4th International Report Crime Prevention and Community Safety: Trends and Perspectives

The 4th International Report Crime Prevention and Community Safety: Trends and Perspectives The International Centre for the Prevention of Crime (ICPC), located Copyright© International Centre for the Prevention of Crime (ICPC), in Montreal, Canada is the leading crime prevention institution Montreal, 2014 at the international level. It has been promoting international ISBN: standards of crime prevention and criminal justice with the goal Print 978-2-921916-81-3 of advancing community safety and improved quality of life for PDF 978-2-921916-80-6 20 years. ICPC works with member governments, international DVD-ROM 978-2-921916-82-0 institutions, local authorities and organizations in the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Oceania, by offering a knowledge base on All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, crime prevention; policies, practices and tools to reduce risk factors stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any associated with crime, violence and insecurity. means, without the prior permission in writing of the International Centre for the Prevention of Crime, or as expressly permitted This publication was funded mainly by Public Safety Canada. by laws, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Communications Editorial and Production Team: Manager, ICPC, at the address below. The 4th International Report was produced under the supervision Published by: of Daniel Cauchy, ICPC Director General. International Centre for the Prevention of Crime Editor in chief: Margaret Shaw 465, rue Saint-Jean, bureau 803 Assistant editor: Vivien Carli Montréal (Québec) Canada H2Y 2R6 Research: Vivien Carli, Yvain Husseini, Juliette Jarvis, Telephone: +1 514 288-6731 Pablo Madriaza, Céline Monnier Email: [email protected] Production Manager: Anamaría Cardona The report is available in English, French, and Spanish Layout and Cover Design: Épicentre on ICPC’s website: www.cipc-icpc.org The Report also beneficiated from the collaboration of ICPC Disclaimer: staff members: Kassa Bourne, Serges Bruneau, Fanny Buttigieg, The editorial content of the 4th International Report on Crime Cvetanka Georgieva, and Roxane Martel-Perron. Prevention and Community Safety represents the views and findings of the authors alone and not necessarily those of sponsors, or supporters, or those consulted in its preparation. Acknowledgements III ACknowl ed g e m n ts

The preparation of the International Report is a Peter Homel, Australian Institute of Criminology major undertaking, and is made possible by the (AIC) and Asia Pacific Centre for the Prevention interest and commitment of many people. We would of Crime (APCPC) Australia like to thank very sincerely all of ICPC’s Members, Tim Hope, University of Salford, UK and our Board of Directors 2013-2014 for their support: Azzedine Rakkah, Centre d’études et de recherches internationales (CERI), France Ms Chantal Bernier, President Dennis P. Rosenbaum, University of Illinois at Mr Erich Marks, Vice-President, Chicago, US German Congress on Crime Prevention Elrena van der Spuy, University of Cape Town, Mr Paul Girard, Treasurer South Africa Ms Elizabeth Johnston, Secretary Anne Wyvekens, Centre national de la recherche European Forum for Urban Security scientifique, France Dr Vincenzo Castelli, Administrator Onlus Nova Consorzio nazionale per We have received tremendous support from our l’innovazione sociale contributors and their work greatly enriches the Mr Innocent Chukwuma, Administrator report: Cecila Andersson, Juma Assiago, Elena Azaola, CLEEN Foundation Rosemary Barberet, Nicole Barrett, Olenka Ochoa Berreteaga, Vincenzo Castelli, Rodrigo Elizarraras, Mr Gerard Rolland, Administrator Carmen Gill, Peter Homel, Barbara Holtmann, Observatoire national de la délinquance Emma Holtmann, Jacqui Karn, Rolando Ochoa, dans les transports (ONDT) Harry Patrinos, Dominique Simon Perrano, Dr Adam Tomison, Administrator Allison Reid, Sarah Spencer, Karin Svanberg, Australian Institute of Criminology. The European Union Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA), Kathryn Travers, and Marla Williams. We also owe our sincere thanks to our Members, and to the members of our Scientific Committee who We received very valuable advice and support gave us their advice on the selection of topics for the from other experts including Estela Maris Deon, report, and provided us with valuable information and Johannes De Haan, UNODC, Erling Børstad, and support. Unlike other editions, the timescale for ICPC APC President and Government of Norway, this report did not allow for an in-person Editorial Bilkis Omar, Government of South Africa, Meeting, but we hope that our Board, Members and John Graham, Police Foundation UK, Sohail Husain, Scientific Committee will not feel that their views have Analytica Consulting UK, Manon Jendly, University been misinterpreted. Any errors are ours alone. The of Lausanne, Switzerland, Barbara Holtmann and members of the Scientific Committee are: Emma Holtmann, Social Transformation System, Holly Johnson, University of Ottawa, Canada, the Marcelo Aebi, University of Lausanne, Switzerland Government of France, Stephen Waldie, Government Matti Joutsen, HEUNI, Finland of Ontario, Canada, Sarah Spencer, Centre on Elena Azaola, Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Migration, Policy & Society (COMPAS), and Superiores en Antropología Social, Mexico Sami Nevala, FRA. There are many other policy makers, practitioners and researchers we cannot Claudio Beato, Universidade Federal de Minas name individually but whose work and advice has Gerais, Brazil inspired us, and to whom we would like to extent Benoit Dupont, University of Montreal, Canada our sincere thanks. Ross Hastings, University of Ottawa, Canada

A Message from the V President of ICPC wo rd fo r

This year – 2014 – marks the 20th year since ICPC’s creation. It is a time to celebrate the Centre’s many achievements in advancing the agenda of safety from the international to the local level around the world. After two decades, ICPC’s mission and vision, initially inspired by Gilbert Bonnemaison’s politique de la ville, remains extraordinarily relevant. ICPC continues to promote the role of governments and cities in developing integrated policies to promote the safety and quality of life of individuals and their communities. In fact that vision is now being carried forward by many other international organizations which recognize the effectiveness of strategic local action.

ICPC upholds its mission to share global knowledge about crime prevention developments and effective strategies and practices in a number of ways, including the production of its bi-annual International Report on Crime Prevention and Community Safety. Since 2008, the report has provided ICPC members, its extensive global network, and the wider public with an overview of crime and prevention-related trends, and in-depth discussion of pertinent topics to inspire policy makers, local governments and practitioners.

For the 4th edition of the report, ICPC has chosen the overarching theme of migration – the movement of men and women and children from their places of origin – usually to cities and urban areas. Globalization brings many benefits but also challenges and opportunities, and migration is one of its most visible aspects. It is not always an easy process and has many implications for the safety of individuals and communities and their social cohesion. This report examines the challenges facing migrant women and men and local communities, the movement of indigenous men and women to urban areas, and the local implications of human trafficking. A fourth global topic of concern, and one which appears to be stubbornly resistant to change – intimate partner violence against women – is also examined in this report. All of these topics are strongly gendered: the experiences and involvement of women and men are very different, and this underlines the importance of tailoring prevention strategies to take account of these differences.

The 4th edition is the result of a tremendous effort by the ICPC team, the Director General, and ICPC’s former Director of Analysis and Exchange, Margaret Shaw. As always, ICPC’s members and partners have played an important role in providing guidance on the overall choice of topics and in some cases on the content of chapters, which we greatly appreciate. We would also like to express our gratitude to the Government of Canada for its ongoing support, without which this report would not have been made possible.

It is hoped that this edition will motivate key actors in countries and cities to recognize the value and effectiveness of prevention in our societies and to take action to ensure a safer and just future for all.

Chantal Bernier

President, ICPC

A Message from the VII Director General of ICPC wo rd fo r

It is a great honour to be part of an organization that for 20 years has been dedicated to improving community safety and well-being. Over the last 20 years, ICPC has played a key role in successfully promoting crime prevention and community safety. Today the field has expanded enormously and increasingly international bodies and governments are adopting prevention strategies and policies, and recognizing its long-term benefits.

As a centre dedicated to knowledge building and exchange of ideas, ICPC continues to influence the field through its many activities, including its flagship publication – the International Report on Crime Prevention and Community Safety – which presents multi-disciplinary information in an accessible manner and for a variety of readers. The report enables ICPC to engage with the wider prevention community: communications is of increasing importance to ICPC as it maintains and expands its network of governments, international and local organizations, practitioners and researchers.

The 4th edition of the report, like its predecessors, updates some of the significant global trends in crime, and provides an opportunity to examine trends in crime prevention, and some of the ways in which it is being affected by global changes in the economy and tech- nology. Conventional property and violent crimes continue to decline in many regions, but have risen in others. New types of crime, notably cybercrimes, have emerged. Insecurity and fear of crime have not necessarily fallen along with crime rates, and in many countries the economic recession continues to have an impact on crime prevention practice. Nevertheless, innovative and informed responses, and knowledge about the cost benefits and cost- effectiveness of crime prevention continue to accumulate.

This edition focuses on a central theme – the migration of men and women – and the impact on migrants and local communities, and the opportunities and positive benefits that migrants bring. This theme is a principal preoccupation for many government members and partners of ICPC. Individual chapters examine trends in migration and in the movement of indigenous peoples to urban areas. Others look at the local manifestation and prevention of human trafficking, and intimate partner violence against women. This selection of topics provides a rich collection of information and ideas that are relevant for all key stakeholders and in each case promising prevention initiatives are highlighted.

Unlike other editions, this report has been produced within a very short time frame. I would like to congratulate the ICPC team and Margaret Shaw, the invited Editor, for producing an excellent and informative report. It has been a pleasure to have Margaret as part of the ICPC team again, and to lead this 4th edition. I would also like to thank the excellent external Contributors, all of them experts in their field, and ICPC’s Scientific Committee for their input and ideas on the topics and main developments and trends.

I am certain that as has been the case with previous editions, the International Report will provide valuable information for its readers, in continuing to uphold international norms and standards and promote prevention as an essential component for improving the well-being of communities around the world.

Daniel Cauchy

Director General, ICPC VIII Table of Contents

III Acknowledgements V A Message from the President of ICPC VII A Message from the Director General of ICPC XII List of Contributors X List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

1 Chapter 1 Introduction 3 The theme of this edition – The continuing movement of people within countries and across borders 4 Trends in crime and insecurity, and their implications for crime prevention 6 Migration 7 Indigenous migration to urban areas 8 Human trafficking 9 Intimate partner violence against women 9 The Fourth International Report 11 Endnotes 12 References

15 Chapter 2 Trends in crime and its prevention 16 Part I – Trends in crime 16 Global trends in crime 17 Homicide trends 21 Trends in other types of crime and in levels of insecurity 25 Part II – Trends in crime prevention 26 Increased recognition of the role of cities 28 Recent debates and developments in knowledge-based crime prevention 30 Declining crime, changing behaviours, reduced budgets – some implications for crime prevention 33 Advancements in evaluation and tools 34 Conclusion 36 Contributions 50 Endnotes 52 References

57 Chapter 3 Migration 58 Introduction 59 The main migration trends 59 Internal migration 59 International migration 63 Negative attitudes towards migrants 65 The benefits of immigration outweigh the costs 67 The criminalization of migrants 68 International, regional and national developments 70 Migrant integration policies and programmes 76 Conclusion 77 Contributions 82 Endnotes 83 References IX

89 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities bl e of c on te n ts ta 90 Introduction 91 Indigenous peoples 91 International norms, standards and developments 93 Migration trends: Indigenous peoples 95 Urban migration – The reasons and impacts 98 Governance and the right to the city 100 The need for city-based strategies and policies 102 Conclusion 103 Contributions 111 Case study 113 Endnotes 115 References

119 Chapter 5 The prevention of human trafficking 120 Introduction 121 International norms to support the prevention of human trafficking 122 The lack of data on human trafficking 123 Recent trends 124 Regional trends 124 Developing a prevention strategy for the complex problem of human trafficking 128 National and state/provincial prevention policy 130 Developing prevention strategies at the local level 134 Conclusion 136 Contributions 144 Endnotes 146 References

149 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 150 Introduction 152 Progress in measuring the extent of IPV 156 Risks and vulnerabilities 158 Recent international, regional, and national developments 161 The importance of action at the local level 162 Preventing IPV 166 Conclusion 167 Contributions 176 Endnotes 178 References X List of Contributors

Cecilia Andersson Vincenzo Castelli Urban Safety Expert & Human Settlements Officer President Consorzio NOVA & Safer Cities Programme Advisor for Italian Cooperation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Local Government and Decentralization Unit Ripatransone (AP) UN-HABITAT Italy Nairobi Kenya Rodrigo Elizarraras Coordinator Programa de Seguridad y Justica Juma Assiago Centro de Análisis de Políticas Públicas HSO/Lead Global Network on Safer Cities Mexico City Safer Cities Programme Mexico Local Government and Decentralization Unit UN-HABITAT Nairobi European Union Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) Kenya Vienna Austria Elena Azaola Anthropologist & Psychoanalyst Carmen Gill Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores Director en Antropología Social Muriel McQueen Fergusson Centre for Family Mexico City Violence Research Mexico University of New Brunswick Canada Rosemary Barberet Professor & Director Master of Arts Degree Program Peter Homel in International Crime & Justice Professor John Jay College of Criminal Justice Asia Pacific Centre for the Prevention of Crime & New York Key Centre for Ethics, Law, Justice & Governance US Griffith University Australia Nicole Barrett Director Barbara and Emma Holtmann International Justice and Human Rights Clinic Social Transformation System University of British Columbia and Osgoode Hall Parktown, Johannesburg Law Schools South Africa British Columbia & Ontario Canada Jacqui Karn Formerly Senior Research & Development Officer Olenka Ochoa Berreteaga The Police Foundation Expert in Safety and Urban Development London FEMUM-ALC Council Board United Kingdom Lima Peru Rolando Ochoa Senior Research Analyst Vivien Carli Asia Pacific Centre for the Prevention of Crime Senior Analyst Griffith University International Centre for the Prevention of Crime (ICPC) Australia Montreal, Quebec Canada XI

Harry Patrinos Lead Education Economist World Bank Washington DC US

Dominique Simon Peirano Project Officer Secrétariat général du comité interministériel de prévention de la délinquance (CIPD) Paris France

Allison Reid Coordinator Cabot Square Project Montreal, Quebec Canada

Sarah Spencer Open Society Fellow & Senior Fellow, Centre on Migration, Policy & Society (COMPAS) University of Oxford United Kingdom

Karin Svanberg Division Head Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention (Bra) Stockholm Sweden

Kathryn Travers Executive Director Women in Cities International Montreal, Quebec Canada

Marla Williams Formerly Project Officer Cabot Square Project Montreal, Quebec Canada XII List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

A F AIC: Australian Institute of Criminology FPDL: Fundatia Parteneri Pentru Dezvoltare Locala AOC: Administrative Office of the Courts (Partners Foundation for Local Development) APCPC: Asia – Pacific Centre for the Prevention of Crime FRA: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations FVPLS Victoria: Aboriginal Family Violence Prevention and Legal Service Victoria C G CBC: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation GDP: Gross domestic product CCTV: Closed-Circuit Television GFMD: Global Forum on Migration and Development CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention GLA: Gangmasters Licensing Authority CEDAW: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women GMG: Global Migration Group CELADE: Centro Latinoamericano y Caribeño de Demografía GNP: Gross national product (Latin American & Caribbean Demographic Centre) GRETA: Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking CIDAC: Centro de Investigación para el Desarrollo in Human Beings (Research Centre on Development) GREVIO: Group of experts on action against violence CISCA: Canada Initiative for Security in Central America against women and domestic violence CMPA: Community Mobilization Prince Albert Project GSS: General Social Survey COE: Council of Europe H COR: Center of Responsibility HEUNI: European Institute for Crime Prevention CPO: Crime Prevention Ottawa and Control CPRN: Canadian Policy Research Networks HRRC: Houston Rescue and Restore Coalition

D I DAIP: Domestic Abuse Intervention Programs IBGE: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística DHS: Demographic and Health Surveys (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) ICC: Intercultural Cities Programme E ICCLR: International Centre for Criminal Law Reform and ECLAC: Economic Commission for Latin America Criminal Justice Policy and the Caribbean ICPC: International Centre for the Prevention of Crime ECPAT: End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and ICT: Information & Communications Technologies Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes IDAS: Independent Domestic Abuse Services ECRE: European Council on Refugees and Exiles IDB: Inter-American Development Bank EFUS: European Forum for Urban Security IDMC: Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre EU: European Union IDP: Internally displaced persons EUCPN: European Crime Prevention Network ILO: International Labour Organization EUKN: European Urban Knowledge Network IMAGE: Intervention with Microfinance for AIDS and E-MARIA: European Manual on Risk Assessment Gender Equity in the Field of Domestic Violence INEGI: Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, México (National Institute of Statistics and Geography, Mexico) XIII List of A cr onym s

O INHESJ: Institut national des hautes études de la sécurité OAS: Organization of American States et de la justice (National Institute for Higher Studies in OAS-ICM: Organization of American States – International Security and Justice) Civilian Mission IOM: International Organization for Migration OBSICA: Observatorio e índice de Seguridad Democrática IPC: Institute for the Prevention of Crime del sistema de integración (Central American Integration IPV: Intimate partner violence System Observatory and Index on Democratic Security) ISQ: Institut de la statistique du Québec OCTIP: Office to Combat Trafficking in Persons (Institute of Statistics of Quebec) OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and IVAWS: International Violence Against Women Survey Development IWDVS: Immigrant Women’s Domestic Violence Service OHCHR: Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights K ONDRP: Observatoire national de la délinquance et des réponses pénales (National Observatory of Crime and KVINFO: Kon Viden Information og Forskning Criminal Justice Responses) (Danish Centre for Information on Gender, Equality and Diversity) ONDT: Observatoire national de la délinquance dans les transports (National Observatory of Crime on Public L Transport) OSCE: Organization for Security and Co-operation LAC: Latin America and the Caribbean in Europe LSHTM: London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine OSI: Open Society Institute M OVS: Office of Victim Services MEND: Men Ending Domestic Abuse P MIPEX: Migration Integration Policy Index PACT-Ottawa: Persons Against the Crime of Trafficking MOST: Men of Strength Club in Humans MRCSSI: Muslim Resource Centre for Social Support PAHO: Pan American Health Organization and Integration PICUM: Platform for International Cooperation on Undocumented Migrants N PREVIVA: Prevención de conductas de riesgo para la vida NA: North America (Prevention of risky behaviours) NAP: National action plan PRONASCI: Programa Nacional de Segurança Pública com NCPS: National Crime Prevention Strategy (South Africa) Cidadania (Brazilian National Programme for Public Safety and Citizenship) NCVRW: National Crime Victims’ Rights Week Neighborhood Opportunity Network NeON: Q NGO: Non-governmental organization QNW: Quebec Native Women Inc. NHTRC: National Human Trafficking Resource Centre NISVS: National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence R Survey RCMP: Royal Canadian Mounted Police NSW: New South Wales (Australia) NWAC: Native Women’s Association of Canada XIV

S V SAS: Small Arms Survey VAW: Violence against women SEGOB: Secretaría de Gobernación (Secretariat VAWA: Violence Against Women Act of the Interior) VAWG: Violence against women and girls SENASP: Secretaria Nacional de Segurança Pública VPC: Violence Policy Center (Ministry of Justice National Public Security Secretariat) SPVM: Service de Police de la Ville de Montréal W (Montreal Police Service) WB: World Bank U WHO: World Health Organization WICI: Women In Cities International UK: United Kingdom WIMSA: Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in UN: United Nations Southern Africa UNCTAD: United Nations Conference on Trade and WOLA: Washington Office on Latin America Development WRAPA: Worker Recruitment and Protection Act UN DESA: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNDG: United Nations Development Group UNDP: United Nations Development Programme UNECE: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNFPA: United Nations Population Fund UNGIFT: United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking UN-HABITAT: United Nations Human Settlements Programme UNHCR: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHRP: United Nations Housing Rights Programme UNGA: United Nations General Assembly UNICEF: United Nations Children’s Fund UNIFEM: United Nations Development Fund for Women UNIPP: United Nations Indigenous Peoples’ Partnership UNiTE: United Nations Secretary-General – End Violence against Women Campaign UNODC: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNPFII: United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues UNSD: United Nations Statistics Division UN Trust Fund: UN Trust Fund to End Violence against Women UN ECOSOC: United Nations Economic and Social Council UN WOMEN: United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women UNV: United Nations Volunteers UNWTO: World Tourism Organization US: United States of America introduction 2 Introduction

Since it was created in 1994 the International Centre role has been to act as an international resource for the Prevention of Crime (ICPC) has worked to raise centre on prevention practices, publishing reports on awareness about the importance of crime prevention specific prevention topics and prevention approaches, as a public policy and to place it on a par with crimi- and on innovative, effective or promising practices. nal justice policy. Twenty years ago, recognition of the It has worked with actors on the ground on the devel- significance of prevention formed part of a growing opment of strategic prevention policies; and fostered movement internationally. This understood that the exchange of experience between policy makers, responding to problems with repression and through practitioners and researchers on the development, the justice system alone was difficult, sometimes implementation and evaluation of prevention policies counter-productive and very costly. Preventing prob- and programmes. lems in the first place brings considerable benefits and cost savings, as well as improving the quality This is the fourth edition of ICPC’s International of many people’s lives. Report on Crime Prevention and Community Safety. Since the first edition in 2008 it has been published This movement reflected the enormous growth in every two years. From the start the aim has been to academic and practitioner knowledge about how provide a bird’s eye view – a resume of trends in crime to prevent crime, violence and insecurity, evidence of and in crime prevention around the world – and an the effectiveness of prevention policies, their broader update on promising developments in creating safer cost benefits to society, and the crucial role played cities and communities. This report, like its prede- by governments in creating safer communities. The cessors, is written primarily for three key sectors: specific inspiration for the creation of ICPC, as well decision-makers and elected officials responsible for as sister organizations such as the European Forum policies creating safer and more just and inclusive for Urban Security (EFUS), was the work of a group communities; practitioners and professionals ranging of 800 mayors in France, led by Gilbert Bonnemaison, from the police, social housing or health sectors to who recognized the benefits of working collab- those working with youth on the street or within the oratively across all urban sectors to develop social justice system; and for researchers and academics programmes to prevent crime and disorder in cities. In interested in prevention and its evaluation, as well France, this led very significantly to the development as civil society actors. of the politique de la ville, a policy which specifically targeted funds to local governments to enable them The International Report draws on data and informa- to work in partnerships across sectors in developing tion on developments in crime and its prevention prevention programmes in deprived areas of cities from a wide range of sources. They include reports (De Maillard & Germain, 2012). by international organizations such as the United Nations or the World Bank, regional, national and non- Over the past twenty years many governments government organizations, reports and evaluations of at national, regional or local levels have invested programmes and practices, and academic research in prevention policies and worked in partnership and analysis. ICPC’s extensive international network with local communities and civil society. The United of partners, member governments and organizations Nations has adopted two sets of guidelines which set working in the field of prevention and community out the principles for effective crime prevention (UN, safety remains a unique resource and source of infor- 1995, 2002). Many other international organizations mation. Each edition of the report has focused on a set now incorporate the notion of citizen security and the of themes and topics (see Box 1.1 for a summary of the promotion of safe communities in their work. ICPC’s content of previous International Reports). 3 Box 1.1 Themes in previous International Reports on Crime Prevention and Community Safety The three previous International Reports have reviewed trends in crime and insecurity, selected topics or themes, and approaches and trends in crime prevention and community safety.

Themes 2008: Women’s safety, youth safety, school safety, safety in public spaces.

2010: Migration, organized crime, drugs and alcohol. Introdu c t i on 2012: Human trafficking and exploitation, informal settlements, post-conflict and post-disaster areas, drug production in developed countries. Chapter 1 Trends in crime prevention and community safety 2008: Global prevention norms, international exchange networks, national and local strategies; knowledge-based prevention; the role of public authorities including the police and judicial authorities; supporting community safety with new services (private security, mediation and conflict resolution); expanding the role of local government and community actors. 2010: Developments in crime prevention; good governance (devolution of powers, legitimacy, regulation of private security, developing civil society’s role); social and educational approaches; training, professional development and capacity building; evaluation of crime prevention. 2012: Global survey of city safety strategies and their components, and municipal views on the most important safety issues they face.

The theme of this edition – have international and cross-border dimensions The continuing movement of people such as internet-based cybercrime and identify theft, within countries and across borders drug and arms trafficking, human trafficking and smuggling and labour and sexual exploitation are “...the Sahara is busier today with human traffic increasing (Dupont, 2012; UNODC, 2013a). This may than it has been since the medieval age.” 1 in part reflect greater attention to these problems and better data collection. In all regions it is important The current report provides an opportunity to assess to examine how men and women are differentially how crime prevention is evolving internationally in the affected by these changes. The decline in traditional face of some significant global changes and challenges, crime is, however, less evident in some middle and low which are affecting the safety of individuals and com- income regions and countries, and rates of violence munities, and social cohesion especially at the local remain high, although there are some exceptions. level. Globalization, and the profound changes which it entails in terms of job creation and loss, economic These changes in patterns of crime are also occur- wealth, urbanization, environmental and climate ring during a period of economic downturn, and there change, the increasing movement of people, and rapid appear to be a number of challenges to strategic changes in technology and communications among crime prevention, including those involving policing, other things, affects everyone to varying degrees. and security and social policies. Crime, violence and security remain priorities for the public and govern- This report is concerned with exploring some of the ments in many regions, such as Latin America and the complexities of these changes, how they affect men Caribbean (Abizanda et al., 2012). and women and communities differently, and how the changes impact people in different contexts in their Against this backdrop, a number of sentinel events cities, countries and regions. Against expectations in 2012-2013 confirmed the choice of the overarching over the past three years rates of crime have contin- theme for this report: the continued and increas- ued to decline in many developed countries, as they ing migration of people across borders and within have done for the past decade or more. This includes countries and regions. The massive movements of the traditional major crime categories of homicide, people from North Africa to Europe, for example, robbery, burglary, and car theft. have resulted in catastrophic loss of life in the Mediterranean Sea.2 They include the event which There is increasing speculation, however, that pat- occurred in October 2013 off the coast of the Italian terns of criminal behaviour are shifting in the face of island of Lampedusa, when a boat with more than globalization and rapidly changing communications 440 people aboard sank. Scores of migrants were technology. It is widely reported that crimes which again drowned off the island of Lampedusa in 4 May 2014.3 Other recent tragedies include the loss Trends in crime and insecurity, and of 365 Syrian refugees attempting to reach Europe their implications for crime prevention in October 2013, and the deaths of 92 men, women and children who tried to cross the Sahara desert from When the economic recession began in 2008, there was Niger sometime in the same month and died of starva- much expectation among policy makers and academics tion in the attempt.4 It also includes the continuing that rates of crime, especially property crime, would migration of illegal immigrants from Mexico to the increase. This has clearly not happened, and the most US, and within the Asia Pacific region.5 recent world crime figures suggest that with one or two exceptions, the trend in falling crime rates in high- This report examines the impacts of these continuing income countries such as the US, Canada and many migration patterns on both the migrants themselves European countries has continued. The continuing and the primarily urban communities in which they decline in rates of homicide in such countries shows settle. Within destination countries migrants find different patterns. In Italy, for example, homicides fell themselves increasingly the target of exclusion and by over 43% between 2007 and 2010, which is attributed abuse, and especially in cases where they are undocu- to a change in attitude to the use of extreme violence mented, of criminalization. While national/state or among mafia groups, which is seen as bad for business provincial policies remain very important, the report (Massari, 2013). Nevertheless, crime is still distributed focuses especially on the local level, and what can be unevenly across the world, with Latin America and the done by local governments in partnership with other Caribbean experiencing the highest rates of homicide, actors and civil society to promote community safety, and violence has increased in some low and middle justice and inclusion in the face of these changes. income countries.

The report examines overall trends in crime and Other conventional crimes including robbery, burglary, violence internationally, and trends in the prevention theft and car theft have similarly declined in many of crime. It then focuses on four specific themes countries, prompting one observer to ask where all the which are related to the movement of people to cities burglars had gone, while drug crimes including traf- and urban areas, and one theme which is becoming ficking and possession appear to continue to increase.6 increasingly visible and requires renewed attention There is speculation that traditional data collection and investment. The themes are all part of wide is failing to capture new forms of crime – cybercrimes international, regional and national concern, as well which entail entirely new types of crime, or old forms as being pressing concerns for many ICPC member using new means. The technical problems of capturing governments and organizations: the extent of cybercrime, let alone its perpetrators,  The impacts of migration on migrants and host are immense, but it is evident that the financial losses communities; (or gains) from cybercrimes far outstrip the losses and  The implications of the increasing movement of gains from the conventional crimes of acquisition. indigenous populations to urban settings;  The impacts of human trafficking and its preven- The falling rates of crime coupled with economic tion especially at the local level; recession have created some dilemmas for crime  The continuing burden of intimate partner violence prevention. Crime rates in the UK, for example, as against women. measured by police data and the British Crime Survey, show that levels of acquisitive and violent crime have For each of these themes, the report examines recent been declining continually since the mid-1990’s, and global and regional trends and international norms, are now down to the levels of 1981. There has also assesses the key issues taking account of gender been a change in police policy back to ‘core mandates’ differences in their impacts, and ethno-cultural of crime control and away from the wider prevention differences, and looks at promising prevention and community policing functions (Millie & Bullock, policies and programmes which address the problems 2013; Karn, 2013). This is combined with severe cut- identified, including the role of cities. Where possible, backs in funding to the police and other social service programmes which are based on good evidence and agencies, and changes in police appointments which evaluation of their effectiveness are examined, and are now determined by local election. A number of the report outlines some of the developing discus- observers have concerns about the extent to which sions about evidence-based policies. Each of the populist demands for targeted policing of minority chapters in the report is accompanied by a number communities may reduce the legitimacy of the police, of contributions from invited experts in their fields, and their ability to support the integration and safety which help to illustrate many of the issues raised, and concerns of local communities, including migrants to provide some results of recent research. (Bridges, 2011). It has been suggested that there is a need to focus policing on ‘procedural justice’ principles (Hough, 2013; Karn, 2013).7 Some of the questions posed for prevention by such Over the twenty years of ICPC’s existence, the field of 5 shifts in crime, and in government funding and crime prevention has continued to evolve and grow, priorities, include: how can the police and local author- and this edition of the International Report provides ities and the public respond to old and new forms an opportunity to reflect on some of those changes. of crime without abandoning the work of building local partnerships? What kinds of strategic policies From its beginnings, ICPC’s concept of crime prevention and programmes can help prevent emerging forms has embraced the broader notion of community safety, of crime such as migrant trafficking and exploita- and the promotion of safe and equitable communities, Introdu c t i on tion, cybercrime and fraud? What responsibilities rather than being more narrowly restricted to reducing do the institutions and communities where migrants crime (ICPC, 2008, 2010). As always, it is grounded in the

settle have in supporting integration, rather than international norms and standards adopted by the UN Chapter 1 just migrants themselves? As has been noted by in 1995 and 2002. The basic principles for the conduct of one observer, in Europe, since the beginning of the crime prevention policies and programmes are outlined 1990’s questions about migration have changed from in the 2002 UN Guidelines for the Prevention of Crime 9: a preoccupation with social, economic, political and  Government leadership – at national, sub-regional cultural concerns, to a “problem of security”.8 They and local levels; have helped fuel a movement towards more punitive,  Socio-economic development and inclusion – the defensive and exclusive social attitudes towards integration of crime prevention into relevant social “outsiders” and strangers. and economic policies, and particular emphasis on at-risk communities, children, families and youth; The question has also been raised of the value of  Cooperation and partnerships across ministries national/state focus of much research and assess- and between authorities, community organizations, ment. It is no longer possible to view crime trends non-governmental organizations, the business as an internal issue resulting from a country’s sector and private citizens; internal social, economic and political situation. For  Sustainability and accountability – with adequate example, because of its geography, Italy is heavily funding to establish and sustain programmes affected by the regional and global trends in migra- and their evaluation, and clear accountability for tion, smuggling and trafficking from North Africa funding; and the Middle East (Nelkin, 2013). Italy’s decisions  The use of a knowledge base – with strategies, about illegal migrants in turn affect other countries policies and programmes based on a broad multi- in Northern Europe. In the UK and other European disciplinary foundation of knowledge and evidence countries, legitimate migration from the new member about crime problems, their causes, and effective states of the European Union has seriously affected practices; both the human rights of those migrants, and  Respect for the rule of law and human rights, and attitudes and reactions of receiving communities. the promotion of a culture of lawfulness; Similarly, Swedish legislation to criminalize those  Interdependency – taking account of the links who purchase sex rather than those who sell it, may between national and local crime problems and have led to a reduction in trafficking for street pros- international organized crime; and titution in that country, but would appear to have led  Differentiation – developing strategies that respond to the displacement of human trafficking and sexual to the different needs of men and women, and exploitation to neighbouring countries (Skarhed, vulnerable members of society. 2010). In the Asia Pacific region, migrant smuggling, human trafficking and sexual exploitation link many The international norms are themselves informed countries together (APCPC, 2013). by the knowledge gained over the years through research and practice in many countries about the most effective ways to create safer communities Trends in crime prevention and prevent criminal behaviour. Four broad types of approaches are outlined in the Guidelines: crime In his book Blue Criminology, Slawomir Redo pro- prevention through social development; community vides testimony to the growth and evolution of the or locally-based crime prevention; situational crime UN and especially UNODC’s work to prevent crime prevention; and the prevention of recidivism. A number through policy, training and education (Redo, 2012). of handbooks and tools to aid the application of As he points out, however, only four of some 60 legal the guidelines have been developed (e.g. UNODC & instruments of international law which were adopted ICPC, 2010). between 1955 and 2010 dealt with prevention, the rest were all concerned with controlling crime (Redo, Drawing on its own twenty years of experience of the 2012, p. 96). The movement towards prevention did Safer Cities Programme, UN-HABITAT together with not begin to emerge internationally until the 1990’s. other organizations is currently working to develop 6 new UN guidelines for urban safety for adoption the European Union, the agreement to allow freedom by 2016. These will complement the existing UN of movement between members states, adopted in guidelines, incorporating some of the lessons learned 2003, has resulted in rapidly changing patterns from recent experiences in cities around the world, of migration from East to West as new countries have including the important role of urban planning and joined the Union. In a number of countries such as management.10 France, Italy and the UK, ethnic groups which have a long history of migration including the Roma have Developments in understanding and knowledge about been subjected to increasing resentment and crimi- gender have also increased over the past twenty years. nalization (Costi, 2010). UN WOMEN was created in 2010 in acknowledgement of the need to increase the status of work to improve ICPC’s 2010 International Report examined trends conditions for women and girls and the attention it and patterns in migration, the criminalization of receives. It recognises that the impacts of crime and migrants, and discrimination and racism against violence on women and girls are specifically gendered migrant communities in their countries of destina- (Barberet, 2014). tion. Reports from UN DESA and IOM in 2013 record the increasing rates of migration, and regional pat- terns and concerns (UN DESA, 2013; IOM, 2013a). Developments in knowledge-based As with all international estimation, there are prevention discrepancies between sources, but the significance of South-South migration is underlined by the IOM More nuanced evaluation and cost benefit studies in particular. The proportion of women migrating continue to accumulate and to take account of the chal- continues to increase rapidly. This underlines the lenges of evaluating complex and community-based importance of exploring the gender dimensions of interventions (ICPC, 2010). Proponents of developmen- migration, not just the trends in male and female tal crime prevention, for example, continue to search migration, but the differential impacts on men and for ways to assist policy makers and practitioners to women, and the implications of policies which do make informed choices and invest in long-term crime not take account of gender (Altman & Pannell, 2012; prevention planning (Farrington, 2013). Beneria et al. 2012). The number of children migrating also continues to increase. Violence against migrant Recent reports include publications by WHO on vio- workers and their families was the theme of the 21st lence against women (2010 and 2012), and the recent session of the Commission on Crime Prevention and initiative of the IDB to promote innovative methodolo- Criminal Justice in Vienna in 2011, and a number of gies for cost-benefit studies of crime in Latin America recent reports show the prevalence of the exploitation and the Caribbean (Corbacho & Scartascini, 2013). In of migrant labour (e.g. Dugan, 2013; Centre for Social Australia, an innovative study designed to aid the most Justice, 2013). efficient targeting of crime prevention, applies small area analysis to plot the locations of chronic offenders and criminal justice costs (Allard et al., 2013). A report The benefits of migration for the State of Washington provides a valuable demon- stration of the value of the cost benefits of prevention Some countries appear to be focusing on strengthen- policies at the state level (Lee et al., 2012). ing borders and deterrent approaches in relation to migration, and are failing to curb or discourage racist The remaining sections of this introductory chapter and xenophobic sentiments. In the UK, for example, outline some of the issues raised by the themes which an advertising campaign targeting illegal immigrants form the focus of this report. was piloted by the Home Office in a number of London boroughs with high migrant populations in July 2013. It asked “In the UK illegally? – Go Home or Face Arrest” Migration (see Picture 1.1). The campaign was subsequently stopped, following considerable public concern. “A process to be managed instead of a problem to be solved.”11

ICPC last examined the impact of increasing migra- tion on community safety in its 2010 International Report. Since that time, rates of migration globally have continued to increase, in some regions very rapidly and with catastrophic consequences for the migrants themselves as suggested above. Within Picture 1.1 undocumented migrants, and in other cities to provide 7 limited access without documenting or publicising such actions.

