodate to attempts that present for the a position and assert create to but past idealized an of retrieval some on based not are They construction. identity of processes Rather identity the they are about ‘out there.’ anda “preexistent cultural untroubled asand it, have that, Faye engaged in best Rouch donotassumeis Ginsburgputs projects there becoming. likeJudith Ethnographicfilmmakers MacDougall,and O’Rourke, David Dennis and of adaptation ina process construction under arealways “truth” “reality” and about showthrough his notions identities,power, culture, able of films positions where andeven to film is such which be can amedium through Rouch processes as theprocesses was captured, however, believe, I cultures. and identities fixate thus, and Other the representing of power the with ones the still are they noble, are intentions filmmaker’s if the even in which power of positions and unbalanced salvaging project the of seetraces onecanstill conceived order, a pre- for Othering andmaintaining atool has wasusedas assuch, that pastand, a colonial genre a as filmmaking, documentary In filmmakers. the for rather but benefit own their for not particularfilm was athowthat points question Sam Yazzie’s one? inmaking interested positive attribute andpositive gender” a“third attribute indigeneity and its seeminglydifferentgender andsexuality system, is wherefemininity a salvaging Through project. films,the the representation Juchitán itsof with visible the discrimination inconsistencies and contradictions of contemporary life” of contemporary and contradictions inconsistencies intrepid seekersDanger of Authentic, Althoughbelieve between films, the2005 the filmmaking. and I aredifferences there Ibid. Ginsburg, “Mediating culture,” 265. If making a movie had nothing to do with sheep, then why would the Navajo be Navajo the would why then sheep, with do to nothing had movie a making If The documentary The filmsJuchitándocumentary fall about within history the of documentary muxes face within the community,films four all engage in a type of attempts to reconcile, as Ginsburg describes, “the describes, asGinsburg reconcile, to attempts muxe 94 41 is recognized, constructs it as a place that is itas a that place constructs is recognized, 95 through its emphasis on the on emphasis its through CEU eTD Collection Juchitán isJuchitán compared to, resultingin power unbalanced relationships. maintain backgroundfilmmaker’sand dominant the cultural asthe which referent against establish andconsequently Juchitán place asan Other filmsconstruct the Chapters, following in the examine will I that means through Thus, world. modern the of idea the from different 42 CEU eTD Collection sexuality system, I build on the debate that challenges the idea that “authentic” identities and identities “authentic” that idea the challenges that debate the on build I system, sexuality positioning the discourses of gender andsexuality in As films.I consider the of theeffects representing and hegemonic with intersection its and authentic, the representing in particularly representation, focusimperialof in my I the thecolonial onissues discussion world. project of caneverbe identity andused. culture, of asacategorical authentic, qualifier the “outside” ofJuchitán,helpsexamine me notion to authenticity the of and question whether lies on and an“outsider,” butalso “insider” in whathis reflections andthe “inside” the film onthe2002 focus aparticular films,with a on Eli, focus I In particular, characters. second,look at I how filmsthe an “inside”represent and “outside” an of Juchitán the through And “ours.” space, from “their” of and theseparation of Juchitán validates theOthering it that I argue this of representation, type at of look consequences the As I authentic. the the and Juchitán through notions“outside” of lies and “inside” thespace that constitutes what Iexamine place. Specifically, of authenticity.supports First, I thelook idea at howof thethe Westrepresentation as the dominant of Juchitánculture belonging to a modern and civilized The “Authentic:” Representing the Inside and Outside of Juchitán of andOutside Inside the Representing The “Authentic:” Working within apost-colonial framework, Ibuildon debatethe about reproductionthe look into howJuchitán in eachfilm In I filmsthe and, doing chapter this so, Other muxes is ideas linked to of wilderness nature, whichand in are rooted notionthe of muxes as part of a “different” indigenous group with a “distinct” gender and a“distinct” with indigenous group of a “different” aspart muxe 43 Queer Paradise Queer from Juchitán, and the role he plays in the . My focus on Eli’s role as an Chapter 3 CEU eTD Collection discourses of sexuality intersect with notions of Orientalism and the exotic Other. My aim is aim My Other. exotic the and Orientalism of notions with intersect sexuality of discourses hegemonic western representation, through how, byshowing to these debates contributes uneven power. when the Otherimperialargues, for in example,happens power; Pratt perpetuating thethis dominant that and the dominant culture come into contact developing relationships of 98 Reader, Spivak likeChakravarty Gayatri authors Similarly, Other. its over dominance and superiority its legitimize to West the enables which andweakness, backwardness uncivilized abouttheir assumptions based onimperialistic so holds but itdoes Europe not only production East, the does control over knowledge about 97 integral part of of European integral part personality, experience. Yet none of the Orientis merely imaginative. The Orientis an has “…[T]he helpedtodefineOrient (or theWest) Europe asits contrastingimage, idea, itself: can construct which it against as anOther Orient the imagines creates and West the 96 Edward Said, K. and Bhabha.Inhisinfluential Homi book Fanon, Franz are movement this pioneered who scholars the Amongst representations. and hegemonic discourse of through Other, the in thecreation colonialism of processes residual Other “Authentic” 3.1 The benever in space.“our” culture as an Other —which is in a different space that, similar to the Other side of a coin, can “their” between thedivision relations,andlegitimates andmaintains power uneven produces cultures exist. I argue that, through the notion of the authentic, the representation of Juchitán Pratt, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,“Can the Subaltern Speak?,” in Said, Central to post-colonial theory is the effort to examine and counter the impact and Orientalism Imperial Eyes, ed. Laura Chrisman andPatrick Williams (New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1994). 98 ,1-2. My examination of My examination in representation the of films documentary Juchitán of 4-7 . material civilization andculture.” civilization 97 and Pratt have examined the role of representation 44 Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Orientalism 96 Furthermore, Saidargues that , Said examines how CEU eTD Collection disadvantaged become groups, indigenous for example of category “authentic,” fall underthe people who politicalideaembeddedin arepre-modern thatthere of the identities. Thus,as cultural groups a result, subjects who are trapped in a position of a single Otherness. In 100 2003), 214. exist. not do identities “authentic” that show authors these “ethnic,” not is who is and who differentiates that discourse the challenging identity, which often result on the subordination of groups of people. Furthermore, invested inand positionality, race, of notions with intersect indigeneity and ethnicity how into look they 99 as marginalized group. groups colonized” indigenous mostthe and“truly of think can whetherone examined have WernerGriffiths Sollors,Brydon, and Minh-Ha, primitive andsavagereproduced under – gets indigeneity. the banner of Authors like Diana colonialthe world previouslyestablished by European of representations lands distant – often asymmetry of the power modern art, of development even the 2,travel and writing, Chapter in as foreign I explored with cultures fascination as the anthropological such civilization, asthecenterof maintaintheir Europeans power thathelped andinstitutions processes reproduction itself. imperial withinthe of project European theSimilarworld colonial to world. material the an impact on show imagination, buthas notonly have inpeople’s ideato of the that aplace Other does the Bill Ashcroft, GarethGriffiths, and Helen Tiffineds., Ibid. Building on this debate, Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin, explain: One of the main debates of postcolonial theory is the role of representation in the in representation of role is the theory postcolonial of debates main the of One As Ashcroft, Griffiths, and is notion highly authenticity argue,the Tiffin of cultural essentialism. self-defeating ultimately but strategic logically a into them locking of by processes imperialism subtle the with engagement their prevents and centre/margin, of binarism indigenous people ultimately asthe marginalized, aconcept that reinscribes the authenticity, which proves difficult to displace. The resultis knowing the positioning of the Imperial narratives such as that of anthropology in their project of indigenous groups have imported a notion of anotion groupshaveof cultural imported of aboriginality, indigenous 100 45 The Post-colonial Studies Reader 99 (London: Routledge, In order to do so, naming and thus and CEU eTD Collection as free and untamed. As undistinguishable chirps fill the screen, so do the undistinguishable the do so screen, the fill chirps undistinguishable As untamed. and free as of as andwhich, justweperceivebirds like nature wilderness, part to juxtapose imagesto juxtapose free flying of moving birdsandfree an “outsider,” such an “outsider,” such as filmmaker. the from community indigenous “authentic” an of “insider” an differentiate truly can one whether destabilizing thenotion of an “authentic” indigenous identity in film, Minh-Ha questions in Interested country. of the state in pre-modern the rooted seemed as they Other, the communities single into one indigenous inof category of country, essentialization resulted the 101 church. and city make-up. music Thecelebratory birdsthe overkeeps playing as mainsquareof the pass the and outfits inexuberant camera the greet cheerfully and flamboyantly an imagewhere thissequence, sceneisfollowed by of Juchitán.montage Aspartof a streets the over cruise freely away, Place a Different in Authentic the Frontier, the and 3.2 Nature films simultaneously reify and challenge the notion of the “authentic.” Other, spatially allocated in a pre-modern space, throughout my analysis I look at how the the through 1,the idea bringingin nation discussedthe of together Chapter example,Mexico for as Minh-Ha, “No Master Territories,” in As part of the start of of 2002documentary the start the As partof A flock of birds, chirping mestizo model, instead of model,instead achieving the of unity desired fragmented a previously of muxes ThePost-colonial Studies Reader 101 Building on the critique of representing an “authentic” Figure 4. Party. Film Still, 2002 46 Queer Paradise, muxes, , 217. creates a visual experience in avisualexperience creates the film’s use of montage muxes too, are perceived too, Queer Paradise CEU eTD Collection 105 104 103 Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, 102 Cronon thelink birdsbetween Furthermore, and hand. in filmmaker’s representation the powerof the keeping thus single category, from the start of the film,muxes the wide variety of experiences of the civilization and the “older simpler, truer world.” emergent an between lies is what which frontier, the and us, astounds which that nature, of Cronon calls sublime the it what combines because anOtherspace becomes Juchitán films the way behave Furthermore, inculture. through space dominant the people the of the to as opposed are bethey who free to are people non-heterosexual in nature, like Juchitán, hundreds of years in“American andhistory.” European building thathas Sitting no door. behind a table viewerhearsthe her “this sayin Zapoteco, sidewalk of a street. With a cheery attitude, she crosses an unpaved passage and enters a brick film more free2002 the in generally,as agay wilderness, birdsthe andlike untamed community “we” are in the “unnatural civilization.” In this sense, by representing sense, this In civilization.” “unnatural “we” areinthe fake selves tothe as opposed be who“we”are, freedom to – havethe West civilized or the culture dominant the “we” from itis– people seenasaspacewhere because space delineate Ibid., 76. Ibid., 80. Ibid., 70. William Cronon, “The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature,” in Queer Paradise According to Cronon, the idea of wilderness is linked to the “natural” and helps and “natural” the to linked is wilderness of idea the Cronon, to According A , which similar to the berdache category I explored in Chapter 1, makes it seem as if 102 of the sublime with the primitive simplicity of the frontier.” combines] the sacredgrandeur ourartificial lives…[it influences corruptingto the of lost selves lost wehave true has the recover wecan in isfreedom which of a It that its soul. place civilization unnatural an of antithesis unfallen natural, is the “Wilderness