The benefits of migration are being increasingly discussed, and it has been described as a mechanism for structural transformation (Devarajan, 2013). The

benefits include rebalancing the age range of countries Introdu c t i on and social and economic advantages (OECD, 2013; Ambrosetti & Guindici, 2013). Countries of origin also

benefit from the increasing size of remittances (three Chapter 1 times that of development assistance). Recent experi- ence in the US suggests that there is a need to change

Source: Sherwin (2013). the arguments around migration, to focus much more on the positive contributions which migrants bring Some political parties may tend to emphasise, erro- to their receiving societies and local communities neously, forecasts of immigrant crime waves.12 Yet (Spencer & Shama, 2013). research on the contribution of migrants to crime in their country of destination suggests that migrants In response to some of these issues, the recent High- generally commit little crime and tend to lower crime Level Dialogue on Migration and Development has rates in the communities in which they settle. Other emphasised the benefits of migration for development, complaints focus on migrants benefiting from “free” and the need to reduce its negative implications, and health, social services and housing benefits. However, to uphold the human rights of migrants (IOM, 2013b). a number of studies in different countries have They argue that there has been a ‘sea-change’ in shown this to be a false assumption. For example, thinking about migration and its impacts, from see- a recent study suggests that European “health tour- ing it as a problem, to recognizing its contribution ists” contribute more to the British economy than they to poverty reduction and development in countries take out, and are less likely to receive disability or of both origin and destination (IOM, 2013b, p. 19). unemployment benefits than citizens.13 A major issue A number of countries and cities have begun to develop is poverty, and the economic and social factors associ- more flexible policies which provide incentives for ated with being a stranger in a new city or community. and promote good standards among recruiters and Studies of the crime associated with large waves labour contractors, for example, and enable the of immigration show clear evidence that migrants inclusion and integration of migrants. A resolution contribute no more to criminal activity than the exist- issued by the European Forum for Urban Security ing populations themselves, and in some cases much in October 2013 calls for support among countries for less (Baker et al., 2013; Solvietti, 2012; Bell & Machin, cities in responding to the humanitarian crisis associ- 2012; Bell, Fasani & Machin, 2010). In the US there ated with migration in the EU, and for policies which is strong evidence of the reduction of neighbourhood educate the public against xenophobia and racism, violence in areas with concentrations of immigrants protect the human rights of migrants, and promote – often referred to as immigrant revitalization theory. their integration.16

“A focus on crime is a distraction from the more important policy question of how to support the Indigenous migration to urban areas substantial social capital that immigrants bring to this country. Immigrants breathe new life into many In many countries indigenous populations have a his- areas where they have settled and often (not always) tory of moving to urban areas in part as a consequence have reduced crime rates as an added bonus.”14 of the destruction of their own lands and livelihoods. Where they are recognized, their rights are often asso- An on-going study of the role of cities in providing ciated with their ancestral lands. Moving to urban services to undocumented immigrants illustrates areas means there may be few services or structures some of the polarizing trends now becoming evident.15 which respond to their needs, and no clear governance It is suggested that there are wide variations within responsibilities. In September 2007 the UN Declaration countries and between cities. In some cities in the on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples was formally US, such as New York, for example, undocumented adopted by the General Assembly after some twenty migrants can access health, education and welfare years of debate.17 As a review by IOM noted in 2008, services, and their status is protected by the authori- “official data on the migration of indigenous peoples as ties. Unlike New York, the response in many European well as policies to aid indigenous migrant communities cities is to deny access to health and other services to remain limited.”18 Nevertheless, reviewing the state 8 of the world’s indigenous population in 2009, the UN the extent and patterns of the problem,23 it is clearly noted that they form part of the trend to urbanization a highly lucrative form of organized crime. Human and that in some countries the majority of indigenous trafficking takes place for the purposes of labour and peoples live in urban areas.19 At the international level sexual exploitation, as well as for other purposes a major review of the issues facing indigenous peoples such as human organs and marriage. when they migrate to urban areas was undertaken by UN-HABITAT in collaboration with OHCHR in 2010.20 The UN Protocol against trafficking in persons, especially women and children was initially adopted ICPC has worked on issues concerning Indigenous in 2000 and became operational in 2003.24 Much of peoples over the past ten years, including publishing the focus among governments tends to be on traf- comparative reports, establishing a virtual network ficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation, and and on-line Bulletins, and organizing international labour trafficking has to some extent received less workshops, and an international conference on indig- attention. Many countries have introduced human enous community safety in 2011.21 trafficking offences into their criminal code, and in some cases initiated or facilitated the development There are clear links with other migrant populations of victim protection and support services. However, in terms of the exposure of Indigenous peoples to as is often the case in response to criminal activities, criminalization, discrimination and racism in urban countries tend to give less attention to prevention settings (e.g. the issue of missing and murdered than prosecution and protection. Prevention has been Indigenous women in Canada, and femicide involv- primarily restricted to public awareness programmes, ing migrant women in Central America). There are with a few more targeted awareness and information also links between indigenous population movement projects. and trafficking for sexual exploitation. For example, in Canada (and possibly Australia) a great deal of Human trafficking was a theme in ICPC’s 2012 internal human trafficking involves the movement International Report, examining national legislation of young Indigenous women and girls to urban areas on trafficking in response to the UN Protocol on traf- and across provinces, for the purposes of sexual ficking in persons, as well as national action plans exploitation (Barrett & Shaw, 2011). Nevertheless, to combat and prevent trafficking. ICPC has also while urban indigenous populations face challenges previously worked on the issue of the prevention which are similar to other migrants in terms of of human trafficking. In 2010-11, ICCLR and ICPC discrimination or access to housing, education and undertook a joint project for Public Safety Canada other services, they are also different (Carli, 2012). on the prevention of human trafficking, developing In Canada, for example, the federal government has a discussion paper and organising international and traditionally defined its responsibilities in relation national expert meetings. to those living on reserves, and not off reserve. In addition, many major cities in Canada were built The current chapter examines some of the trends and on the sites of pre-existing indigenous settlements. patterns in trafficking for labour and sexual purposes, As IOM has underlined, many indigenous populations and both internally and across borders, and the strong inhabited areas which existed before the demarcation gender components associated with traffickers and of modern states.22 trafficked persons. It considers some of the debates about the victimization of trafficking victims, and the In many countries it is civil society groups rather dangers of overemphasizing a stereotypical view of than cities who have tried to respond to these prob- trafficking. A number of countries including Canada lems, and there is an absence of data and city-based now have national action plans, national information action. The chapter provides an opportunity to review coordination systems, or rapporteur mechanisms current trends in indigenous migration and the dis- to oversee policy, but action at the local level is often crimination, policy gaps and absence of governance less evident (ICCLR, 2011). The prevention of human that urban indigenous populations often face in cities. trafficking at the local level, where such exploitation It also considers some recent city policies and good takes place, now includes much more than aware- practices which are attempting to respond to these ness campaigns. It includes the development of local concerns. coordination partnerships, and the use of local safety audits to inform local human trafficking prevention plans, as well as training for service providers, the Human trafficking use of regulation, and local protocols with business communities and hotels for example. Trafficking in persons, both internationally and within countries, continues to be a major global concern. While current data seriously underestimates Intimate partner violence countries have led to an evident decline in funding 9 against women to support services for women (e.g. in the US and Canada). There have long been concerns about the One of the ironies of the decline in violent crime failure of legislative changes alone to stem the tide in most developed countries is that homicide by of violence in many countries. Countries, such as intimate partners is now the leading cause of death India, have seen the beginning of widespread public for women. This is the case in European countries, condemnation of violence against women – especially in North America, both Canada and the US, and in following the gang rape and death of a young woman Introdu c t i on South Africa for example (UNODC, 2014; Shaw, 2013). on a bus in 2012, leading to a national commission Estimates from victimization and health surveys of of inquiry, and government admission of the need to 28 violence against women, suggest that such violence update laws and cultural attitudes. Chapter 1 – both sexual and stranger violence, and violence by intimate partners – is widespread internationally in Nevertheless, there have been significant UN initia- spite of the growth in public recognition, legislation tives internationally, such as UNiTE, UNTF, and and public policy to curb and prevent it over the past projects initiated by UN WOMEN; the recognition four decades.25 of all forms of violence against women, including femicide, and violence in conflict situations; and the Intimate partner violence is one of a number of development of indicators on violence against women terms which have been used to describe violence and girls. In a review of the development of survey experienced by women in private, in the home, or research on violence against women, Holly Johnson committed by people in close intimate relationships (2013) traces the considerable progress made in recent with them. Other terms, used at different times and years, which is helping to provide more consistent and in different countries, include domestic violence and comparable information about the prevalence of vio- family violence, but intimate partner violence against lence against women. Victimization surveys have now women (IPV) is now the most widely used term inter- been conducted in over 90 countries and handbooks nationally. While IPV also includes violence by women and guidance on improving statistical data collection against men or female partners (and violence between have been developed (UN, 2012). Cost-benefit studies other family members) the overwhelming majority of violence against women (e.g. Agüero, 2013) continue involves male violence against women. This report to underline the impacts of such violence on women, also looks at violence against girls or young women. their families and society, and reinforce the case for Violence against women includes violence experi- prevention. enced in public settings including sexual assault, and in situations of armed conflict. In the past there has There has been a considerable expansion of research been a tendency to see public and private violence as and action on violence against women in many two distinct sets of problems, but it is not possible regions, research on cultural attitudes of men and to isolate the causes of IPV from broader cultural and boys, and the development of programmes which aim gendered attitudes to women in society (Whitzman to change traditional attitudes of men and boys to the et al., 2013). use of violence against women. A number of recent compendiums of evaluated programmes to prevent The safety of women and girls is a key concern for sexual violence and intimate partner violence, help to cities, and ICPC has produced a number of previ- increase awareness of the importance of evaluating ous comparative reports and compendiums of good programme outcomes. practice on the issue. Women’s safety was the topic of ICPC’s annual colloquium in Queretaro in 2008, and formed part of the crime prevention workshop The Fourth International Report organized by ICPC for the UN Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice in 2010.26 There is a cross-over between many of these issues. Migration, people smuggling, and human trafficking In spite of thirty years of legislative reform in are integrally linked. They constitute a continuum many developed countries and the development of from exploited and involuntary, through illegal and special courts, perpetrator programmes, and a high irregular, to legitimate and legal movement of human investment in victim support services and shelters beings, all of whom have rights. The voluntary move- – the issue of violence against women committed by ment of people is integral to the future development intimate partners continues to be a major concern. of countries and cities. The attention given to each of At the international level, there have been some these issues varies considerably. Some have argued recent changes in attitudes, with some member states that the predictors of human trafficking are similar to refusing to endorse resolutions on violence against those for migration, yet the greater focus on traffick- women.27 Policy changes and economic cuts in some ing tends to distract attention away from the social 10 harms experienced by migrants (Rao & Presenti, 2012). Much trafficking takes place internally. Women and girls are increasingly involved in the movement of people, and it is very important to examine the dif- ferential patterns and impacts on these movements on men and women and girls and boys. Rates of violence against women are higher among indigenous popula- tions than others, but they are often hidden because of cultural attitudes and practices. In the Asia Pacific region, IPV and sexual violence are closely linked with human trafficking and exploitation as well as with migrant smuggling. Among some migrant communities fear of the police or deportation, or cultural practices may inhibit women from speaking out about violence, or recognizing that IPV is a crime.

All of the themes in this report concern patterns of behaviour which are likely to increase with the continuing movement of people to other countries and cities. Prevention has a major role to play. 22 IOM (2008, p. 8) op. cit. 11 23 For example, estimates of the extent of trafficking by UNODC, Endnotes ILO and the US report on Trafficking in Persons rely on different sources and vary considerably. 24 The Protocol against trafficking in persons is one of three protocols which form part of the UN Convention against Transnational Organised Crime adopted in 2000. The other Protocols are Smug- gling of Migrants by Land, Sea or Air, and Trafficking in Firearms.

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Arms Survey. UN (1995). Guidelines for Cooperation and Technical Chapter 1 Assistance in the Field of Urban Crime Prevention. Millie, A. (2013). The policing task and the expansion (and UNECOSOC resolution 1995/9 annex. contraction) of British policing. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 13(2), 143-160. UN DESA (2013). International Migration 2013: Migrants by origin and destination (No. 2013/3). New York: Department Millie, A. & Bullock, K. (2013). Policing in a time of contraction of Economic and Social Affairs. and constraint: Re-imagining the role and function of contemporary policing. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 13(2), UN DESA (2009). State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples. 133-142. New York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs.

Nelkin, D. (2013). Review of Crawford. A. (Ed.) (2011). UNODC (2014). Global Study on Homicide. Trends, Contexts, International and Comparative Criminal Justice and Urban Data. Vienna: UNODC. Governance: Convergence and Divergence in Global, National and Local Settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. UNODC (2013a). World crime trends and emerging issues and In Criminology and Criminal Justice, 13(2), 232-239. responses in the field of crime prevention and criminal justice. Commission on Crime and Criminal Justice. Twenty-second OECD (2013). International Migration Outlook 2013. Session. E/CN.15/2013/9. Paris: OECD. UNODC (2013b). Comprehensive Study on Cybercrime. Public Safety Canada (2013). Local Safety Audit Guide: Vienna: UNODC. To Prevent Trafficking in Persons and Related Exploitation. Research Report 2013-1. Ottawa: National Crime Prevention UNODC & ICPC (2010). Handbook on the Guidelines for the Centre, Public Safety Canada. Prevention of Crime: Making them Work. Vienna & Montreal: UNODC & ICPC. Public Safety Canada (2012). National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking. Ottawa: Public Safety Canada. UNPFII (2013). Urban Indigenous Peoples and Migration: Challenges and Opportunities. Retrieved from www.un.org/ Rao, S. & Presenti, C. (2012). Understanding human trafficking esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/6_session_factsheet2.pdf origin: A cross-country empirical analysis. Feminist Economics, 18(2), 231-263. UNPFII (2009). The state of the world’s indigenous peoples. New York: United Nations. Redo, S. M. (2012). Blue Criminology. The power of United Nations ideas to counter crime globally. Helsinki: HEUNI. Whitzman, C., Legacy, C., Andrews, C., Klodawsky, F., Shaw, M. & Viswanath, K. (Ed.) (2013). Building Inclusive Shaw, M. (2013). Too Close to Home: Guns and Intimate Cities: women’s safety and the right to the city. London: Partner Violence. In Small Arms Survey Yearbook 2013. Earthspan Routledge. Everyday Dangers. Geneva and Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press & Small Arms Survey. WHO (2013). Responding to intimate partner violence and sexual violence against women. WHO clinical and policy Sherman, L. (2012). Developing and Evaluating Citizen guidelines. Geneva: WHO. Security Programs in Latin America. IDB Technical Note No. IDB-TN-436. Washington: IDB. WHO (2010). Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence. Sherwin, A. (2013, October 31). Controversial ‘go home’ vans Geneva: WHO. persuaded just 11 illegal immigrants to leave. The Independent.

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Solivetti, L. (2012). Looking for a fair country: Features and determinants of immigrants’ involvement in crime in Europe. The Howard Journal, 51(2), 133-159.

TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 16 Trends in crime and its prevention

Part I – Trends in crime Another major source of information, especially for estimating rates of violent crime involving injury Previous editions of the International Report have or death are health and household surveys such as included discussion of global trends in crime and those conducted by PAHO or WHO, and the collection insecurity to help place developments in crime pre- of forensic data such as the National Injury Mortality vention and community safety in context. The first Surveillance System in South Africa, and the National part of this chapter provides a synopsis of recent Vital Statistics System in the US. crime trends and some of the significant regional and country differences. It also looks briefly at emerging Data on homicide is generally accepted to be the most crimes and concerns. reliably reported crime, but it is still poorly reported (and recorded) in many regions such as Africa and The second part of the chapter provides an update parts of Asia, and in conflict settings.2 Nevertheless, of trends in crime prevention internationally, and using international sources it is possible to look at in knowledge and tools, and discusses some of the some overall trends over time. In its annual review implications of these trends for the future of prevention. of world crime trends, and drawing on the UN Crime Trends Surveys from countries with long-term data, UNODC reported in 2013 that between 1995 and Global trends in crime 2011 – a period of seventeen years – there has been an overall decline or stabilization in many conventional As is well known, and earlier editions of this report have stressed, estimating levels of crime within a country, or attempting to compare rates of crime Figure 2.1 Trends in conventional types of crime between countries, is fraught with difficulties. Much in countries for which long-term trend data are depends on the sources of information used (e.g. available, 1995-2011 police reports or victimization studies), the willing- 250 ness of people to report crimes to the police, the technical capacities and infrastructure of a country, and levels of corruption. 200

In many countries, distrust of the police, lack of train- 150 ing of the police, or poorly developed data collection systems will mean that much of the crime which

takes place is not reported, or that the data collected 100 fails to provide sufficient information on the circum- stances and people involved. Information on the age, sex or ethno-cultural background of offenders and 50 victims may not be recorded. Crimes such as intimate personal or sexual violence, or against migrants or 0 minority groups, are among those most likely to be underreported. It is for this reason that victimization 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 surveys which ask individuals about their own experi- Drug-related crime Motor vehicle theft ence of crime are seen as much better measures of the (28 countries) (19 countries) actual extent of law breaking than police reported Robbery (22 countries) Homicide (55 countries) crime. However, victimization surveys are costly, and Burglary (14 countries) few countries undertake them on a routine basis.1 Rape (20 countries) Index 1995=100

Source: UNODC (2013a, p. 5) burglary andtheftofmotorvehicles (seeFigure 2.1). cide, robbery andrape, andpropertycrimessuch as and Asia, and higher and sometimes increasing decreasing trends notably inEurope, North America region, with low rates ofhomicideandgenerally decreasing, although rates vary substantially by (UNODC, 2014b). Overall therate ofhomicideis 437,000 people in 2012, a rate of 6.2 per 100,000 Intentional homicideisestimated tohave killed 2013; Geneva Declaration, 2011). national conflictexceedsthat ofcountries at war (SAS, in somecountries not experiencing civil or inter experiencing conflict. Inaddition, therate ofhomicide in countrieswhich arenotat war, thanincountries far morepeoplearevictimsofintentionalhomicide As the Small Arms Survey among others has noted, Homicide trends The mostrecent UNODCreview ofcrimetrends very markedregionaldifferences incrime trends. offences, upfrom80%in2005. There are, however, currently comprise83%oftotalglobaldrug-related show an increase. Offences related to drug possession Only drug-related crimes, especially drugpossession, crimes. again withmarkedregionalvariations (UNODC, 2014a). conventional crimesapartfromdrug-related crime, but of countries, and finds similar patterns of decline in between 2003and2012includesamuch largernumber Figure 2.2 Homicide rateper100,000people 10to<20 0to<10 3 This includes violent crime such as homi 22.2 & theCaribbean Latin American Homicide ratesbyregion 30to<40 20to<30 69.2 El Salvador 91.6 Honduras 4

Nodata 40+ 45.1 Venezuela 56.9 Côte d’Ivoire - -

4.5 Arab States & b;ONDRP, 2013). The mapcompiledby UNDP, illus- (UNODC, 2014b&2013a;Clarke, 2013;UNDP, 2013a rates, especially inLatin America andtheCaribbean (Costa, 2012, p. 3). Similarly, inSouth Africa rates of 5.5 Eastern Europe&CentralAsia p. for between 60-70%of allhomicides(Gilgen, 2012, cide isvery highthroughouttheregion, accounting implicated (UNODC, 2013a). The rate offirearm homi- ficking aremajor factors, andfirearmsareheavily crime andgangactivities associated withdrugtraf- and Central America andthe Caribbean, organized regions. Incountrieswithhighrates, such asLatin Different factors drive rates ofhomicideacrossthe rates ofcrimethanruralareas(UNODC, 2014b). 2012). Urbanareasingeneraltendtohave higher provinces well above thenational average (Gilgen, 13.2 to48per100,000population withfive ofthenine homicide across the provinces in 2011-12 ranged from ities, of allhomicidestookplacein only 7%ofmunicipal In Mexico, for example, between 2006and2010, 80% rates ofhomicideacrossstates andmunicipalities. Within countries there are also wide variations in development andrelative wealth (Jaynes, 2013). international average, inspiteofthecountry’s overall the Pacific (see Figure 2.2). America andtheCaribbean, to2.8inEast Asia and ranging fromanaverage of22 per 100,000inLatin trates thewideregionaldifferences inhomicidelevels South Africa, for example, isfour andahalftimesthe experiences very highlevels ofhomicide. The rate in

11). Globally, the Small Arms Survey estimates that and were located primarily in5ofthe32states Source: UNDP(2013a,p.39).CalculationsbasedonUNODC(2011). 20.4 Sub-Saharan Africa 6.9 World 3.7 South Asia 5 Sub-Saharan Africa also 2.8 East Asia&Pacific -

17 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 18 40-60% of fatal violence is committed with firearms, The overwhelming involvement of men in homicide as and in countries where the availability of firearms both perpetrators and victims, as well as other types is high, they are likely to be highly associated with of offending, has meant that much less attention tends homicide (Alvazzi del Frate & Del Montino, 2013). to be given to femicide, and the separate impacts of violence on women.6 Not only are women and girls By contrast, in countries where rates of homicide much more likely than men to be killed by current or are less high, it tends to be associated with property former intimate partners, they are also more likely crime such as robbery or carjacking, while in countries to be sexually assaulted and killed outside the home, with the lowest rates, the majority of homicides are and by acquaintances and strangers, than men (WHO committed by intimate partners and family members & LSHTM, 2010). Guatemala and Mexico are two coun- (UNODC, 2013a). tries where large numbers of non-intimate deaths of women have received little attention until recently Homicide continues to affect different groups (Prieto-Carron et al., 2007; Beltran & Freeman, 2007). disproportionately. The majority of victims (and In Mexico, for example, the border city of Ciudad perpetrators) of homicide globally (79% of victims Juarez has experienced extreme levels of femicide and 95% of perpetrators in 2013) are male, and pri- over the past two decades, the majority involving marily young (UNODC, 2014b). In Latin America 90% non-intimate partner events which were never of victims are male, and the rate for young men aged investigated or resolved (Geneva Declaration, 2011). 15 to 29 is double the rate for the region (Costa, 2012). In Canada, it is now reported that over the past This pattern of young male deaths is repeated in 30 years over 1000 Indigenous women and girls have many countries. In Mexico homicide was the primary been murdered, and almost 225 remain unaccounted cause of death for young men between 2007 and 2009, for (RCMP, 2014; NWAC, 2013). Until recently, very where rates increased by 124% – 156% for those aged little attention was given to this high rate of homicide 15-19 and 20-24 years (Azaola, 2012). Similarly, in among Indigenous women.7 International concern Somaliland young males aged 10 to 39 are the main about femicide is underlined by the adoption of a victims of homicide (Quero, Widmer & Peterson, 2011). UN resolution in March 2013 by member states, which Race is also a major factor. In Brazil, for example, recognizes its seriousness.8 rates of homicide for young black men are more than twice as high as those for white youths (see Box 2.1).

Box 2.1 Reductions in Homicide in Brazil From 1980 the rate of homicide in Brazil increased dramatically, and has been above the average for the Latin American region for many years. The majority of the victims (in 2010 over 91%) have been males, especially young men aged 15 to 24, and primarily Afro-Brazilian. Young men aged 15 to 29 represent 25.5% of the population but 54.7% of homicide victims. Afro-Brazilian youth are more than twice as likely to be victims of homicide than white youth.

Firearms are the main cause of death for both men and women. The rate of female homicide, or femicide, also doubled from 1980 to 2010, and Brazil ranks 7th among 84 countries in terms of its rate of femicide.

In 2008, for the first time, the homicide rate fell below the regional average, in part because of increases in other countries, but also because of marked declines in homicide evident in major cities such as Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro over the past decade. Like many other countries, however, homicide is unequally distributed, and while the state of Sao Paulo experienced a 67% drop in homicides from 2000-2010, others such as Bahia experienced a significant increase. The rates of homicide for some cities also indicate clear declines: the rate for the city of Sao Paulo dropped 76% between 2000 and 2008; Belo Horizonte 33% between 2003 and 2008; and Rio de Janeiro 25% between 2003 and 2010.

Analysis of the reasons for the decline between 2000 and 2010 by the World Bank suggests that the drivers included a drop in the male cohort of 15-19 year olds, a reduction in income inequality, and a reduction in school dropout rates. As with explanations for the drop in crime in the US in the 1990’s, the authors suggest there is no single explanation for the decline in homicides, and that a wide range of policies appear to have contributed to this decline including: “results-oriented policing, gun and alcohol control, and programs targeting youth at-risk and hot spots for crime and violence, all guided by integrated and multi-stakeholder citizen security subnational strategies” (World Bank, 2013, p. 13).

Sources: World Bank (2013); Waiselfisz (2012). 2013). The number of recorded homicides in 2011 was from 9.3to4.7 homicidesper100,000(Smith &Cooper, homicide rate declinedby 49%between 1992and2011, especially incountrieswithlow rates. IntheUS, the International Report, appearsto be continuing, of homicide, noted inprevious editions of the As suggestedabove, thelong-termdeclineinrates it presents(UNODC, 2014b). to remain stable over time, underlining the challenges rates ofintimate partnerviolence globally tend 43% ofwomen killed by theirmalespouse. Overall, 3% ofmenkilledby afemale spouse, comparedwith and perpetrators amongEuropeancountries–with illustrates the relationship between homicidevictims killed by a male partner (UNODC, 2011). Figure 2.3 victims of intimate partner violence were women, for example, between 2007and2011, over 75%of victims (UNODC, 2014b). Among European countries, by otherfamily members, compared with6%ofmale victims arekilledby intimate partners, andlessoften the primaryvictims. Some47%ofallfemale homicide In thecaseofintimate partnerviolence, women are 14% acquaintance Other 13% Unknown tovictim countries 2011orlatestyearavailable perpetrator tovictimandsex,16European Figure 2.3 Source: SAS(2013),elaborationofdatafromUNECE(2012). Male Female 31% to victim Unknown 27% Another relative

8% Not identified

Homicide byrelationshipof 24% Other acquaintance 3% Not identified 3% Spouse orex-spouse 9 43% ex-spouse Spouse or 34% relative Another

the government statistical agency (INEGI). between 2011and2013accordingtoreportsby registered a slight drop in the rate of homicides Mexico, arealsoexperiencingadecline. Mexicohas levels ofhomicide, such asBrazil, South Africa and Even somecountrieswithtraditionally very high between 2007and 2011(seeBox2.3). to have beenanincreaseinattempted homicides their lowest level since1996, althoughthereappears (Massari, 2013). In France in 2013, homicides were at Italy declinedby around43%between 2007and2010 by 50%since2004, whileMafia-related homicidesin of homicideinEasternEuropeancountrieshave fallen since 1966(Statistics Canada, 2013). InEurope, rates from 2011, to1.56victimsper100,000, thelowest rate drug-related homicidesover-shadowing theon-going a number of different forms, with organized crime 2013b). InMexico, itissuggested that homicidetakes to have helpedreducetherate ofhomicide(UNDP, pacts reached between governments and gangsappear where gangs have been a major driver of homicide, (Massari, 2013). In countries such as El Salvador, law enforcement attention and enter legal markets patterns oforganizedcrimeby theMafia, to avoid in Italy isthoughttorelate tostrategic changes in homicides (Jaynes, 2013). The reduction inhomicides of homicideingeneralandthat ofintimate partner relation todomesticviolence, have affected therate legislation restrictingtheuseoffirearms, andin significant. InSouth Africa, thereis evidence that lation restricting the use of firearms appear to be policing andcrimeprevention strategies, andlegis- and economicpolicieswhich reduceinequalities, a rangeoffactors rather than a single cause. Social but asthe World Bank(2013)argues, they include vary, depending on the regional and country context, Explanations for decliningtrendsinhomiciderates (Jaynes, 2013). from a rate of 66.9 per 100,000 to 30.9 in 2011-12 steadily since the end of the apartheid era in 1994 while still well above the global average, has declined (see Box2.1). InSouth Africa, therate ofhomicide, homicide whileotherstates experiencedanincrease as SaoPaulo have experienceda67%reductionin rarely uniform acrossacountry. Brazilianstates such the numberofhomicidesrecordedin2012fell 10% also at itslowest in36years –since1968. InCanada, half over thepasttenyears. Nevertheless, rates are have bothreducedtheirrate of homicideby around (UNODC 2013a;UNDP, 2013b). Colombiaand Brazil few years especially in El Salvador and Guatemala decade, but appeartobelevelling offover thepast homicide rates intheworld, rates doubled inthelast In Central America, theregionwithhighest been evident between 2005and2011(UNDP, 2013b). of stabilization, oradropinhomicides, which has America asawholehasexperiencedsomedegree 10 Latin and and

19 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 20 Box 2.2 Explaining Homicide and Violence in Mexico (La violencia de hoy, las violencias de siempre) After years of decline, rates of homicide in Mexico rose from 14.7 per 100,000 in 2000 to 25 per 100,000 in 2011. In a recent article summarised here, Elena Azaola (2012)11 outlines three arguments which help to explain the escalation in violent crime in Mexico, especially between 2007 and 2011. Many explanations have been offered for the escalation in violence over that period, ranging from the spread of firearms, drugs and organized criminal activity, to the repressive nature of the security policies introduced in 2006 by the incoming President. Azaola suggests there are three main explanations: 1. The prevalence of types of violence, unrelated to organized criminal activity, that have existed for many years but have been tolerated and ignored. These types of violence, combined with other more recent factors, have contributed to the escalation in violence. 2. The weakness and breakdown of judicial and police institutions, and their lack of capacity to investigate and prosecute crimes, have increased levels of impunity and facilitated crime in general and especially violent crime. 3. The failure of Mexican economic and social policies to reduce inequalities and promote inclusion for large sectors of the population. A better integration of socio-economic and security policies is needed, with much clearer definition of their common goals.