muxe who discusses how “wilderness” and “nature” are constructed “ideas” that go back “ideas” thatgo areconstructed “nature” “wilderness”how and whodiscusses in full in represents Juchitán as a place that is Other from “ours” because in because “ours” from is Other that aplace as Juchitán represents Tehuana gown, with a bright fuschia skirt and shirt, walks on the ed. William Cronon (New York: Norton Press, 1996). muxes 47 can be explored through the work of William of work the through be explored can 105 103 Beautifully put, Cronon explains: 104 muxes muxes will be put in one ’ identities and, Uncommon CEU eTD Collection through scenes of street festivities for example. scenes festivities of street through like “our” space. “polluted”not “outstanding”the characterof Juchitán, indications areall thatJuchitán is not place, and the idea that developmentthe and and the “outside” world are on their way and yetthe which with havepride the showing simultaneously hascommunity theyears, throughout undergone looks at asit thehistory of city,the while 2000 perfumes that comefrom the “outside” world. Similarly, Cronon’s frontier can also be seen in combinationthe between an emergentcivilization and an“older world” simpler, truer “frontier,” calls the Cronon with what is viewer presented Then the area. an underdeveloped openly be a man to “natural”also for ahomosexual and seems It traditional.natural, proud, seesone isbeautiful, gown and the poise with which she moves, chin up and afirm pace, creates a feeling that what one hearsone the the “nature,” apleasurable experience and belongs to which creates 108 107 106 is forladies.” The The customer asks in Zapoteco. “No, they’ve already changed, blue is for gentleman and pink Spanish as she passes an entireshe was bottlecarrying to heras shecustomer. walked,woman sitting on the other – andside“Didn’t of a table. takes The itout come another a in to bottle tap perfume of the a knock-off new,” asshepasses is brand and isEternity one a blueone. bottle?”“This is Chanel 5,” she says in Cronon, “The Trouble with Wilderness,” 76. Wilderness,” with Trouble “The Cronon, Film’s translation. Ramo de Fuego In this scene, similar to what Cronon calls the outstanding “sublime of nature,” that nature,” of “sublime outstanding the calls Cronon what to similar scene, this In Blossoms of Fire of Blossoms muxes , the emphasis on the traditional aspects of the community as a pre-modern muxe , directed by Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne (2000). Muxes, Authentic, Intrepid Seekers of Danger muxe muxe speak in Zapoteca andin of“new” in she Spanish Zapoteca as sells knock-offs speak responds in Zapoteco. through the film’s emphasis on the process of modernization the modernization ontheprocess of film’semphasis the through incheerfully like women’s andto aroundclothes whatseems walk 48 106 muxe 108 In this sense, the juxtaposition of the birds looks for more bottles in the plastic bag Juchitecos , directed by Alejandra Islas (2005). engage with their traditions their with engage muxe ’s fuschiabright 107 when CEU eTD Collection and/or partying], suckinghoneyfrom flyingroses and around with open wings” 111 110 festive in women of multitude a follows camera the as explains Fire of Blossoms in narrator 109 conception of sex noted in the colors of the perfumes is what the dominant culture constructed. Thus, although filmsthe Juchitán represent as having a“third gender” seems get in asymmetry,subjects which power shaped apreconceived around from encounters, the to be “dominant” emerge because they each culture of representations the through arecreated uneven power withinladies.” thefor is pink and gentleman for is “blue community where sexes the between distinctions normative itself versions, and –aspacewherethere arenewfragrances,knock-off culture – and dominant the as the normative isaccepted gender” a“third and erased “traditional” the not has “modern” – aplacewhere the muxe a of in idea, representation Pratt’s the Buildingon constructed. get space and communities ideas about that is these anditthrough of encounters from type this result representations that intractable conflict.” intractable establish usually involving relations, ongoing conditions inequality,coercion, radicalof and and other each with contact into come separated historically and geographically “people spaceinwhich asthe shedefines zone,” which calls“contact the Pratt canseewhat one “traditional” indigenousculture and “outside”is an world that “modern.” in Thus, films the a between communication visible the through apparent becomes frontier Cronon’s Film’s translation. Pratt, Ramo de Fuego selling perfumes, for example, one can see ideas about space and communities: Juchitán “This Isthmusis tothe painted comparable butterflies thatarealways In the films, Juchitán is represented as a place that is Other from aplace “ours,” where from is Other as a place that is represented Juchitán In thefilms, 110 Imperial Eyes As previously mentioned, Pratt explains that in the contact zone relationships of , directed by Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne (2000). Muxes, Authentic, Intrepid Seekers of Danger , 6. 109 As Pratt discusses this term in her study argues she writing, study travel of inher discusses thisterm As Pratt 49 , directed by Alejandra Islas (2005). muxe sells and yet resists. yet and sells de fiesta, muxe [feasting 111 The , the , CEU eTD Collection century. Jameseven 2, beginningin the of Chapter 19 the at as Iexplored whichwasaconcern, disappear, Clifford, in globalizedhis book world, especially becauseisit Mexico or Europe,gets, even more, disguised. of the fear that whether filmsupports, Westeach the preserve the powerof have Juchitán to to thesameaim “authentic” pre-modern identities will their interestin saving their traditions. Becauseboth, the filmmakers and the is for captured to others see, and similarly, people the from inJuchitán allfourfilms voice in 1, Juchitán animageof which inChapter salvaging the onesIdescribed similarprojects, to as function theirit documentaries or not, filmmakers acknowledge whether the Furthermore, this becomes well disguised by relationshipthe Cronon finds between humans and nature. would predict, asPratt one inJuchitán, the andculture the dominant between uneven power dominate it. Evenifthe inof Juchitán arelationshiprepresentation films of the establishes rather than preserve nature, like wantto preserve Juchitán, people which people wantto Juchitán similar totheone people from establishin West the nature—a relationship with rather than filmsnotionsto present of sexuality and gender closely linked ideas to of andnature,wilderness civilization, they may enable the observer to establish a relationship with 112 symbolically at least, we try to withhold our power to dominate.” where, is place “wilderness the explains, Juchitán. in Cronon to constructed opposition gets West, the culture, “our” community, the to interconnected are nature and where wilderness becomestheOther flowers Juchitán butterflies. Because and and to women are compared the community), making it seem as if those women are in fact the butterflies of Juchitán. andluxurious, very for gathering traditional colorful, the gowns Cronon, “The Trouble with Wilderness,” 87. Wilderness,” with Trouble “The Cronon, The preservation of different cultures has become a priority in has contemporary a priority become the cultures of different The preservation In the films, Juchitán is represented as iswhere In thefilms,an space represented Other Juchitán Routes: Travel and translation intheLateTwentieth 50 Vela 112 In this sense, because the muxes (a celebration, party, of are linked to birds arelinked to Juchitecos, seem th CEU eTD Collection 116 115 114 113 aredefined. which allothers against the culture imagemaintain “us,” the of an to helps one’s and own, or culture another Clifford explores how the collection of a museum puts the visitors in contact with a culture, Century andexclude the ‘inauthentic,’” traditions havesurvived. performance event outsideelements, for example scenes of children playingthe video-games immediately church,followed by a helpFire the filmmakers to statefact, theauthentic isfurtherby reinforced of an emphasis films,likethe 2000 that “their” culturecommunity: its indigeneity, traditions, andits sexual andidentities gender linked tonature. In and of the visibleattributes what remains themost to seem secondary world “modern” of the traces the because authentic of the notion the reinforces Juchitán of representation the Thus, identities arecreated. which cultural collection museum,of well-defined a through identity irrelevant,would be therepresentations of Juchitán be understood asthe can “pure” anotion the“authentic,”a of andas has“outside”thus occurred, andthe “inside” “insiders” of a place, seemingly from “different” cultures, come intocontact. identities belong. The idea of the “authentic,” thus, gets re-enforced as the “outsiders” and the of visibleinJuchitán films,the boundaries creates and the defines space towhich“authentic” aspects “traditional” and the culture dominant between the contact the similar to a museum,at identities that belong tospecific spaces. In this sense, the contact between cultures that occurs ultimate landscape of authenticity,” landscapeof ultimate Cronon, “The Trouble with Wilderness,” 80. Wilderness,” with Trouble “The Cronon, Ibid. Clifford, 218. Ramo de Fuego where the visible traces of the “modern” juxtaposed with more traditional looking more with traditional juxtaposed “modern” of the traces visible the where Even though all four movies represent Juchitán as a place where contact between the between contact where place a as Juchitán represent movies four all though Even , discusses the function of museums. Borrowing the term “contact zone” from zone” from Pratt, “contact term the museums.of Borrowing function the , discusses , directed by Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne (2000). 115 Furthermore, because wilderness is, in Cronon’s words, “the words, in is, Cronon’s wilderness because Furthermore, 113 114 Furthermore, Clifford explains, “confront museums ‘others’ thus creating imagined communities of thus creating of imagined communities cultural well-defined 116 thelink betweenJuchitán and nature establishes the 51 Blossoms of CEU eTD Collection thus,is notas simple as saying that the filmmakers are the outsiders and the characters are the represented andasserted represented to his background,into brings “authentic”academic theidea be question Eli the that can “outsider” “insider” rolestudies playing due sincean andan the1980s.Simultaneously the of andin feminist sexuality been prominenthave that “outside” ideasthe from and coming andinteresting betweenhis makes connections asa experience manhomosexual in Juchitán by the representation “ours” –isinfluenced to of “inside” spaceasopposed Other separation the – the Juchitán and role that some of the as “ such outside the from expressions andbrings insideran outsider, and both as an community Juchitán living after inMexico City many years,for and engages thus, with the isalthough directlynot in addressed films butIlearnedthe from my movedfieldwork, to inKike, Mexico a book who, awareness City; publication on HIV andthe of campaign accepted socially and empowered muxe 3.3 “Insiders” and “Outsiders,” Sexuality and Gender and Sexuality “Outsiders,” and 3.3 “Insiders” visible. not that are birds andnature imagine itself freedom havingas because such inespecially “unnatural the world,civilized” itislonger no possible for dominantthe culture, whostands in Juchitán,opposition to to person. 117 2007 in when Consequently, beare. they who to free are people world, civilized the spaceof the Juchitán is belongsideathat toadifferent an authenticspace where,asopposed that to Other, “ Relaciones light,” light who identifies as closer to being a woman and performs as such, appears as an Muxes of Juchitan, Muxes of In the three films that focus on focus on the films that In the three relationships;” used in urban Mexican spaces to denote flexibility and lack of commitment with an other 117 a . and lastly Eli, teacher and The distinction between the “outside” and the “inside” of Juchitán, muxe says “here we [homosexuals] are free as the wind andbirds,” muxe who isinvolved who “outside” with projects, such as the muxes 52 , the distinction between the “outside” and the and “outside” the between distinction the , muxes muxe, play. A few examples are: Felina, a is voice films in theeducated these muxe CEU eTD Collection prevalent. Felina, for example, explains that she knew she was a was she knew she that explains example, for Felina, prevalent. withinknow that Juchitán and dominant, the normative, of notions gender and sexuality are muxes only the in who“insider” responds a confrontational When way. filmmakers ask the other and challenging boundary the between Juchitán and dominantthe culture. liesthat “outside” of Juchitán liesand the one “inside,” that thussimultaneously establishing community the between acceptance, andtolerance differ homosexuality, gender, sexuality, about ideas how shows Eli on, moment this From in Juchitán. experience his explain, and makesense of, hefrom to Westideas tries as the heteronormative who question will answer immediately establishesyou wereheterosexual?” that you realize did when a heterosexual, the role of Eli as the radical presents theirand story, Eli comes last and answers:educated “I won’t answer that question, would you ask voice of the film first realize you wereagay?” realize first each of story individual the is with deals movie the that theme first The person. every of condition innate be the to assumed is heterosexuality in which filmmakers, the through culture Western dominant the from come that sexuality of conceptions 120 119 118 and“ours” becomes blurry and problematic. further developsection, marks in boundary the this between that difference space Other the of“transculturation,” calls whatPratt aprocess through roles, “outsider” and as the Furthermore, of Juchitán. “outside” because in examined lies what they earlier mediate this Chapter, in “inside” the and the asI zone,” “contact calls the whatPratt visible make characters the rather, but insiders, Ibid. Pratt, Juchitan Queer Paradise Although Eli questions the heteronormativity of the filmmaker’s question, he filmmaker’s Although heteronormativity isactually the questions question, Eli the of Since the beginning of beginningSince the of 2002 the the same question, they all answered what the filmmakers expected, letting viewer the filmmakersthe expected, all what samequestion, the they answered Imperial Eyes , 6. , directed by Patricio Henríquez (2002). 