Everyday violence Drawing on the work of Scheper-Hughes & Bourgois (2004), the author distinguishes between two broad types of violence in Mexico: “everyday” violence and “extraordinary” violence. “Everyday” violence is violence that takes place on a daily basis and is normalized in Mexican society and, therefore, overlooked. It ranges from suicide, violence in families, in schools and against young people, to sexual violence, femicide and institutional violence. For example, from 2007-2009, there was a 68% increase in femicides, while between 1979 and 2004, an average of two children under the age of 14 were killed every day in family violence-related incidents (Lozano et al., 2006). The family has been described as one of the most violent of social institutions (Scheper-Hughes & Bourgois, 2004. p.3) often associated with structural violence where socio-economic exclusion and discrimination have increased the likelihood of violent behaviour as “the only possible recourse”. There is continuity between both types of violence, and “everyday” violence has facilitated the “extraordinary, pathological, excessive or gratuitous” forms of violence, and thus contributed to higher rates of violent crime.

The violence of crime and the policies to control it The author argues that police and justice policies put in place to reduce violent crime under the administration of President Felipe Calderon have in fact exacerbated the situation in Mexico. Between 2006 and 2009, the national security budget was increased by 71%, with large increases in the number of municipal and federal police, however, during the same period abductions increased by 83%, intentional homicides by 34%, and robbery with violence by 31%. The weakness of government institutions and lack of capacity to investigate and prosecute reported crimes has resulted in impunity for many. In 2007 impunity for all crimes reported nationally stood at 98.7%. Internationally, Mexico is one of the countries with the highest levels of impunity (CIDAC, 2009); 80% of homicides went unsolved or prosecuted in 2008 (Mexico Evaluá, 2009). In some States, organized crime groups have in certain respects replaced state power. In addition, the government received 11,680 complaints against military and public security personnel regarding human rights violations and misuse of authority between 2006 and 2011. A number of scientific studies have concluded that the increase in the provocative use of force by the government against drug cartels in this period without doubt increased the level of violence. Further, the use of violence on the “margins of the law” by the state has had a corrosive effect on social institutions, on the credibility of the security services, and the confidence of citizens in the police, ultimately destroying social cohesion.

The violence of exclusion Levels of inequality in Mexico have increased in recent years, with larger numbers of people living in poverty, and a lack of educational opportunities and employment. Millions of young people are neither in education nor work, facing the alternatives of migration, working in the informal economy or illegally. Border states and cities have been facing increasing numbers of deported migrants who they are unable to integrate or absorb. The result has been a growth of cynicism and apathy, a lack of good governance “Where have alltheburglars gone?” (Clarke, 2013). This promptedonejournalisttoask with majordeclinesinLithuania, EstoniaandLatvia property andviolentcrimebetween 2006and2010 tries intheEuropeanUnionexperienceddeclines some variations (Clarke, 2013). Mostofthe28coun- declining trends since the 1990’s, although there are and inEuropewhereoverall figuresshow longterm North America, thisisevident in Australia (AIC, 2013) et al., 2013)(seeChapter6). sexual abuse by apartnersincetheageof15(Devries report that 30% of women have experienced physical or surveys ofviolenceagainst women in81countries and 8%inthepasttwelve months(FRA, 2014). Globally, enced physical or sexual violence since the age of 15, in 28 countrieshasfound that 1in3women hasexperi a recentEuropeansurvey ofviolenceagainstwomen especially inhighincomecountries. burglary, and motorvehicle theftarealso declining violent andpropertycrimesuch asrobbery, assault, exception ofdrug-related offences, othersforms of As notedat thebeginningof chapter, with the and inlevelsofinsecurity Trends inothertypesofcrime partner violenceagainstwomen (seeBox2.2). youth homicide, femicide, family violence and intimate and “accepted” “every-day” forms ofhomicide, including has declinedinmostEuropeancountries, although Violent crimeincludingsexualassaultandrape Source: Azaola,E.(2012). addressing deeplyentrenchedinstitutionalcorruption. and reducingcrimeviolencebyclosingsocio-economicgaps,strengtheningpublicinstitutions and economicpoliciespreventionclearlyarticulated.Suchshouldprioritisepreventing Socio-economic andsecuritypoliciesneedtobeintegrated,withthelinksbetweensocial prosecute, andreduceimpunity, anditneedstore-buildsocialtiesincreasecohesion. security policiesandtheneedtoimprovecapacityofcriminaljusticesysteminvestigate, violence whichhasreceivedsomuchattention.Itneedstorecognizethecontributingroleofaggressive It shouldrecognizethecontinuitybetweeneverydayviolencewhichisignored,andextraordinary The governmentneedstotakeaccountofthesethreeargumentsfortheescalationviolenceinMexico. Conclusion society, insteadhelpingtopromoteconflictandexacerbateviolence. paid insufficientattentiontoitsdeficits,andthesignificantgrowingsocio-economicgapsin opportunities fordevelopment.Further, byfocusingontheuseofforcetoattainsecurity, thegovernment policies toreduceinequalities,advancetheinclusionofallgroupsinsociety, andtoprovide prosperous lives.Thustheincreaseinviolencehaspartresultedfromfailureofsocio-economic of publicsecurityasanendinitself,notonewhichenvisionedcitizenslivingsafe,normaland and confidenceinsociety, andlowlevelsofsocialcapital.Thegovernmentusedaverynarrownotion 13

12 Apart from Apart -

and governments andat thelocallevel, andtheuse including increasingviolence between drug cartels without strongcapacitiesand governance structures, could have somemajorconsequencesfor countries (UNODC, 2013a). The increaseintrafficking in Africa have becomearoute for opiates from Afghanistan (Aning &Pokoo, 2013), whileEast African countries from Latin America and Asia enroutefor Europe has becomeatransitregionfor cocaineandheroin Over thepastfifteen years, for example, West Africa they have increased inpartsof Africa inrecentyears. trafficking appeartoberelatively stable, although Europe and Asia (UNODC, 2013a). Arrests for drug rather thandrugtrafficking, especially in Africa, primarily toincreasingarrestsfor consumption The globalincreaseindrug-related crimerelates victimization (Box2.3). spite ofreporteddeclinesinhouseholdandpersonal that levels of insecurity have increased in France, in Nevertheless, thevictimization survey suggests in violence and attempted homicide were evident. between 2007 and 2012, although some increases tion survey bothreport adeclineinpropertycrime on crimeandtheCadre devieetsécuritévictimiza- a periodoftwenty years. InFrance, policereports began in1981, andhave droppedcontinually over at thelowest level sincecrimevictimization surveys 2011-12 to 2012-13 (UK, 2013). Crime levels are now almost all types of crime, including a 10% drop from annual crime survey show a continuing decline in In Englandand Wales, bothpolicerecordsandthe Pokoo, 2013). of drug money to finance armed groups (Aning &

21 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 22 Box 2.3 Trends in crime and insecurity in France The main sources of information on criminality in France are statistics on reported crime collected by the National Police and the Gendarmerie,* which are collated by the National Observatory on Crime and Penal Responses (ONDRP). This data is supplemented by the national victimization survey – the Cadre de vie et sécurité – administered annually by ONDRP. The Observatory forms part of the National Institute for Higher Studies in Security and Justice (INHESI). All sources confirm that there has been a decline in property crime between 2007 and 2012. National police statistics suggest an increase in robbery, although the national victimization survey shows a very significant decline. Both the police and Gendamerie statistics suggest a significant increase in offences against the person between 2007 and 2012. Homicides are at their lowest level since 1996, however, although both sources suggest attempted homicides have increased considerably.

It is interesting to note that in spite of the fact that the 2013 national victimization survey shows a decline in all types of household and personal victimization, both violent and non-violent, levels of insecurity in the home and neighbourhood in 2013 were distinctly higher than in all previous years since 2007. In other words there has been a decline in victimization, but an increase in the sense of insecurity.

In relation to migrants and other non-French citizens, in the Île de France and the Greater Paris region, infractions against immigration and related laws fell by 32.6% in 2013, and non-French citizens represented 18.6% of non-traffic and non-immigration offences recorded by the National police in 2013.

* The National Police are responsible for Paris and large urban areas; the Gendarmerie primarily police smaller towns and rural areas.

While rates vary greatly across the region, Latin The Asia Pacific region has always experienced low America continues to experience high levels of violence levels of reported violence and crime apart from apart from homicides, which reduce the quality of that related to conflict. A series of fact sheets on life and increase feelings of insecurity (Corbacho & Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Scartascini, 2013). In 2008-2010 a survey of percep- Guinea published by the Asia Pacific Crime Prevention tions of insecurity in all countries in the region found Centre (APCPC)15 provides a snapshot of reported that 43% of the population said they felt “somewhat” offending and crime trends in five countries in the or “very unsafe”. This compared with 23% in Canada region (see Box 2.4). In all cases levels of corruption and the US (Costa, 2012, p. 6). On the basis of public also appear to be high. See also the contribution by opinion surveys conducted in 2012, UNDP reports that Peter Homel and Rolando Ochoa at the end of this between 45% and 65% of people surveyed have stopped chapter Crime and Safety in South East Asia and the going out at night, and between 16.8% and 51.5% have Western Pacific. limited the places where they shop, for fear of crime (UNDP, 2013b). However, one study has questioned why perceptions of insecurity have been found to be lower Emerging crimes – Cybercrime in Latin America and the Caribbean with its high levels of violence than in other regions with lower levels The decline in conventional crimes in regions such as of victimization, and why it varies across a country Europe and North America has raised considerable (Graham & Chaparro, 2011).14 As these authors note, speculation about whether their place is being taken cross-country differences in perceptions of insecur- by “new” forms of crime which are not being captured ity do not correlate with homicide rates. They found by police reports or victim surveys, and in particular that being a victim of crime had a negative effect on internet-enabled crimes. Cybercrime, which includes people’s happiness and health, and on their confidence a wide range of behaviours from fraud and identity in public institutions, but suggest that people may theft, to pornography, sexual exploitation, harassment adapt to high levels of crime, depending on their age and bullying, has become a serious concern for many and circumstances. countries and at the international level. At the request of the UN General Assembly, a comprehensive study of Overall, victimization surveys in the region up to 2010 cybercrime has recently been undertaken to examine have suggested that crimes such as robbery, assault its impacts and the options for strengthening national or theft have remained stable or declined in the past and international prevention and responses.16 It is decade. In part this is thought to reflect social and seen by organizations such as Interpol as one of the economic improvements in the region, as well as most rapidly expanding and increasing crimes.17 improvements in the functioning of criminal justice systems (Costa, 2012). traditionally securedomains may now be “attacked”, p. xviii). Constant innovations in software mean that are becomingincreasingly involved (UNODC, 2013b, competencies. Young menindeveloping countries requires very specializedinformation technology cybercrime which canbeindividuals orgroups. It It isespecially hardtoidentifytheperpetrators of (UNODC, 2013b, p.11). computer-related actsfor personalorfinancialgain and availability ofcomputerdata orsystems, and includes acts against the confidentiality, integrity theft andfraud(seeBox2.5). At itscore, cybercrime of computerstocommit “traditional” crimessuch as related tocomputersandICTtechnology, andtheuse for example, usesthetermtorefer tocrimesdirectly countries defineit for different purposes. Australia, since itencompassesabroad range ofactivities, and There isnouniversally agreeddefinitionof cybercrime (UNODC, 2013b, p. xvii;Dupont, 2012). 2017, offering enormousscopefor criminal activity the world’s population willbecomeconnectedby users in the world, and it isestimated that 70% of crimes. In2011therewere some2.3billioninternet apparent physical exposure and risk than traditional accessibility andanonymity oftheInternet, withless Cybercrime isaphenomenonwhich exploitstheeasy in naturalresourcesandotherartefacts. over thepastdecade,andsmugglingofmigrantsisalsothoughttobeaproblem,aswelltrafficking and theat-riskpopulationexpanded.Inaddition,casesoftraffickinginpersonshaveincreasedmarkedly is experiencingrapiddevelopmentandsocialchange.Levelsofyouthoffendingappeartohaveincreased Vietnam (population c.90million)hasaverylowhomicideratecomparabletoFranceandAustralia,but in violence,associatedwiththedeathsofteenagers,domesticandroadaccidents. victimized inthepreviousyear. Gangrapehasalsobeenasignificantproblem.Alcoholismajorfactor especially thecaseincapitalPortMoresby, andonesurveyfound57%ofhouseholdsreportedbeing has veryhighratesofhomicideandviolence,comparabletosomecountriesinLatinAmerica.Thisis Unlike othercountriesintheregion,PapuaNewGuinea(populationc.7million)alowincomecountry, often associatedwithalcoholanddrugs. of toughfirearmslaws.LikeIndonesia,violenceagainstwomenisaseriousandunder-reported issue, increase inhomicides,whichisthoughttoberelatedgangswitheasyaccessfirearms,andspite Malaysia (populationc.28million)haslowlevelsofcrimeandviolencebutrecentlyexperiencedan women isseriouslyunder-reported. informal settlementsinurbanareassuchasJakartaareseriouslyaffectedbycrime,andviolenceagainst Sources: APCPC(2013). Indonesia (populationc.238million)hasoneofthelowestlevelshomicideinworld,butovercrowded them highlysusceptibletosexualandlabourexploitation. have becomeseriousconcerns,withmanyCambodiansbeingtraffickedorsmuggledtoThailand,making a declineinviolentvictimizationbetween2004and2010.However, migrantsmugglingandtrafficking In Cambodia(populationc.13million)crimeratesarerelativelylow, andvictimizationstudiessuggest Box 2.4 Crime intheAsiaPacificRegion a platformforcommittingcrimessuch The internetanddigitaltechnologiesprovide covers oldcrimescommittedinnewways. money orby“hacktivists”.Thesecondcategory information orattacksagainstwebsitestoextort hacking networkstostealsensitivebusiness only existinthedigitalworld,suchascriminals The firstcategoryconsistsofoffenceswhich Cybercrime. Canberra:CommonwealthofAustralia,p. 4-5. Attorney General’s Department(2013).NationalPlantoCombat   to describe: In Australiathetermcybercrimeisused Box 2.5 and identitytheftonanindustrial scale.

of childexploitationmaterial). fraud, identitytheftandthedistribution integral partofanoffence(suchasonline Crimes wherecomputersorICTs arean attacks), and“hacktivists”. (ICTs) (suchashackinganddenialofservice information communicationstechnologies Crimes directedatcomputersorother Defining cybercrime as fraud

23 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 24 while on-line transactions, mobile phone technology estimated in 2011 to be $194US a head, while American and social media all facilitate access.18 It is suggested banks were reported to have lost some $12US billion that 80% of cybercrime acts involve some form of dollars.20 In terms of identity theft, much of which organized activity (UNODC, 2013b, p. xvii). Private involves cybercrime, the US estimates that the direct businesses, individuals and governments may all and indirect losses totalled $24.7US billion in 2012. be victims, but according to one survey, 80% of This was far higher than losses incurred through private individuals do not report crimes to the police property crimes such as burglary and theft ($14US (UNODC, 2013b, p. xxi). The figure below taken from billion) and motor vehicle theft ($3US billion) (Harrell the UNODC study, illustrates the wide range of cyber- & Langton, 2013). crime activities which are being reported to national police forces. In relation to the prevention of cybercrime, the UNODC expert group notes the unequal responses The costs of cybercrime are difficult to calculate given around the world, with strong legislation and protec- the absence of reporting, but various estimates put the tions in some regions and inadequate legislation and reported losses in Europe, for example, at 750 billion poor capacity for enforcement in others, especially Euros ($1,020US billion) a year.19 In the US costs were in parts of Africa, Latin America, Asia and the Pacific. Apart from strengthening legislation and increasing training and capacity, they note the importance of Figure 2.4 most common cybercrime acts cooperation at the international level coupled with encountered by national police partnerships between governments, the private sector, academics and communities. The past six years

100% has seen the adoption of binding agreements by some 82 countries, and a number of countries have

90% developed national strategic plans which include prevention components such as targeted awareness 80% raising, training, and protocols and partnerships across sectors and internationally. The European 70% Union provides a good example of coordination. Since the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, it has improved coordin- 60% ation between member states, developed two legal instruments, and in 2013 inaugurated the European 50% Cybercrime Centre (known as EC3) based at Europol (Buono, 2012). A joint EU-Council of Europe regional 40% project has also been strengthening criminal justice capacities and cooperation among countries in the 30% Balkan region. A number of guides on good preven-

20% tion strategies and practice have been produced, such as that by the European Crime Prevention Network

10% (EUCPN, 2010).

0% Nevertheless, at the international level issues of Europe Asia and Oceania Americas Africa (n=21) (n=18) (n=12) (n=10) cybercrime and identity-related crimes continue to be of concern, as well as corruption, and the need Illegal data interference or system damage to improve the quality and availability of crime statistics Illegal access to a computer system at national and international levels.21 A workshop Illegal access, interception or acquisition of computer data on cybercrime will take place during the 13th UN Computer-related copyright and trademark offences Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Sending or controlling sending of SPAM in Qatar in 2015. Computer-related fraud and forgery Computer-related acts involving racism and xenophobia Computer-related acts in support of terrorism offences The 13th UN Congress on Crime Breach of privacy or data protection measures Prevention and Criminal Justice 2015 Computer-related identity offences Computer-related solicitation of ‘grooming’ of children The 13th Congress marks the 60th anniversary of UN Computer-related acts causing personal harm Congresses on crime prevention and criminal justice, Computer-related production, distribution or possession and the provisional agenda provides a resume of cur- of child pornography rent concerns and preoccupations in relation to crime

Source: UNODC (2013b, p. 26) trends and in crime prevention (Box 2.6) and to which Part II of this chapter now turns. (Sansfaçon & Welsh, 1999). bodies responsible for implementing those strategies importance oftherolecities, andwithpermanent crime prevention strategies which recognized the By 1999ninecountrieshad developed national Safer CitiesProgramme. the creation ofICPCandEFUSfor UN-HABITAT’s elsewhere, this movement became the inspiration for and practiceonthegroundtheirreplication findings fromthe evaluation ofinnovative projects la villeinFrance. Together withincreasingly positive the late 1980’s, andonewhich ledtothepolitiquede Gilbert Bonnemaisonandfellow mayors inFrance in policies to prevent social unrest, first developed by of thecentralrolecitiesinpromotingintegrated vention of crime. This experiencebuilt ontheconcept is supportedby two setsofUNguidelinesonthepre- ledge-based approach tocrime prevention, andwhich experience on the value of a collaborative and know are now sometwenty years ofaccumulated global As theintroductiontothisreportindicates, there Building ontwentyyearsofexperience II–TrendsPart incrimeprevention Prevention ofCrime, morethan37countries were ing theadoption ofthe2002UNGuidelines onthe W         Agenda items: public participation. and economicchallengestopromotetheruleoflawatnationalinternationallevels, Integrating crimepreventionandcriminaljusticeintothewiderUnitedNationsagendatoaddresssocial Congress Theme: Box 2.6

orkshops: of offenders. lessons learned. Public contributiontocrimepreventionandraisingawarenessofcriminaljustice:experiences cybercrime andtraffickinginculturalproperty, includinglessonslearnedandinternationalcooperation. Strengthening crimepreventionandcriminaljusticeresponsestoevolvingformsofsuchas legal assistanceandineffectiveprotectionofwitnessestraffickingvictims. Trafficking inpersonsandsmugglingmigrants:successeschallengescriminalization,mutual of effective,fair, humaneandaccountablecriminaljusticesystems:experienceslessonslearned Role oftheUnitedNationsstandardsandnormsincrimepreventioncriminaljusticesupport National approachestopublicparticipationinstrengtheningcrimepreventionandcriminaljustice. forms oftransnationalcrime. Comprehensive andbalancedapproachestopreventadequatelyrespondnewemerging International cooperation,includingatthenationalleveltocombattransnationalorganizedcrime. support sustainabledevelopment. policies andstrategiestopromotetheruleoflawatnationalinternationallevels, Successes andchallengesinimplementingcomprehensivecrimepreventioncriminaljustice in meetingtheuniqueneedsofwomenandchildren,particulartreatmentsocialreintegration Thirteenth UnitedNationsCongressonCrimePreventionandCriminalJustice2015 Thirteenth 23 By2006, andfollow - - known tohave establishedsomeform ofanational involves improving the technical capacities of local of implementing strategic crimeprevention. This greater emphasison the “more pragmatic” processes prevention in the mid2000’s, andmorerecently a local councils, toastrongfocus onevidence-based the past15years, from supporting thecreation of ment at the local level. Their role has evolved over undertaking crimeprevention research anddevelop - Ministry ofJustice, initially withresponsibilityfor Bra. The council was established in 1998 under the the Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention – national strategies are illustrated by the example of implementation. Changeintheprioritiesattached to in government. Insomecasesthere hasbeenlimited priorities inthelightofknowledge, events orchanges been renewed ormodified over time, or changed their National strategies have takenavariety offorms, or establish their own local crime prevention councils. take safety audits, develop andimplementstrategies, some cases required, local municipalities to under approach, andencouragedthroughfunding, orin Such strategies have usually adoptedamulti-sector recognize theimportanceofactionat thelocallevel. ities identifiedinnational strategies, they continueto are evident differences between regionsintheprior fied 57countries(ICPC, 2008;ICPC, 2010). While there strategy oncrimeprevention; andin2009ICPCidenti 22

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25 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 26 crime prevention councils to utilize mapping and the Prevention of Crime 2013-2017 at the end of this analysis techniques, for example. (See the contribu- chapter). Similarly, South Africa is renewing its strat- tion by Karin Svanberg on Local Crime Prevention in egy to respond to changing priorities and knowledge, Sweden at the end of this chapter). with two new white papers on policing and safety and security being released in 2014 (Box 2.7). More recent examples of national prevention strat- egies include the Brazilian National Programme for In a number of countries regional, state or provin- Public Safety and Citizenship, PRONASCI, established cial bodies and policies have been developed. In in 2007. PRONASCI benefited from the experience of Australia, for example, in the State of New South some of its own cities, including Diadema, as well as Wales, Community Safety Officers have been part of other countries’ experience in developing national pre- local municipal councils from the 1980’s and 1990’s vention strategies. The first phase of the programme (Shepherdson et al., 2014). In Canada, the provinces included a series of targeted funding streams directed of Quebec and Alberta have had provincial crime pre- at eleven metropolitan cities with the greatest needs. vention strategies for a number of years, and Ontario Both states and municipal governments could apply is currently developing one. for funds to develop local prevention programmes, in partnership with other institutions and civil society (Shaw & Carli, 2011). The importance of coordinated Increased recognition of the role management to ensure that programmes are properly of cities implemented and evaluated was well understood. As a condition of receiving funding, local municipalities “Security is a central responsibility of cities …”28 were required to establish an integrated management office for the development, coordination and evalua- In November 2013 the city of Liege in Belgium organ- tion of their programmes. PRONASCI has since been ized a colloquium to commemorate its 20 years of renewed and extended across the whole country. using an integrated global approach to preventing urban crime and insecurity.29 In other parts of Other examples include Mexico and Bulgaria. In the world, where levels of crime and violence are Mexico, the new government of President Peña much higher, cities such as Medellin and Bogota in Nieto launched a National Programme for the Social Colombia have adopted integrated policies combin- Prevention of Crime and Violence in 2013. The ing social urbanism, urban development and social programme is led by the Secretariat for Prevention and community prevention approaches with local and Citizen Participation within the Ministry of the community participation. They have seen some Interior (SEGOB). It plans to target funding for inter- quite dramatic reductions in levels of homicide and ventions in 57 municipalities or metropolitan areas violence, and improvements in other aspects of urban with high levels of violence, and programmes to keep life (UNDP, 2013b; Perez, 2011; Shaw & Carli, 2011). children in school and to prevent drug addiction will be funded in a further 251 municipalities.25 Bulgaria, In Europe, the expansion of EFUS since its initial a member of the European Union Crime Prevention foundation in 1987 is a testament to the growing Network, launched a new national crime prevention number of cities which see prevention as a rational strategy in 2012, with a focus on the prevention of and effective approach to urban safety. The EFUS domestic violence, delinquency, drugs, recidivism, network now includes 250 cities from 17 European and property crime.26 countries, as well as a number of national forums on urban safety. In December 2012 a new cities mani- A number of countries have recently renewed their festo highlighting the role of cities in prevention was national strategies. France has launched a new adopted at a conference on the “future of preven- national strategy for the prevention of crime for the tion” organized by EFUS.30 The manifesto Security, period 2014-2020 (National Strategy on the Prevention Democracy and Cities: The Manifesto of Aubervilliers of Crime – Stratégie nationale de prévention de la and St Denis includes 19 recommendations covering délinquance).27 It has three priorities: targeting youth specific aspects of prevention, ranging from the use at risk; the prevention of violence against women, of safety audits, to mediation and public private part- including domestic violence and victim assistance; nerships, and sets out five major principles: and reducing fear of crime and improving the public’s  Long term prevention policies must be endorsed. sense of safety. It was developed following national  Prevention is a rational and strategic choice. consultations, especially with those working on  Citizen participation, especially youth the ground, with the association of mayors and the participation, is fundamental. national council on cities, mediation and prevention  Women’s rights and sexual equality must be groups, and across government ministries (see the constantly promoted. contribution by France, France: National Strategy for  Security policies must be systematically evaluated. (Vanderschueren, 2013). Itaims tobuild ontheknowledge changes, technology, andincreasingurbanization impacts ofglobalization, environmental andclimate challenges which face citiesandtheirinhabitants–the The GlobalNetwork onSafer Citiesrecognizesthenew launched by UN-HABITAT in2012. through theGlobalNetwork onSaferCitieswhich was and governance. This isnow beingconceptualized integration incities, throughplanning, management capital, and the enhancement ofsafety and social programme now incorporates notionsofsocial ity (UN-HABITAT, 2007). Currently thework of the of poverty, conflict, tenureandenvironmental secur and includesnotonly crime, but thelinkedissues of individuals or communities rather than states, human security, which focuses onthesecurityneeds second phase incorporated the broader concept of especially againstwomen, girlsandyouth. The mental projectstoprevent crimeandviolence, cities, andtheimplementation ofsocialandenviron- government capacities to promote safe and secure crime prevention modelincludedstrengtheninglocal conception ofsafety andprevention. Itsinitialurban Safer CitiesProgrammehasgradually expandedits in responsetorequestsfrom African mayors, the in some70citiesaroundtheworld. Initially developed Programme hasgainedvaluable experienceworking Over thepast17years UN-HABITAT’s SaferCities causes ofcrimeisrequired. promotion ofprevention,andemphasizesthatacoordinatednationalresponsewhichaddressestheroot roles ofschools,communities,policeagencies,courtsandcorrectionslocalgovernmentinthe in avacuum,andneedstronginstitutionalsupport.ItaimstorevivetheNCPS,recognisingimportant The WhitePaperonSafetyandSecurity2014recognizesthatcrimepreventionpoliciesarenotdelivered a community-centredpreventionapproach,andpartnershipswithotherinstitutionscivilsociety. clarify theirrolesincrimecontrolandprevention.Itemphasizesintelligence-ledpolicing White PaperonthePoliceaimstoincreaseprofessionalismandcompetenceofpolice, In 2014,thegovernmentpublishedtwonewWhitePaperswhichreplaced1998Paper. The investment inearlyinterventionandprevention. delivery, targetedpartnerships,sustainability, improvingthesocialfabricandfamilycohesion, the strategyhasanumberofobjectivesincludingincreasedcapacity, equitableandintegratedsite 2011). Developedonthebasisofadetailedreviewsocialcrimepreventionresearchandlegislation, launched bytheDepartmentofSocialDevelopmenttohelpstrengthensocialprevention(SouthAfrica, incarceration (Berg&Shearing,2011).In2011anewIntegratedSocialCrimePreventionStrategywas of yearsbyreactive,short-termandtoughcriminaljusticeapproaches,highratesviolence properly implemented,inpartbecauseoflackcapacity, buttheywerealsoovershadowedforanumber Over thenexttwentyyearsitseemsgenerallyagreedthatNCPSandWhitePaperwerenot a governmentresponsibility, usingamulti-disciplinaryapproachtopromotesafercommunities. Paper ofSafetyandSecurityin1998whichunderlinedtheimportancesocialcrimepreventionas incorporated proactiveinterventioninplaceofreactivecrimecontrol.ItwasfollowedbytheWhite countries globallytodoso.TheNCPSoutlinedthegovernment’s overarchingpolicyonpreventionwhich South AfricaadopteditsNationalCrimePreventionStrategy(NCPS)in1996,andwasoneofthefirst Box 2.7 Developments inpolicing,safetyandsecuritySouthAfrica -

of crimeandviolence ondevelopment. regional reports demonstrating thenegative impacts b; Shaw & Carli, 2011). UNODC published a series of the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (UNDP, 2013a& economic development, aswell as the achievement of crime prevention isaprerequisitefor socialand years has been thewidespreadrecognitionthat One of the significant movements over the past ten for development Crime preventionasaprerequisite the GlobalNetwork. Safer Cities)summarisesprogressandfutureplansfor tion at theendofthischapter (TheGlobalNetwork on 1995 and2002. The Safer CitiesProgramme’s contribu complement the crime prevention Guidelines adopted in Guidelines for urban crime prevention, to update and Monitor), and supporting the development of new UN of regional indicators for safer cities (the Urban Safety goals oftheNetwork arethedevelopment ofaseries range ofexperienceineffective prevention. Among the cities, andenablethem tobenefitfromtheincreasing of thepatterning ofcrimeandsocialproblemsintheir will helplocalgovernments develop cleareranalyses more systematic way through technological tools which Cities Programmeglobally. Itplanstosupportcitiesina gained over theyears andscaleupthework oftheSafer 32 Itcontinues