119 The viewer hears the interviewer ask. After each ask. theinterviewer The hears viewer muxes Queer Paradise Queer 53 simultaneously place themselves in “insider” themselves place simultaneously , Eli defies heteronormative defies Eli , muxe 120 since shewas a child. muxe This confrontational . “When did you 118 which Iwill muxe CEU eTD Collection 123 122 121 surroundings through an outsider’s perspective. In one of the thematic section of the film, two child as“ Interestingly, Felina’s father who is also in the scene when she tells her story, describes his becomes a bridge between the inside and the outside of inside“reality.” of his andtheoutside the between abridge cultural becomes cultures, and as canPratt be would called argue,children and Hence,as adults. would Eli longerMinh-Ha argue, has no afixedidentity that an the“authentic” result of young as ateacherof hebecausehis academic preparation of insider, hasbecome an outsider the contact insider, zone,understand ofElialthough position assomeonehe in born the andis who, Juchitán was an throughbut is whichrather sense,Eli thusthe resultthere of arethe contactno absolute between identities two belongingdefined?” only to one space.developments in sexuality and gender understandings from coming outside.the As such,understandto his experiencein from linked community the standpointa critical tothe one can assumptions that the interviewer’s question carries. Hence, Eli stands as an insider who seems the addresses who one only the is Eli as discourse, heteronormative a within rooted still isunderstanding bynormativesex and of of conceptions a two-sex informed system gender see Furthermore, viewer how withinJuchitán,is able Chapter 1. the atthis people’s point, to category the how She necessarilylooks in from outsidethe while lookingalso outfrom inside.”the from no out longervice versa). inside,amereinsider sheis the insiderthe moment (and steps “outsiders”infilm.“the “insiders” “authentic” representation the of and Sheexplains, authenticity beindigenous Minh-Ha people contested, examinesthe needto regarding further Ibid., 217. Minh-Ha, “No Master Territories,” in Juchitan Queer Paradise Throughout “Where should the dividing line between and outsider should insiderHow stop? itbe 122 el otro el Minh-Ha asks in asks Minh-Ha ,” (the other) a half man and half woman. Queer Paradise muxe , directed by Patricio Henríquez (2002). is deeply embedded in man/woman isdeeplyembedded the in dichotomy,I noted as No Master Territories Master No ThePost-colonial Studies Reader , Eli, as a voice of authority, seems to understand his 54 . Interested in . Interested of how questions showing 121 , 217. This description, thus, shows 123 In this CEU eTD Collection through their relation, and in relation, to each other. In this sense, through the representation the through sense, this In other. each to in relation, and relation, their through themselves representand create groups subordinate the and culture” “metropolitan the often discussed,but rather, two-ways. In other words, Pratt is interested in revealing how both a is zoneandit asitis not one-way happens inthecontact process transculturation argues that 124 dominant or metropolitan culture.” subordinated ormarginal select from groups andinventmaterials tothem transmitted by a describe“to how shehas been by explains,ethnographers aterm used that, “transculturation,” in schools. teachers primary Juchitán Muxes of from “ours.” Eli’sin interest sexuality and genderstudies becomes evident in 2007film the understandings ofsexualityin arepart Juchitán, soand gender of different not a cultural order movements thatrecognize identities suggests multiple the that sexual term “ the communityinto brings Eli that fact The identities. gender and sexual of fluidity visible be to seems there ideasis and where recognized gender” aplace inJuchitán, a“third even this toteach lesson needs about sexualityEli that is interesting It three. than these sexualities” “more are there that explains further thatmost people that think andbisexual, areonly there ofsexuality, straight, types and three gay, come fromtheir religion, international politics, toimpose forright parents is not it that students his teaches Eli action, the follows camera and to prescribe tolerance academicgenders onto and theirthe of young theimportance adults teaching thescene showsEli rolehis classroom environment, children.and parents socialIn thishave scene, in Presented in isEli. one second mayorthe the Juchitán, Matus, speak is of to Hector one first teaching Eli notes their the children the roles discuss separately, authority, figures of to be tolerant or not. As the Pratt, In many of the scenes described throughout this Chapter one can see what Pratt calls Pratt one seewhat can thisChapter throughout scenes described In manyof the Imperial Eyes , 6. during which he is candidate for a Phd on the theme of homosexual of theme the on a Phd for candidate is he which during 124 Building on her examination of travel writing Pratt writing travel of examination her on Building 55 muxes play in the community. While the While community. the in play muxe, ” and the and ” CEU eTD Collection normative notions of sexuality and gender. Furthermore, as Eli simultaneously functions as an becausespaces have both completely isnot “outside”different Juchitan of and “inside” of social order do. elements that are not allowed or imagined to come together within the dominant culture’s idea when happens Juchitán of exotization films’ the of part Thus, sex. for pays who teacher gay wealthy a as such elements, contradictory seemingly showing by be done also can it rather, but Other, the of backwardness the on emphasis an and displays colorful through be done to have necessarily not does Other the of exotization the that see can one example this Through exoticizing as itaims tocreate interest in thefilm, it does point athow the film represents Eli. admits to be admitssex.” paying for to Eli as follows: is “Eli school ahigh from a teacher landowningwealthy family who openly summaries of the of one In the pounds. extra film few a with man other I every foundas realistic as body a has and online, sex, for the Australian Centre pays is whodrinks, someone Eli for acceptance; community’s voice, andthe aradical classroom, the Moving Image refers to http://www.acmi.net.au/EB83E9E8C6584538A9722A5A48396AE7.aspx 125 lesson Eli needs toteach not his only to inJuchitán, students an butalso to audience. the asonecan through and Other see the culture thedominant between adifference “fact” is in there that mean,however, not does This Other. the becomes Juchitán where entities delineatecommunities aswell-defined spaceand furtherupon, representationsthat built is in,and and results of aprocess transculturation, contact through relationship, established dominantculture’s notions of gender and sexuality remain Thus, “dominant.” the this where the power, uneven and difference of arelationship through eachother constructed of Juchitán one can see how the contact between the dominant culture and Juchitán “Juchitan Queer Paradise,” Accessed March 25, 2011. 25, March Accessed Paradise,” Queer “Juchitan Regardless of the possible exotization, though Eli the viewer learns that what lies In 2002 Queer Paradise Queer Eli is represented as an educated man with authority man in as educated authority the iswith an Eli represented 125 Although this description is somewhat superficial Although issomewhat superficial and description this 56 CEU eTD Collection NC: DukeUniversity Press, 1997), 35. PowerCulture Place: Explorations in Critical Anthropology 128 127 126 book in the it and bestbe because, asGupta Ferguson put with carefully needsto thus, Representation dealt cultures. between difference constructs space and as it delineates also uneven power in andinearlier 2,itfeedsthis relationshipsChapter of Chapter from, establishes, andfurther coin same the of sides two the and 3.4 Authenticity are,merge. of understanding contradictions Western what the rather, or wherecontradictions, order social “unique” under aseemingly functions and homosexuality, male of visibility ample has indigenous, be to happens that of a community byWestern filmmakers is representation the basedon culture of dominant the that and Other the of space the between constructs film the distinction the Thus, Eli. through as itcan be seen other, each with by interaction their are corrupted both because irrelevant the especially through scenes like the one in which he teaches a lesson on “sexualities” to both isis theidea “authentic” identity andan“outsider,” there challenged an “insider” that “naturally disconnected” butarerather interconnected.” “hierarchically “naturally disconnected” representative.” incorrupted be byanother questioned representative whocannot anincorrupted there,or out by in reality insiders;an homogeneously insider all authentic represented anabsolute there, be can that inside essential an as thing a such be hardly can there For insider/outsider. both-in-one sides impure, same of a coin, the two like the in,is, she outside orthe out Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson, “Beyond Culture: Space, Identity and the Politics of Difference,” in ofDifference,” Politics the and Identity Space, Culture: “Beyond Ferguson, James and Gupta Akhil Minh-Ha, “No Master Territories,” in Juchitan Queer Paradise Juchitecos Film is a powerful medium of representation for Othering cultures because, as I noted and the audience. and the Culture Power Place: Explorations in Critical Anthropology 127 In this sense, both distinction between an insider and an outsider is outsider an and insider an between distinction both sense, this In , directed by Patricio Henríquez (2002). 126 ThePost-colonial Studies Reader As Minh-Ha bestexplains: “Whether she insideturns the 57 , ed., Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson(Durham, , 218. 128 For example, the example, For , places arenot CEU eTD Collection if in the films there were no links between wilderness, nature, and nature, links if in nobetween wilderness, films were the there explain,allow not division torethink this does “difference us because,promote andFerguson asGupta filmsto maywant social the that the about change 130 129 and control of mode a as functions it because culture dominant the benefits preservation has asense that theirspurred is“preservation,”life. Whileiteconomical this Othering of true socio- and cultural, political, the from marginalization of history a have communities likeinin countries, Mexico Chapter 1,the indigenous consequences. Asdiscussed inother dominance the legitimizes it impactbecause material actual has butis notidea, only an an Orientthe and superiority he Said’s argues through work, “unique.”that bemake understood Juchitán Thiscan further ideological standing dominantthe culture of standin opposition characteristicsto the that of homosexual men,make “unique” Juchitán theinstitutions, and a place, conditions,thus, and the West, and thus, dangerously disguised. the speakOthering they community the in nature and wilderness of ideas about, embed that representations in other of thereJuchitánpreservation with itsindigenous communities. The consequence is that in the films, as well as are power of attitude andan of difference arelationship establishes itsdiscourse multiculturalism – also hasrelations –and despite fallsbecause identity Mexican that, of dominant too a “modern” culture within yourself.” than that get have nature a long history andare“something Other difference of profoundly establishing established, spaceof the the but However, andconnections. through “ours” betweenJuchitán’s culture think difference of the most importantly, are the of separation Cronon, “The Trouble with Wilderness,” 70. Wilderness,” with Trouble “The Cronon, 35. Culture,” “Beyond Ferguson, and Gupta Furthermore, the acceptance and visibility of visibility and acceptance the Furthermore, 130 muxes Although Cronon bases his argumenton a Euro-American identity, the muxes’ is strongly Othered because, as Cronon notes, ideas of wilderness and Other space from “ours” through its representation, does not bring not does representation, its through “ours” from space Other 58 muxes through , represented as a group of asagroup represented , muxes connection.” , itwould beeasierto , 129 Perhaps CEU eTD Collection Totalizing Quest of Meaning,” in ofMeaning,” Quest Totalizing haveindigenous groups engaged including inaneffort of self-assertion, the assertion of their differences, group’s erase indigenous to thatattempted history anda representations 131 “unique” of andJuchitán positioning the character and control its own over homogenizing This catalogue. means thatby the emphasizing social andidentities,isorder a maintains construction that the culture’s dominant social order different its seemingly of because like is not West the that asaspace Juchitán of Othering the that suggest would Thus, Minh-Ha utterly different. not are “outside” the Juchitán and in the films he acts both as an “insider” and an“outsider,” and also shows how the “inside” of asingleestablishing category of homogenizing “authentic”the is Other because notpossible Building on Minh-Ha’s critique, role the of Eli in 2002 keep any control,threats. avoid and order, to in order category” ‘other’ place-fits-all a “one- into “different” whoare and andgroups itfits allidentities catalogued,” “completely definedidentities. categories and disruptnotdo homogeneous the notion of thatmaintains,order social and well- dependson, they means which it, contaminating from them stops also world modern the of contamination the from away be kept need to that communities pre-modern these of preservation and Othering the but Mayas,” “authentic or “aboriginals,” have that countries visit to want tourists more do only Not multiculturalism. “its” emphasize to communities indigenous “its”image and the of constructs, appropriates, example,Mexico appropriation. For characteristics found in couldJuchitán, exist. other fluidity, and of gender visibility more with tolerance, order asocial space where imagine itself asa culture to and construct for possibility actually preventthe dominant the Minh-Ha, “No Master Territories,” in For Minh-Ha, the world has “ethnocentric classifications,” which means that itis means that which classifications,” “ethnocentric has world the For Minh-Ha, In The Myth of authenticity The Mythof Theorizing Documentary, ThePost-colonial Studies Reader , Griffiths explains that as a response tocolonial 59 ed. Michael Renov (London: Routledge, 1993), 90. muxes as “authentic” Others, the films the Others, as “authentic” , 215- 217.And Trinh Minh-ha, “The Queer Paradise proves that proves 131 CEU eTD Collection the Other of the Other. 135 134 culture. lessand dominant Mexican inthe Mexico, much “unique” andultimate Othernot who does quite fitin“Other indigenous” the category of Juchitánititselfwithin theimperial a world becausecreates colonial as reproduces project the itAnd thus, character. its “exceptional” mythof the reinstates of Juchitán character” specific “culturally the on theemphasis because argue, would asChandavarkar effects, undesirable has This “Other.” the of category the within plurality and difference the emphasizing thus communities Mexican indigenous other from it differentiates culture, and Zapoteca Catholicism between syncretism its 4, in Chapter explore will I as and, femininity of notion 133 Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin (London: Routledge,2003), 238. 132 subaltern. the of pluralities and difference has the over-emphasized discourse” of get colonial “universalizing categories ridto the of effort thatthe his Chandavarkar notes studies, subaltern of critique world.Asparton colonial how within the in notes imperial furtheritthe this reproduction can of the project and result examination of erasureof the essentializing notions ofindigenous groups, Chandavarkar takes space in and communities waythefilms same the do. own “uniqueness” and Otherness, is the result of a two-way transculturation that delineates their difference. and locality the films and the and films the the wouldargue that Pratt process In this space. Other their and Otherness their establish further may in fact “their” spacethat of of arealso engaginginaprocess reassertion documentaries, muxes Chandavarkar, “‘The Making of the ‘Working Class,’” 66. Class,’” ‘Working ofthe Making “‘The Chandavarkar, Class,’” ‘Working ofthe Making “‘The Chandavarkar, Pratt, Gareth Griffiths, “The Myth of Authenticity,” in muxes , who have some control over their representation as “ Imperial Eyes reassertion and appropriation of the dominant culture’s own terms, such as their Juchitecos, , 6. 132 as a place where there is a“third gender” linked toapositive Griffiths’ work helps to understand the process in which the 134 The Post-colonial Studies Reader In this sense, the representation of Juchitán, In representation by sense,this the of 60 66. 133 135 Furthermore, similarGriffiths’ to In other words, Juchitan becomes words, Inother muxes , eds. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth of in of Juchitán” the CEU eTD Collection 140 139 138 137 are coins within the coin, which is similar to what to issimilar coin, the which within are coins Building idea onMinh-Ha’s and Griffiths coin, of the there Chandavarkar would suggestthat suggests “likesides thetwo of a coin, same impure, the both-in-one insider/outsider.” intolerant. is be developed, might of these two films is the United States and Mexico, is essentialized as a place that, althoughallowed). it 136 essentialized and aimed to erase the differences of the all-encompassing category East. category all-encompassing the of differences erase the to aimed and essentialized have thatfact Orientalism in suggested and homogenized essentialized theWestasmuchit intakes like Following equation. thework this of authors Said, Griffiths, Ashcroft, and Tiffin itis reinstatement colonial of noting worth discourse, the culture the dominant position the signs that read “ read that signs inin for be that example, stateofAguacalientes thereusedto the swimming pools the public Juchitan of accepted.” first arenot world the so[lesbians] such a thing as an “absolute reality there.” an“absolute such a out as thing is not there homogeneous and categories are not West, also dominantbut Other,the the that thisbecause sense, Minh-Ha’s of isimportant examination “authentic” the she clearly states in 2000 and in space thatstands opposition “unique” example, essential complete to the For Juchitán. becoming the Other of in Othered films,the not only place,as “unique”as anindigenous butthe and“exceptional,” thus Other, the dominant culture gets reinstated as the homogeneous Minh-Ha, “No Master Territories,” in Minh-Ha, “No Master Territories,” in Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin eds., Muxes of Juchitan Ramo de Fuego The “insider” and the “outsider,” like the Other and the dominant, mayThe “insider”and like “outsider,” be,the the Other and thedominant, asMinh-Ha Although the consequences of reasserting the plurality of the Other can result in the in result can Other the of plurality the reasserting of consequences the Although Blossoms of Fire of Blossoms 139 whenbe suggests Eli whenhe outside ateacher hecouldJuchitán not of explains Through these examples one can see how the dominant culture, which in the case , directed by Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne (2000). no se aceptan perros nihomosexuales se aceptanno perros , directed by Yorgos Avgeropolous (2007). a self-identified lesbian says “in the US, logically, is different, it’s is different, logically, US, the “in says lesbian aself-identified The Post-colonial Studies Reader ThePost-colonial Studies Reader ThePost-colonial Studies Reader 61 138 Anotherexample can be seenin 2007 137 Keeping inmind, is this when Juchitán Bakic-Hayden argues through the term the through argues Bakic-Hayden ” (Dogs and homosexuals are not are homosexuals and ” (Dogs . , 218. , 218. Muxes 136 In 140 CEU eTD Collection 143 142 141 conservative. or backward as East, or South more slightly yet them to proximity close in cultures, toviewother world the tend multiple throughout regions are because there Others “nesting orientalisms.” her examination In formerof Yugoslavia, Bakic-Hayden suggests Mexico, through the films one can also see there are multiple Selves, multiple Wests multiple Selves, are see there films can also one the through Mexico, in community indigenous Othered already an of Other the is Juchitán like just sense, this excluded,” being is else who “on depends West asthe position their but in common, something haveMexicoisitand States that United the not would arguethat above, Trouillot presented puts it, “hasdeveloped [no] world, the West she refers to is the fixedUnited States. Thus, the West, as Trouillot lesbian theself-identified in talks about a outside thewhere butexample Juchitán, of content,best norfor example, is the Self when isEli speaks about the impossibility of teaching as a itgay professor an unchanging site;” Chapter 4. Chapter one the looksthat up andmaintains its poweras the which referent, furtherI will examinein is West the bottom, atthe stays Other the –while directions face different invariably, always, clear though,is that both “impure” sides belong to the same coin and thus,heads and tails will must bemade What impure “insider/outsider.” same are the coin of sides the both that out in pointing right was Minh-Ha how shows Other, the and Self the both be can who Mexico, Thus,of example the it aWestlike United for States. is infact Other the the contexts in other Ibid. 2. Slot,” Savage the and “Anthropology Trouillot, Bakic-Hayden,"Nesting Orientalisms," 917-931. 143 namely, Juchitán. Even though Mexico can be the West for a place like Juchitán, 62 142 in fact, in the example in the infact, . Mexico 141 In CEU eTD Collection 145 144 film get combined powerful medium expression of records “reality”which of through the onthemateriality of with pre-conceivedbut itis, like the reflection of a mirror, also an idea. ideas has areal is site that a heterotopia aplace sense,In this world). the of biodiversity (the about from the filmmakers. speaks it place the of animaginedreality makesitcreate but you “naturally” to that grow), like agarden for inimpossible “reality” be itwould exist(because not world) does the over The result from a isimage where see (imagine all garden youwith amirror plants the a heterotopia like of it, as I thinks of examplethe of garden,the can one then understandmeantFoucault what bysaying garden, for example, “utopia”likethe noin placewith real –aperfected –hadaspace site places a reality through where plants from all in this Through how was interested notion term Foucaultshowingof previously the conceived over the world can be andinverted.” contested, can berepresented, are simultaneously within found culture, the grouped together. If and it as “a defines kindof effectively enacted utopia inwhich… real all other the that sites one Michel Foucault, “Of Other Spaces,” Juchitan Queer Paradise Michel Foucault, in his piece in his Foucault, Michel As 2,sinceI examined inChapter its origin turn atthe of film has century,the been a types of [sexual] diversity? [sexual] of types all to explains respect What unique this arerejected? values everywhere regional else here where sovibrant culture native Whyisthe are submissive? they miles away Strange is How Juchitan. it womenheremuch so that enjoy freedom justwhen afew , directed by Patricio Henríquez (2002). Juchitán as a heterotopia: an Other realspace anOther heterotopia: Juchitán asa Diacritics 144 Of Other Spaces Of 16 (1986):4. 