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- 27 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 28 to work with countries and cities in all regions on the One of the first initiatives launched by UN WOMEN development of prevention strategies. In 2012, the following its creation in 2010 was the global flagship UN Secretary General made prevention, and building programme Safe Cities Free of Violence for Women a safer and more secure world, two of his five prior- and Girls (2011-2017). The programme was inspired ities for action.33 UNODC has accordingly made the by the work of a number of women’s organizations, mainstreaming of crime prevention in all areas of its UN agencies and cities using participatory research mandate a priority, issuing a Guidance Note to all and partnerships to increase women’s safety in urban its staff and country and field offices (UNODC, 2013d).34 settings (WICI, 2010, 2012; CISCA, 2006).39 It aims to develop, implement and assess holistic strategies Other international organizations apart from to reduce and prevent sexual harassment and other UN-HABITAT such as WHO, the World Bank, IDB, forms of sexual violence against women and girls UNDP, UN WOMEN and the Geneva Declaration on in public spaces. The pilot phase of the programme Armed Violence and Development35 now promote mod- involves the five cities of Cairo, Kigali, New Delhi, els of crime prevention centred on local government Port Moresby and Quito where the methodology, tools and collaborative partnerships with the community, and monitoring and evaluation are being developed.40 private and business sectors. WHO’s violence preven- These are being implemented in partnership with tion approach, grounded in a public health model, local and national governments, local women’s recognizes the importance of assessing and addressing organizations and businesses, and other UN agencies. the risk and protective factors for violence, from the The model approaches will then be available to other individual to family, community and societal levels, cities for adaptation and scaling-up. The second two and building strategic responses. The Strathclyde phases of the programme to 2017 target at least 35 cities Police in Glasgow, Scotland, for example, successfully globally, and an impact evaluation of the initial implemented the WHO approach through its Violence cities. The Safe Cities Global Initiative now includes Reduction Unit created in 2005, and the model is now an additional 17 cities in developing and developed extended to the whole of Scotland.36 WHO regularly countries which are adopting the model, and a global publishes violence prevention resources which empha- mapping project on women and girls’ perspectives on size effective prevention approaches, such as Violence safety, in collaboration with UN-HABITAT, UNICEF prevention: the evidence – a series of seven briefings and other UN agencies.41 on effective prevention programmes targeting specific problems and groups (WHO, 2010).37 The work of many of these organizations, including UN-HABITAT, has demonstrated that crime preven- IDB’s Citizen Security Programme, which works tion involves much more than a narrow focus on specifically at the local government level, has been crime. They have underlined the fact that cities form extensively developed in Latin America and the a crucial basis for action, and that it is not the size Caribbean over the past decade, and achieved some of cities, which impacts whether or not they face important results (Albizanda et al., 2012). Crime and problems of insecurity, crime and violence, but their violence are the main priority and concern of coun- governance and management. tries in the region. IDB’s approach includes support for capacity building of institutions in areas of social and situational crime prevention, preventive policing, Recent debates and developments in and for judicial and rehabilitative approaches to the knowledge-based crime prevention prevention of crime and violence. The World Bank has similarly developed a number of urban crime and “Some say good ideas come from inspiration or even violence prevention initiatives in recent years, and its intuition. Others say good ideas come from systematic e-Institute offers training courses on the topic.38 analysis. According to the Nobel Prize winner Daniel Kahneman…both views are right.”42 UNDP similarly sees citizen security as an urgent challenge for the development of countries (UNDP, 2013b). Knowledge-based and evidence-based crime preven- In its assessment of recent international lessons for tion encompass a number of concepts, but principally Latin America and the Caribbean it concludes that entail the application of good research principles there is clear evidence that prevention can have direct and theory, and well-constructed evaluation meth- effects on levels of violence and is cost effective; that ods, which enable users to have some degree of repressive iron fist policies in the region have not confidence that an intervention has produced the only failed but had a negative impact on democracy results expected. Over the past twenty years, interest and human rights; that multi-level comprehensive in knowledge-based crime prevention has continu- interventions which are adapted to local contexts are ally grown stronger, techniques have improved, and required; and that citizen participation is a crucial debates about the value and effectiveness of various element to ensure inclusiveness. kinds of crime prevention interventions or approaches show little sign of stopping. to apply “current and the best available knowledge al., 2013, p. 588). This would enable policy makers to work withinalargersocialcontext” (Sampsonet “system-level knowledge ofhow policy isexpected range ofeffects thancrimealone–what istermed such asmenandwomen, andaboutamuch wider over time, abouthow they affect different populations about how things work, andindifferent contextsand need toknow much morethanthis. They needtoknow (Sampson et al., 2013). Policy makers, itisargued, set of questions (and options) about “what works” the groundsthat ithasledtoanincreasingly narrow effect approaches inselectingpolicy interventions, on a focus onlyonbackward-looking and cause-and- A growing numberofacademicsarearguingagainst developed (Shaw, 2013;Sherman, 2012; ICPC, 2010). monitoring andevaluation approaches continuetobe a central part of many strategies, while more nuanced and community prevention initiatives, andthey form countries, nevertheless, continue to invest in social of therangeactivities andvariables involved. Many vention initiatives presentgreater challenges because transferability. Somesocialandcommunity crimepre effectiveness ofinterventions over timeandtheir attention. They have beenabletodemonstrate the have received considerable academic and policy high standardsofevaluation, andbothapproaches prevention, whilelongerterm, isalsoresponsive to and relatively quick results. Developmental crime for example, lendsitselftostrongevaluation methods discussed (ICPC, 2010). Situational crime prevention, assess andevaluate, asaprevious editionofthisreport tively rapid results or outcomes, and which are easyto on “what works”, ontheapproaches which show rela and policy makersincrimeprevention hasoftenbeen and publicdemands. The focus ofmany researchers practitioners. Itisalsoinfluenced by politicalconcerns be achallenge for crimeprevention policy makersand to producegoodresultselsewhere, always seemsto adaptation orreplication ofexistingprojectsshown Finding therightbalance between innovation, and the suggests: servative andanti-innovation asthefollowing quotation practices alonehasbeendescribedasinherently con of theoutcomes. Relying only onpreviously evaluated innovation andadaptation, aswell ascarefulevaluation effective interventions in crime prevention requires in Colombiahave demonstrated thedevelopment of As theexperienceofcitiessuch asMedellinandBogota control, isdecidedly unwelcome.” a discipline on action that, in the area of crime se isinherently conservative asastandard. It imposes shown to work – canbetoorestrictive…Evidence per construction ofevidence –what hasalready been for action, but we alsoacknowledge that anarrow “So we want torequireevidence asafoundation 43

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ing how good crime prevention policies are developed explored, andrepresentafurther step inunderstand- practitioners themselves use research have also been p. 575). Someoftheways inwhich policy makersand to policy-relevant questions” (Blomberg et al., 2013, the contribution at theendofchapter). mediation incombination withotherapproaches (see strategy inFrance doesemphasizetheuseofsocial been underlined (Raynaud, 2014). The new national concentrations ofrecentimmigrants, hasrecently the mostdisadvantaged urban areas which house high engagement ofcitizensinlocal policies, especially in of areturntotheusemediation, andtotheactive (De Maillard&Germain, 2012). The crucial importance situational prevention approaches, andnotably CCTV increased interest at thenational level intheuseof however, with a change in government, there has been mediation tohelpresolve conflict. Sincearound2006, educational and recreational interventions, and use protect children andyoung people, especially through Hebberecht &Baillergeau, 2012). The objective was to ville sincethe1990’s (Raynaud, 2014; Wyvekens, 2009; (Hebberecht &Baillergeau, 2012). to crimeprevention which they have usedover time have varied in the kind of emphasis and approach late modern Europe shows that European countries A detailedanalysis of socialcrimeprevention in and implemented(Box2.8). of cityprevention strategies andlapolitiquede mediation inpublicspacehave beencentralaspects example, socialcrimeprevention andsocialconflict or socialandeconomicpressures. InFrance, for challenges presentedby changes ingovernment between prevention approaches. They alsonotethe the difficultiesofclearly definingtheboundaries tackle thesocialcausesofcrime–andthey recognize vention –what they defineasmeasureswhich aimto which canbeseenasconstitutingsocialcrimepre- important insightsintotherangeofinterventions Source: AdaptedfromBlombergetal.(2013,p.578-579). interpretations ofproblems,challenges. informs policymakers’andpractitioners’ Conceptual use:Whereresearchevidence decisions. is directlyappliedtoprogrammeorpolicy Instrumental use:Whereempiricalevidence evidence-based practices. restricted toimplementingonlyprovenor Imposed use:Wherefundingawardsare an existingpolicy, position,practice. Tactical use:Whereevidenceisusedtojustify by policymakersandpractitioners fourexamplesoftheuseresearch Box 2.8 44 Itprovides some 29 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 30 In their analysis of developments in crime prevention situational prevention, with its more ready ability to in the UK, Crawford & Traynor (2012) note that situa- show quick results, and a lack of support for social tional crime prevention, and especially the expansion interventions to tackle more complex problems. in the use of CCTV, formed a strong component of prevention strategies funded by the government from There are also indications that in spite of the decline the early 1990’s. From 1998, nevertheless, under the in traditional crime, levels of insecurity among Crime and Disorder Act, social and community crime citizens remain high in many countries, and people prevention received significant funding in the form often assume that crime is still increasing (Maffei of initiatives such as Sure Start, Youth Inclusion & Markopoulou, 2013). Some of the questions posed Programmes and Family Intervention Programmes. for prevention include how can the police and local There was also considerable support for community- authorities and the public respond to old and new based interventions, in particular the development of forms of crime and not abandon the work of building community support officers in local neighbourhoods, local partnerships? What responsibilities do receiving and local “reassurance policing” working in partner- communities have towards new migrants rather than ship with local government. Subsequently, the focus assuming it is for them to adapt? of the government shifted to an emphasis on fear of crime and anti-social behaviour, and the activation The case of the UK illustrates some of the dilemmas of civil Anti-Social Behaviour Orders. Under the current for crime prevention. As discussed above, levels of government, early intervention programmes which acquisitive and violent crime in the UK have been target families and children at risk (developmental declining continually since the mid-1990’s, and are prevention) appear to be receiving increasing support. now comparable to the crime rate in 1981. However, in relation to policing, three converging developments In a recent review of crime prevention Jendly (2013) are evident. In the first place there have been changes argues that in philosophical, scientific and economic in national government priorities in relation to the terms it is more effective to focus on the productive police. This involves a return to what is seen as the cooperative aspects of prevention, and not on a “fight” “core” police mandate of crime control, moving away or a “war against crime”. Rather than championing from the wider order maintenance and social service one approach over others, she sees all core approaches functions of policing (Millie & Bullock, 2013; Karn, to crime prevention – social and developmental, 2013). For example, the role of the police in school and community, environmental and situational – working neighbourhood policing, both of which have expanded to include excluded populations and groups and as and developed extensively over the past twenty years, having a place in strategic prevention plans. She also are being outsourced to the private sector, along with notes the dangers that popular and media rhetoric can crowd control. Secondly, there have been serious cut lead to the dichotomizing of individuals and groups backs in funding to the police, amounting to a 20% as desirable or undesirable, encouraging a focus on cut in their 2014-15 budgets. This is in addition security concerns, rather than the safety and quality to heavy cuts to local authority funding for social of life of communities. services. Both of these changes place at risk the crime prevention gains from well-developed neighbourhood policing and the work of building local partnerships, Declining crime, changing behaviours, as well as good school-police initiatives. Other trends reduced budgets – some implications include less focus on national standards and targets, for crime prevention and greater use of private sector and voluntary entrepreneurs rather than state provision (Crawford The decline in traditional forms of crime noted in & Traynor, 2012). the first part of the chapter, as well as the increase in transnational and internet-based crimes, all raise The third change relates to the way the police are important questions for crime prevention. This is governed locally, with the introduction in 2011 of especially the case at a time when many countries a system of local public election of civilian Police and are experiencing economic pressures and reduced Crime Commissioners to replace unelected police budgets, as well as the impacts of increasing migra- authorities. The government has argued that this tion and mobility of populations. In New South Wales, will make policing more democratic and responsive Australia, for example, one of the main challenges to local concerns. However, in the initial election for recently identified by Community Safety Officers at Police and Crime Commissioners in 2012 only 15% of the local government level concerns cost shifting the public voted. This has led observers to question from the State to local governments (Shepherdson et whether the commissioners can be seen to be truly al., 2014). This often entails the withdrawal or reduc- democratic, and to argue that the system is open to tion of financial support for programmes once they abuse (Millie & Bullock, 2013; Reiner, 2013; Bridges, are established. A change in priorities and culture 2011). The public might demand that the police focus is also identified, with an almost exclusive focus on their crime control on ‘unpopular’ communities or and related problems. They argueinfavour of: in how the police and justice system respond to crime tice modelwhich would entaillegitimacy andfairness researchers alsoargueinfavour ofaproceduraljus- countries. Examining crime control strategies, the all ofwhich arecommonconcernsamongEuropean from thepublicfor morepunitive justicepolicies, feelings ofinsecurity andfear ofcrime, anddemands It respondstorapidpopulation changes, increasing & Markopoulou, 2013; Tyler, 2007). of proceduraljustice(Hough, 2013;Karn, 2013;Maffei ranging fromtheUSandEuropeto Australia: that receiving considerable currentattention, incountries ity interaction. Ittouches onamovement which is and the changing nature of crime and commun of relating toincreasingly diverse urbancommunities, for policing and crime prevention to find better ways concerns, thecontribution raisestheissueofneed for practice at theendofthischapter. Among other Reduction in a Changing World: The implications the contribution by Jacqui KarnPolicingandCrime Some of these issues are explored in more detail in approaches such asstopandsearch. of minorities into the police, or the monitoring of away fromimportantissuessuch astherecruitment imacy ofthepolice. Itmightalsoshiftthefocus populations, andthushelpingtoreducethelegit- which areperceived asunfairly targeting minority as stopandsearch, orhotspotspolicing, inways relations withtheuseof policing techniques such minority groups, for example. This would impact race in justice, and punitive attitudes among citizens. ness of current criminal policies, fear of crime, trust examining new crime trends and data, the effective- In Europe, acurrent research projectFiducia, is opinion, andtothe demandscomingfromcitizens.” at thesame[time]politiciansresponsive topublic the As awelcome side effect, they should decrease costly measuressuch asextensive incarceration. and therecidivism rate, whileavoiding extremely compliance over time, reducingthelevel ofcrime norms, trust-based policies aim to ensure sustained tive control(trust-basedpolicies). Acting onsocial judicial processes, andonmechanisms ofnorma- emphasis onlegitimacy, thefairness andqualityof broader approach tocompliance, puttingmore “…a shiftfromnarrow instrumentalismtoa cooperation andcompliance.” izing concepts are trust injustice, legitimacy, theories abouttheuseofauthority. Centralorgan- less’… Proceduraljusticetheoriesare, inessence, justice may enablethepolicetoachieve ‘more with “In times of austerity, principles of procedural prominence ofso-calledpenal populism, keeping 45

46 47 -

cost impactsofspousal(intimate partner)violence such aspainandsuffering. An earlierstudy ofthe and socialwelfare costs, aswell asintangiblecosts short andlongtermmedical costs, lostwages, court developed over theyears. the tangible and intangible costs of crime have been et al., 1996). A variety of approaches for estimating children andfamilies later intheirlives (Greenwood interventions which would notberequiredfor those saved many moredollarsinjusticeandwelfare provide pre-school educational support to families, programmes to help children stay in school, or to example, showed that for every dollarinvested in studies by theRandCorporation among others, for related tovictimcosts (Beeby, 2014). impact of $11.7US billion, of which the majority crime in2009estimates that ithadaneconomic In Canada, adetailedstudy ofthecostsviolent in oneyear (Zhang etal., 2012). This work hasbeen estimated thetotaleconomicimpactat $6.8USbillion entailed in prevention programmes. well aslostearnings etc., aremuch higherthanthose in relation tothecriminaljusticeandhealthcosts, as economic costsofcrimeandvictimization, especially tives. These have variously shown that thesocialand and benefitsofprevention comparedwith itsalterna- health) hasalways restedonevidence ofthecosts ies shouldinvest incrimeprevention (andpublic Much oftheargumentas to why countriesandcit- Costs andbenefits Police inScotland, previously discussed. Violence Prevention Unitdeveloped by theStrathclyde crime prevention projectsinspiredby thework ofthe are outlined in Box 2.9. They are community level approaches which incorporate someoftheseconcerns Some examplesoftargetedpolice-partnership ities, anddecliningwork forces (Roblesetal., 2013). reduced economicdevelopment andwork opportun - municipalities inMexicowere clearly associated with 2013); and that increases in rates of homicide in their life prospects(Koppensteiner&Manacorda, ity affected thebirthweights ofchildren andhence household (Agüero, 2013);that violenceinacommun- had negative effects onthehealthofchildren inthe violence againstwomen inLatin America andPeru Among thefindings, studiesshowed that domestic of theimpactscrimeandviolenceontheircitizens. help policy makersunderstandthefullmagnitude costs ofcrimeinLatin America andtheCaribbean to the IDBinitiated aseriesofinnovative studiesofthe research hasreturnedtothisissue. In2012-2013 become even morepertinent, andsomerecent In periodsofscarceresourcesthesearguments 50 49 52 In the 1990’s, This included This 51

31 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 32 Box 2.9 Public health and targeted prevention: Canadian Community Mobilization Projects The Community Mobilization Prince Albert Project (CMPA) Saskatchewan, Canada The CMPA project in the city of Prince Albert was created in 2009 through funding from the Province of Saskatchewan. The CMPA was inspired by research carried out in Glasgow, Scotland that led to the development of a community mobilization group and a comprehensive violence reduction strategy involving various sectors of society. The CMPA focuses on the prevention and suppression of crime and violence by bringing together multiple partners48 to provide short and long-term interventions for at-risk individuals. Research and analysis are used to deliver targeted and effective services to those at risk of engaging in criminal behaviour. It targets the root causes of criminality by offering counselling and supports to individuals and families in need, such as those suffering from addictions and mental health issues, or those requiring further education and employment training. The CMPA consists of two components: 1. The Hub: A group of approximately 20 individuals from the various CMPA partners that meets twice a week. This group identifies emerging problems and/or at-risk individuals and provides immediate, coordinated and integrated responses. Any HUB stakeholder, member, or outside community organization can introduce a case to the group. 2. The COR (Centre of Responsibility): A group of professionals from participating ministries and policing partners that examines the notion of community safety and wellness on a larger scale. It establishes longer-term community goals and solutions for crime prevention and reduction. Its recommendations are based on extensive research, analysis and experience. The COR provides reports on patterns and lessons learned, offers liaising support to participating agencies, works with the Province to create a series of measures, and is a source for research data, information and consultation. COR compiled a statistical profile to guide the Hub’s actions in 2013, which showed that 62% of the Hub’s discussions involve the risk of alcohol abuse. As a response, the CMPA will be developing a comprehensive alcohol strategy.

City of Winnipeg – Block-by-Block crime strategy (Manitoba, Canada) Despite an overall reduction in the crime rate between 1991 and 2010, much of it due to a decline in car theft, violent crime and community safety remain significant challenges for the city of Winnipeg. As a response, in 2013 the Province of Manitoba, the City of Winnipeg, and the Winnipeg Police Service began to set up the Block-by-Block crime strategy (officially implemented in March 2014). The strategy is modelled on the Prince Albert CMPA programme. Winnipeg’s Block-by-Block crime strategy focuses on prevention and early intervention, and will begin by targeting 21 blocks in a particular neighbourhood. It will develop a co-ordinated programme including the police, city government, social agencies and community groups to tackle the root causes of crime and related problems in the neighbourhood.

inspired by recent detailed costing analysis developed Justice reinvestment in the US, Australia and the UK, to demonstrate the value of reducing crime. The justice reinvestment initiative has also been gain- ing ground in the US over the past few years. Originally In the US, the state of Washington has adopted launched by the Bureau of Justice Assistance in guidelines for policy makers on the cost benefits of 2006, it was initiated by Congress in 2010.54 The core crime prevention (Lee et al., 2013). More generally in of the initiative is cost-effectiveness and the use the US, there has been considerable recent debate of evidence-based strategies to improve public safety on the cost implications of high spending on the and reduce expenditures on the correctional and correctional system compared with the low funding criminal justice system, by reinvesting funds into of the police, and the evidence that certain kinds of reducing crime and strengthening neighbourhoods. It policing among other interventions can effectively has resulted in some important changes in levels of reduce crime.53 Among other arguments, targeted incarceration, and a renewed interest in alternatives prevention interventions such as “hot spots” policing to incarceration and community engagement. The fed- have been shown to effectively reduce crime in those eral government passed legislation reducing the use areas where most crimes occurred, and without of mandatory minimums for drug offenders in 2013 resulting in its displacement to neighbouring areas which has had some important impacts on levels of of cities, and are, therefore, cost effective. incarceration. Mandatory minimum sentences are now to be restricted to serious, violent and high-level drug offenders. In New York City, the NeON (Neighbourhood Opportunity Network) programme provides a good notions ofcriminalcareersandthelinksbetween are mostconcentrated (Allard etal., 2013). Using populations orplaces wherecrimeandvictimization tions oftargetingcrimeprevention interventions to A recent Australian study lookedat the cost implica- neighbourhood hubs, involving andwelcoming com community centreswhich aredesignedtobecome have been relocated to a series of satellite offices in good” and “do it in the community”. Probation offices developed astrategic planto “do noharm”, “do more neighbourhoods inthecity, theprobation department rates ofincarceration were concentrated inseven peace building. There arenow anumberwhich operate transport, orrelated concernssuch aspublichealthor tion, but thoselinkedtospecificareassuch aspublic not only crimeobservatories concernedwith preven- to helpdevelop strategic interventions. They include respond totheneedfor accurate andreliabledata and social problemscontinues internationally. They Interest in thedevelopment of observatories on crime Observatories Advancements inevaluationandtools and possibly chronic offenders. children becominginvolved withthejusticesystem they argue, would helptoprevent futurecohortsof social andeducational programmestotheseareas, (Allard etal., 2013, p. 35). Targeting early intervention ized by “extreme socialandeconomic disadvantage” urban areas. The latter areaswere usually character highly concentrated inasmall numberofgeographic costs. Inaddition, thechronic offenders tendedtobe 5% ofthecohort, but accountedfor 47%ofthetotal to noticeaschildren oradolescentsrepresentedonly social andeconomiccostsover time. Those who came the costsofcriminaljusticeinterventions andwider using geographicmappingtechniques, andestimated became involved inthejusticesystem), theirlocations repeat offenders (dependingonthe ageat which they born in 1990. They identified five different groups of crime andplace, thestudy followed anoffender cohort project isbeingevaluated. Pathways toSuccess)andtheimplementation ofthe Young Men’s Initiative andCommunity Education the cityandcommunity organizations (e.g. The Mayor’s initiatives have been developed in partnership with solution rather thantheproblem. A rangeofother munity memberswhoarenow seenaspartofthe example ofreinvestment. problems –andgetbetterresults.” but they will be better tailored to the actual crime cated interventions willrequiremoreresources, “In general, we hypothesize that themorecompli- 55

Recognizingthat very high 56

- - observatories andensureaminimum level ofquality, develop normsandstandardstostandardisecrime the recommendations of the meeting was the need to crime data research centresandacademics. Among a numberofobservatories, aswell aspolicy makers, August 2013, broughttogetherrepresentatives from meeting held in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia in national meetings on crime observatories. assistance to crime observatories, in addition to and UNDPareproviding development andtechnical as theOAS Inter-American Observatory onSecurity, to improve safety. International organizations such in the development of public policies and strategies information fromcountriesintheregionandtoaid to analyse, monitorandevaluate crimeandsecurity observatory located inElSalvador. and IndexonDemocratic Security(OBSICA), aregional Central American Integration SystemObservatory on Public Transport). Regionalexamplesincludethe les transports and the Observatory ofCrimeandCriminalJustice Responses) quance etdesréponsespénales(ONDRP–National include theFrench Observatoire nationaldeladélin- at national andat regionallevels. National examples in June 2013. observatories andarmedviolencemonitoringsystems Small Arms Survey alsoheldanexpertmeetingon building (ICPC, 2014). The Geneva Declaration and exchange anddialoguetofacilitate partnership tion process;andtheimportanceofhaving aforum for an international body tooversee such astandardiza- including thepossibilityofaccreditation; theneedfor Since 2007ICPChasco-organizedaseriesofinter observatories (ICPC, 2009). Observatories, and ICPC’s Review of international existing toolssuch asanOAS Manualfor National planning incrime prevention. audits, which form thebasisofalllocal strategic practice, andguidanceon conductinglocalsafety tools for geographicmapping, inventories ofeffective includes guidestoevaluating programmes, improved prevention hasexpandedglobally inrecentyears. This tools for implementing and evaluating evidence-based and undertake project evaluation. The development of often not had the technical skills required to build in priority over longtermones, andpractitionershave be well evaluated. Shorttermresultstendtobegiven sufficient funding, resourcesortime for projectsto policy makers and donors have not always provided clear resultsfrommulti-intervention programmes, tion. Apart fromthedifficultiesofdemonstrating one ofthemostproblematic aspectsofcrimepreven- As discussedearlier, evaluation hasalways remained Safety auditsandevaluationtools Observatoire national de la délinquance dans 58 (ONDT – National Observatory of Crime

OBSICA’s roleis 57 The

fourth -

33 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 34 In the US, the National Institute of Justice Office of developing and testing crime prevention initiatives Justice Programs now maintains a database on effect- involves the use of theories to explain how and why ive crime prevention and criminal justice programmes they do or do not work, the importance of measuring and practices, drawing on rigorous research find- the implementation and its outputs, and making “fair ings.59 It also makes available a free spatial statistics comparisons” which enable the effectiveness of the programme for crime mapping CrimeStat IV.60 This outcomes to be measured. He sets out some key prin- enables a range of different crime incidents to be plotted ciples for evidence-based crime prevention, including and aids in the identification of crime “hot spots” that crime: must be measured reliably and precisely among other concerns. A review of crime forecasting by well-audited systems (e.g. detailed police reports, approaches known as predictive policing has also victimization surveys, video and GPS systems); clas- been produced to help guide police forces (Perry et sified in ways that support crime prevention (e.g. al., 2013). The authors review methods for predicting incident-based police reporting systems, rather than crimes, offenders, perpetrator identities and victims total number of crime categories in an area and infor- of crime and the range of approaches which can be mation about local characteristics etc.); and analysed used. In general, predictive policing analysis requires in multiple units and categories (e.g. offenders, crime large datasets and complex analysis methodologies, networks, victims, micro-places, communities, times, compared with conventional crime analysis, but the days of the week etc.). authors emphasize that the role of prediction is to provide a foundation for preventive interventions. UN WOMEN’s Safe Cities Global Initiative to make cities safe for women and girls previously discussed, In Europe, EFUS is currently coordinating the project has been specifically designed to enable impact AUDITS, to provide guidance to cities on how to evaluation, and has produced a number of tools conduct and use safety audits. The project is devel- to provide guidance to safer city teams on the evalua- oping a local safety audit guide for European cities tion. It is anticipated that each pilot site will be able to increase the ability of cities to undertake good to assess reductions in sexual harassment and other scientific analysis of crime and victimization forms of sexual violence; a reduction in fear and problems in preparation for developing city safety increased feelings of safety among women and girls; strategies. It is modelled on the international and increased autonomy and mobility among women compendium on safety audits originally published and girls using public spaces, in line with the initial in 2007 (EFUS, 2007).61 evaluation framework developed for the initiative.63

In Latin America a series of safety audits has been conducted in Medellin and Caucasia, and in seven Conclusion municipalities in the State of Antioquia, Colombia to provide baseline and evidence-based data on crime The downward trend in violence and conventional trends and patterns. It forms part of a collaborative forms of crime continues in a number of regions, project between the government and the State of but is still very unevenly distributed. Homicide rates Antioquia and UNODC, to help to strengthen citizen continue to decline overall, although there appears security policies. Some of the municipalities are to be a polarisation between regions with very high in areas which were affected by internal conflict in and very low homicide rates. Young males continue the past decades. A report on the variety and use of to be the group most at risk of homicide. Yet in some safety audits and their role in developing safety and regions, homicide resulting from intimate partner citizen security action plans in different contexts, violence against women has become the leading cause summarises the main findings from seven of the of intentional death for women, and almost reaches audits.62 The safety audit methodology has since been parity with male homicides. Global changes and incorporated into local crime prevention policy as communications technology may be having a trans- a model. A more targeted safety audit guide for local formative impact on crime, however, creating both governments has been developed in Canada by the new forms of crime and enabling traditional crimes to National Crime Prevention Centre on the prevention be committed in new ways. Cybercrime is advancing of human trafficking and sexual exploitation (Public rapidly, and the monetary costs of cybercrime theft Safety Canada, 2013). The guide is being piloted in appear to be far higher than losses from traditional a number of Canadian municipalities (see Chapter 5). property crimes.

To support its citizen security programme, IDB has In terms of crime prevention, economic uncertainty also published a protocol for developing and evalu- coupled with increasingly mobile populations has ating citizen security programmes in Latin America clearly affected many countries, and created dilemmas (Sherman, 2012). Drawing on evidence-based crime for prevention. The drop in crime in a number of coun- prevention knowledge, Sherman emphasizes that tries has not been accompanied by an increasing sense and long-term funding, as always, remain a challenge. tion. Implementation of crime prevention strategies, have beensubjecttorigorouscauseandeffect evalua policy questions, andnotrelying only onthosewhich using the best currently available knowledge about widely recognized, with an increasing emphasis on in developing crime prevention policies are also more their cost-effectiveness. The needs ofpolicy makers even incountrieswithhighlevels ofviolence, andof with increasingevidence ofeffective interventions, years later that trend appears to have intensified, cost-effective way tobalancepublicpolicies. Four a prerequisitefor development, andasahumane in thework ofmany international organizations, as noted, crimeprevention isnow beingmainstreamed engagement. As ICPC’s 2010International Report with afocus onintegrated approaches andcitizen crime prevention, especially at the local level and international level on the importance of promoting prevention thereisincreasingagreement at the Nevertheless, inreviewing developments incrime importance ofexamininggenderdifferences. justice. Trends in crime continue tounderline the and partnerships, andthreaten thelegitimacy oflocal may result in changes in community-level prevention Reductions infundingfor policingandotherservices social cohesionareevident inanumberofregions. of security, and racism, intolerance and a decline in - 35 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 36 Crime and safety in Contribution South East Asia and the Western Pacific

! Peter Homel and Rolando Ochoa64

Figure 1 South East Asia and the Western Pacific

Bering Sea Russia

Sea of Okhotsk

Mongolia

Kyrgyzstan

North Korea Tajikistan South Korea Japan Yellow Sea Pacific Ocean China

Nepal East China Sea Bhutan

Bangladesh Taiwan India Myanmar Laos Northern Mariana Islands (US)

Thailand Vietnam Guam (US) Marshall Islands Cambodia Philippines

Sri Lanka Brunei Palau Micronesia Malaysia Singapore Papua New Guinea Kiribati Indonesia Nauru

Solomon Islands Tuvalu Tokelau (NZ) East Timor Wallis and Futuna (FR)

Vanuatu Samoa

Indien Ocean Fiji New Caledonia (FR) Tonga

Australia Nive (NZ)

American Samoa (US)

New Zealand

Source: Wikimedia Commons and violencelevels. growth andthishashadasignificantimpactincrime coefficient). Inequalitieshave comehand in hand with with highlevels ofinequality(measuredby theGINI in wealth production. However, thishasbeencoupled Korea) in2012, which hasledtosignificantincreases and Pacific region (which includes China and South growth –withan average of7.5%for theEast Asia one handtheentireregionhashadsignificantGDP Indonesia, Thailand andPapua New Guinea. Onthe three typicalcountriesinthe Asia Pacific region – Figure 2illustrates thiseconomicsituation for economic stress. (UN-HABITAT &UNESCAP, 2009, p. recent historyofsocialandpoliticalinstability of the fastest urbanisation rates in the world, and a world. RuralPacific Islandpopulations have some making theregionmostheavily urbanisedinthe By 2030, 50% will live in urbansettlementsorcities p. 35). of theunemployed (UN–HABITAT &UNESCAP, 2009, accounting for around22% oftheworkforce and59% youngest populations withyoung people(15-24years) Forum. East Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Pacific Islands countries that make upthe Association ofSouth The focus hereisontheSouth-East Asian andPacific less urbanizedcountries. and cultures. Itrangesfromhighly urbanizedtomuch economies, aswell asacomplexmixofdiverse societies Pacific region features high-, middle-andlow-income & UNESCAP, 2010, p. 4). The vast spreadofthe Asia- cent ofthepopulation, andvery diverse. (UN-HABITAT world, with30percentofthelandmassand60 Pacific. Asawhole, Asiaisthelargestregionin the and South-West Asia, NorthandCentral Asia, andthe East andNorth-East Asia, South-East Asia, South and territories that are grouped in five sub regions: The Asia andPacific regionismadeupof 63countries world. As aresult, theregionhasoneofworld’s continues tobeoneofthefastest growing inthe Asia trebledfrom178min1950to522m2000and the world’s totalpopulation. The population ofSE Source: World Bankindicatorshttp://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ nations rates forselectedSEAsianandPacificIsland Figure 2 P Thailand Indonesia Co NG u ntr 65 South-East Asia alone represents 20% of y Selected GDPandINcoefficient G DP Gr DP 6.2 (2012) 6.2 6.5 (2012) 6.5 8.0 (2012) 8.0 ow (%) th 42.4 (2006) 42.4 39.4 (2010) 39.4 38.1 (2011) 38.1 G I N 49). I

economies; andhomicide(UNODC, 2013, p. iii). alternative power structuresassociated withinformal and armedassaults;gangactivity andtheemergenceof acute or chronic problems of domestic abuse; to physical Threats tosafety andhumansecurityarebecoming hold security (UN-HABITAT &UNESCAP, 2009, p. 2). (and investment) given toensuringpersonalandhouse worsening perceptions of safety and more emphasis tional violenceis. Inalmostallurbanareasthereare be high, community experienceofsocialandinstitu world. However, whilerecordedcrimerates may not generally beenhigherthanelsewhere inthedeveloping developed countries. Also, perceptionsofsafety have faced problemsofcrimeonascalefamiliar towestern tion programmes acrosstheregion: development ofeffective andefficientcrimepreven - development ofacoherentstrategic approach to the Essentially, these are the key factors that confront the region that have beenundertakeninrecentyears. situation intheSE Asian and Western Pacific small numberofreviews ofthecrimeand safety The following are the main issues identified by the be difficulttomanage(Homel, 2009). i.e. before problemsemergeorbecomesolargeasto to develop effective longtermprevention strategies – experience shows that thisisalsothevery besttime across theregion. This isinspiteofthe fact that effective andsustainablecrimeprevention measures unpreparedness for developing andimplementing A majorimplication ofthissituation isageneral     The mainreasonsfor thisappeartobe: the promotionofcommunity safety acrossthe region. egies andapproaches totheprevention ofcrimeand low for solong, littleattention hasbeengiven tostrat However, sincecrimerates have apparently beenquite majority of Asian andPacific citieshave, todate, not Despite high rates of poverty and inequality the crime; community and household violence, including political tensions);humantrafficking; drugrelated disturbances andriots(fuelledvariously by ethnicor fishing andlogging, andwild-life smuggling); public attacks, andenvironmental crimessuch asillegal and scopefromorganizedcrime (includingterrorist more pressingissuesintheregion. They rangeinscale

crime onthepoorandacorrespondingcapacity A lack ofseriousconcerngiven totheimpactsof A concernthat you shouldnotwidely andopenly The attitude that householdviolenceis “private”; crime (UN-HABITAT &UNESCAP, 2009, p. 1). result intheeradication ofpoverty andtherefore ment”, ormoreoftenhigheconomicgrowth, will Most significantly, awidely heldbeliefthat “develop of thewealthy toinsulate themselves fromcrime;and violence; publicise and debate ethnic and religious factors in - - - -

37 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 38  Growing income disparity and urban poverty. affiliated with theAsian Crime Prevention Foundation  Emerging violence, crime, safety issues. (ACPF), which is an international NGO with general  Rapid urbanisation and the growth of informal consultative status with the United Nations Economic settlements and the associated informal economy. and Social Council. The nature of these crime preven-  Negotiating changing youth, gender and household tion foundations varies between countries, with some dynamics. operating purely as non-government agencies and  Lack of modernised policing approaches. others having a much closer association with govern-  Problems with developing and applying new govern- ment. Each also pursues an agenda that is reflective ance arrangements, particularly in relation to regional of the problems and concerns within their own and local government. country. For example, the Singapore National Crime  Problems with reliable data and planning information. Prevention Council gives prominence in its work to  Corruption and organized crime. the prevention of crime directed at ageing people,  Limited use of peace-building and community while the Indonesian Crime Prevention Foundation safety approaches. provides a focus on preventing organized crime and corruption. However, this does not mean that these issues are not being dealt with across the region. For example, The Pacific Islands Forum has adopted a Human the Thai Institute of Justice addresses most of these Security Framework for the Pacific. The Framework topics by prioritising its work on: sets the goal of a Pacific region where communities,  Women and Children in the Criminal Justice System families and individuals are secure and safe from  The Rule of Law threats to their wellbeing and dignity, and enjoy polit-  Crime and Development ical stability, sustainable economic development and  Transitional Justice, Peace and Security social fulfilment in the unique context of the region.  Human Rights Education Some of the actions adopted in order to strengthen  Crime and Justice Statistics community, family and personal security include:  Strengthening policies and institutions to tackle Underlying this agenda is a commitment to a rights- gender based violence; based approach to prevention, that believes in the  Utilising equitable traditional conflict resolution philosophy that crime can be prevented and must be mechanisms; tackled at its root causes, which often include poverty,  Promoting peace and tolerance in school curricula; lack of development, education, access to health and  Expanding opportunities for young people; other basic services. There is also a recognition that  Improving customary land administration to mini- crime and justice policy-making requires sound evi- mise land-related conflict; and dence-based research and data collection and analysis.  Promoting community traditions that strengthen equity and harmony (Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, In other parts of the region there is growing evidence 2012, p. 7). of a commitment to developing more systematic and evidence based approaches to the prevention of crime In practical terms, these commitments are being and the development of safe communities, particularly implemented to varying degrees by different nations in response to the need to address potential problems to reflect local priorities. For example, a number of associated with the region’s growing youth population. Melanesian countries have chosen to focus on violence For example, in Vietnam, the government has partnered prevention programmes, particularly those associated with a major non-government group, PLAN Vietnam, with family and gender based violence (UN-HABITAT to develop and implement an innovative juvenile & ESCAP, 2009, p. 61). While these issues are also of crime prevention and reintegration programme (Plan significance in Micronesian and Polynesian parts Vietnam, 2011). of the Pacific, their prominence varies.