63 develops the concept of “heterotopia” of theconcept develops Chapter 4 145 CEU eTD Collection men, women, andchildren? other with mass attending church Catholic indigenous gowns be found sitting ata homosexuals dressedin colorful women’s 4.1 The dominant andthe Other, “our” inability tounderstand exist. Juchitán,of Other, reflection the cannot whom without the as of re-instated infront standing Self mirror the the gets culture dominant end notionshegemonic of upre-instatingliberatory andculturegender projects, becausethe members andwomen films,despitetheir public,the gender”the are recognized of exists “our” own normative social order. Thus, by turning Juchitán intoa heterotopia, where a “third legitimizes also but reflects only not that order social “incomprehensible” an with similarities, despite makefrom a place its intoculture, is heterogeneous, it that differentdominant the and fluid genderand sexuality are seemingly where Juchitán, asaplace representation of films’ the how examine I heterotopia of notion the Through other. each of opposition remain separated, the mirror’sin two sides 3thatdespiteonecoin, invariably beingargued there the Chapter will only reflection and the Self dependa mirror one can alsosee the reflectionon of the dominant culture.each In this sense, similar howto I other and yet stand as functions heterotopia becausebut a Juchitán, of animagined reality create in able only to not films,the Juchitán becomes its aheterotopia and through thus, representation, audience the is through Iarguethat inmy thischapter analysis, getestablished.uneven on power Building identities getreinforced,in resulting of delineation the space through which of relationships and cultures authentic of notions films documentary through isthat 3, Chapter in examined Where can a group of male Figure 5. Church. Film Still, 2007 Muxes of 64 Juchitan CEU eTD Collection colleagues do not accept the not do colleagues hisin some of explains However, priest when the culture. Zapoteca of prevalent the attribute Catholic contexts. In these representations, tolerance towards the towards tolerance theserepresentations, In contexts. Catholic towards the towards makesmerged, it is signals, of tolerant “indigeneity” Juchitán cultures the what priest asthe process of colonization Catholicismsyncretism,andwhich indigenous cultural and through yetit is “completely different” from them. Although the entirety of Mexico went through a avariety andspeaks about and sites asa of becauseheterotopia itreflects be thus, understood Juchitan mention and“accepting”can andthe with above interviews priest, “tolerant” the about.” and speak they reflect that sites traditions. its within Catholicism combines a processof also through syncretism “indigeneity,” accepting that one their Zapoteca priest, the reason why it is possible for is it thereason why possible priest, the through seen be can it As order. social the into gender and sexuality of notions normative of incorporation the on impact an had has Mexico in Catholicism 1, Chapter are.” they way just the everyone andtolerate another one understand in oneis able to is of humanity which a higherstate tolerance ismore tolerance; there everyoneall. andgivescommunion “InFurthermore, he to states: indigenousthe cultures accepts community, in the priests other the from differently he, that explains and interviewed 2005 attending mass atthe attending similar scenes in which the which in scenes similar 147 146 Foucault, “Of Other Spaces,” 24. Muxes of Juchitan, Foucault explains that heterotopias are places that “are absolutely different from the all different “are absolutely that areplaces heterotopias explains that Foucault The answer, in Juchitan, is shown in the three films that focus on the on focus that films three the in is shown in Juchitan, answer, The Authentic, Intrepid Seekers of Danger IntrepidSeekersof Authentic, muxes as opposed to the places where “indigeneity” is not a characteristic of other acharacteristic is not where“indigeneity” places tothe asopposed DVD, directed by Yorgos Avgeropolous(2007). Iglesia deSanVicenteFerrer muxes, muxes, some dressed as women and some dressed as men, are it shows how Juchitán is still part of a Mexican context 147 muxes When the films present the scene at the church I 65 to be at the church in Juchitán is because of because is Juchitán in church the at be to , and 2007 , the Church of the community’s Saint. In Saint. community’s the of Church , the Muxes ofJuchitan muxes 146 As I mentioned in mentioned AsI seems to be an muxes , a priest is Juchiteca through CEU eTD Collection tried to abuse him when he was 12 years old, after which Estrella, a of yetof sheyearsaware that HIV togetcheckedexplains,“three ago, needs of “man”) used to rape me.” rape usedto “man”) of earlier films, create the most complex image of Juchitan, showing the similarities – such as such – similarities the showing Juchitan, imageof themostcomplex create films, earlier those caresses.” those forgettingme… forgiving… and approachedfelt and people because liked I guilty I realized Intrepid Seekers of Danger. of Intrepid Seekers on is the lack of safety of the progressive, tolerant, violent, etc. For example, an important theme that two of the filmsfocus be:traditional, can simultaneously that space a communal of members as define themselves talk about them.” different aims and means, the means, and aims different complex understanding “uniqueness.” In Juchitán’s narratives’ of fourfilms, the all despite amore create of Otherness, discourse hegemonic an organized ofprovidinginstead films, isin toevery its difference itsite contains. importantly, thus, reference merging them into one whole,the places it contains. Instead, it is whatthe fact that Juchitán contains and reflects allit of these sites, makes it stand islikeof any notmeanJuchitán does that this However, intolerance. of and one acceptance as an “absolutely different”of a culture and syncretism, andMexican community an indigenous culture, anda Zapoteca place and aCatholic as such them, itcontains also but sites, a variety of about speaks and reflects only 151 150 149 148 2007 where Catholicism plays an important role on regulating social behavior as Eli points out in Ibid. Ibid. Muxes, Authentic, Intrepid Seekers of Danger Muxes of Juchitan fourin documentary from Chapter 1,the representationsprevious Differing discussed Muxes of Juchitan. Muxes of 150 149 , DVD, directed by Yorgos Avgeropolous(2007). Similarly in 2007 The audience hearsa The audience 148 In this sense, the representation of not heterotopia as a Juchitán of representation sense,the In this In film,another same In the 151 muxes. Through scenes like these, these two films, in contrast to the to contrast in films, two these these, like scenes Through Juchitecos “When I was 11 years old, many things happened, Ican’t Muxes of Juchitan, Muxes of , directed by Alejandra Islas (2005). take part in their own representation and seem to muxe 66 explain with tearful in2005 explainwith eyes tearful muxe a explains, “I have a difficult time adifficult have “I explains, muxe talks about how someone muxe scared bythespread el tipo (derogatory Authentic, CEU eTD Collection Encyclopedia are divided into: “The Analytical Language of John Wilkins.” In Borges’ essay, animals in a Chinese Foucault’s preface to preface Foucault’s understand viewer,makesthe what to Juchitán insuch a“unique” is reflected Other a “unique respect toall types of [sexual] diversity.” sites that are in themselves incompatible.” in themselves are that sites is spaces,several juxtaposing realplaceseveral inasingle Foucault’s “…capable of words, in a heterotopia, that, into Juchitán imageturn community,the they provide of acomplex films the though even Thus, West. the like not is that place Other an becomes Juchitán homosexual,” recognizes acommunity within that them a “thirdthrough category, gender” makes Juchitán Juchitán makes a place“likenoother” of Things 156 155 154 “impossibility reflectionthe understanding”narrated concluding of hasa about scene 153 152 culture as example, 2.For inI examined inChapter the 2002film an image, like Foucault’s mirror, of the conditions and ideological standing of the dominant environmentthe safeand unsafe yetsimultaneous, By incompatible, the “their”culture. andthedominantpresenting space a male recognizesin themas homosexual acommunity that –between a “third gender” unsafethe for the environment Jorge Luis Borges (1942) Ibid. Foucault, preface to preface Foucault, Foucault, “Of Other Spaces,” 25. Juchitan Queer Paradise In the preface, Foucault explains that his book is in fact the result of his encounter with his encounter is resultof his book infactthe that explains Foucault In preface, the The creation of an imaginary cultural space of the Other through film ends upreflecting filmends through Other the of space cultural animaginary of The creation broken the water pitcher, (n) that from a long way off look like flies.” innumerable, fine (k)drawnvery with brush,a (m)et cetera, camelhair having (l) just classification,includedfrenzied, (i) (j)fabulous, inthepresent (h) (g)stray dogs, “(a) emperor, (b)embalmed, the tame, belongingsirens, (c) sucking to (d) (e) pigs, (f) , XV. The Order ofThings The The Order ofThings , directed by Patricio Henríquez (2002). The Analytical Language of John Wilkins, muxes (New York :Vintage Books, 1994), XV. – and differences – such as the sense of safety of being 154 muxes where women are free,notsubmissive, and whereis 152 in which he contemplates Jorge Luis Borges’ essay 67 experience, differently from “modern the from differently experience, 155 The impossibility of thefilmmaker, and quoted in Foucault, preface to Queer Paradise 156 The Order 153 what , the , CEU eTD Collection whose hasof focused largely Juchitán.instead attempts,work the films,on of Despite these functions in such manner,a seemingly interviewsdifferent leading two Mexican academics community,and similarly, 2007 the in sexuality and gender of notions the understand to try to generations different from sexes,” inunderstand various history atthe looks Juchitán of to occasions thethe “equality of order visible theirintentunderstandits to order.The 2000 film makefilms also three of other the narratives of Juchitán,the social understandorder the 161 160 159 158 157 to “our” methods of classification, and thus, becomes Othered. belong notdoes that a “disorder” into it turns order social “appropriate” of an arrangement the breaks that asaplace of Juchitán, incomprehensibility the isbecause it relevant discussion, syntax. break the they because inappropriate, in which they unfold,” heterotopias and to are able “are the somewhat disturbing,” lie utopias from which,heterotopias, differently “consoling” inan“untroubled region the that are work inBorges’ onesdescribed like the places explains Foucault that “inappropriate,” numberlaw of geometry.”possible orders…without or “ the of a “disorder” of instead is that, finds he What animals. real the with juxtaposition imagination,” “reside in solely realm that “fabulous”the of animals about thinking that.” system of thought” demonstrates findsanother “exoticcharm of the thatFoucault this with passage, piece.Fascinated Borges’ “the limitation of our own [and] the stark impossibility of incongruous Ibid., XVIII. Ibid., XVII. Ibid. Foucault, preface to preface Foucault, Ramo de Fuego Although 2002 161 2005 ,” it is one in which the “inappropriate” comes together, “fragments of comes “fragments a large of together, itis “inappropriate” inwhich the one ,” 157 , directed by Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne (2000). Authentic, Intrepid Seekers of Danger, Seekers Intrepid of Authentic, Foucault further explains he does not refer to the impossibility of refer the impossibility thinking not furtherhe Foucault to of explains does The Order ofThings The Queer Paradise Muxes of Juchitán, of Muxes , XV. is the only film that blatantly poses the impossibility to impossibility the poses blatantly that film only the is 68 160 Although Foucaultreferslanguage to in this initsunderstand effort to whyJuchitán interviews women, men, and men, women, interviews 159 Blossoms of Fire, of Blossoms Evident in his choice of word, 158 but rather, to their for example, on muxes CEU eTD Collection 163 of is behavior outside the the of to Foucault, places individuals whose deviation” are, where upon building ideas exclusion onheterotopiahis “Heterotopias of andthe earlier deviant. the deviation” perhaps of “heterotopia of develops concept the onspace, Foucault work later norms. the internalize who subjects the by also but bodies scientific the by controlled issexuality argues that discursively Foucault normalized, andexcluded, classified, corrected, disciplines. in Interested individual, of emergence the deviant whoneedsbethe one to criminality of deviation of heterotopia a in Juchitán, Sexuality and 4.2 Gender gender compared. sexuality, and are social of order itsJuchitán, and correspondingorganizingfeatures of society, particularly the againstwhich mirror, of the in front stands who as the Self place, imaginary asan culture dominant the establish understand, and reflect cannot “we” films,as aplace in Juchitán the continue to construct sense,scenesaimrepresent through thatand to understand thefilms order, Juchitán’s this In homosexual. are itdown facing are they as when and straight, are they a up facing born placeare that is Other from “ours.” Thus, the representation of 162 be a would he then boy, a as out comes pregnancy the during right the on was who baby a if that woman’s belly,girls that explains areonthe right side andboys areonthe left, thusimplying Juchitán, example, myths through scenesinwhich the pregnancy are disclosed.about In 2007 forJuchitán, charm” “exotic upreinforcingthe of answer,end providing an viewerwith the Foucault, Foucault, muxe With the rise of modernity, Foucault identified the emergence of a new form a newform of emergenceof control the identified modernity, Foucault of With rise the . Similarly,in 2002 there is a scene where an older woman, as she feels the shape of a pregnant The History of Sexuality: Vol. 1, An Introduction Discipline and Punish : the birth of the prison 162 and sexuality in which sex, like crime, became the object of scientific of object the became crime, like sex, inwhich sexuality and Queer Paradise, Queer 69 Eli explains there is a myth that when babies when that myth is a there explains Eli (New York :Vintage Books, 1979). (New York: Pantheon, 1978). Muxes of Muxes 163 In his In CEU eTD Collection