The Malaysian Crime Prevention Foundation has The Pacific Islands Forum’s Framework on Human led the development of a national network of school Security is one of the rare comprehensive strategies based Crime Prevention Clubs which aims to raise for delivering safe communities through crime awareness about anti-social behaviour; promote prevention in the wider region. As Redo (2012) has cooperation between schools and police in order to observed, crime prevention policies and practices, prevent crime; and establish a network of student as they are recognised in Europe, North America and mentors to promote the KPC’s motto of “Prevention Australasia, remain quite rare or underdeveloped in is better than Fighting”.66 much of Africa and the Asia-Pacific region.

Similar national crime prevention foundations or Circumstances are rapidly changing and nations in councils exist in several SE Asian countries including Asia and the Pacific are increasingly turning to lessons Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore and most are based on the crime prevention experience of Western communities. the development of sustainable safe and harmonious change, each ofwhich presentsitsown challenge for increasingly aggravated by the impact of climate susceptible tonatural disasters, somethingthat is At thesametimethisisalsoaregionthat isvery centralized systemofgovernment. implementation capacityinacountrywithhighly seeking tostrengthendecentralizedplanningand Project in Vietnam, which amongothergoalsis World BankCommunity BasedRuralInfrastructure to fightinequalityandcorruption. Anexampleisthe of fairer andmoretransparenteconomicgovernance governance andtheirstrengthproviding forms the region, recognizing community based forms of expanding democratic rightsandaccountabilityin governance could include, although not exclusively, and reform ofthesecuritysector. These new forms of organization and, inmany cases, thetransformation ment for themanagementofeconomy andsocial more representative and responsive forms of govern- needs toconfrontthepressuresofmoving towards circumstances. In particular, the Asia Pacific region of governance tobebetterabledealwithemerging change thereisalsotheneedtodevelop new forms pressures wroughtby rapidsocialandeconomic Apart fromtheneedtoaccommodate theobvious to theregion. may notbeadequate for allofthechallenges specific in different culturalandeconomicexperiences the traditionalcrimeprevention literature arerooted theories, evidence bases and practical experience of doing this they are confronting the fact that the associated withurbanandindustrialgrowth. In to thesocialandeconomicconsequencesofcrime countries toassistindeveloping theirown responses 39 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 40 Local crime prevention Contribution in Sweden

Karin Svanberg67

The National Council for Crime against women, etc. It emphasizes the importance Prevention: Brå of cooperation at the local level between a broad range of stakeholders, including the police, social services, The Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention schools, local organizations, local businesses, etc. (Brottsförebyggande rådet – Brå) – an agency under the Ministry of Justice – is a centre for research and As part of the strategy, the Swedish police70 under- development within the judicial system. Brå primarily went a community policing reform with the goal of works to reduce crime and improve levels of safety implementing problem-oriented policing. This new in society by producing data and disseminating approach aimed to increase police involvement in pre- knowledge on crime and crime prevention work. The vention and to work more closely with the community Council also collects Sweden’s official crime statis- in order to build knowledge and trust. However, tics, conducts the country’s crime survey, evaluates evaluations show that there are insufficient resources reforms, conducts research to develop new knowledge to fully implement the approach. and provides support to local crime prevention work.

Brå’s Unit for Local Crime Prevention68 was set up in Local level initiatives – Governing local 1998, and since then has been developing and advan- work in Sweden: cing knowledge on local crime prevention through handbooks, conferences, seminars and its website.69 The Unit also distributes a small amount of financial Local crime prevention councils support. Around the early 2000’s, support was mainly provided to set up local councils. By the mid 2000’s, The national strategy called for the development of there was growing interest in evidence-based crime local crime prevention councils, which are intended prevention, and support was directed towards more to be a platform for cooperation between local stake- rigorous methods and evaluation of initiatives. The holders on a grassroots level. These councils generally focus on evidence-based continues (e.g. mapping, have a local coordinator, and consist mostly of police, analysis, choosing methods, evaluation/follow-up), social services and schools. By 2009, 88% of muni- however there is a stronger interest in the process of cipalities and city districts had a council for crime crime prevention and a growing understanding that prevention. Councils commonly focus on: alcohol and evidence-based practice is not always the best model drug prevention; youth at risk; crime prevention in in addressing social issues. schools; and more generally on safety and security (e.g. video camera surveillance, outdoor lighting, neighbourhood watch and/or neighbourhood safety National crime prevention strategy – walks and surveys). Our Collective Responsibility In 1996, the government adopted its comprehensive Cooperation Agreements national crime prevention strategy: Our Collective Responsibility. The 1996 strategy has not been In 2008, the National Police Board commissioned all updated, yet separate, more focused strategies have regional police chiefs to sign Cooperation Agreements been developed and focus on the following issues: between the police and local authorities.71 Currently, alcohol and drug abuse; violence against women; and about 85 per cent of municipalities have signed an organized crime. agreement with the police. A recent study from Brå shows that the agreements are perceived to have The national strategy is based on the idea that local improved relations between the police and the muni- problems necessitate local solutions, and therefore it cipalities, and increased collaboration. According to focuses on everyday crime: theft; vandalism; violence the study, the agreements have also inspired different including honour-related violence. of intimate partner violence and family violence, recruited intocriminalgroups, andprevention social inclusion, prevention ofyouth at riskofbeing initiatives tendtofocus ondrugabuse prevention, social services, schools andthecommunity. tion, andbuilding partnerships between thepolice, inclusion ofyouth, applying situational crimepreven society. Italso highlightstheimportanceofsocial economic disparitiesand living inamulticultural stimulate unrest, such asthelack ofsocialinclusion, intelligence. The manualfocuses onissuesthat may the localcommunity asapartofcrimepreventionto of community policing:befriendingandlistening social unrest. The manuallooksat theprinciples manualMethodological for cooperation to counteract part oftheproject, in2013, thepolicepublished authorities, socialservicesandthecommunity. As social unrestby working incooperation withlocal response, in2011thepolicesetupaprojecttoprevent confrontations between youth andthepolice. As a levels of civil disorder among youth, and increasing Around 2004, Rinkeby experienced heightened services andotherstakeholders. advancing morecollaborative efforts between social to do situational and social crime prevention, and shown positive results. In 2013, the council began mainly focuses onsituational prevention, which has unemployment – is very active. The local council and financed by the state to work in areas with high crime prevention council–setupintheearly 2000’s preventive work withyouth, andtheRinkeby local European CrimePrevention Award in1998for their tion work. For example, the Rinkeby school won the been amodeldistrictintermsofitscrimepreven- Despite these challenges, since the 1990’s Rinkeby has come asrefugeesfromwar-torn countries. to 33.2%ofthepopulation ofStockholm, andmany are firstorsecondgeneration immigrants, compared in rentedapartments. About 90.5%ofthepopulation that ofStockholm asawhole, andmostresidentslive with 3.3%inStockholm. The meanincomeishalf of problems. The unemployment rate is10%, compared has acomparatively highdegreeofsocio-economic Rinkeby isadistrictinthecityofStockholm that Local crimepreventionworkinRinkeby ers’ capacitytoanalyze localissues. therefore thereisaneedtodevelop localstakehold- an analysis ofthecauseslocalcrimeproblems, is that abouthalf ofthecooperation agreementslack and of having a long-term vision. One main challenge parties tounderstandtheimportanceofprevention 72 Such collaborative -

at thelocallevel. so that local mappingandanalysis canbeconducted fessionalize crime preventive work and build capacity of theneedtoinvest moreinprevention, andtopro- to be done to convince high-level government officials problems due to a lack of resources. There is work cooperation agreementsrevealed implementation prevention activities. Further, theevaluation ofthe Therefore, a future challenge is to broaden crime or parentsofthedangersalcoholanddrugs). is information-sharing (e.g. informing students the mostcommontypeofcrimeprevention practice focused onyouth andalcohol-related crimes, and Local crime prevention work in Sweden has mainly Future challenges

41 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 42 France: National Strategy Contribution for the Prevention of Crime 2013-2017 (Stratégie nationale de prévention de la délinquance 2013-2017)

The new National Strategy for the Prevention of experience and professional training; community Crime in France was announced on 4th July 2013 in service; and enrolment in preventive and social a circular issued by the Prime Minister. It replaces programmes. For those who already have a record the previous strategy 2010-2012. It has three main of offending and more serious recidivists, and are priorities of which the most important are defining subject to judicial measures (including custody, a public policy on the prevention of crime which alternative measures, judicial protection if they brings together the fields of educational and social are minors, or probation and parole) mayors prevention, professional training, and security and can develop local initiatives such as courses on justice; and an approach which identifies needs on citizenship and the law, and restoration or repair the ground, as well as recognizing local competencies, work, and social and professional re-insertion and uses both universal and targeted approaches. programmes for recidivists. It combines primary prevention approaches with secondary prevention for high risk populations, and tertiary prevention to prevent recidivism. 2. Programme of action to prevent violence against women and family The National Strategy includes three programmes violence, and aid victims of action: A variety of different action plans have been developed over the years to respond to female 1. Programme of action targeting youth victims of intimate partner or family violence at risk of crime including: social workers working in partner- ship with the police, support services for female This programme aims to eradicate the root victims of intimate partner violence, victims aid causes of crime and delinquency, using primary, offices, help lines etc. There are however, wide secondary and tertiary prevention approaches, and variations across the country, and not all projects complements educational and parental policies. have been well developed. To complement existing Initiatives will be locally developed, with the Departmental resources, a greater focus on working mayor playing a pivotal role, supported by higher in local partnerships is now required, and the levels of government including the General development of local plans of action which Secretariat of the Interministerial Committee for respond to local needs and competencies. Global the Prevention of Crime (Secrétariat général du and individual approaches will be developed, comité interministériel de prévention de la délin- including the protection, accompaniment and quance (CIPD)), and the national justice, education support of victims. and interior security services. This requires the joint mobilization of available resources and the clarification of responsibilities. Action includes 3. Programme of action to improve the identification of youth by institutions and public peace partner organizations working with at risk youth; the sharing of confidential information within The main emphasis is on developing an approach the parameters of the law; and designation of which combines situational prevention with responsibilities for overseeing and following the human intervention and presence. This involves progress of identified youth. A national inter- not only technical tools such as the use of CCTV ministerial committee oversees the initiative. The and street lighting, but the use of social media- measures proposed for the youth targeted vary, tion in public spaces. Mayors and Prefects as depending on the situation. Those at risk, but not well as public transport and social agencies have heavily involved with the justice system, will be developed a number of interventions to promote involved in educational programmes such as work public peace, and are encouraged to continue to do are partnersandco-financers. ministries aremobilizingresources, andlocalgroups new National Strategy arebeingraised. Different to supportactionprogrammeswhich fall underthe their local strategies over the course of 2014. Funds have beeninvited tointegrate theseprioritiesinto sécurité etdeprévention deladélinquance(CLSPD)) and crimeprevention councils(Conseilslocauxde National Strategy. At thelocallevel, thelocalsafety adopt theirown Departmental plans, inlinewiththe to meetwithalllocalactorsin2013develop and entire country. DepartmentalPrefects were required The National Strategy istobeimplementedacrossthe to promoteasenseofsecurityinpublicspaces. are implementedandregularly monitoredwillhelp disturbances andinsecurity. Action planswhich and times which areofmostconcern intermsof also collaborate andhelp to identifytheplaces so. Otherinstitutionsandthegeneralpubliccan 43 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 44 The Global Network Contribution on Safer Cities

Juma Assiago and Cecilia Andersson73

The Safer Cities Programme  Natural disasters – these can often result in situa- tions of lawlessness and increases in insecurity (e.g. UN-HABITAT’s Safer Cities Programme was launched Hurricane Katrina and the earthquake in Haiti were in 1996 at the request of African Mayors seeking both followed by a situation of complete lawlessness to tackle urban crime and violence in their cities. and the collapse of public institutions). The Safer Cities approach was initially developed in collaboration with ICPC, EFUS and research The third phase has again expanded tapping into the institutes such as the Institute for Security Studies social capital of cities, in terms of social integration in South Africa. To date the Safer Cities Programme and cohesion – enhancing safety through planning, has supported initiatives in 77 cities in 24 countries management and governance for social integration. worldwide. This is premised on the knowledge that:  The planning (and the un-planning) of cities has an The Programme has evolved over time through effect on safety and people’s feelings of safety; a series of phases, as knowledge about the drivers of  The management of city streets and public spaces urban insecurity has increased, and approaches to is key to ensuring that neighbourhoods are kept addressing it have been refined. Today the Programme safe – this is not only the role of the local authority, embraces a holistic, integrated, multi-level govern- there are models where community ownership and ment and multi-sectorial approach to improving the management is crucial to ensuring that neighbour- livability of cities, and the quality of life of all urban hood spaces are safe; residents. It is grounded in the knowledge that good  Good governance and well-functioning governments urban governance, planning and management can support safe cities – cities with weak governance improve the safety of cities and neighbourhoods. are cities often rife with crime and violence.

The first phase of the Safer Cities Programme was based on These consolidated phases consider the city-wide an Urban Crime Prevention Approach with three pillars: plan for safety as the main outcome: a tool for social  Institutional crime and violence prevention – pro- integration, focusing on neighbourhood planning, moting the role of local government in providing with tools for community appropriation, access safety and security for their inhabitants, promoting rights, and allocation of streets and public spaces alternative forms of policing (community policing as sites for the construction of citizenship values. and problem-oriented policing), and alternative The three phases should not be seen as separate, but forms of justice, bringing justice closer to the people as layers building on top of each other, refining and (e.g. through tribunals and traditional community enhancing each other, and moving towards a more conflict mediation mechanisms); comprehensive approach to urban safety than one  Social crime prevention – targeting some of the narrowly focused on the prevention of crime and causes of crime and violence through social and violence alone. educational programmes, with a specific focus on youth at risk and the safety of women and girls;  Situational crime prevention – particularly improving Why the Global Network the physical environment. on Safer Cities?

The second phase focused on integrating the urban The development of the Global Network on Safer crime prevention approach within a broader and Cities (GNSC) was originally mooted by UN-HABITAT multi-dimensional concept of urban safety or Human in September 2010, to build on the experience gained Security – in particular the risk areas of: in implementing the Safer Cities Programme over  Security of tenure and forced evictions – land 16 years. In April 2011, Member States at the 23rd ownership is often the cause of urban violence and Session of the UN-HABITAT Governing Council conflict (e.g. Colombia and Kenya); in Nairobi adopted a resolution supporting the the Sixth sessionof World UrbanForum. ing acitiesandpartner’s platform, to institutionalize to localauthorities. Secondly, the Network isconven - resources, thus makingexpertservicemoreaccessible facilitate the poolingofhumanskillsandtechnical cities to exchange experiences and collaborate, and first, acost-effective virtualplatform toenable with UN-HABITAT astheSecretariat. This involves planning, development, monitoring and evaluation, a four year ‘incubation’ period for definition, The first phase of the GNSC from 2012 to 2016 is GNSC PhaseOne–2012-2016 institutions andcitizens. national agencies, activists, civil society, academics, among government agents, experts, politicians, inter ledge-sharing and exchange, and to foster debate urban safety policies. It is a ‘one-stop’ shop for know and todevelop morecosteffective prevention and and perspectives, especially in regions of the South, around theworld, tosystematize theirexperiences crime andviolencechallenges that citiesarefacing The GNSCresponds totheneedanalyze theurban partners involved. in expandingthevisibility, scopeandoutreach ofall particularly at thecitylevel, theGNSCplays akey role these networks totheurbandebate andtodemand, ships arekey dimensions of theGNSC. Byconnecting of these networks and their knowledge and partner violence prevention globally; indeed thesuccess in promotingpoliciesandpracticescrime capacity building of networks and actors engaged In essence, the GNSC recognizesandembracesthe networks with the different cadre of urban players. that linksexistingcrimeandviolenceprevention urban safety strategies, actingasacommonplatform prevention of urban crime and the enhancement of for all. The Network’s design supports cities in the deliver urbansafety, andsecuretheurbanadvantage holders, withtheoverall goalofequippingthemto international platform for cities and urban stake The GNSCisenvisioned asservingtheforemost Network was launched inNaplesSeptember2012at provided thebasisfor the2012cycle ofactivities. The on thegovernance andadministration oftheGNSC vened by UN-HABITAT. The resulting Working Paper developed at aseriesofpartnersconsultations con The operational framework for theNetwork was the development ofnew UNGuidelinesonSafer Cities. It was anticipated that thiscouldultimately leadto practices onsafer citiesin53worldwide. exchange andstructured dialogue, basedonproven establishment oftheGNSC, toallow for learning, - - - - -

achievements of local authorities in improving safety and resolvingissuesaffecting urbansafety. and national authoritiestoassistthemindiagnosing Design service: format. service lines, usingacompetitive call-for-proposals lyze awiderangeoffinancialresources for specific a UN system-wide funding mechanism that willcata- Establishment oftheUN Trust Fund for SaferCities: comparisons. a global index, but be based on regional peer-to-peer Global SaferCity Award: the 2002UNGuidelinesfor theprevention ofcrime. for the prevention of urban crime, gramming. These willupdate the1995UNGuidelines quality and consistency of policy-making and pro- providing comprehensive guidanceonimproving the of internationally validated standardsonsafer cities, New UNGuidelinesonSaferCities: supported by: It isenvisioned that thesecoreserviceswillbe mobilization: assistinginthesecuringof 5. Resource 4. 3. 2. service 1. Expert The GNSCprovides five coreservices: tutional framework oflocalauthorities. UN-HABITAT, andintegrated withintheglobalinsti- sustainable, able to function independently from It isenvisaged that by 2016theNetwork willbefully the Network’s city-to-city cooperation structure. crime andotherfactors. The Monitorwillnotbe indicators includingtheincidenceofviolenceand It willbeacompositeindex, based oncomparable development, willserve tobenchmark urbansecurity. Urban Safety Monitor: innovation inthesafety andsecurityrealmisjudged. international benchmark by which localpublicsector and securityfor all. The Award willbecomethe Knowledge exchange: development andexchange Knowledge of the urbandevelopment andthesecuritysectors. city level, from global resources allocated to both financial support for urbansafety projects at the city-to-city networking andtrainingprogrammes. Training andcapacitydevelopment : facilitating prevention ofcrime. tools and working practices on urban safety and the citizens toparticipate inmakingtheircitiessafer. advocacyCitizens andoutreach: mobilizing institutional reform. prevention of urban crime to support policy and expertise andknowledge on urbansafety and the a locally responsive servicefor cities : a hub that draws on existing the Monitor, currently in

an award tocelebrate the and supplement adoption of a set

45 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 46 Initial achievements of the GNSC Picture 1 GNSC Steering Committee of Mayors  Work on the development of UN Guidelines on with UN-HABITAT Executive Director, March 2013, Safer Cities and the Urban Safety Monitor has New York City begun. Resolutions supporting new guidelines were adopted by both the Governing Council of UN-HABITAT and UNODC’s Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice in April 2013.  The Cities Assembly on Safer Cities has been established as an inclusive platform/coalition of partners and cities for the exchange of knowledge and experiences.  The Steering Committee of the Global Network on Safer Cities was established in New York in March 2013. It includes 10 mayors and Habitat agenda partners (see Picture 1). Its role is to provide pol- itical guidance and regional and global advocacy to advance the UN Guidelines on Safer Cities, the Source: Safer Cities Programme, UN-HABITAT (2013, December 23). Progress Governance and Administration framework of the Report – Global Network on Safer Cities (GNSC).74 GNSC, and the establishment of the Trust Fund for Safer Cities. A global plan of action 2013 – 2016 was launched on 5th November 2013 in Mexico City.  The GNSC Advisory Group of experts was estab- lished in September 2012 to support the Network and the Steering Committee. Its role is to provide technical expertise on the development of the Guidelines on Safer Cities, the urban safety monitor, regional guidelines on safer cities, and the identifi- cation of promising practices. It can provide direct technical support to cities as required.  The Partners Consultative Group is being constituted, bringing together relevant tools and expertise that can support cities in the development and implemen- tation of city-wide crime prevention and urban safety strategies. EFUS, World Vision International, Citynet, amongst others have formally become partners. Other on-going institutional collaborations include UN-Women, UNICEF, UNODC, Plan International, the Huairou Commission, ICPC and Women in Cities International (WICI).  The GNSC has also entered into discussion with institutions in Santiago, Cape Town and Sydney towards the development of Regional Centres of Excellence on Safer Cities. Their role will be to support the development and implementation of regional plans of action, and provide technical support to local authorities on the development and implementation of urban safety strategies in collaboration with UN-HABITAT regional offices.  The GNSC and partners have launched Regional Networks on Safer Cities for Africa and the Asia/ Pacific.  National Networks on Safer Cities are developing in Mexico (14 cities), Colombia (5 cities), Argentina (3 cities), Chile (4 cities) and South Africa (at least 4 cities). specialist skills, andan ability towork acrossregional to proactively investigate such offences. They require there arealsoanumberofdisincentives for thepolice white collar offenders. This is highly speculative, but nymity andlimitedpersonal riskmoreappealingto people engagedinit, sinceitprovides adegreeofano shift towards thesenew forms of criminality, andthe It hasbeensuggestedthat theremay have beensome financial andcommercialinstitutionsthanthepolice. ization surveys, andaremorefrequently reportedto and cybercrime, arenotgenerally measured by victim These ‘new’ acquisitive crimes, such asinternetfraud in theuseofnew forms ofcommunication technology. crime, particularly that exploitingtherapidincrease adequately capturethechanging nature ofacquisitive rent measurementsofcrime/victimization donot Increasingly concerns are being raised that cur (UK Statistics Authority, 2014). both officialandself-reportvictimization measures do notadequately explaintheparallel declineacross declines inrecordedcrime–have beenraised, but these on thepolicetodemonstrate theirperformance through recorded crime–especially inthecontextofpressure victim under-reporting, and the accuracy of officially as measuresofcrime. Conventional concernsabout England and Wales have come under greater scrutiny both officialstatistics andvictimization surveys in with anational declineinyoung problemdrugusers, technology, andsomereductionsmay beassociated have beenascribedtoimprovements insecurity as domesticburglary andparticularly vehicle crime, While reductionsinvolume acquisitive crime, such (Police Foundation, 2013). in considerabledebate astohow tounderstandit in theUK, asin other high-incomecountries, resulting offences upagain, thisdecliningtrendhascontinued sion, which many predictedwould pushacquisitive officially recordedcrime. Despitetheeconomicreces- overall falls ofmorethan 10%since2010, mirroring victimization since the survey began in 1981, with and Wales 2013recordedthelowest reported in national surveys. The CrimeSurvey ofEngland have beenfalling, ashasself-reportedvictimization and Wales, asinmostHighIncomeCountries(HICs), Since themid-1990srecordedcrimerates inEngland Jacqui Karn for practice world: Theimplications reduction inachanging Policing andcrime 75

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high birthrates –youthful andrapidly growing. For are able to attract young migrant workers and have culturally diverse neighbourhoodsand–wherethey that are increasingly globally connected. These are tical terms by most police officers working in places conditions. These conditionsarerecognisableinprac economic changes which characterise Post-Modern of criminalityinthewake ofwiderglobalsocialand the challenges of adapting tochanges inthenature of contemporarycrimerepresentonly onefacet of Concerns aboutmeasuringtheextentandnature terms ofperformance measures. feel they donotgetsufficientcredit for doingsoin and national borders, andaninvestigating force may Contribution conditions (Innes etal., 2009). the challenges posedby thesetwenty-first century offenders andcommunities –iscapableofmeeting of policing–basedonstreet-level knowledge oflocal degree towhich anexistingtwentieth centurymodel senior officersalikehave increasingly questioned the ance tothecommunity. Academic commentators and low level disorder, andcontinueto provide reassur they must stilltrytomeetlocaldemandsfor tackling dealing withconventional offences. At thesametime advances in technology. This is the case even when keep abreast of, theoperations ofcrime networks and to work acrossbordersandstay aheadof, orat least pressures on policing and crime prevention agencies markets for consumergoods. This placesconsiderable ket, for example, for scrap metalor gold, asby local Local crimemay also beasdriven by aglobalmar in decision-making, andbuilding trustandlegitimacy. think more creatively about community engagement and culturally diverse population, thereisaneedto ‘communities’ difficult. With amoremobile, transient relations and channels of information in place-based police engagementwith, and maintenance ofgood ent populations moving frequently. Bothcanmake network morethanwherethey live, orincludetransi- people whomay relate totheirworkplace orsocial people they hardly know. Placesincreasingly house activities over longdistances, oftenfleetingly with around moreandcanorganizetheirlives andtheir and migration, people, includingoffenders, move police officersitisapparentthat withmoremobility - - -

47 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 48 Moreover, there have been considerable concerns in that targeted police patrol, for example, has a small the UK that significant cuts in public spending (20% effect on crime rates, the effects are unlikely to last of the policing budget and variable cuts of up to long. Unsurprisingly, the most effective and lasting 50% in some local authorities) could cause retrenchment approaches come broadly under the heading of ‘prob- to the core reactive policing functions. That is unlikely lem-solving policing’, particularly when they take full to meet the challenges of current demand for service, account of community concerns, and the history and let alone reduce demand or address new ones. These sensitivities around policing in an area, use multiple challenges have also come at a time of growing scep- resources through partnership, and where decisions ticism among senior and frontline officers about the are based on a careful analysis of local problems. unintended consequences of past policing approaches to improving effectiveness in reducing crime. There A more proactive approach to building connections now seems to be a real appetite among officers to with knowledgeable residents in all areas has been draw on “evidence-based” approaches to effective advocated – rather than relying on residents to attend crime reduction. meetings (Innes et al., 2009). It is arguable that those most knowledgeable about crime and disorder in Further, community safety partnerships at the local an area are those closer to it, and approaches that level, which are a statutory requirement in the UK, build relationships with more ‘suspect’ residents have been under strain as agencies adjust to fewer and offenders may mean paying greater attention resources, organizational restructuring, and priva- to the impact of everyday police encounters. This tisation of the bulk of probation services. As agencies is reinforced by a convincing body of evidence that adapt to the new funding climate there is widespread everyday officer conduct may influence crime rates, acknowledgement of the need for an approach that is as experience of fair and respectful police conduct sustainable long term, and of necessity an approach has an influence on willingness to cooperate with that brings the resources of partner agencies to bear officers, and on compliance with the law in future, on problems. However, very little of the existing and could reduce the likelihood of re-offending (Tyler, research evidence on effective and integrated part- 2004; Mazerolle et al., 2013). nership approaches to crime reduction has directly addressed the applicability of those findings to the Equally, there is a case for focussing on engaging changing conditions. residents in local decision-making. Research evidence demonstrates that communities with greater collective The Police Foundation is currently working in col- efficacy tend to experience less crime (Sampson, laboration with agencies in two towns in the south Raudenbush, and Earls, 1997).78 This research tradition of England faced with numerous challenges of adapt- has tended to explore the protective effects of collective ing services and infrastructure to rapidly changing efficacy at whole area level, however, recent research conditions. Both have average crime rates but growing, has suggested that this may also be true at a micro- globally connected, youthful, ‘super-diverse’ and new hotspot level, within otherwise high crime areas, as migrant populations.77 In part to inform this work, greater natural surveillance and informal control makes the Foundation recently published a report outlining them less attractive to local offenders (Bottoms, 2012). what we know from research on police effectiveness Focussing community engagement on micro-hotspots and crime reduction (Karn, 2013). The report provides provides a more targeted approach to building resili- some suggestions on how that knowledge could be ence in the most vulnerable places, even those with a integrated into current practice, and help policing transient population invested temporarily in their street and crime reduction practice better adjust to this or block, but not necessarily with a wider place-based changing context. community.