Postmodern Cities and Spaces 166 165 164 Foucault’s [and engagementwith texts...” critical order… little yet]provide socio-spatial andsimulated segregated surveyed, increasingly toour ‘resistance’ form of embodyinga counter-sites reveal socially constructed of possibility the to term [heterotopia] notes that “many of the so called ‘new theoristsbeennot sufficiently contextualized withinlarger his body Benjaminwork. of Genocchio of social space’ have used and extended the is of heterotopia wherepeoplebehavior deviation, outside whose norm the exist. mechanisms of that,control, through Iargue documentary the films becomes Juchitán a prisons.” course and of norm are sent. the church are not apart. Somewhat distant and shaky, and distant Somewhat apart. not churchare the and sexuality where ashavingacommunity represented is Juchitán in which film a for tone a controversial setting thus ifsexual act, watchingthe as an close-up, extreme is in figure then eyeof The breath. portrayed a religious nakedis bodiesonabed,andallyouhear two their can relationships. human everyday mediating and behavior, monitoring subjects, in creating importance its of because sexuality to regards in particularly individual; deviant beneeds contextualized to within and Foucault’sexamination of power control the of the Ibelieve, Thisconcept, “resistance.” forms or of ideas involve not necessarily does concept this as deviation” of “heterotopia of concept the to have given theorists little attention how remark shows how notonly the ithas beenheterotopiabutinterm used isolation, shows also Benjamin Genocchio, “Discourse, Discontinuity, Difference: The Question of ‘Other’ Spaces,” in Spaces,” of‘Other’ Question The Difference: Discontinuity, “Discourse, Genocchio, Benjamin Ibid. Foucault, “Of Other Spaces,” 25. Although Foucault has received immeasurable critical attention, his work on space has on hiswork immeasurable attention, hascritical Foucault Although received It is daytime and the curtains are closed, there are 164 Examples for this type of spaces are “rest homes and psychiatric hospitals, andpsychiatric homes “rest are spaces of type this for Examples 165 , ed., Sophie Watson andKatherine Gibson(Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995),36. Although the examples Foucault provides are institutionalized provides are Foucault Although the examples 70 Paradise Figure 6. Watching. Film still, 2002 Queer 166 Genocchio’s CEU eTD Collection 168 167 staringbackCatholic as statue tells narrator legend:a voice-over thefollowing on another man. The viewer is then transported to a blue sky with white clouds,followed by a sex oral performing man a visible, becomes now what of front in stands camera handheld the portray portray asa Juchitán individuals, by making visibleitsplace “abnormal”of order deviant community – consequentially falls thenorm.outside Although films four intendall do not to iswhich have role an “thirdthere gender”andwomen in animportant accepted the primarily linkeda seemingly fluid to heterogeneous and sexuality system gender and – in Juchitán itswhen social understand,as a films the “we”cannot place represent order, “our” space.Inthissense, maintain “purity”the of helping to somewhere else, necessarily but theiridentification as anddeviants localization their excluded makes them visible and in By locating deviants a placeoutof no“our” spacethey longer inbecan “our” seen space, visible. and invisible them renders simultaneously which exclusion, of type a as of thought be everything“going stopped well.” where anomaly an Juchitán makes myth this of translation/interpretation/presentation importantseemingly opposing elements come together, such as Catholicism and homosexuality. Whatto is note inJuchitán Chapter, section this of in earlier the and, Iexamined aboveas myth presents the in this 20 the representation2002 film of Juchitán, however, is that the filmmaker’s Film’s translation. Juchitan Queer Paradise Upon a dramatic end to the narration, celebratory music starts and with it, so does and it, sodoes the with music starts celebratory narration, the a dramatic to end Upon Heterotopias of deviation contain deviant individuals in a “different” space, which can which space, “different” in a individuals deviant contain deviation of Heterotopias th bag tore open contents. open spilling the bag tore his way. Everything wasgoingbutwhen well, he got Juchitán,to fell Vicente and his America, afewinCentral left and wenton He north. queerinColombia, dropped one headed and south the in journey his began Vicente Americas. the across homosexuals the scatter to askedVicente Then, God of queers. full abag Ferrer, Vicente assistants, In someoneJuchitán told me Accordinga legend. this to legend, gave God one his of century: a “unique” place, or as the narrator best puts it, a place “like no other.” it,“like no aplace bestputs narrator as the or place, “unique” a century: Queer Paradise, Queer Juchitan Queer Paradise , directed by Patricio Henríquez (2002). which in presents Juchitán it throughout the way was presented , directed by Patricio Henríquez (2002). 167 71 168 As CEU eTD Collection others, confrontothers, mechanisms dominant the culture its with regulatory powerful that own bodies. The reason I call reason The bodies. heterotopia of indeviation anon-institutionalizedan setting, without infrastructure or policing maywhich is Foucault have something ifhe addressed had the envisioned existence of a Intrepid Seekers of Danger of Intrepid Seekers init Isee function, The secondone. “ill 2005 the “our” neutralizes constructed” as visiblethey accepted in offering arenot or Juchitán,thus homosexuals aspacethat are “equal”and not sexesare wherethe order dominant the to analternative as Juchitán present Fire non-institutionalized heterotopia of deviation infilms. the in First, 2000filmthe control functionsidea, Building and containment. into Iseea on Juchitán this two of turning of placeswith afunction institutionalized all “modern” them of hospitals, are and psychiatric compensational Whenlists Foucaultuses. examplesofheterotopias jailsof deviation such as itsor illusory use thatcomplements have adistinct seemsto deviation heterotopia of the women. the elderly, etc.” pregnant women, In Foucault,menstruating “Of adolescents, Other ofcrisis: Spaces,”a state in live, 24.they which in environment human the to and society to inrelation are, who individuals for reserved places, or forbidden or sacred privileged are there i.e., 170 169 and sexuality, such as the gender dichotomy man/woman, as organizing features of society. of gender notions normative based on Other andthe culture between dominant the distance against which the defines itself filmsaninsoluble as norm,the dominant the culture establish “In the so-called primitive societies, there is a certain form of heterotopia that I would Foucault, call crisis“Of heterotopias,Other Spaces,” 27. , and 2002 , and As a concept that Foucault used to substitute the disappearing “crisis heterotopias,” “crisis disappearing substitute the used to Foucault that As aconcept Foucault explainsFoucault allheterotopias have a use: heterotopia, notofillusion, butof compensation… is arranged as and latter messy,ours ill jumbled. This constructed, type wouldbethe meticulous, aswell as asperfect, space, another real isis aspace create that other, to role their contrary, the on else, Or illusory… more still as partitioned, is life human of which inside sites the space,all every exposes real that aspaceofillusion create remains.The last trait of heterotopias is that they have a functionThis in relation allto the space that function unfolds between two extreme poles. Either their role is to Queer Paradise confrontation and 2007 the function is one of “compensation,” because both films Muxes ofJuchitan, is because the latter films, more explicitly than the than explicitly more films, latter the because is 72 and is a function of 169 confrontation – confrontation Blossoms of Authentic, 170 CEU eTD Collection rightful recognition and as aspace be given also should that in middle the lie somewhere who people are there a mine.” their place, men do too, I want to be in the middle, that ismy space asa that bemiddle, in Iwantto menthe dotoo, their place, 171 sexuality.in Forexample, 2007 dominantculture encountersits itself animage and of mechanismsregulatory of gender and uniformity of utopian dystopian societies.” strictly hierarchized closed-system model informs usually that ournotion of staticthe backdrop againstof the the andtested be lifenegotiated “real within of a culture—can places” the terms, Foucault’s discourses—in range of a wide theplace where represents “heterotopia own order. facing its own disorder, by looking at an Other disorderly place, of itinstead maintainsin which mirror, the the illusionof front in of Self the its norm, controlling the system sexuality and filmsmakeculture’s aheterotopiaOthering of Juchitán gender the as dominant the deviation confront it dominantthe itsculture, or with powerof mechanisms,by own regulatory the then, by fourearlier, films all to are compensatory acounterbalance they providing whether 1 and 3from which be “thirdgender”ofJuchitánthe unableescape. to seems As to stated in Chapter discussed I dimorphism gender/sexuality the such as gender, sexuality and control 172 New English Literatures the through Furthermore, heterogeneity it isof sexualities and gender, it for Othered cannotevenbe imagined. of thebackdrop against Western the and andbecauseJuchitán shows a visiblefluidity culture, films andits the Juchitán compare ofimagined creation uniformity” dystopias, in utopias is Self Western dominantthe or culture,imagines hierarchies aclosed system with that “static Ralph Pordzik, Ralph Muxes of Juchitan As Ralph discusses Pordzik heterotopia of concept the infiction hewriting, explains: 172 As one can see, the dualism of men/women prevails in Juchitán and yet, Felina notes The Quest for Postcolonial Utopia: A Comparative Introduction to the Utopian Novel in the , directed by Yorgos Avgeropolous (2007). (New York: Peter Land Publishing, 2001), 5. muxe confrontation sometimes has. Thus,through films the culture the dominant Muxes of Juchitan,Muxes of function of the representation of Juchitán, the Juchitán, of representation the of function 171 73 Building on the idea that the backdrop, as the Felina, a muxe explains, “women have “women explains, muxe , that space is , that CEU eTD Collection beno emotions involved, and the sexual act does notcomply with the “illusion” the dominant seems to there seem intimate, not does sexuality “sad” –Eli’s almost film appears claims, the paradiseforbelongs of andislookingthe thetitle culture an tothe who dominant audience for Thus,this scene, areabsent. culture in has often dominant the of act a sexual imagination and representation the that fantasy of elements the feel, “realistic” more a has and flat control as lyingthe body seem not does haveto any hisof own; because this is scene visually andthustheviewer bed, the intoxicated, gets impression seemingly of the inbeing one the away from the two naked bodies; one of these bodies liesinshot manner a highly intimate andliterally as camera,thus theviewer, the stands steps as an empty object, motionless, on how everything stopped “going well” like the myth at the start of the film states. The scene is door, until Eli, with his free hand invites the camera and thus, the viewer in to see. discusses in Chapter 3, unbuttons his shirt. The camera, hesitant, stays at the frame of the people are, there is asEli, amanlying hisfacecovered people are,there with the down isit Indeed, from thesame scene bedroom is opening only the itthis time clearwhothe to define,modern civilized space.and “our” because seemingly they maintain anorder, and belongs that uniform static, to,andis needed of and notions gender normative andsexuality “rightfulness”the of regulatory re-instate that “disorder” belongs to aspace – seemingly pre-modern – that is Otherfrom ours, the films understand, and to “we” areunable an order constitute sexuality and gender heterogeneity of fluidity and However, becausethe donotwork. findsin it regulations wherethe Other the itshows that dominantthe culture, in needing aregulatory mustsystem, also have fluidity the hence, and regulations, such be under to “meant” is it as static and uniform be as to seem not encounters its ownmechanisms of regulating genderandsexuality asystem within does that This of “secret” scene,duringwhich revealing is the film the infactdisclosed, shows Halfway into 2002film the Queer Paradise 74 it is daytime and the curtains are closed. muxe whose role I CEU eTD Collection 174 173 societies. ofmodern power examine disciplinary the to in order unseen, remaining while prisoner every over can watch Punish constant surveillance.Tounderstand how this in happens in films,the his book behaviorare under ofwithin community the people’s asheterotopias describes deviation, Foucaultlike places becomes films theinstitutionalized the Juchitán a place through where, 3.Instead, inChapter asIexamined world, civilized” calls “unnatural in Cronon the what are way people tothe as opposed beare, whothey really is allowed to everyone space where thisitis sense, the films, notthat by into