Broadly the report highlights the strength of evidence The Fondation's report makes a number of suggestions from research on policing and crime reduction on the for research and practice for police officers attempting measurable effects of targeting resources in small to use evidence-based approaches to help them vulnerable locations (hotspots), or on victims and/ adapt to changing social, economic and technological or offenders. Targeting has been shown to be demon- conditions. Although these cannot be explored here in strably more effective than random police patrol or depth, they include: reactive approaches. This is not news to most police  the need to ensure that community engagement is officers, and has a clear operational logic in terms not considered a separate activity from the police of the effective use of resources. But the report also day job, but instead recognises the impact of every- demonstrates the evidence that some initiatives have day police encounters on people’s willingness to larger and/or more enduring effects than others, comply with the law (including victims and offenders depending on what kind of resources and tactics who are often the same people); are deployed. Although there is evidence to show potential toreduceharmtheircommunities, and on those aspects of effective practice that have the to change. However, this could focus adaptations culture change in police services culturally resistant and capacityofanalysts, tosomedegreerequiresa with police, andimprovement inthetechniques ensuring qualityofcontactineveryday encounters A commitmenttostructuredcommunity engagement, age demandintheshorttermwithfewer resources. long termchallenges, rather thanattempting toman- sustainably   

multi-agency approach tocrimereduction. ligence systems will enable a more preventative and that improvements todata analysis andintel- that problem-solving andintelligencegathering ways, inthemostvulnerablemicro-hotspotareas; resilience andengagewithresidentsintargeted together multiple resourcestobuild community that partnership working befocused tobring skills amongfrontlineofficersneedtobeimproved; reduce demandfor service, respondingto 49 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 50 19 Opening Remarks of Interpol President Khoo Boon Hui, May 8, 2012. Endnotes 20 Symantec (2013, p. 19), and Le Monde Technologies, www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2012/05/08/ la-cybercriminalite-coute-plus-cher-que-les-trafics-de-cocaine- heroine-et-marijuana_1698207_651865.html 21 These were topics at the 22rd Session of the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice in Vienna in April 2013. 22 See Discussion Guide for the Thirteenth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice: www.unodc. org/documents/commissions/CCPCJ_session22/ECN152013_CRP1_ eV1380049.pdf 23 They included Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, the UK and the US.

1 Examples of routine surveys include the Crime Survey of England 24 See Chapter 5 of ICPC (2010) for a detailed discussion and Wales, the US National Crime Victimization Survey, the Cadre of the national strategies identified. de vie et sécurité in France, and the Victims of Crime Survey in 25 www.gobernation.gob.ms/es_mx/SEGOB/Programa_Nacional_ South Africa. para_la_Prevencion_Social_de_la_Violencia_y_la_Delincuencia 2 The risk factors used to explain homicide rates globally are quite 26 Strategic Framework of the Crime Prevention Policy in the New general (e.g. the Gini index of inequality, infant mortality rates etc.) Bulgarian Crime Prevention Strategy. www.eucpn.org and do not capture more proximal factors. A new research project based at the University of Montreal, the World Homicide Survey, 27 http://ffsu.org/fileadmin/ffsu/pdf/Vie_sociale/2013/ is currently developing a methodology to provide a more detailed Article_site_strategie_nationale_prevention_delinquance.pdf analysis of homicide patterns and its correlates (Ouimet et al., 2013). 28 Vanderschueren (2013, p. 31). 3 The data refers to countries for which long-term trends in 29 See EFUS newsletter (2013, November) http://efus.eu/en/ police-reported data are available. These mainly include countries resources/newsletters in Central and Eastern Europe, North America, Asia and Oceania. 30 http://efus.eu/en/resources/publications 4 The Small Arms Survey, which is concerned with armed violence in conflict and non-conflict settings, uses the term ‘lethal violence’ 31 Civilian Secretariat for Police, Ministry of Police, South Africa. since homicide requires a law to define it. www.policesecretariat.gov.za 5 UNDP report a small negative correlation between the Human 32 E.g. UNODC (2007). Crime and Development in Central America: Development Index and homicide, with low development associated Caught in the Crossfire. with higher homicide rates (UNDP, 2013a p. 39). 33 UN Secretary General (2013, January 25). Remarks to the 6 Femicide is generally understood to refer to the killing of women General Assembly on his Five-Year Action Agenda: The Future because they are women (see WHO, 2012). It also includes honour we Want. and dowry killings. 34 Mainstreaming Crime Prevention in the Work of UNODC. (2012). 7 The issue of missing and murdered Aboriginal women has been Guidance Note for UNODC Staff. documented and researched since around 2005 by the National 35 The Geneva Declaration is a high level diplomatic initiative Aboriginal Women’s Coalition, see www.nwac.ca/sites/default/files/ originally adopted in 2006, and over 100 States have now endorsed imce/FACT%20SHEET_AB.pdf it. Its objective is to help countries reduce levels of armed violence. 8 UN Women, see www.unwomen.org/es/news/stories/2013/5/ 36 See Violence Reduction Unit www.actiononviolence.com and un-women-calls-for-urgent-and-effective-action-against-femicide Violence Reduction Unit Scotland Case study www.moreforless. 9 Chapter 6 discusses some of these issues in more detail. reform.co.uk 10 See (2013, July 31). Mexico murder rate falls to 22 per 100,000 37 The topics are developing stable child-family relations; life from 24. The Associated Press. skills for children and adolescents; reducing harmful alcohol use; reducing access to lethal means such as guns, knives and 11 Anthropologist and Psychoanalyst at the Centre de pesticides; violence against women; changing cultural norms Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, supporting violence, and victim care and support programmes. Mexico. 38 Urban Crime and Violence is one of a series of courses offered 12 Explanations for the drop in motor vehicle theft are probably the by the World Bank e-Institute. The bank organized a meeting simplest and relate to the much improved technical design of cars. on Comprehensive Solutions for the Prevention of Crime and 13 (2013, July 20). The Economist. Violence – Strengthening local institutions for citizen security and coexistence in America, in Cali, Colombia in June 2013. 14 Costa’s study used victimization measures from surveys conducted by Latinobarometro from 1995-2010. Chapman and 39 The NGO’s include Women in Cities International, Red Mujer Chaparro used the Gallup World Poll surveys conducted in 2006 y Habitat, CISCA, as well as UN-HABITAT. and 2007 which show the differential rates of victimization and 40 The programme is modelled in part on earlier participatory insecurity by region. research on women’s safety in cities developed by UNIFEM, Women 15 APCPC www.griffith.edu.au in Cities International, among other organizations. 16 General Assembly resolution 65/230 requested the Commission 41 For more information see www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice to set up an open-ended ending-violence-against-women/creating-safe-public-spaces intergovernmental expert group on cybercrime. The first report of 42 Sherman (2012, p. 2). the group Comprehensive Study of Cybercrime was released in 2013 (UNODC, 2013b). 43 Presidential Address to the American Society of Criminology (Clear, 2010, p. 7, 13). 17 Interpol, www.interpol.int/fr/Criminalité/Cybercriminalité/ Cybercriminalité. 44 The authors characterize “late modernity” in terms of such factors as globalization, individualisation, neo-liberalism, and the 18 According to the US based enterprise Symantec, there was decline of the welfare state (Hebberecht & Baillergeau, 2012, p. 8) a 58% increase in malware attacks on mobile phone between 2011 and 2012 (Symantec, 2013, p.12). 69 68 67 66 Vietnam. Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laosand 65 (www.griffith.edu.au/asia-pacific-centre-prevention-of-crime) Dr RolandoOchoa isaSeniorResearch Analyst at the APCPC. Ethics Law Justice andGovernance at GriffithUniversity in2011. the Prevention ofCrimeasaprogrammewithintheKey Centrefor 64 ie_strategy_february_2011.pdf 63 The reportisinSpanish only. sub-regiones dealtacomplejidadeneldepartamento Antioquia). of complexity(Auditorias deSeguridadenciudadesintermedias Citiesofsub-regions Medium-Sized Antioquia withhigh-levels 62 November 2013). in Europe. An in-depthstudy ofevaluation (EFUSNewsletter toolsforMethodological developing localurbansecuritypolicies and UrbanSecurityorganizedaseminarinDecember2013on 61 60 59 observatories-2013.html 58 in 2010. 57 56 55 54 New YorkTimes. 25). Prisonpopulation canshrinkwhenpolicecrowd streets. 53 $12-billion ononeyear’ Justice Canadastudy. TheGlobeandMail. 52 Violence inLatin America andtheCaribbean, blogs.iadb.org. Corbacho &Scartascini(2013, February) TheCostsofCrimeand 51 of victims. precise factors such asgriefandtheimpactonqualityoflife if therewas nocrime, andintangiblecostsattempt tomeasureless services, lostearningsorhealthcostsetc. which would besaved costs refer totheactualorestimated costsofe.g. publicandprivate programmes orimprisonment;andmodellingapproaches. Tangible valuation which estimates people’s supportfor e.g. treatment estimates losses andexpensesentailed;othermethodsarecontingent 50 (2014) and Waller published by theUSBureauofJustice (Waller &Sansfaçon, 2000); 49 Parkland HealthRegionandthePrince Albert Housing Team. Prince Albert Fire Department, Bylaw Services, Prince Albert Crisis, PublicHealth, Adult Probation, Youth Probation, Corrections, Prince Albert GrandCouncil, RCMP, CityofPrince Albert, Mobile Service, Catholic School Division, Sask. Rivers School Division, Assistance, MentalHealth, Addiction Services, Prince Albert Police 48 47 reports onfindings(Maffei &Markopoulou, 2013). Commission from2012-2015, andthefirst volume ofpapers 46 45 As partoftheprojectBelgiumForum for Prevention See www.bra.se Recently changed totheUnitfor Development ofCrimePrevention Swedish National Council for CrimePrevention See ASEAN countriesincludeIndonesia, Malaysia, thePhilippines, Professor Peter Homelestablishedthe Asia Pacific Centre for www.endvawnow.org/uploads/browser/files/un_women_sc_gp_ Cano Asesor, J. &CastañoGiraldo, J. SecurityAuditsin www.nij.gov/topics/technology/maps/Pages/crimestat.asxp www.crimesolutions.gov www.genevadeclaration.org/events/expert-meetings/ These tookplaceinParis in2007, Santiagoin2009andMontreal Perry etal. (2013). www.nyc.gov/html/prob/htm/neon/neon.shtml www.bja.gov Cook andLudwig (2011a&b);seealso Tierney, J. (2013, January Beeby, D. (2014, March 2). Costofviolentcrimestopped IDB initiated aseriesofstudiesonthistopicin2012-13, see The mostcommonly usedistheaccountingapproach which See for exampleICPC’s Investing Wisely inCrimePrevention Social ServicesChildProtection, SocialServicesIncome Campana etal. (2013, p. 50). The research projectFiducia, fundedby theEuropean Hough (2013, p. 182) www.mcpf.org.my/v3/node/31 for details. Smarter CrimeControl.

Executive Director. From L-R:NormanQuijano(Mayor ofSanSalvador), 74 for informal controlandabilitytoinfluencelocaldecision-making. 78 1024-54). diversity anditsimplications. EthnicandRacialStudies, 29(6), population make-upintheUK(see Vertovec, S. (2007). Super- to Steven Vertovec’s definitionofcomplexityethnicandcultural 50% (CensusofEnglandand Wales, 2011). “Super-diversity” refers between 2001-11ofwhich sixsmallareassaw agrowth ofover 77 See for exampleHay, RaeldosSantosandMillar(2013). 76 Foundation, London, UK 75 Security, SaoPaulo). (Mayor ofJohannesburg), RobertoPorto (Secretary, Citizenship Pedro (Mayor ofBogota), BilalHamad(Mayor ofBeirut), Parks Tau of Houston), Joan Clos(Executive Director, UN-HABITAT), Gustavo Marcelo Ebrard(Ex-Mayor ofMexicoCity), Annise Parker (Mayor (Treichville), Antonio Villaraigosa (ex-mayor ofLos Angeles), Guillermo Pintos(Mayor ofMatosinhos), Francois Amichia UN-HABITAT, Nairobi, Kenya. Cities Programme, LocalGovernment andDecentralisation Unit, 73 associations, women’s shelters, localbusinesses. 72 Sweden andthey have agreat dealofautonomy. by separate municipal elections. There are290municipalities in emergency services, thephysical environment etc. andareelected 71 on January 1, force. The new national policeauthoritywillbeimplemented so countypoliceauthoritieswillbereplacedby onenational police Parliament decidedtoreorganisetheSwedish Police Serviceand for policingoneofthecountiescountry. In2013theSwedish Police Boardand21policeauthorities, each ofwhich isresponsible 70 The population ofLuton, for example, increased by 10.2% Picture 1:GNSCSteeringCommitteeofMayors withUN-HABITAT Collective efficacy refers toasenseof mutual trust, capacity Problem druguserefers toheroineand/orcrack cocaineuse. Formerly SeniorResearch &Development Officer, The Police Respectively, HSO/Lead, GlobalNetwork onSafer CitiesSafer E.g. religiousgroups, youth organizations, landlords, housing Local authoritiesareresponsiblefor socialservices, schools, The Swedish Police ServiceconsistsoftheSwedish National 2015.

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M igration 57 Chapter 2 TRENDS IN CRIME AND ITS PREVENTION 58 Migration

Introduction from the existing population, and bring little positive in return. In reality, their human rights are often The migration of people from one country to another, violated, and they are subject to discrimination on the or within their country of birth, has come to absorb basis of their ethnicity and culture. They frequently much of the attention of governments around the experience poor working conditions, sometimes akin world in recent years. As noted in the introductory to slavery as reports on the labour exploitation of chapter of this report, the massive movements of migrant workers in the UK have recently underlined people from North Africa to Europe or within the (Dugan, 2013; Centre for Social Justice, 2013). They Middle East have resulted in catastrophic loss of can be subject to unjustified detention, and lack life over the past few years. Whether they have been access to healthcare or education, as well as being people seeking a better life and a way out of poverty, vulnerable to becoming victims of crime and violence. or fleeing from war or persecution, they represent These concerns apply as much to legal migrants as to a very serious and shared global concern. At the same those who are undocumented or “irregular”. time, the continuing migration of people in other parts of the world, across Africa, from Latin America Yet migration brings benefits to host communities, and the Caribbean to the US, from rural to urban to countries of origin, and to migrants themselves. China, or within the Asia Pacific region shows little It has been estimated, for example, that if countries sign of stopping. Nearly one in seven people on the opened their borders to migrant workers, rather than planet has moved to live in a new region at least once restricting them, global GDP would increase by 50% to during his or her lifetime.1 150% (Clemens, 2011). In the US among other countries there is strong evidence that immigration has a very ICPC last examined the issue of migration and positive effect on employment, on social cohesion, and its implications for community safety in its 2010 on crime rates, particularly in poorer neighbourhoods International Report. That report examined trends and (Lee & Martinez, 2009). patterns in migration and the impacts of migration on migrants themselves – including their criminaliza- This chapter examines recent trends in migration, tion, and discrimination and racism against migrant both legal and undocumented. It looks at the impacts communities in their countries of destination. Since on migrants themselves and on the primarily urban that time, rates of migration globally have continued communities in which they settle, in terms of the to increase. Some of the trends identified in 2010 myths and negative attitudes which are generated, and continue – the importance of internal migration and of at the strong evidence demonstrating the substantial South-South migration – which help to place northern economic and social contributions they make to their experiences in perspective – the increase in the propor- countries of destination. It also looks at the continuing tions of women and children and young people among criminalization of migrants, and at recent international migrant populations, and the discriminatory treatment norms and standards, which set out the key concerns of migrants. As with other topics in this report, it is and principles for policies and interventions. important that the gender dimensions of migration are explored – not just trends in male and female While national or state/provincial policies remain migration – but the differential impacts on men and very important, it is local governments who bear the women (Altman & Pannell, 2012; Beneria et al., 2012). brunt of the practical and day-to-day impacts of new arrivals in their communities. The final section of the The arrival of newcomers is often accompanied by chapter, therefore, considers what can be done by fear, prejudice and misinformation on the part of the local governments, in partnership with other actors public, the media, and sometimes governments. This and civil society, to promote community safety, justice includes perceptions that migrants are responsible for and inclusion in the face of these challenges, and increases in crime, that they come to take advantage looks at some of the kinds of programmes which are of a host country’s social security benefits, take jobs being developed in different countries. to thehugegrowth in urbanization, andthecreation of in countries and inpeople’s lives. Ithascontributed sive. Ithasalsobroughtaboutfundamentalchanges 232 million)internalmigration ismuch moreexten for levels of international migration (currently around Charles-Edwards, 2013). Compared withtheestimates than the one in which they currently reside (Bell & have, at onepointoranother, lived inaregionother 2013). Itisestimated that 763 millionindividuals international migration (Bell&Charles-Edwards, migration isprobably much more significant than decades, thereisageneralconsensusthat internal slowed down insomeregionsover thepast three country comparisons. While itisthoughttohave of internal migration, or to make accurate cross- very difficulttoprovide precise figures fortheextent Lack ofdata andmethodologicalproblems makeit Internal migration movements. they use different methods for calculating population tion, there are discrepancies between sourcessince on migrant labour. As with all international estima also maintains a database. ILO compiles information both ofwhich publishedupdates in2013, while OECD are reportsby theUNDESAandIOM(IOM, 2013), The mainsourcesofinformation onmigration trends the caseofasylumseekersandrefugees. tion orwar andconflictintheircountryoforigin economic and social prospects, toescapingpersecu - joining family members, wanting jobsandimproved Finally, the reasons for migrating range widely from legitimately but have overstayed permitsandvisas. granted residence permits, or those who entered asylum seekersandmigrantswhohave failed tobe may alsoincludesmuggled andtrafficking victims, or undocumented migrants. Undocumented migrants which case they areoftenreferred toas “irregular” enter acountry illegally without documentation, in priate documentation andpermission, orthey may Secondly, migrants may have legal status, with appro some casesincreasingly disputed. between the28member countriesispermitted, yet in case intheEuropeanUnion, for example, wheretravel travel between countries in the region. This is the within aregionwhich hasagreementsonfreedomof a country. International migration may alsotakeplace rural areas, orfromsmallertolargercitieswithin internal migration which oftenmeansmigration from which includes allthose who cross borders, and main distinction is between international migration Migration takesarangeofdifferent forms. The first The mainmigrationtrends 2

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However, patterns ofmigration areundergoing in theSouth(71%)(UNDESA, 2013d). the majorityofthemcomefromdeveloping countries world’s migrants(approximately 59%ofthetotal), and countries continuetoreceive themajorityof the largestever seen(UNDESA, 2013d). Developed international migrants hadreached 232million, In 2013, UN DESA estimated that the number of International migration their own country(Esipova, Pugliese&Ray, 2013). mately 381 millionindividuals, hasrelocated within world’s population over theageof15, orapproxi estimates that, intheprevious five years, 8%ofthe 2011). A recentGallupstudy conductedin2011-12 the world’s population now living incities(UNDESA, mega citiesandmetropolitanareas, withover halfof ment withintheEUregion. many ofthosecountries now have freedomofmove- with the expansion of the European Union, citizens of regimes (Kraler & Rogoz, 2011). Since around 2003 and ing the collapse of the Eastern Europeancommunist 1962, but increasedsignificantly inthe1990’s follow- immigration hasexceededemigration sincearound than otherregions(Figure 3.2). InEurope, regular continue toexperiencehigherrates ofmovement In termsofregionalmigration, Europe and Asia common, but difficult todocument(IOM, 2013). ments in a South-South direction are known to be very figures may be even higherbecauseinformal move- North (35%)(UNDESA, 2013d)(seeFigure 3.1). These higher thanthenumbergoingfromSouthto migrants (36%ofallmigrants)was already slightly for migrants. In2013, thenumberofSouth-South in theSouthincreasingly becomingadestination a majortransformation, withdeveloping countries Source: UNDESA(2013d, p.1) Figure 3.1 North North- South-North 23% 35% North-South Global migrationin2013 6% 36% South-South -

59 Chapter 3 Migration 60 Figure 3.2 International migration by region Figure 3.3 Average growth rate of international (in thousands) migration per year (in percentage)

80,000 1990-2000 2000-2010 2010-2013

World 1.2% 2.3% 1.6% 70,000 Developed 2.3% 2.3% 1.5% countries

60,000 Developing -0.1% 2.5% 1.8% countries

50,000 Africa 0.0% 0.9% 2.8% Asia 0.1% 3.0% 1.5% 40,000 Europe 1.4% 2.1% 1.5% LAC* -0.9% 2.2% 1.8% 30,000 North America 3.7% 2.4% 1.2% Oceania 1.5% 3.1% 2.6% 20,000

* Latin America and the Caribbean.

10,000 Source: UN DESA (2013e)

0 Oceania LAC* Africa North Asia Europe a growth rate in international migration similar America to that of the 1990s, while North America experienced 2013 2000 a gradual decline. On the other hand, the developing 2010 1990 regions experienced either a slight slowdown (e.g.

* Latin America and the Caribbean. Latin America and Oceania) or a gradual increase

Source: UN DESA (2013e) (e.g. Africa)­.

UNDP has suggested that the change in migration The growing role of women patterns with a greater flow between countries in the in migration South may be associated with the 2008-2009 economic crisis in developed countries, during which period the Historically, the presence of women in migration economy of developing countries continued to grow has been overlooked, despite the fact that historical (UNDP, 2013). Not only were developing countries able data shows that in some countries in the past, female to retain their potential migrants, but also to attract migrants outnumbered males (for example in the US those who live in neighbouring countries (UNDP, 2013). after 1930 (Green, 2012)). This invisibility probably stemmed from the social representation of women However, South-South migration presents challenges as the “companions” of male migrants (Donato et al., for migrants since developed and developing regions 2006; Morokvasic, 2011). However, in recent decades also exist within countries, and socio-economic researchers have begun to seriously examine the inequalities are often greater than in the North (IOM, increasing phenomenon of migrant women, and what 2013; World Bank, 2013b). In Brazil, for example, is termed the “feminization of migration” (Donato while the richest individuals (10% of the population) et al., 2011; Morokvasic, 2011; Verschuur & Reysoo, receive 40% of the country’s income, the poorest 2005). In 2013, women accounted for almost half of (40% of the population) receive only 14.2% (ECLAC, the world’s migrant population (48%), and in some 2013). In addition, the labour market in countries of regions their numbers clearly exceed those of male the South is often less regulated and less protected migrants (see Figure 3.4).3 (GFMD, 2012, p. 5). This trend is especially noticeable in developed countries, which has helped to contribute to the Slower rates of growth notion of the feminization of migration, and has been attributed to three phenomena. First, migrant women Despite the fact that migration continues to increase are now more independent and able to migrate alone globally, the rate of growth at the beginning of this and more frequently for work-related reasons, rather decade has been slower than for 2000-2010 (see than solely as a member of a family (Morokvasic, Figure 3.3). The trend varies across regions. Over the 2011).4 Second, the growing demand for domestic last two decades, for example, Europe returned to workers and caregivers, in particular child care, has due totighterimmigration controlpolicies in many the gradualclosingofborderstomigrantworkers    2013) including: et al., 2012;Dumontetal., 2010;Gallotti&Mertens, of forms of mistreatment anddiscrimination (Beneria are overqualified, and are often subject toa variety market intheircountryofdestination for which they themselves takingjobsat the bottomoflabour 2012). Inrelation towork, migrantwomen tend tofind travelling, oruponreaching theirdestination (UNGA, crime, whether in theircountryoforigin, while and victimization, includingbecomingvictimsof migration, they are often subjectto discrimination However, despite the growing presence of women in left tobecaredfor by othersintheircountryoforigin. conse­ established in those countries (Green, 2012). One flow of women and children joining migrants already family reunification policies still help tomaintain the developed countries(affecting men, for the most part), (Benería et al., 2012; OECD, 2013). affected by theeconomiccrisisindeveloped countries women who, unlikemigrantmen, have notbeenas created arelatively stablelabourmarketfor migrant

A lack ofsocialrecognition, andlower salariesthan regulated and the most frequently segregated by Isolated jobsineconomicsectors that arethe least they oncepossessed. a processofdisqualification andthelossofskills tion thanmigrantmen, migration oftenresultsin For thosewomen whohave equalorbettereduca- or thanmigrantmen. women inthehostcountrywithsimilartraining, Source: UNDESA(2013b) ** NorthAmerica * LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean 2013 (inpercentages) Figure 3.4 Women Developing Developed quence ofthistrendisthat theirchildren tooare countries countries Oceania Europe World Africa NA** LAC* Asia Proportion ofmigrantsbygender Proportion 51.9% 48.0% 51.6% 43.0% 41.6% 45.9% 50.2% 51.2% 51.6% Men 6 5 Finally, despite 52.0% 48.4% 57.0% 58.4% 54.1% 49.8% 48.8% 48.4% 48.1%

was for thepurposesofsexualexploitation, andthat that between 2007 and 2010, 58% ofhumantrafficking sexual exploitation purposes. UNODC hasestimated to becomingvictimsofhumantrafficking, notably for Furthermore, migrantwomen areespecially vulnerable ment (Morokvasic, 2011; Verschuur &Reysoo, 2005). which relegates female migrants to insecure employ international level, basedongenderandethnicity, worker hasresulted inanew division oflabour at the that thetripledimensionofwoman, migrantand In light of these factors, some researchers have argued     recognizing that children canplay anactive rolein children” andnot solely “on children”, inother words, has beenagreater emphasisonresearch “with and integration (Gardner, 2012). Morerecently, there violation oftheirrights, or onissuesofassimilation 2005). Concernhasusually focused onthepotential dependence and vulnerability (White etal., 2011; Fass, traditional views ofchildhood asatimeofinnocence, migration tion adolescents inmigration hasreceived greater atten- The increasingnumberofmigrantchildren and migrants indeveloping countries(GFMD, 2012). in theSouthislinkedtogrowing numbersofyoung probable that thegrowth inintra-regionalmigration almost athirdoftheregion’s migrant population. Itis particular significancein Africa, where they represent of the global migrantpopulation. Child migrants are of developed countries, whereitrepresentsonly 9.7% age ishigherindeveloping countries(22.6%)than DESA, 2013a)(seeFigure 3.5). However, thepercent 10 and19years ofage(OECD&UNDESA, 2013;UN rose to 15% (34.8 million), with the majority between under theageof20inglobalmigrantpopulation In 2013, thenumbersofchildren andyoung people Child andadolescentmigrants infection by sexually transmitteddiseases. to sexualandotherforms ofviolence, but alsoto Female victimsoftrafficking areexposednotonly tion were women (UNODC, 2012)(andseeChapter5). some 70%to80%ofdetectedvictimssexualexploita

forced labourandslavery. Extreme vulnerability, sometimesamountingto social securitybenefits. Significant barrierstoaccessinghealthcareand obtain permanentresidency status. ability toseekbetterworking conditions, orto which tiethemto specificemployers, limitingtheir More likely thanmentobeontemporarycontracts Extreme vulnerabilitytoallforms ofviolence gender, inparticulardomesticwork andcare-giving. (sexual, physical, psychological, etc.). in recentyears. Research andpublicpolicy on have tended to be adult-centric and based on

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61 Chapter 3 Migration 62 Figure 3.5 Percentage of migrant children Box 3.1 migration children: Victims or a threat? and adolescents in global migrant Children who are asylum seekers, refugees, population (2013) victims of genocide, or unaccompanied minors

Africa escaping persecution or poverty, may be seen as victims of violence and in need of protection LAC* and assistance (Doná & Veale, 2011; White et

Asia al., 2011). On the other hand some of them, and especially adolescents, those who are stateless, Oceania street youth or in some countries former child

Europe soldiers may be seen as a threat to national security and in need of re-education, detention NA** and deportation. In the UK and Ireland, this has led some social workers and counsellors to label children and adolescents as victims suffering Developing countries from trauma and mental health issues, to avoid Developed their detention in migrant detention centres. countries In situations where a child’s age is uncertain World on arrival, they may be placed in detention in

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% closed young offender facilities, or in some cases, in adult prisons. 0-4 years 5-9 years 10-14 years 15-19 years

* Latin America and the Caribbean ** North America

Source: UN DESA (2013b) Displaced persons and refugees

Climate change, armed conflict and violence are major processes and decision-making related to migration causes of population displacement (UN-HABITAT, (White et al., 2011; Doná & Veale, 2011). Among other 2011). The UN High Commissioner for Refugees roles, children and adolescents play a central part argues that they are likely to be among the greatest in a family’s ability to create ties in a context where challenges of the 21st century (UNHCR, 2013). they are non-existent or weak, for example between the school or members of the school community and By the end of 2012, 45.2 million people, the highest their parents (what is referred to as frontiering). figure since 1994, were forcibly displaced globally In cases where a family has maintained ties with their because of persecution, armed conflict and violence country of origin, they also play a role in developing (UNHCR, 2013). The global total included 15.4 million or maintaining extended family ties across borders refugees and 28.8 million internally displaced people, (relativizing) (Bryceson & Vuorela, 2002, cited in and nearly a million asylum seekers.7 While Sub- Gardner, 2012). Saharan Africa represents a third of all displacements at the regional level in 2012, Colombia, Syria and the However, there is increasing concern that children and Democratic Republic of the Congo had the highest adolescents may be viewed by destination countries number of internally displaced persons. Compared to as either a victim or a threat, with corresponding 2011, the number of refugees increased by 2.3 million, differences in how they are treated and whether their or an average of 3,000 individuals per day, and five international rights as children are upheld (Dona times more than in 2010 (UNHCR, 2013). & Veale, 2011; Bailleau et al., 2009). For example, unaccompanied children and adolescents who migrate Internationally in 2012, UNHCR noted that a third without their families, either by choice or because of of all refugees worldwide (70% of whom were from war, conflict, natural disasters or poverty, may be seen Afghanistan), moved to the Asia-Pacific region; one as victims to be treated, or as a threat and subject to quarter (the majority from Somalia, Sudan and the re-education and detention (see Box 3.1). The contri- Democratic Republic of the Congo) re-located in Sub- bution by Barbara Holtmann and Emma Holtmann Saharan Africa; and 15% of refugees (primarily from Children’s safety in migrant Johannesburg at the Iraq and Syria) were hosted by the Middle East and end of this chapter, documents some of the problems North Africa region (UNHCR, 2013) (see Figures 3.6 experienced by migrant children and families in the and 3.7). Among them, women and girls represented inner city. 48% and children 46%, a proportion that has remained constant in recent years. to climate-related natural disasters(IDMC, 2013). 2012 intheUS, 1.3millionpeoplewere displaceddue change isatransversal phenomenon. For example, in been associated with developing countries, climate total (IDMC, 2013). While natural disastershave often Nigeria and India alone represented 41% of the global occurred primarily in Asia and Africa. Flooding in associated withclimate change (IDMC, 2013). This wide following natural disastersin2012, themajority estimated tohave beendisplacedinternally world- In additiontoconflict, some32.4millionpeopleare Source: UNHCR(2013,p.14) (end of2012) majorrefugee-hostingcountries Figure 3.7 Source: UNHCR(2013,p.13) (end of2012) majorsourcecountriesofrefugees Figure 3.6 Republic ofCongo Afghanistan Democratic Colombia Germany Pakistan Vietnam Somalia Ethiopia Jordan Burma Turkey Eretria Sudan Kenya China Syria Syria Chad Iran Iraq

1,638,500 2,585,600 1,136,100 868,200 589,700 564,900 476,500 376,400 373,700 302,700 301,000 267,100 746,400 728,500 596,200 509,400 415,300 394,100 336,900 285,100 in the 1990’s following the collapse of the commun The numbersofundocumentedmigrantsincreased changing. InGreece, for example, theentryofundocu be continuingalthoughthepatterns oforiginare across the EU, but the general decline appears to undocumented migrants. Patterns ofmigration vary European countriesintotheEU–amajorsourceof a significantdecline, withtheentryof former Eastern 2003. Sincethat time, thereappearstohave been ist regimesinEasternEurope, peakinginaround of allmigrants(Kraler&Rogoz, 2011;OECD, 2007). people, andOECDsuggestedthey represented10-15% the EUat that timerangedfrom1.9to2.8million estimated that thenumberofirregularmigrantsin ject fundedby theEUin2007-9(Clandestinoproject) living inthecountry(PICUM, 2013). A research pro there are some 11.1 million undocumented migrants mented (PICUM, 2013). IntheUS, itisestimated that that 10-15% of all international migrants are undocu Estimates producedby theIOM in2010suggested through beingsmuggled andtrafficked acrossborders. right tostay, orenteracountryundetected, including theysince arrive withfalsepapers, overstay their inition, undocumentedmigrantsaredifficulttocount issue ofundocumentedorirregularmigrants. Bydef A majorpoliticalconcernfor many countriesis the Undocumented migrants from thesea” (McAdam, 2013, p. 1). A recentsurvey fered adisproportionate anxietyabout being ‘invaded’ & Smith, 2012). Australia, for example, has “long suf- oppose migration isnothing new (McAdam, 2013;Zatz That many people in destination countries strongly Fear oftheother Negative attitudestowardsmigrants Asia (Maroukis, 2012). extent been replaced by undocumented migrants from mented Albanians fromthemid2000’s hastosome they fear.” hostile regimesmay set inmotionthevery processes instilling mistrustofthepoliceandlocalauthority, izing newcomers, creating politicalcynicism, and feel towards receiving communities. Bymarginal- munities may depend on how attached immigrants “The abilityofimmigrantstorevitalize theircom- and destination.” make tothedevelopment oftheircountriesorigin and appreciation ofthecontribution that migrants levels, andthereis limitedpublicunderstanding development frameworks at national andlocal “…migration remainsinadequately integrated into 10

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63 Chapter 3 Migration 64 found that 47% of Americans and 44% of Europeans erosion of security and trust, and on the exposure to viewed migration as a problem (Transatlantic Trends, a society which has turned more anonymous and more 2011). Immigrants are often perceived as a threat, globalised” (den Boer, 2008, p. 1). Terrorist attacks both to residents living in an increasingly insecure in the US, London and Madrid among others have work environment, and to the sovereignty of countries contributed to an approach to security based on the and their national identities and boundaries, and in concept of a clash of civilizations (Bazin, 2010; Fischer a context where regional or international agreements & Darley, 2010). In Australia, “genuine refugees” from are increasingly at odds with national laws (den Boer, humanitarian programmes have increasingly been 2008). This helps to contribute to negative images of differentiated from “illegals”, “queue jumpers” and immigrants which in the majority of cases are far “unauthorized arrivals” (McAdam, 2013, p. 436). In from reality. Stereotypical views about immigrants Europe in particular, migration seems to be increas- often see their arrival as resulting in increases in ingly defined less as a question of social, economic criminality in a neighbourhood, and in unemployment or cultural concern, and more as a problem of public among local workers. They are seen as a burden on the safety and security.11 There is now a fear of a “migrant State, in particular because they are perceived to take invasion” following the Arab Spring and the fall of much more from the social security system than they totalitarian regimes in that region, in addition to contribute in terms of taxes (Vollmer, 2011). the impacts of new member countries joining the European Union, and the movement of groups such The factors influencing negative attitudes have been as the Roma (Costi, 2010). These events have also the subject of considerable debate. A number of contributed to the move to externalize migration researchers have argued that the demographic char- control to the countries of origin and transition acteristics and the composition of a neighbourhood (Bazin, 2010; UNGA, 2012; MIGREUROP, 2011; see in terms of local schools, amenities or workplaces, discussion below). have a greater impact on attitudes to immigrants than their economic impact (Card, Dustmann, & Preston, Whatever their origins, negative and sometimes 2012). Newcomers change the mix of habits, culture outwardly hostile attitudes have a profound impact and religion of a country and local neighbourhood, on the lives of immigrants. Behind those attitudes are which can be seen as threatening. Others have argued beliefs and prejudices that contribute to an atmos- that local characteristics of a neighbourhood have phere of suspicion, threat and risk for migrants. less impact on attitudes toward immigration than This is not just a matter of daily discrimination or the wider political context (Hainmueller & Hopkins, problems related to integration, but it also affects 2013; Hopkins, 2011) (see Box 3.2). National political their vulnerability to victimization, including from discourse and how immigrants are described by the those required to protect them, such as governments, mass media are seen as significant factors (Branton et legislative systems and the police. Negative stereo- al., 2011; Hopkins, 2011). types have been used by some governments at times as an ideological justification for restrictive and In general terms, immigration is often seen as exclusionary measures against migrants (Chacon, a worrying and destabilizing phenomenon: “the per- 2012). They are also associated with discrimination ception of risk and anxiety is based on a perceived within the criminal justice system. In France, for example, “Maghrebis” and “Blacks” are subject to more Box 3.2 factors associated with negative frequent and longer terms of imprisonment (Jobard & attitudes about immigrants Névanen, 2007).