Juchitán aheterotopiaturning of deviation, a create In found“paradise.” not a has community malehomosexual the that vieweristold scene the of “our” perception paradise. within fit even not does order social incomprehensible their where “them,” from differently where “we” gettokeep“our” control,“our” illusions, “our” intimacy,fantasies, and“our” in space adifferent placingJuchitán legitimizes scene, from thus, expects sex. This culture who they whothey are, their sexuality discursivelyis, too, controlled. within that asaheterotopia Juchitán, of deviation where Sexuality of where the sack of San Vicente Ferrer broke and spilled out homosexuals, the “dominant” homosexuals, the out andspilled broke Ferrer Vicente of San sack where the representing Juchitán a as non-institutionalized heterotopia of deviation, asan“anomaly” Thus, maintain such order. that regulations in fact see are there that to is moreit difficult is are beingbroken, butwhen something that features ordered regulations organizingthe and itis in point at disorder iseasy whensomething behavior.to and Furthermore, “appropriate” of “right” perception culture’s dominant the filmssustain the of deviation, as aheterotopia Foucault, Foucault, Regardless of 2002 Regardless of what , Foucault uses Jeremy Bentham’s “Panopticon,” a prison’s design in which one body The History of Sexuality Discipline and Punish , that subjects, thatinternalize behaviorhe “right” argue thenorms and of thus, would 173 In his Foucault examination like in he argues, does , 195-209. , 3-13. , Queer Paradise 75 aims to present, even in its title, through this through title, its in even present, to aims muxes 174 Thus, by representing Juchitán are seemingly “free” to be Discipline and The History The CEU eTD Collection 175 him/herself. upon control society’s exerts individual each thus, and norms internalize argues that sexuality is a powerful mode of control in modern societies because people lost FoucaultFoucault. Inhisexamination apointnot on regulatory sexuality,of power, gender attheir through andsexuality points extraordinary that arehappening processes these factnorm.establish in itself as the The to order states, and pre-modern in ideas of disorder lands, from people needslike places culture trapped thetoo, Juchitán, distant dominant places one in identified and constructed Pratt power, itself how Europe by withintocontactcoming Similar to how Said conceived the Orient power dominate iswell likedisguised. to 3,“our” IarguedinChapter Juchitán, yet, and as necessary for the West to constructbecause, as normative I examined earlier,of notions gender andsexuality are prevalentwithinitself as the culture dominant the from referent its gets Juchitán of representation the intentions, good have determine theimage of the reflection remains in all cases. In this sense, even though thefilms to “referent” the of power the but different, too be fact in not might other the and coin the of side one between itswhat gives form. is it differences The not reflection andthemirror’s “I,” conditions would be the same, the coin will always have two sides, the Other will never be the change,spaces wereto the two the if between even roles the liesbecause power where the of matter it a becomes referent, always the is “us” the “I” and the up. Because looking one is the side “our” which in coin same the of side another is there like just stand, “we” which Other space itis in “us,” only reference to like issomethingthere in in front mirror the of in that lies Whatever contrasted. is else everything which against referent main the becomes function maintaindoes the order isthat notfoundin Otherdisorderlythat space. because despitelikein theirpresence, their dominant the policeculture, Panopticon, the invisible the sexuality within andgenderarekept of methods ofcontrol and containment Foucault, Importantly,by into turning Juchitán aheterotopia of deviation culture dominantthe The History of Sexuality , 17-35. 76 175 In this CEU eTD Collection through the films’ visibility of the which “we” look at them from. tokeep space andvisible inorder from andhavethem social elsewhere control the over order “our” from invisible simultaneously are deviants where exclusion of place isa deviation of “allows” that their public in participation the society. aheterotopia Inthissense,Juchitán as 1, aspowerful and publicmembers of can community bethe only in Other situated space that in Chapter examined asI women, Also, etc. deviants, gays, fags, homosexuals, transvestites, identified as and be cataloged would they Juchitán, of for outside elsewhere, space, the Furthermore, share.” its “rightful says, above quote the as have, to culture dominant the for possibility the stop films the space, Other an onto sexuality and gender of system heterogeneous and fluid seemingly a situating By exist. normalized, classified, excluded, be and corrected, Foucault, needto according to who,individuals,is those deviant wherethe Juchitán, asaheterotopia a deviation, of place 177 176 society. and“orderly” “intelligible,” defined categories and notions normative of sexuality and gendertomaintain a“dominant,” depend onwell- to seem modern societies how see can one is unintelligible, that a place as itsof deviation, asaheterotopia representation fully, through least andthus, not society, at sense,in argue Juchitán onenot could internalizednorms people that havemodern the of Foucault, Juchitan Queer Paradise In this sense, instead of existing as a place that involves a form of“resistance,” aform involves that aplace as existing of instead sense, In this trap,” is a “visibility If In concludingthe lines of 2005 rightful God given share. given God rightful his dropped bag of becausequeers inJuchitán manyitdeprived so countries of the for their rights.hearelse countries,to fight evenin that must gays still where, developed so-called the When you… their open-mindednessthink is completely natural for them and they areabout always surprised it it’s really a shame that San Vicente Ferrer Discipline and Punish , directed by Patricio Henríquez (2002). , 200. 177 176 as Foucault explains, then Foucault wouldit asFoucaultexplains, Foucaultis then arguethat muxes Queer Paradise muxes and the women within Juchitán, as well as the as well as Juchitán, within women the and can only as be canonly “accepted” 77 , the narrator says: muxes within that within CEU eTD Collection 179 notions of gender and sexuality while the idea of moderna society seems dependto on gender hegemonic films reinstate intentions, the their Thus,despite be adisorder. to seems there where Juchitán like in places visible only are they because particularly space, its in invisible internalized, are norms because process, this with. In is confronted culture dominant the that dichotomy, individual forces” confrontation is wouldreally repressed, asFoucaultargue,andinstead madevisible then andexcluded, the andisit isculture dominant disorderly, because Furthermore, the not. is this disorder not itself, image heterotopia against candefine which of an Self the deviation,opposite provides 178 forces.” individual and collective not mean that itdoes matter” ‘“police’ sexis a argues, where asFoucault monitor Thus, themselves. cannot there ishave modernity with production of and theknowledge owners explainswhy that “repressionindigeneity and traditionsin thatrootit a pre-modern It isstate. the Juchitán distance seems to of disorder, is easily basedand powerfully established the representation on visible Juchitán’s of butis so Juchitan and culture thedominant between difference why the reason the appears that It [rather]fully. more internalized been have behavior proper for norms the where culture dominant the an ordered difference disguises thefluidity heterogeneity of and sexuality and genderthatexists within maximization of based on an this distance and Furthermore,establishmentunalterable the “ours.” disorder, visible a ofwith space, unintelligible Other that between distinction spatial actual an establish heterogeneous, fluidand are gender and sexuality where asaplace Juchitán of representation its regulatory and controlling systemsof power and knowledge.films’ Therefore, the exercise can society “modern” the that films, the in Juchitán of visibility the of construction Ibid. Foucault, The History of Sexuality confrontation function of the heterotopia of deviation maximizes the “collective and maximizes “collective the deviation function of of heterotopia the 179 of the normative mechanisms of sexuality and gender, like man/woman like gender, and sexuality of mechanisms normative the of also works to keep the dominant culture’s regulatory mechanisms regulatory culture’s dominantkeep the to also works , 24-25. 178 Thus, Juchitán, through the compensatory function of the of function compensatory the through Juchitán, Thus, 78 Juchitecos CEU eTD Collection living in an intelligible place. intelligible in an living and, help and thus, amodern maintain social order aclear apeacefulneeded for taxonomy and sex to organize itself - itis through gender and sex that norms are effectively internalized 79 CEU eTD Collection sites it contains and reflects. Because the exotization of Juchitán is gendered and sexualized, I from all the isdifferent” that “absolutely place defines asareal Foucault which heterotopia, alsotogether, something Iexaminedinto suggests, a Eli’s films Juchitán howthe quote turn inability understand aplaceto like Juchitán, seemingly incompatible where come elements “our” films represent the because Furthermore, Selves. andmultiple multiple Others are there depend on the onlooker,points out, Juchitán can be called manyand names that carry with them avariety of meaningsas that such, throughouteven withinnormative notions and Juchitán, sexuality of gender nicelyare prevalent.AsEli my thesis I worked that note and andJuchitán culture dominant between the contact from thatdevelopthe power with the premise of uneven thatI examined relationships the so, “ours.” In doing space and their of separation whichpre-modern state, makeit morally benevolent worthy of and in preservation the results identities toideas nature, about wilderness, and notions of thus past, the rooting in Juchitán a authentic, Iexamined films’ howthe representation linkof Juchitán genderand sexual the of notion the Through Othering. its in results that Juchitán of image a complex construct status of status of “third andthe women recognized community’s the gender,” based on its seemingly distinct gender and sexuality system.With an emphasis on the positive Western from world, the dominantis“ours,” Other a Juchitán that as place century construct Through myfour Through documentary Iexaminedhow films made duringthe21 thesis Nahuatl, Ixtaxochitlan, Juchitán of the flowers, Juchitán de San Vicente for the for Catholic, forand others, Juchitán Muxetlan “dragqueens,”the the of Vicente San de Juchitán flowers, the of Juchitán Ixtaxochitlan, Nahuatl, This is Juchitán, Juchitán de Zaragoza for historians the for and politicians, the – foreigners, Queerparadise. other Juchitán –The Eli cheerfully explains in 2005 Muxes, Authentic, Intrepid SeekersofDanger Muxes, Authentic, 80 muxe Conclusion gringos , the films and st CEU eTD Collection would have made an interesting study would interestingmade have focus an the study to perceptionon ofnotions of paradise within fire of Blossoms italso reflects filmmakers’particularly the quest, from 2002 the how Isee by incompatible elements, thinking combining “appropriate” of breaks “syntax” the it 4 Juchitán Chapter wouldstands asadisorderly that argue, because,asFoucault place in paradise.I argued Thus, although divorcedor of from utopia not idea the savage, are places andnature, theprimitive,ideasimagined about constructed ascloser to andeventhe Eskimo as a utopia, an encourage. In Chapter 1,for example, InotedhowFlaherty the worldidealcreated of savage the place away from modernity feedsfrom that visibility the unequalhumanof itthe relationships seems to the discontents of relationship with an ongoing Westhas however, ambivalent note the civilization.that to important, In thisorder, sense, in opposition social its anduniversalizes power, its tolegitimizes itself, constructs West placesthe emphasized, that are imagined asAs itcan be my seen through analysis and films,the of like asauthors Saidand haveTrouillot savage, pre-modern, and disorderly. It is society. modern filmshegemonicthe andreinstate notions of gender sexuality as features of organizing intentions, filmmakers’ of the regardless is and, norm, asthe films,the established West the maintain amodern intelligibleand as order, to placesopposed like Juchitán. Assuch, through to becausethey are able ones “right” asthe established are categories, as well well-defined “our” that space could neverbe like Juchitán. And,normative notions of gender and sexuality, system of andthought make seemingly incompatible things combine,it creates illusionthe logicbreaks “our” onethat the of disorder, have seems to an“inapropriate” because Juchitán Thus, norm fall are situated. outside the who explains asaplacewherepeople Foucault infilms,argued that fact,through the Juchitán, becomes aheterotopia deviation, of which Perhaps the most interesting idea is that illusions have a material impact in the world. in the impact material a have illusions is that idea interesting most the Perhaps , to find a paradise where sexuality and gender are less policed. In fact, itfact, In less policed. are gender and sexuality where find, to aparadise 81 Queer Paradise Queer and 2000 CEU eTD Collection the representation of Juchitán in the films did, anto extent, show fluidity and heterogeneity of that found I analysis, my through seen be can it as However, society. in modern discourse of Foucault faced finds in type Iempirically inflexible of the language.Thus, control power the ableescape Iwas not to Iproblematize, identity categories escape homogenizing the my acritical triedin position Although Itook examined to and thesis, Chapter2. throughout Juchitán challenge “thirdthe not sexual gender” category does genderor which I dimorphism, also doesby calling ita “third gender.” This“lumping together” disguises in factthat the experienceshomosexual men is in in of community which Juchitán, the factwhat of Juchitán they still needed to use an all-encompassing category to refer to the multiplicity of category, films I focused on more successfully show the fluidity and heterogeneity the of two While within one singlemarginalization. its legitimizing thus, and “unclassifiable” the as norm the would together”markingfalls multipleHerdt whatever are“lumped argue,identities outside as that, processes isitthese through Thus, ofcategorization. projects homogenizing so dothe can processes andmarginalization unquestioned,with them,colonization of groups andof go which as those getreinstated. norms through liberation,of suchasrepresentation and the imagining of ideal places, areprecisely samethe is becauseit builds important very “inappropriate,” the on the that mechanisms understanding disorderly.is whymyfocus of on Foucault This Juchitán, disorder the would term which consequently rootinglike such places,in Juchitán, primitive,the savage, the and the what keepsthisparadise –theits illusion existence of modernity –awayfrom pollution the of has. Perhapsitmodernis universalizingonlooker powerof the society also recognition of the modernity with the level disenchantment of onthe depends perception the paradise of atthebeginning section,this of Eli’squote through As onecansee Juchitán.andoutside of Furthermore, through Furthermore,a long-established through history European of representing places, Other muxe, like 2005 Authentic, intrepid seekers of danger of seekers intrepid Authentic, 82 and 2007 Muxes of Juchitan Muxes of , CEU eTD Collection 181 medium for Othering butit is also one able reflectto larger realities, as Iexamined in Chapter makes imaginary constructionsit world, and the about arguments itpresents context, filmmaker’s the itreflects because of real places seem representation of sexuality, the inregardsto and gender particularly issuesrepresentation, of “real.” In other words, study isgenre film a documentary to relevant meaning. Furthermore, particularly openness of it is as powerful it,” exceeds and bywhatescapes fascinated meaning remains categories. “right” hasthe is “catalogue” wherethe one societal order “right” it thatthe also of but establishes people, actual groups of marginalization legitimizes the establishsustained. In this sense, illusions constructed through representations of Other places, notuneven only is man defined baseupon the order acivilized suchas categories, which are and woman, relationships of identities sexual gender and found could everbe modern within a where well- society, representation foreclosesJuchitán of possibility the itsthat apparentfluidity and heterogeneity of powerup Othering where it. And thus, make seemingly visibleincomprehensible of the order sexual Juchitán,and gender end they the because Westthe Westfilms when the quality, of this In spite ifsubtly. even language, constructs canescape one that others, maintains itself in perhapscertain through oppositionof types suchfilmandrepresentation, as maybe painting, and music, itsto its Other,dominance the and 180 potentiality because, eventhough each film and an has ordered closed narrative, which of both films, the of are interpretation my and elements certain on focus my Thus, world. in the part of theMinh-Ha and Perkins suggest, there are as many ways of interpretinglimitations films as there are people as focusedFurthermore, issuesI could specific have outof elements on. innumerable the of my study, are also a reflection of the medium’s sexual and gender identities, even if restrained by their use of the word Ibid. Minh-Ha, “No Master Territories,” in By focusing on film, a medium that, as Minh-ha explains, creates a “space ascreates in medium onfilm,By explains, Minh-ha which focusing a that, ThePost-colonial Studies Reader 83 , 105. 180 I was only able to look at muxe 181 . Thus, it is it Thus, . there is an CEU eTD Collection question: why did I buy that film in the first place? Intrepid SeekersofDanger. mentionedAs I intheintroduction, Juchitán Iencountered 2005 through ideasspace. aboutthrough relationships power unbalanced of maintenance and delineation the on has “authenticity” gender,ethnicity, about ideas with intersects “authenticity” cultural of notion the how examined I and sexuality.specificities of Forexample,Juchitán. by looking representation atthe inof Juchitán film,this This atlarger look focusenabled particular to processes move my and beyondanalysis the In doing “likeother.” noas aplace Juchitán me,exoticizes clearly,mostis it one the to because that so, I wasfilm 2002 the to attention give particular I decided to Furthermore, etc. able to Selvesconsider continuemultiple and Others multiple where to Orientalisms proliferate of nesting the perceive to me allowed which throughthe the intersectionsimpactbased on of argument my whatethnicity,built I my thesis throughout theHowever, I Balkans. observed the or example, for sexuality, India, like notion in gender,four films race, inspecificallymay thatoccur processes within not places comingaddress space, one together whoseof directors allnotion of a traditional community rooted camein the past, and the seemingly incompatible elements from different city the intypes Mexico, the exotization of I described, suchasthelinkwith nature, the countries, particular one focused on I Because places. other to apply they could how or representation, mediums of in other function could Juchitán of in representation havethe noted issues I and between actual of relationships people. maintain groups create power uneven 2. And,illusions asIhave aboutplaces have because they argued, are able to consequences Although have takenacritical position, allfourmy films I for Ienjoyed analysis. I used atlook howthe is to it important representations, are there weturn everywhere Because Throughout my writing process I have asked myself one myself asked have I process my writing Throughout 84 Muxes, Authentic, Queer Paradise CEU eTD Collection 183 182 without reinstating the telling of the secret. Through itswithout reinstatingThrough the its revelatory thetelling of secret. insteadquality, of with filmmakers maya liberatory agenda find anewapproach to establish a conversation people’s imagination,film can be an useful medium. it Thus, is through studies like mine that sex and beandinequalities need talked to gender needs conversation a about the space in Because filmmaking. in documentary choice thematic this of proliferation influence onthe an had all have movement, gay the and discourse, rights human the studies, feminist of films I focused on, forThe example, gender. and sexualities werealternative alldiscuss that madefilms in interest during found have the audiences, and past eleven years. Perhaps the rise andknowledge.power deviant, of Juchitán, thatmodern society can exercise its control and regulatory systems of the breaking of gender, hasbeen silenced andmade invisible in“our” space because itis precisely through the silence andwe findin a placelike system fluidJuchitán, aseemingly andheterogeneous sex of and the constructionsee in my space—and I clarify, itisnot that they do not exist. Foucault would argue that what of to unable am I visibility things shiny the to attracted curiously am I fish. a like am I simple: is answer of the secret, The represented. “cultures” form get which through any other engagedwith documentary, or of sex, of watchingin or aBBC Geographic aNational reading pleasure/satisfaction/desire the in theas it exploiting while first itspeaking of to themselves dedicated they that a shadow but existence, sex to place? is they consigned that in fact, not modern societies, to is peculiar “[w]hat explains, Foucault – divulged. be and discovered waiting to secrets silenced necessary the are for Foucault, sex may be true for anyone who has ever felt any sort of Foucault, Foucault, I have, if partially found only, my answer through this process.Places like Juchitán,like Discipline and Punish The History of Sexuality the 183 secret.” Interestingly, during the past few decades documentary fewfilmmakers, Interestingly, past decadesdocumentary the during , 200. , 35. 182 Thus, the answer to my question – why did Ibuy filmthat 85 ad infinitum, CEU eTD Collection the inflexibilitythe language,of and thus, itdeserves attention. our my is escape,even film, ifsubtly, able Otheringas found power, through study,to I actually 86 CEU eTD Collection DOCMA, Asociación de Cine Documental Blog deCine DOCMA, Asociación Michel. de Certeau, In Getting Wrong the Nature.” or, Wilderness; “The Backto William. Troublewith Cronon, Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan. “‘The Making of the ‘Working Class:’ E.P. Thompson and Indian and Thompson E.P. Class:’ ‘Working the of Making “‘The Rajnarayan. Chandavarkar, Borges, Jorge Luis Jorge Borges, (1942). Accessed June 4, Lumière,Veyre.” parGabriel opérateur “Gabriel Veyre, BiblioMonde. Butler, Judith. Butler, eds. Studlar, and Gaylyn Matthew Bernstein, Bakic-Hayden, Milica. "Nesting Orientalisms: The Case of Former Yugoslavia." Former of Case The Orientalisms: "Nesting Milica. Bakic-Hayden, Bachofen Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin eds. Benjamin, Walter. "Short History of Photography." In Roland. Barthes, Barnouw, Erik. Alonso, Ana Maria. “‘Progress’ as Disorder and Dishonor: Discourses of Serrano University of California Press, 1984. Cronon, 69-90. New York: Norton Press, 1996. Uncommon Ground: in Nature theHumanPlace Rethinking Chaturvedi, London: 50-71. Verso,2000. History.” In Routledge, 1990. 2011. http://www.bibliomonde.net/livre/gabriel-veyre-operateur-lumiere-4594.html London: I.B.Tauris Publishers, 1997. http://www.alamut.com/subj/artiface/language/johnWilkins.html Accessed (2006). March10,2011. Graciela Vázquez Review University Princeton Press, 1967. Princeton: London: Routledge, 2003. Press, 1993. Resistance.” , J. J. J. 54, no. 4 54,no. (1995): 917-931. Documentary, a History of the Non-Fiction Filmthe Non-Fiction Documentary, aHistoryof Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Feminism andtheSubversionof Gender Trouble: Camera Lucida Myth, Religion, andMotherRight: SelectedWritingsJ.J.Bachofen. of Critique of Anthropology Critique of The Practice of Everyday Life of The Practice Mapping SubalternStudiesPostcolonial and the The Analytical Language ofJohnWilkin The AnalyticalLanguage . NewYork:Hill and Wang, 1982. 8, no.1 (1988): 13-33. 87 . http://docma.blogia.com/. . Visionsthe East:Orientalism of Film in , translated by Rendall.Berkeley: Steven Artforum The Post-colonial Studies Reader The Post-colonialStudies 15, no.6 (1977): 46-51. . Oxford: Oxford University . Oxford: s. Translated by Lilia by Translated s. , edited byWilliam , edited , edited by , edited Vinayak Bibliography New York: Slavic . . CEU eTD Collection Gimbutas, Marija. Gimbutas, “Of Michel. Spaces.” Other Foucault, “Juchitan Accessed“Juchitan Queer Paradise.” March 25,2011. Herdt, Gilbert. Preface Beyond toThird Third inCulture Sex, Sexual Dimorphism Gender: in IntroductionThirdSexual Gender: BeyondDimorphism Herdt, Gilbert. to Third Sex, Gutmann, Matthew C. of Politics the and Space,Identity “BeyondCulture: Akhil Ferguson. James and Gupta, ‘Other’ of The Question Difference: Discontinuity, “Discourse, Benjamin. Genocchio, Ginsburg,Faye.“Mediating Film, culture: andMedia, Ethnographic the Indigenous Griffiths, Gareth. “The Myth of Authenticity.” In Early The Anthropology: Turn-of-the-century in Visuality and “Knowledge Alison. Griffiths, Foucault, Michel publication: 1976). (French Foucault, Michel Foucault, 1975). (French publication: Foucault, Michel publication:(French 1966). Lastiri, Diana. Escobedo Eisler, Riane. Eisler, Introduction http://www.acmi.net.au/EB83E9E8C6584538A9722A5A48396AE7.aspx and Edited by History, 11-20. Herdt. NewYork:Zone Gilbert Books, 1994. Culture and History,Edited by 21-81. Herdt. New York: Gilbert Zone Books,1994. University of California Press, 1996. 1997. andJamesFergusonby AkhilGupta In Difference.” Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and HelenTiffin, London: 237-241. Routledge, 2003. In Spaces.” 291. California: University of California Press, 1995. Anthropology, andPhotography Production of Identity.” In and Hudson,1974. 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