 Attitudes to immigration closely correlate All of this also has an impact on one of the most with people’s perceptions about immigration’s important relationships at the local level: that economic impact on the nation. between the police and migrant communities. Police  Immigrants with no plans to work, or with relations, collaboration and communication with more dependents and low occupational status immigrant communities are often poor, and among are perceived of more negatively than others. those communities the reporting and witnessing of  Having more education is consistently correl- crimes discouraged, for fear of deportation. Faced ated with less restrictive immigration views. with victimization, an immigrant’s position becomes  Prejudice and ethnocentrism are consistently more vulnerable, which in turn helps to increase the associated with more negative attitudes to likelihood of racial profiling of migrant communities immigration, but the mechanisms are not clear. by the police (Davies & Fagan, 2012; Koper et al., 2013).  Individuals who overestimate the presence of immigrants in their country have more Most of the beliefs and myths concerning immi- negative attitudes. grants have been refuted by research, and there is

Source: Hainmueller & Hopkins (2013). increasing awareness that the positive contribution of immigrants to both their country of origin and of survey in five European countries 2013; Dustmann & Frattini, 2013). According to a the benefitsthey bringtothosesocieties (Dadush, the cost of immigrants to host societies is greater than with respect to less-qualified migrants, and whether local workers intermsof jobs andsalaries, especially topics arewhetherimmigration negatively affects tion in developed countries, two of the most sensitive As suggestedabove, inthepublicdebate onimmigra- countries ofdestination The contributionofmigrantstotheir & Scheja, 2011). tries oforigin(Beneriaetal., 2012;Ratha, Mohapatra and improve healthcareandeducation intheircoun- have helpedtodecreasepoverty andsocialinequality, purely financial. At the social level, for example, they However, migrantcontributions are much morethan countries (UNGA, 2011b). to reducethecostsoftransferring money between importance of remittances, calling on member states Bank, 2013a). A resolution of the UNGA recognizes the for poorcountries(UN, IOM, &UNFPA, 2013; World could beanalternative measureofdevelopment aid the IMFamongothershave arguedthat remittances official development assistance. The World Bankand Remittances are now nearly three times the size of the growth oftheirGNP(World Bank, 2013a). the externaldebtofcountriesconcerned, and to $414US billion: a sum that is key to managing Bank estimates that in 2013remittances amounted send money home(Beneriaetal., 2012). The World they tend to be temporary migrants more likely to significant contribution tolevels ofremittancessince tances. Women inparticular makeanincreasingly well-established, particularly inrelation toremit- countries oforigin, theeconomicbenefitsare very In terms ofthecontribution ofmigrantstotheir to theircountriesoforigin The contributionofmigrants outweigh thecosts The benefitsofimmigration market (Clemens, 2011). which would resultfromopeningup the world trade increase: anamountthat significantly exceedsthat developed countriesbenefiting fromonefifthofthe economy would grow by 50%to150%ofGNP, with migration were reduced, itisestimated that theglobal earlier, at thegloballevel, iftheobstaclestoeconomic destination is crucial for development. As indicated of Europeans, (58%intheUK), and57%of Americans 12 and the US, 34% positive inrelation totheemployment andsalaries workers withasimilar level oftraining islimited, and less-qualified migrants on theemployment oflocal 2009). workers (Van derMensbrugghe&Roland-Holst, produce atangibleincrease inthesalariesoflocal the otherhand, adecreaseinimmigration doesnot GNP ofdestination countries(Orefice, 2010). On agrees that highly qualifiedmigrantsincreasethe 2009; Peri, 2009). Ingeneraltheresearch literature citizens, or affecting the average salary (Ortega & Peri, countries, withoutmigrantstakingjobsaway from immigration increasedemployment inthedestination between 1980and2005inOECDcountriesshows that the local economy. A study of the impact of migration and thelongterm, migration contributes positively to Other studiessimilarly show that inboththeshort 2012). ageing population (Office for BudgetResponsibility, the GNP, without increasing expenses related to the in the UKwould increase futurefiscalrevenues and report which estimated that highimmigration rates A similarconclusionwas reached by aUKgovernment to attract highly skilledandeducated immigrants. tive. Itwas alsoevident that theUK had beenable population, whoseoverall contribution was nega- immigrants contributed morethantherestofUK in about2%morethanthey tookout. Inbothcases immigrants from outside the European region paid took out(Dustmann&Frattini, 2013). Inaddition, contributed 34%moretothefiscalsystemthanthey Economic Area over thetenyear period2001-2011 larly intense, migrantscomingfromtheEuropean these ideas. IntheUK, wherethisdebate isparticu - However, many contemporary studies contradict social services(seeFigure 3.8). regarded immigrantsasaburden ontheircountry’s from their citizens, while 53% and 63%, respectively were of the opinion that immigrants take jobs away Source: Transatlantic Trends (2011,p.15) the impactofimmigrationoneconomy(%) Figure 3.8 away fromcitizensof Immigrants takejobs down thesalariesof USA citizens ofthehost Immigrants bring Immigrants area burden forsocial Other studieshave shown that theimpactof the hostcountry Europe services European &Americanperceptionsof country

44% 53% 34% 57% 53% 63%

65 Chapter 3 Migration 66 of more highly skilled local workers (Cortes & Tessada, 2011). This can be explained by the fact that the Figure 3.9 Immigration flows and homicide economy absorbs newcomers by creating new work trends: US total, 1990-2004 (three-year averages) opportunities, and because workers from the host country are hired for jobs that require more highly 30,000 skilled workers (specialization).

As a number of people have argued, limiting the 20,000 discussion of the benefits of migration to employ- ment is too narrow: immigration also benefits society in many other ways economically and socially. For 10,000 example, less-qualified migrants help to reduce the cost of goods and services, such as food, homecare, 0 gardening and construction (Cortes, 2008). This type 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 of migration, in particular that of women, substitutes work in the home that is usually done by local women Homicides Immigration (in 100s)

(for example, childcare and housework) and allows Source: Sampson (2008, p. 29) greater numbers of local women to join the labour market (Benería et al., 2012; Cortes & Tessada, 2011). It is also widely accepted that a younger migrant population brings an increase in the birth rate and For example, those US cities with a high concentra- vitality to increasingly aging populations, as well as tion of immigrants have seen their homicide and contributing to pension funds which support that violent crime rates decrease (Kubrin & Ousey, 2009; population (Ambrosetti & Giudici, 2013; UN DESA, Zatz & Smith, 2012). This trend is more pronounced in 2001). American cities with the poorest neighbourhoods, and a longer history of immigration. This may be related to the fact that migrants are often received by relatives, Migrants: A protective factor against or arrive in neighbourhoods where they already have criminality connections, making social and economic integration easier. On the other hand, it may also be due to fear “A focus on crime is a distraction from the more of deportation (Lyons, Velez, & Santoro, 2013; Velez & important policy question of how to support the Lyons, 2012). substantial social capital that immigrants bring to this country. Immigrants breathe new life into many Overall, it is now recognized that immigration has a areas where they have settled and often (not always) revitalizing and protective effect on neighbourhoods have reduced crime rates as an added bonus.”13 and cities (MacDonald, Hipp, & Gill, 2013) (see Box 3.3). When newcomers settle in a neighbourhood, they As suggested above, another common public stereo- strengthen community relations and the local econ- type concerning migrants is that they are responsible omy, and support the development or revitalization of for increasing levels of crime in their country of community organizations such as churches, schools, destination. This has been widely refuted by research and associations providing cultural and immigrant which demonstrates, to the contrary, not only that services. This helps to reinforce social controls in a migrants are not responsible for increasing crime neighbourhood. This is in contrast to the traditional rates but can, in fact, reduce them (Velez & Lyons, view of classical criminology that associated the 2012; Zatz & Smith, 2012; Fassin, 2011; Martinez, arrival of immigrants with social disorganization, and Stowell, & Lee, 2010; Lee & Martinez, 2009; Sampson, the disintegration of community controls (Koper et al., 2008). Studies of the crime associated with large 2013; Lee & Martinez, 2009; Martinez et al., 2010). waves of immigration provide clear evidence that migrants contribute no more to criminal activity This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the than the existing populations themselves, and in migrant paradox (Vaughn et al., 2013; Wright & some cases much less (Baker et al., 2013; Solvietti, Rodriguez, 2012). When migrants do become involved 2012; Bell & Machin, 2012; Bell, Fasani & Machin, in crime, their rate of incarceration increases 2010). Some authors have even suggested that in the proportionally to their length of residence in the US since 1990, immigration may have been the most country. In the case of the US, as migrants become important factor in the decrease in violent crime rates increasingly Americanized, there is a greater likeli- in the country, and represents a key protective factor hood that they will end up in prison (Lee & Martinez, against criminality (Sampson, 2008) (see Figure 3.9). 2009). This effect might also explain why subsequent The criminalizationofmigrants hoods can lead to the revival of declining local The influxofmigrantstodisadvantaged neighbour 2009; Martinezetal., 2010). the community (Lyons etal., 2013;Lee&Martinez, grammes, andhelpstoattract outsideinvestment in residents, thepresenceofyouth intervention pro- development and reinforcement of networks among weak, itbecomeseasiertocontrolcrimethroughthe organization andinstitutionswhich may have become reinforcing andexpandingthe neighbourhood’s social social control(Feldmeyer, 2009;Lyons etal., 2013). By among neighbours, which helpstoreinforce informal by thepredominanceofclosetieswithinfamilies and The development ofsocialcohesioncanbeexplained Mucchielli, 2003). crime increase(Bersani, 2014;Lee&Martinez, 2009; begins todecrease, thefactors placingthemat riskof other words, whentheinhibitionfactor ofmigration involved in crime than their immigrant parents, in generations have agreater likelihoodofbecoming MacDonald etal., 2013). of deteriorating urbancentres(Lyons etal., 2013; with highersalaries, aswell astheredevelopment help thedevelopment ofnew localbusinesses andjobs economies, introducingnew consumers andcapital, neighbourhoods (Martinez,2010). and second,theytendtosettleinpoorer as such.” are notcriminalsperseand shouldnotbetreated is importanttoemphasizethat irregularmigrants against persons, propertyornational security. It criminal offences: they are not per se crimes irregular entryorstay shouldnever beconsidered offence insomecountries. Hewishestostressthat irregular entry andstay isconsidered acriminal “The SpecialRapporteurnoteswithconcernthat by twofactors:first, Martinez etal.,2010).Thiscanbeexplained theory (Koperetal.,2013;Lee&Martinez,2009; been referredtoasimmigrationrevitalization one ofthemostcommonfeatures.Thishas levels. Thereductionofcrimeandviolenceis neighbourhood, bothoneconomicandsocial is associatedwiththerevitalizationofthat of migrantsinaneighbourhooddecline According toanumberofstudies,thearrival Box 3.3 social andcommunity Immigration revitalizationtheory 14

migrants help to strengthen migrants helptostrengthen controlsandorganization;

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involved inthedetectionofillegalmigration (Darley, countries such as Austria andMalta themilitary, are guards and customs officials, the police, and in some but notacriminaloffence. Increasingly borderand have been considered to bean administrative error (Bazin, 2010, p. 27). Previously, irregular entry would during a meeting with an immigration official he/she fails toproduceanidentification document and intheUKanindividual canbeprosecutedif assisting irregularmigrants is a punishable offence, In France, for example, irregularentryaswell as such asItaly andGreece(UNGA, 2012;Bazin, 2010). recently begun to regard immigration as aproblem tion, such asFrance andtheUK, orthose, which have in countrieswhich have alongtraditionof immigra- cases the creation of criminal offences, including tion policiesover thepasttwenty years,some andin have resulted in the progressive toughening of migra Attempts tocontrolirregularmigration inparticular to prosecution offences tocriminalssubject Irregular migration:Fromstatus ing concern with high levels of incarceration, increas detention and incarceration of migrants is a major of international human rights law (UNGA, 2012). The and theunjustifieddetentionofmigrantsabreach to irregularmigration asanew ‘victimless crime’, This hasledtheinternational community torefer deported (Lightetal., 2014). are beingsentencedtofederal imprisonmentorbeing US, anincreasingnumberofundocumented migrants 2008; Fischer &Darley, 2010;LaCIMADE, 2012). Inthe undocumented migrants, including theprovision Box 3.4). The benefits of recognizing the rights of frequently detained in unsuitable conditions (see on theHumanRightsofMigrants notesthey are not bekeptinprisons, and astheSpecialRapporteur 2012). Migrants inadministrative detentionshould frequently beingreported(UNGA, 2012;LaCIMADE, and detention(McAdam, 2013;ECRE, 2013). asylum seekersareincreasingly subjecttocontrols prosecution) (Palidda, 2009, p. 11). Many refugeesand use ofhandcuffs, interrogation, incarceration and proceedings, withalltheassociated trappings(the to administrative detentionandsometimescriminal trative, civil orcriminalcodes. They becomesubject a periodoftimeincountry, ofbreaching adminis- guilty ofstatus offences at thepointofentry, orafter 2003; Palidda, 2009). Many migrantsfindthemselves Bigo, 2012;denBoer, 2008;Fassin, 2011;Mucchielli, especially in developed countries (McAdam, 2013; 1990s, migration hasbeenincreasingly criminalized, There isageneralconsensusthat sincetheendof length of detention, and very poor conditions - -

67 Chapter 3 Migration 68 2013; Ambrosetti and Guindici, 2013), helping the Box 3.4 Places of detention of migrants revitalization of communities and local economies,

 Prisons and in many cases reducing rates of crime. There are  Police stations huge benefits to countries of origin through remit-  Dedicated immigration detention centres tances, which are estimated to be three times the  Unofficial migration detention centres size of development assistance. Migration has been  Military bases described by the World Bank’s Chief Economist for  Private security company compounds Africa as a mechanism for structural transformation  Abandoned warehouses (Devarajan, 2013).  Airports  Ships etc. The importance of “open migration” policies and a focus on the human rights of migrants are increas- Source: UNGA (2012, para. 34) ingly stressed at the international level. The next section reviews international legal instruments which of services, are receiving increasing attention, and are uphold the rights of migrants, and the final section considered later in the chapter. The contribution by reviews programmes and policies which promote the Sarah Spencer Granting access to services to undocu- integration of migrants and their host communities, mented migrants at the end of this chapter examines including at the local level. developments in European cities.

International, regional and national The externalization of borders developments

The externalization of borders is another current aspect of migration control. It refers to the develop- International norms and standards ment of mechanisms by developed countries such as the US, Australia and in Europe to place greater While always a topic of concern, migration has responsibility for the management and monitoring received increasing international attention since 1990, of borders on countries of origin or transit, such as with the adoption of the International Convention on those in Asia, the Caribbean or Sub-Saharan Africa the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers (McAdam, 2013; Audebert & Robin, 2009). This is not and Members of Their Families (Resolution 45/158) only a matter of transferring borders or responsibil- by the UNGA.16 Subsequently a mandate for the ity. Those countries may have legislative frameworks Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants which offer fewer protections to migrants than those was created in 1999 by the Commission on Human in the North. They also reduce the fiscal and social Rights.17 The 2000 Protocol against the Smuggling of costs to countries of intended destination (Audebert Migrants by Land, Sea and Air provides guidelines to & Robin, 2009; Choplin, 2010; MIGREUROP, 2011). combat and prevent the smuggling of ‘human cargo’, emphasizing that migration itself is not a crime, and Externalization takes place in three ways: that migrants may be victims in need of protection.  Through the border control of zones with a special Similarly, the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and legislative framework on a country’s border (waiting Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women areas), or in national waters (on ships); and Children, has implications for people who may  By monitoring international waters and any become illegal migrant victims. external territories controlled by the destination country; and No single UN agency is responsible for safeguard-  By instituting migration controls in the countries of ing the legal framework on migration and this has origin and transit, which must accept the presence been identified as a concern (Betts, 2011; Newland, of agents from the destination countries, such as 2010; UN, IOM & UNFPA, 2013). ILO, for example, FRONTEX, for example.15 is the only agency with a constitutional mandate to protect migrants, but only in relation to labour issues Externalization may be accompanied by the construc- (UN, IOM & UNFPA, 2013). A growing number of UN tion of detention, incarceration and interrogation agencies and international institutions now work on centres intended even for individuals who have not the issue, and developments have helped to advance yet attempted to migrate (Choplin, 2010; EPIM, 2011). discussion and cooperation across Member States. This has included reports, resolutions, international The criminalization of migrants may in the end be campaigns, efforts to collect and standardize data, counterproductive, given that the benefits of migra- a High-Level Dialogue mechanism, and commissions tion are considerable. As discussed above, they (see Box 3.5). include rebalancing the age range of countries (OECD, rights asotherworkers. domestic workers, guaranteeing them the same basic instrument establishingglobal labourstandardsfor Domestic Workersfor. Itisthefirstmultilateral of theILOConvention ConcerningDecent Work primarily women, was recognizedwith theadoption In 2011, theplightofmigrantdomesticworkers,    underline that: Key recommendations emergingfromtheseinitiatives

There is a need to strengthen international, regional protection ofmigrants; There isaneedtoreinforce theframework for the ment strategies, since migrants make positive of the development agenda and national develop- International migration shouldbeanintegralpart and localcooperation oninternational migration. when theirrightsareprotected; contributions tocountriesoforiginanddestination      initiatives onmigration Box 3.5

in migration-relatedactivities. to ensurethathigh-levelagenciesareinvolved Global CommissiononInternationalMigration in responsetoarecommendationofthe was establishedbytheUNSecretary-General link todevelopment. migrants andcountries,onitsimportant the benefitsofinternationalmigrationfor held tostrengthencollaborativeeffortson In 2013,thesecondHigh-LevelDialoguewas In 2006,theGlobalMigrationGroup(GMG) development-related issues. to addressinternationalmigrationand Development asavenueforgovernments of theGlobalForumonMigrationand impacts onmigrants.Thisledtothecreation development benefitsandminimizenegative UNGA washeldtodiscusshowmaximize In 2006,thefirstHigh-LevelDialogueof to migrationissues. and toprovideacomprehensiveresponse among UNandotherinternationalagencies, UN Secretary-Generaltoimprovecooperation International Migrationwaslaunchedbythe In 2003,theGlobalCommissionon movements, andfacilitatepolicydiscussion. migration, shareinformationonpopulation UNODC) todiscusswaysofmanaging agencies (i.e.ILO,UNCTAD, UNHCR,UNHCHR, Group tobringtogethertheheadsofmajorUN In 2003,theIOMsetupGenevaMigration Some examplesofinternational 19 and 18

They urge themto protect migrants from violence and vulnerable (e.g. women, children, thedisabled, etc.). (regular orirregular), includingtherightsofmost protect migrantsandtheirrightsdespitestatus agenda. tive oninternational migration inthepost-2015 supports theintegration ofahumanrightsperspec- promote thehumanrightsofmigrants, for example, of humanrights, ways including andmeansto General’s 2013reportPromotionandprotection post-2015 agenda(UNFPA, 2013). The UNSecretary- that migration isgiven fullconsideration inthe UNPFA andotherUNagenciesareworking toensure criminalized migrantwomen. measures to ensure the protection of the rights of Bangkok Rules)adoptedby theUNin2010, include Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders(the UN Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and smuggling andhumantrafficking. Inaddition, the crime, aswell asaddressingissuesoforganizedcrime, 2013d). The revisions encourageMemberStates to Development (Resolution 67/219) (UNGA, 2013a, 2013c, (Resolution 67/185);andInternationalMigration and migrants, migrant workers andtheirfamilies Promoting efforts to eliminateviolenceagainst include Protectionofmigrants (Resolution67/172); tion have recently beenrevised andadopted. They their conditionsofreception andacceptanceacross tions standardising thedefinition of asylum seeker, violations andsanctions; anddirectives andregula (2011) definingminimum rules for humantrafficking asylum seekers. directives andregulations onhumantrafficking and Since 2010, theEuropeanUnionhasadopted several ‘combating’ illegalmigration. ments between developed and African countrieson migration; at themostthey amount tobilateral agree institutional andlegislative frameworks governing legislation. In Africa, however, few countrieshave example, have been active in adopting and revising issues. BoththeOAS andtheEuropeanUnion, for legislation andtheprioritization ofmigration-related There arecleardisparitiesacross regionsintermsof Regional developments of smuggled migrants. smuggling, while protecting the lives and safety increase theircooperation andcapacitiestoprevent the smuggling of migrants which urges states to criminal justice responses to prevent and counter on Prevention andCriminalJustice adoptedaresolution A number of UN resolutions relating to migra Strengthening international cooperation and 21 InMay 2014theCommissiononCrime 23 They includedirective 2011/36/EU 22 20

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69 Chapter 3 Migration 70 the EU, and improving their protections.24 A significant Africa remains the region where the majority of development in 2010, was the adoption of the Zaragoza countries do not have a clear immigration policy. Asia Declaration by EU ministers, on immigrant integration has the greatest number of countries with national policy. This has led to the development of a number policies favouring the reduction of immigration. In of core indicators in the areas of employment, educa- Europe countries such as France and the UK have tion, social inclusion and active citizenship, to aid policies to reduce immigration, however, one quarter, the monitoring and evaluation of integration policies. in particular the Eastern European countries, Finland and Sweden, have adopted policies that promote In 2013, the OAS adopted two important conventions: regular immigration. the Inter-American Convention Against Racism, Racial Discrimination and Related Intolerance; and the Inter-American Convention Against All Forms of Migrant integration policies Discrimination and Intolerance (OAS, 2013a, 2013b). and programmes The first is a revised version of the UN’s International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965). It calls on Member States to National migrant integration policies prevent, eradicate, prohibit and punish all forms of racism, multiple or aggravated discrimination, and As the first part of this chapter discussed, there are intolerance (Amnesty International France, 2013; OAS, very strong arguments for promoting the integration 2013a, 2013b). Both conventions include migrants of migrants. An increasing number of studies show and refugees, and the second convention is seen as the effectiveness of integration policies for both ground-breaking as the first international convention immigrants and their host countries, and since 2005, to condemn all forms of discrimination irrespective of developed countries have increasingly adopted such migratory status. policies. Currently, 91% of developed countries have migrant integration policies (UN DESA, 2013d).

National developments: Globally, however, in 2011 only 45% of all countries Migrant regulation policies reported that they had a migrant integration policy (UN DESA, 2013c) (Figure 3.11). Further, 39% of Latin In 2011, 87% of countries in the world had a policy American and Caribbean countries, 36% of Asian concerning regular immigration (UN DESA, 2013d). countries and 20% of African countries were in a Among them, 60% were concerned with maintaining similar situation, (with many countries in Africa and levels of regular immigration, 16% with reducing it, Oceania providing no information). Considering the and 11% with increasing it (see Figure 3.10). Since 1996 increase in South-South migration in recent years, the percentage of countries concerned with reducing the absence of policies promoting integration in regular immigration has decreased significantly (from developing countries is of concern. 40% in 1996 to 16% in 2011), while the percentage implementing policies to increase regular immigra- tion has risen from 4% to 11% (UN DESA, 2013d).

Figure 3.10 global immigration policies (in percentages*)

World 16% 60% 11% 13% 1%

Oceania 94% 6%

NA** 100%

Europe 11% 64% 25%

Asia 28% 55% 15% 2%

LAC*** 12% 79% 3 6%

Africa 19% 37% 2% 41% 2%

Reduce * Percentages roundedup & in some cares exceed 100% Maintain No intervention ** North America Increase No information *** Latin America and the Caribbean Source: UNHCR (2013, p. 14) (Perchinig, 2012;Rinne, 2012). Many integration offered on arrival or in some cases prior to arrival most commonly usedintegration programmes, often and customs, andlanguage courses, appeartobethe Introductory coursesonthe hostcountry’s culture where most migrants initially settle (Haque, 2010). not addressed, especially in disadvantaged areas if poverty, discrimination and social exclusion are on good social interaction, and will fail to be effective predictors ofsuccessfulintegration, but they depend language acquisition would appear to be the strongest & Walter, 2013;Rinne, 2012). Overall, employment and associations (Bosswick &Heckmann, 2006;Butschek and citizenship, andtherecognitionof immigrant tificational integration promotingmulticulturalism religious practices and sporting activities; and guage training, andsupportfor immigrant cultures, participation; health, and thepromotionofcivic andpolitical supports for education andtraining, housingand as labour and migrant entrepreneurship policies, programmes intermsofstructural integration, such Other commentators have classifiedintegration rights andcitizenshipofmigrants. and stability. All oftheserestonthefoundation ofthe including languageandculturalknowledge, andsafety communities andgroups, andaidedby facilitators by mechanisms toincreasesocial connectionsbetween employment, housing, education and health, supported UK in 2008 defines the core integration domains as tual framework developed by Ager and Strang in the 2008; Bosswick & Heckmann, 2006). parameters (Strang& Ager, 2010; Ager andStrang, tent ofintegration policiesgenerally covers similar by national governments indifferent ways, thecon society ismuch debated, andhasbeeninterpreted While the concept of the integration of migrants into Components ofintegrationpolicies migrantintegrationpolices(inpercentages*) Figure 3.11 Oceania LAC*** Europe Noinformation Yes No World Africa NA** Asia 7% 13% cultural integration includinglan- 28% 32% 36% *** LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean ** NorthAmerica * Percentagesroundedup&insomecaresexceed100% 45% 25% 25 A useful concep iden- 20% - - participate canresult inthewithdrawal ofsocial 2008). The plans arecompulsory, andfailure to work or enrols as a student (Hämäläinen & Sarvimäki, etc. The plansendwhenthemigrant gainsfull-time counselling, rehabilitation, practical work experience preparatory and professional training courses, career plans canincludelanguage skillsassessment, (Sarvimäki & Hämäläinen, 2010, p. 2). Integration ate given thecircumstances ofeach immigrant” that acaseworker believes tobethemostappropri- plans consistofindividualized sequencesoftraining for unemployed immigrants is a good example: “These mandatory. Finland’s personalized integration plan Some migrantemployment programmesmay be Box 3.7). subsidies andprofessional orvocational training(see challenge for migrants– such as providing business to belabourmarketintegration programmes–amajor Some ofthemosteffective programmeswould appear summary. the locallevel. Box3.6below provides amoredetailed tutions; and developing multi-sector partnerships at developing bondsbetween individuals, groupsorinsti working with immigrants, or the general public; those migrant communities; employers andorganizations those targeting individual immigrants and families, or 2006). The kinds of approaches showing success include presence (Haque, 2010; Ager andStrang, 2008;Spencer, and receiving communities torespondpositively totheir have had some success in enabling migrants to prosper, indicate that some types of policies and programmes has beenquitelimited, but international reviews The evaluation ofintegration policiesandprogrammes or placement. may beuniversal programmessuch asjobtraining to meettheneedsofmigrantpopulations, but some policies and programmes are specifically designed 100% 86% 45%

49% 36% 63% 48% Source: UNDESA(2013c) 27% 19% 15% 7% -

71 Chapter 3 Migration 72 Box 3.6 Integration interventions showing some evidence of success26 A Interventions focused on migrants and migrant groups:  Providing information to migrants before and after their arrival, on rights and responsibilities and where to get advice.  Language training and support services.  Structured assessment, induction and on-going support services, particularly in terms of language acquisition, training, jobs, health care, housing, etc.  Capacity building for migrant community organizations, to help them develop relationships and build connections with larger social networks.

B Interventions focused on employers, agencies, or the public:  Providing information and consulting with local communities, adults and schools to prepare them for new arrivals and listen to their concerns.  Using myth-busting strategies especially providing information to the press to counteract misinformation.  Providing information to front-line service providers on specific migrant needs, entitlements and cultural backgrounds.  Adapting mainstream services to meet the particular needs of migrant groups.  Training service providers in mainstream services.  Appointment of specialist staff e.g. teachers, health visitors, interpreters.  Appointment of staff from newly arrived communities.

C Interventions that build bridges between individuals, groups and institutions:  Encouraging service providers to reach out to migrants.  Encouraging service providers to introduce migrants to their neighbours and community.  Support strategies such as mentoring, befriending and hosting programmes, in particular those supported by volunteers.  Migrant volunteering.  Using conflict prevention and resolution approaches.

D Interventions based on partnership working:  Inclusive local partnerships between government agencies and local community organizations providing joined-up services from a common source, and with shared objectives. This approach has been found to enhance the capacity to deliver appropriate services.

Sources: Adapted from Spencer (2006); Ager & Strang (2008).

security benefits. An evaluation shows that the plans Mentoring Programme for Women in Denmark, set up increase training opportunities and the migrant’s in 2003 to address professional and social isolation chances of finding a job, and ultimately reduce among immigrant women.27 The programme creates their dependency on social benefits (Sarvimäki & links between immigrant women and female volun- Hämäläinen, 2010). teers born in Denmark with experience in domestic work (Haque, 2010). The programme helps women Migrant support strategies are also frequently used find suitable jobs, acquire relevant skills, and develop to aid individual and family integration and prevent contacts. Some 3,200 mentoring arrangements have exclusion (Vine, Holmes & Marra, 2012). Variously been completed, and the model has been adopted in referred to as coaching, mentoring, tutoring, sponsor- several developing countries (KVINFO, 2014). Another ship, pairing or befriending programmes, they usually example is the Health Befriending Network set up involve a volunteer working with a migrant or family, by the UK Refugee Council in 2011.28 The project is a to facilitate integration into a community, workplace, volunteer befriending system for refugees and asylum school etc. (Boulard, 2012; Spencer, 2006). seekers to help them access health care and social services (Alimeta, 2012). Mentoring strategies have been successfully imple- mented in a number of countries, primarily in relation As discussed earlier, one of the most pressing problems to integrating migrants into the labour market, but is the vulnerability of migrants to victimization, and also accessing healthcare services and education poor relations between migrants and the police. Some (Bittmann, 2011; Haque, 2010; Sild Lönroth, 2007; municipalities and police departments have developed Zalaquett & Lopez, 2006). An example is the KVINFO initiatives to improve trust in migrant populations Zealand Police website isavailable in11languages, partnerships acrosssectorsandwithcivil society: a comprehensive approach, andespecially working in integration isavery complexprocesswhich demands of integration programmes, itisarguedthat migrant Overall, despite the benefits and success of certain types approaches, discrimination, orspecificincidentsetc. different migrant communities todiscusspolicing diverse communities. They holdregularmeetingswith positive racerelations, andhave built networks with linguistic diversity, areinvolved inevents promoting In addition, thepolicereceive trainingon cultural and for itstelephone-based services(theLanguageLine). and thepoliceprovide interpretation into39languages one oftheprinciplechallenges has developed an EthnicStrategy, and (see Box3.8). The New ZealandPolice, for example, organizations such as theCouncilofEuropesince way process, and while this has been emphasized by the media and general public. Integration is a two- employers, public services, business communities, migrants but alsoonthereceiving communities – It alsorequiresafocus notjustontheneeds of better outcomes.” is commonly found tobesignificant indelivering Inter-agency co-operation and information sharing integration experience, islikely tobemosteffective. joined-up approach, reflecting the reality of the address only onefacet ofintegration, aholistic, “While many initiatives have been introduced to Sources: Rinne(2012);Card,Kluve,&Weber (2010). conclusions arestillunderdiscussion. of migrantsinthelabourmarket.However, these sector seemtohavenoeffectontheintegration temporary workprogrammesinthepublicservice training programmesappeartobeeffective,while anonymous jobapplications.Inthelongterm, followed byassistanceprogrammesand businesses appeartobethemosteffective, term, employmentsubsidyprogrammesfor job searchassistanceprogrammes.Intheshort and subsidizedworkinthepublicsector, and business employmentsubsidies,temporary a whole.Theymayincludetrainingprogrammes, target notonlymigrants,butthepopulationas In mostcases,theyareglobalpoliciesthat particularly duringatimeofeconomiccrisis. improve thechancesoffindingemployment, These areinterventionpoliciesthataimto market programmesattempttorespondto. market isamajorconcernwhichactivelabour The poorparticipationofmigrantsinthelabour Box 3.7 Active LabourMarketProgrammes 30

is language. recognizes that 29

The New

governments arenot. They arealso responsiblefor migration onadaily basis inaway which national Local governments arefaced withtherealities of Local governmentintegrationpolicies target ofintegration (Strang& Ager, 2010). the generalpublictosee migrants astheprinciple 1998, thereisstillatendency for national policiesand associations: Dialogue betweenthepoliceandimmigrant towards thepolicewithinmigrantcommunities. campaigns aimtoreducefearandprejudice the crimepreventionworkofpolice.The about thecountry’s criminalandcivillaws, of concerntomigrants,andprovideinformation These informationcampaignsfocusontopics on policeservices: Information campaignsformigrants cultures andaresensitizedtomigrantrealities. police officersreceivetrainingonmigrant provides aspaceforexchange.Inaddition, workshops forbothpoliceandmigrants Engage inDialogueprogramme,whichoffers of FrankfurtdevelopedthePoliceandMigrants with interculturalissues.Forexample,thecity and trainingofspecialpoliceunitsthatdeal by migrants;police-migrantdiscussiongroups; including: coursesteachinglanguagesspoken increase policesensitivityandinterculturalskills There areseveralprogrammesdesignedto Intercultural educationforpoliceofficers: between thepoliceandmigrantcommunities localpoliciestoimproverelations Box 3.8 with theproblemswe have every day.” “...the national government does not have to bother nuanced thanthenational modelwould suggest.” tial constraints, develop theirown approaches more reality andmunicipal authorities, withinsubstan- “It isat thelocallevel that integration modelsmeet Source: Lüken-Klaßen&Heckmann(2010) concerns regarding policing. by providingavenueforcommunitiestoexpress religious backgrounds.Thegoalistobuildtrust neighbourhoods andofvariousethnic police andcommunityleadersfromvarious Wales, whichentailsmeetingsbetweenthe Community LiaisonmeetingsinNewport, An exampleistheGwentPoliceBME migrants’ leveloftrustinthelocalgovernment. This typeofstrategyisintendedtoincrease 32 31 73 Chapter 3 Migration 74 many aspects of local housing, health, employment, programme model.36 The EU Zaragoza Declaration of and for ensuring public safety and good community 2010 which resulted in a pilot programme to develop relations. The contribution on Children’s safety in common indicators of migrant integration initiated migrant Johannesburg at the end of the chapter by Eurostat, similarly aids cities in assessing their describes some of the difficulties and challenges progress.37 encountered in implementing an imaginative col- laborative local plan to respond to the huge issues In developing integration policies cities require arising from undocumented migration in that city. some level of political, legal and financial autonomy, so that they can meet the needs of specific migrant A growing number of initiatives support municipal communities, and groups such as women, children migrant integration policies. They include networks or the disabled. They need flexibility in order to be such as CLIP in Europe,33 the Canadian-based Cities responsive to particular problems and make changes of Migration, and the UK-based Migration Integration in a timely fashion (Lüken-Klaßen & Heckmann, 2010; Policy Index (MIPEX).34 They offer a range of indices, Quirico & Caponio, 2012; Bosswick & Heckmann, guidelines and tools for local governments. For 2006). As cities grow in size, decentralization is example, Cities of Migration highlights the lessons increasingly taking place. In some countries, the gained by local leaders on developing migration inte- decentralization of national integration policies has gration policies at the city level (see Box 3.9). supported the development of city-level initiatives. In the UK, London is one example of a city where In Europe in 2008, the Council of Europe adopted authority over migrant integration policy and pro- the White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue, which grammes has been decentralized (see Box 3.10). it defines as an: “open and respectful exchange of views between individuals, groups with different As discussed earlier in this chapter, immigration can ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic backgrounds reinvigorate local communities both economically and heritage on the basis of mutual understand- and socially. It has been shown that cities which ing and respect” (Wood, 2009, p. 19). In the same specifically support “favourable immigrant political year the Intercultural Cities Programme (ICC) was opportunities” such as pro-immigrant legislation, or launched as a pilot to assess the impact of migra- the election of minority councillors, also facilitate the tion in European cities, and promote the benefits of process of neighbourhood revitalization, and a sense diversity and its social and economic advantages of attachment and ownership in communities (Lyons, (Wood, 2009).35 Numerous cities have subsequently Velez, & Santoro, 2013). They help to build trust developed an Intercultural City Strategy based on the between migrant communities and public officials.

Box 3.9 Recommendations for local governments on migrant integration 1. Recognize the important role that you play in immigrant integration. 2. Develop immigration and integration strategies that recognize your city is competing for immigrants. 3. Embed principles of diversity and equality in all city policies and activities. Put measures in place to hold yourself accountable. 4. Encourage the mayor to become a public champion for immigrant integration. 5. Ensure that immigrants, including non-citizens, can participate in democratic processes. Establish multiple ways for all residents to participate in city governance, and advocate for the right to vote for all city residents. 6. Replicate or adapt approaches that have proven successful in other cities, including new, smaller and emerging immigrant gateways. 7. Target initiatives to multiple demographic groups with similar needs and experiences. 8. Adopt good client service practices from the private and community sectors. 9. Provide city services in many languages. 10. Lead by example and set the new standard for inclusive hiring practices. 11. Use your procurement power to facilitate opportunities for immigrant business owners and immigrant-friendly businesses. 12. Promote immigrant entrepreneurship as a route to economic integration and to prosperity for all city residents. 13. Look to public spaces as facilitators and indicators of integration. 14. Set targets and measure the impact of your programmes and services, using international benchmarks where appropriate.

Source: Cities of Migration (2012, pp. 23-25) new mayor, electedin 2013, haspromisedtocontinue of victimsdomestic violencearealsoavailable. The services andbusiness subsidies, andtheprotection education, language acquisition, access to legal migrants. A series of progressive measures covering notify immigration authorities about undocumented government over therequirement that localpolice 3.11). The cityendedcooperation withthefederal Affairs withresponsibilityfor allmigrants(seeBox tive, establishingtheMayor’s Officeof Immigrant New York, for example, hasbeenparticularly innova- services for regularandirregularmigrants. The cityof In theUS, anumberofcitiesnow specifically provide mented migrants, apartfromhumanrights concerns. substantial benefits of providing services to undocu irrespective ofmigrantstatus, inrecognitionofthe have beguntodevelop migrantintegration strategies exclude undocumentedmigrants. Inrecentyears, cities at theinternational, regional, national andlocallevel It isimportanttonotethat many integration initiatives Services forundocumentedmigrants Sources: Quirico&Caponio(2012);Phillimore(2012) migrant communities. quality oflifeforlocalpeople–bothhostand migrants, andtofindsolutionsimprovethe local concernssuchaslackofhousingfornew migrant andothercivilsocietygroupstoidentify municipal officials,theprivatesector, and strategic partnershipswhichbringtogether to theircontext.Someboroughshavesetup develop theirownapproacheswhichrespond boroughs andcommunities,toenablethem policies thatshifttheresponsibilitytoindividual communities, sothecitypromoteslocalized each withuniqueanddiversemigrant London ismadeupofanumberboroughs language. that primarilyfocusesonlearningtheEnglish much morecomplexthanthenationalframework child welfare,andcommunitydevelopment.Itis acquisition, housing,employment,healthcare, integration frameworkthatincludeslanguage strategy. Thecityputinplaceamultidimensional London todevelopitsownmigrantintegration the nationaltoregionallevel,whichprompted transfer ofmigrantintegrationprogrammesfrom policy-making autonomy. In2006,therewasa is considereda“region”andhasconsiderable 40% ofmigrantsintheUK.Duetoitssize,city A highlydiversecity, Londonishometoabout programmes inLondon localizationofmigrantintegration Box 3.10 -

in 2013, theprogramme brings together 20UScities for ImmigrantIntegration programme. active inrelated initiatives such astheBlueprints to health care services. New York City has also been have adriver’s license, andensuringthey have access including undocumentedmigrants, allowing themto as a universal city identification card for all residents the existingpolicy andprovide new protectionssuch www.nyc.gov/html/imm/html/home/home.shtml The Officehasfourobjectives: with irregularstatus. municipal servicesformigrants,includingthose life ofthecity. Itfocusesprimarilyonaccessto immigrants inthecivic,economicandcultural that facilitatetheeffectiveintegrationof by recommendingpublicpolicyandprogrammes promote thewelfareofimmigrantcommunities integration ofimmigrants.Itsmandateisto a NewYork Cityagencyresponsibleforthe The Mayor’s OfficeofImmigrantAffairsis Affairs ofNewY Box 3.11 Source: TheMayor’s OfficeofImmigrantAffairsNew York website,see    

as anannualevent). Immigrant HeritageWeek wasestablished maintaining theirheritage(e.g. in2004,the contributions ofimmigrants tothecityand Coordinate programmescelebratingthe access tobenefits. Immigrant JuvenileStatus,whichgivesthem order toassesstheiradmissibilityforSpecial children inthefamilyplacementsystem, to improvetheidentificationofundocumented Immigrant Affairshavedevelopedasystem for Children’s ServicesanditsOfficeof integration process.Thecity’s Administration that theycanbecomekeyresourcesinthe national andinternationalagencies,so agencies, communitypartnersandlocal, assistance andinformationtomunicipal Provide technicalsupportbyoffering agencies andtheimmigrantcommunity. and promotecollaborationbetweenmunicipal immigrant communitiestodevelop,maintain, Establish strategicpartnershipswith to publicservices. includes allowingirregularmigrantsaccess regarding immigrationstatus.Inpractice,that protect allinformation,includinginformation confidentiality policyrequirescityofficialsto and services.Forexample,theOffice’s and bypromotingthecity’s programmes implementing publiceducationpolicies services forNewYork’s immigrantsby Guarantee andimproveaccesstomunicipal The Mayor’s OfficeofImmigrant ork 38 Established

75 Chapter 3 Migration 76 to discuss best practices in immigrant integration. to reduce rates of crime and violence. Countries of Open source tools and information about New York origin, while experiencing a “brain drain”, often benefit City and other cities’ experiences have since been through remittances and the increased skills and made available. education gained by migrants. It has been estimated that remittances amount to three times the amount In Europe, it would appear that cities are often act- of development assistance received by those coun- ing independently of national or regional policies on tries. This is why migration has been characterized undocumented migrants, going beyond what they as a mechanism for structural transformation. are required to provide in terms of access to services and programmes. This is on both humanitarian and Nevertheless, fears and prejudices about migra- human rights grounds, but also in terms of public tion persist, and migrants are often subjected to health, recognizing that undocumented migrants like discrimination, racism and exclusion in their new everyone else need access to health care. A new study countries and communities. This affects women and of the granting of access to services to undocumented men in different ways. Their migratory experiences, migrants by European cities is in its final stages. The the kinds of work they undertake, and the risks contribution by Sarah Spencer at the end of this chapter to which they are subject or often quite different, Granting access the services for undocumented and this requires data collection and policies and migrants, summarizes some of the findings. programmes which take account of their situations.

Migrant integration involves daily interaction and The international community has worked hard to takes place primarily in an urban and local context. establish international norms and standards on the It appears that there is growing recognition of the human rights of migrants, regardless of how they instrumental role that cities play in migrant integra- come to arrive in a country. “Open migration” policies tion where their responsiveness and receptiveness to are seen as an important and rational response. migrants can foster social cohesion, trust in public At the national and the local level it has been argued institutions, and civic and political participation. that there is an urgent need – and an opportunity – There are also an increasing number of studies and to “change the conversation” – to show the benefits tools that aim to guide local authorities in taking on of well managed migration policies for cities, and to this responsibility, and local-level migrant integration develop context related policies and programmes for programmes and policies are gaining attention in men, women and children which promote integration certain regions. With growing interest in migrant inte- and recognize and encourage host communities to gration, the growth of urban areas, and the ongoing take part in that process. Integration is a “two-way phenomenon of migration, cities around the world will process” and involves much more than programmes increasingly be at the fore-front in shaping the way targeting migrants alone. Many countries have imple- migrant and host communities adapt to one another mented policies which foster economic integration as and co-exist. well as social and cultural diversification, to train service providers, and work with local communities to change attitudes and understanding. At the local Conclusion level, where the impacts of migration are experienced on a daily basis, an increasing number of cities, as The migration of people has become a defining aspect well as sub-regional governments, have demonstrated of the 21st century which challenges all countries to their willingness to develop plans which encour- respond in a way which recognizes the benefits for all age migration and provide services to all migrants, concerned. Both internal and international migration including those who are undocumented. continues to increase the size of cities, and movement between countries in the South is now as common as that from the South to the North. The numbers of women and children migrating continues to rise, as do the numbers forced to flee their countries as refugees and asylum seekers as a result of conflict.

It is clear that there are considerable benefits to countries which receive migrants and to their countries of origin. Not least, in many developed countries, migrants are of crucial importance in helping to rejuvenate them and rebalance the range of ages. At the local level they help to revitalize the social, cultural and economic life of communities. In many cases they have been responsible for helping (City ofJohannesburg, 2007). health services in the inner city is a severe challenge delivery ofsafety, social, education, development and and thecityiscongested hardtonavigate. The waste managementareundersignificant pressure surrounding townships andsuburbs. Sanitation and taxis bringinat leastanother500,000 peoplefrom and hard toregulate. Every day over 20,000 minibus much ofthebusiness andtrade conductedisinformal formal businesses have moved outoftheinner city; confidence in recourse to institutional support. Many particularly vulnerabletoneglectandabuse, without education andinclusion. Undocumentedchildren are schools (Osman, 2009), withlanguageabarrierto immigrants and children experience xenophobia in 2001; Murray, 2008). Localsareoften hostiletowards amongst immigrants from different countries (Simone, cultural and multi-lingual andthereis little cohesion Johannesburg, 2011, p. 18). The population is multi- than 500,000 people, many undocumented(Cityof the citycentreisnow hometoanestimated more Developed and evolved as a thriving business hub, than 130 Infrastructure intheinnercity, althoughless networks. undocumented andexcludedfromformal support not qualify for permanent residence and so remain 2010). Many migrantchildren borninSouth Africa do Eastern Cape(Forced Migration StudiesProgramme, greatest correspondingdecreaseinpopulation inthe Johannesburg than international migration, with the to thepresenceofmigrantchildren inGautengand migration internally in South Africa contributes more and migrants in the region. Research suggests that the thousandsofundocumentedasylumseekers and deportations, but thisdoesnotaccountfor can betracked throughrefugeestatus, work permits Studies Programme, 2010, p. 2). International migration are undocumentedinthecountry(Forced Migration lar andoftenunlawful, andbecausemany children often misleading”, becausethemovement isirregu- children is “poorly collected, weakly analyzed, and Africa andtherestof Africa. Data onmigration of Johannesburg attracts migrants from all over South Background and EmmaHoltmann Barbara Holtmann migrant Johannesburg Children’s safetyin years old, is tired and over-burdened. 39

and poverty andskillsdevelopment. tions, foster care, counselling, relieffromviolence p. 8). The organization’s social workers facilitate adop Contribution infrastructure, service delivery, acultureofcaring comprises adiverse range ofoutcomes, including the inner city” (Holtmann, 2011). It is systemic and like whenit’s fixed” for a “bestlife for every child in The collective vision was articulated as “what it looks and sustainablesystemictransformation. promote mutually supportive integrated interventions, on partnershipswithawiderangeofstakeholders, to System methodology prompts ashared visionbased Social Transformationexercise.consultative The positioning theCityasaprimarypartnerin range ofstakeholdersfromacitydepartments, cess includedtheparticipation ofamulti-disciplinary around theOldDrillHalland Thembalethu. This pro- to thecomplexityofsystemicchallenges inand tative planningprocesstobuild strategies torespond In 2012Jo’burg Child Welfare commissionedaconsul visibly filthy. ance andfixturesarebroken walls andfloors suffer asaresultofpoor managementandmainten- vehicles that hinderaccess. The buildings themselves and isofteninhabitedby intoxicated peopleandby by aninformal business sellingtemporaryparking, the streetsoutside. The gardenhasbeenappropriated unhygienic food preparation by informal traderson waste managementandcleantoiletstheoften- with litter, smells as a result of the lack of proper and supportofchildren. The siteisdirty, cluttered site is not an environment conducive to the protection Johannesburg annually (Jo’burg Child Welfare, 2013, close to70,000vulnerablechildren inandaround Organization (NPO)which respondstotheneedsof Jo’burg Child Welfare isaSouth African Non-Profit ences ahighvolume ofroadtraffic. The OldDrillHall developmental children’s services. The siteexperi- by aloosely connectedgroupofNPOs, delivering Heritage Sitethat houses Thembalethu, isoccupied city: Joubert Park. The OldDrillHall, thedilapidated of themostdegradedandunsafe areaoftheinner unemployed young women, issituated intheheart 1996 todeliver skillsdevelopment programmesto a centreestablishedby Jo'burg Child Welfare in 40 Thembalethu, 41

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77 Chapter 3 Migration 78 in and for the environment, support networks, safe  An effective referral network for health and wellbeing and reliable transport, regulation and management of social service providers in the precinct; informal traders, waste management, safe and clean  A gardening initiative at the Old Drill Hall providing toilets and much more. The systemic and complex gardening activities for children as learning and nature of the vision necessitates collaboration play, as well as generating food and beautifying between a range of partners to achieve sustainable the space; outcomes. While some of the facets of the vision are  A management and maintenance committee com- within the mandate of Jo’burg Child Welfare, many prising the occupants of the site; are the sole mandate of local government. In response  A residential recycling initiative; to the opportunity that Jo’burg Child Welfare repre-  Precinct Plan: key partners include university sents to support the City in achieving a range of its architectural and planning practitioners and various mandates in partnership with civil society, the City local government departments; engaged on a number of operational and strategic  As the timelines on these projects are long, an levels. The vision was aligned with the Roadmap “Island of Optimism” was planned for World Aids for Inner City Transformation, a planning document Day, the 1st December 2013, to celebrate the value to promote sustainable and systemic inner city of and potential in partnerships. This event mobil- development (City of Johannesburg, 2013). ised over 30 of the government and non-government partners in the programme; The immediate recommendation that followed the  Late in 2013, in an attempt to promote safety initial consultative exercise was the establishment and cleanliness on the streets in the inner city, of three themed action forums, grouped according the office of the Mayor determined to remove to shared interests and mandates of the diverse illegal informal traders from the area, using the network of stakeholders. In a city with very low levels Metropolitan Police. Clashes between traders and of trust, particularly between civil society and local police resulted in small outbursts of violence and government, stakeholders revealed a sense of isola- vocal outrage from critical commentators in social tion, each struggling alone with similar challenges. media (Boundless City, 2013; City of Johannesburg, Relationships were characterized by blame, defen- undated; Holdsworth, 2011). The traders took the siveness and resentment. A stakeholder mapping City to court and were reinstated. This was a set- process prompted opportunities for mutual support back to the Best Life project. In a workshop some where partners shared objectives, and for transpar- of the children who use Thembalethu regularly ency on objectives, to promote trust. A coordinator expressed their fears and resentment of the traders, was appointed by Jo’burg Child Welfare to facilitate who contribute to congestion and to the mess and introspective engagements with each stakeholder to unhygienic conditions of the neighbourhood. Proper explore relationships with the vision and to answer regulation of trading on the streets is indicated the question “what do I bring that will take us closer for safety and hygiene reasons, but it is clear that to our vision?” The “Region F” operations centre for a deeper consultation is required to facilitate a fair this part of the City appointed its stakeholder man- and sustainable solution. agement office to liaise with the Jo’burg Child Welfare team, to procure City participation and facilitate Lessons learned communication between internal and external stake-  Integrated implementation requires a significant holders where appropriate. During the 12 months that investment of time and energy from all stakeholders followed over 60 government and non-government and sustained, committed leadership. However much stakeholders were mapped against the vision and as time is spent on establishing these relationships, the database grew, opportunities for short, medium more will always be required. In an environment and long-term interventions presented themselves. where many people are operating outside of the From these, interventions were chosen for immediate formal grid, are undocumented and have no formal implementation. relationship with the city, trust is possibly the great- est asset in establishing sustainable and impactful Current interventions collaborations, but is also the scarcest commodity.  The formation of an “Activities Club” at the Old Drill  The transience of many stakeholders negatively Hall. Key partners on this team include NPOs and impacts the stability and sustainability of partner- local government departments; ships; there is a need for constant recruitment and  Taxi Drivers as Agents for Social Change, with induction of new people in the environment. key partners: Taxi Associations, and Local and  The value added by each stakeholder should not be Provincial Government departments; measured in isolation, but rather in terms of the  A Communications Opportunities task team work- contribution made by connecting stakeholders. No ing on messaging and branding for the programme; one stakeholder is more important than any other. to promotethesafety andwell-being ofchildren. ests that atransformative exercise can be sustained and alllocalbusinesses andNGOswithvested inter range of local government departments as well as any It isonly in partnership withamulti-disciplinary environment (UnitedNations Children’s Fund, 2012). challenges posedby anunpredictablemigrant that aresystemicandresponsive totheparticular vulnerable women andchildren requiresprogrammes To build spacesconducive tothedelivery ofservicesto Conclusion     

Setbacks are part of the package; partners must Integrated planningandinterventions benefitall thinking. strategic plans, basedonconsultative, systemic possible to generate integrated and sustainable Following thiscomprehensive approach itis between partners, integrated interventions cannot of new partners, and on strategic engagements only onexistingneedsbut alsoonrecruitment Without a dedicated facilitator, who focuses not stakeholders. nature, sinceitistheirmandate towork withall in anurbantransformation programmeofthis bring value innetworking thevarious roleplayers Local government urbanmanagementstructures supportive way rather thanapportioningblame. expect themandtrytodealwithinamutually another’s work tocreate deeperimpact. against theirown mandates, and wholeverage one partners, whosupportoneanotherthroughdelivery social settingandthestakeholdernetwork. time investment toembracethe complexityofthe sustain. The roleoffacilitator requiresasignificant

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79 Chapter 3 Migration 80 Granting access to services to undocumented Contribution migrants

Sarah Spencer42

The presence of resident, undocumented migrants can Entitlements in national law pose a dilemma for European governments when they find that the importance of detecting and removing Our mapping of entitlements granted to those with these individuals and families is not the only policy irregular status, building on earlier work by the EU imperative they have to take into account. In addition Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA, 2011), reveals a to human rights and humanitarian considerations normality of entitlement at least to minimal health for the individuals concerned, competing social care provision (emergency care). A quarter of EU and economic priorities relating to the public as a states go further in providing some access to pri- whole, from public health to the need for reliable mary and/or secondary (hospital) care and a greater population statistics, are at times trumping the number provide services such as maternity care and imperatives of immigration control. The decision of treatment for infectious diseases. In just more than the UK Government in 2012 to provide access to free half of EU states undocumented children are entitled treatment for HIV AIDS regardless of immigration to the same health care services as citizens, while status; that of the Swedish government to extend all but two states allow these children to attend greater access to health care and education in 2013; school; an entitlement extended in some instances to and the long standing Spanish policy of including pre-school (as at the regional level in Italy) or to post these residents in the municipal population register, school apprenticeships (as in the Netherlands). are cases in point. Pressure to extend entitlements, or to remove a require- Our research43 has mapped national legal entitle- ment on staff to report service users to the immigration ments to health care and education for undocumented authorities (as in Germany, for instance), has sometimes migrants across the EU2844 and continues to explore come from the local or regional level where the conse- the reasons why governments have granted those and quences of exclusion from services can be most keenly broader entitlements to services, while some cities felt – an example of local experience driving change and regional authorities go beyond what national at the national level. As Barbara John, Berlin’s former law requires. Commissioner for Foreigners, told the author:

Estimates of the undocumented migrant population “Where the Länder have made provision for irregular in the EU are imprecise. The most recent authorita- migrants, for instance for children to go to school, it tive study in 2008 suggested that the number falls helps to shift the political argument at the Federal within the range 1.9 – 3.8 million (Clandestino, 2009). level because it shows that their approach works; In most cases where national estimates are available, that providing access does not prove to be an incen- the undocumented are less than one percent of the tive to more illegal people to come, and the numbers total population with only Cyprus and Greece known involved are known. It changes the perception of to top two percent. More relevant for practice at the politicians that it is not such a bad thing to do”.45 local level would be to know their significance among city populations but here estimates are ad hoc and, We should note that what we are seeing here is not like the national figures, can only be taken as indica- individual officials exercising their discretion to tive: 442,000 in London, for instance (Gordon et al., provide a service despite the lack of an entitlement, 2009: 51), some 40 – 50,000 in Munich (HWWI, 2012). but official policy at local, regional or national level “Undocumented” moreover is not one homogenous to provide it: the state, in effect, contradicting the legal status but a collective term for those whose logic of its own immigration enforcement policy residence status is irregular including refused asylum (Chauvin and Garcés-Mascareñas, 2012). seekers, visa overstayers, those who entered without authorisation and in some instances children born Those entitlements to health care and education within the EU but to undocumented parents. persist regardless of whether irregular immigration status is criminalised or not. In five of the seven lems we have every day”. government does nothave tobotherwith theprob- dying onthestreetsorinvolved in crime. The national it: “These people arehere, someindesperate need, enforcement priorities. As oneDutch cityofficialput also putcitiesat oddswithnational government with concernsinsomenational Ministriesbut can migrants inordertoaddressthoseissuescanresonate Needing toprovide servicestoundocumented Tension with law enforcement want tobedivided. We want asinglesociety”. divisions, the end of cohesion, and poverty. We don’t with themajorityofsociety because that endsupin not want themhiddeninghettoes, withoutconnection “We arevery, very worried abouttheirintegration. We do found. As aSpanishregionalofficial putittotheauthor, pressing andfor which pragmatic solutionsneedto be by the exclusion of undocumented migrants, are most local level that thesecompetingimperatives, threatened ance of accurate data and service planning. It is at the management ofservices:costeffectiveness, mainten with afurthersetofreasonsrelating totheefficient foster cohesion, tackle streetsleepingandprostitution; need toprevent anddetectcrime, maintain publicorder, and ethicalconsiderations. Citiesinparticularcitethe these entitlements extend beyond legal requirements Significantly, however, the reasons given for granting welfare ofthechild beingtheparamountconcern. should fall, regardlessofimmigration status, the modation and subsistence through which no child obligation ensuresaminimalsafety netofaccom- and promotethewelfare ofchildren inneed”. That in theUK, underS17Children Act 1989, to “safeguard in theFederal ConstitutionofGermany; ortheduty obligations on local government: like the the EUReturnsDirective throughtodomesticlegal Charter, EuropeanConvention onHumanRightsand obligations under theCouncilofEurope’s Social domestic legalobligations arepartoftheanswer: makers reveal that European, constitutionaland documentary evidence andinterviews withpolicy payments, requires explanation. As we might expect, cities, such asnightsheltersandemergency welfare a broader range of services in some countries and That counter-intuitive finding and the provision of provision Reasons forservice to attend, withoutexception). (as opposedtothat entitlement beingfor ‘all’ children entitlement toattend school isexplicitinlegislation offence, asitisinfour oftheeightstates inwhich the instance, irregularimmigration status isacriminal states which allow accesstohospitalcare, for 47 Grundrechte 46 -

city politicianputit: poses arisktotheindividuals concerned. As aGreek informal agreement. The absenceofsuch apolicy more seriousoffences appearstooperate only asan order to build trust and acquire information on forces tooverlook irregular immigration status in for victimsofdomesticviolence, any ‘policy’ inlocal protection ofvictimstrafficking or, asinSpain, the exceptionofformal proceduresrelating tothe hoods in which they are living. Nevertheless, with for preventing anddetectingcrimesintheneighbour related offences such ashumantrafficking orsimply these residents can provide – whether on immigration most anxioustohave accesstotheintelligencewhich detection ofundocumentedmigrantswhileanotheris one partoftheservicemay have responsibility for local level ismostproblematic for the police where The conflictbetween enforcement andinclusion at the for someauthorities, prove achallenge toofar. where that discussioncantake placehowever may, to thisparticularchallenge. Even gettingtothepoint governments andpoliceforces onways torespond enable thesharingofexperiencesbetween cities, any concernfor theindividuals themselves, would good requiresalevel ofserviceprovision, beyond and thosethat arenot. Recognition that thepublic should be drawn on serviceswhich are necessary the prosandconsofinclusionwhereline tivities but alsoprecludesareasoneddiscussionon The lack oftransparency reflectsthepoliticalsensi- to provide itat arm’s length. to be taken without fanfare or by funding an NGO public support, thedecisiontoprovide aservice tends ficient togalvanise apoliticalconsensusandsecure Except wherethereisstarkevidence ofharmsuf- not necessarily makethe decisionany easiertotake. need toaddresstheconsequencesofexclusiondoes Recognition within alocal administration of the Need fordebate serious crimestoo”. at the core of society. I think this applies to other people shouldbe protected from this is avalue Their status hasnothingtodowiththe crime. That whether thevictimisanirregularmigrantornot. offence againstpublicorder, againstdemocracy, to be able to report this kind of offence. It is an it is essential that we make it possible for people attacks tothepolicebecausethey willbearrested… There isno protection for them–they can’t report “This isabigissueinrelation toracistviolence. 48 -

81 Chapter 3 Migration 82 23 European Union Directive 2011/36/EU, 2011; European Union Directive 2011/95/EU, 2011; European Union Directive 2013/33/ Endnotes EU, 2013; European Union Regulation No 603/2013 of the European Parliament, 2013; European Union Regulation No 604/2013 of the European Parliament, 2013. 24 European Union Directive 2011/95/EU, 2011; European Union Directive 2013/33/EU, 2013; European Union Regulation No 603/2013 of the European Parliament, 2013; European Union Regulation No 604/2013 of the European Parliament, 2013. 25 This includes debates around the concepts of multiculturalism, assimilation, incorporation etc. 26 This draws on an analysis of programmes developed to support the integration of refugees and other migrants in the UK and elsewhere. 1 According to the latest estimates by UN DESA, the total world 27 The Danish Centre for Information on Women and Gender, population is just over 7 billion, of which close to 995 million people www.kvinfo.dk are migrants (UN DESA, 2013a). 28 See www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/hscvproject 2 IOM bases its estimates on data from UN DESA. The difference 29 More information is available at www.hrc.co.nz/race-relations/ between the IOM and UN DESA report is the fact that IOM used te-ngira-the-nz-diversity-action-programme/participants-2013/ 2012 as its reference year, while UN DESA used more up-to-date new-zealand-police/ data. OECD maintains a Database on Immigrants in OECD countries based on national census and labour force information from 30 Spencer (2006, p. 14). member countries. 31 Ireland (2004, p. 21) in Spencer (2006, p. 26). 3 In some countries women represent over 60% of migrants e.g. 32 A Dutch city official quoted in the Contribution by Sarah in Nepal (68.3%) and the Republic of Mauritius (61%), in others they Spencer at the end of this chapter. constitute barely 20%, and in particular in some of the Arab States such as Oman (19%) and Qatar (20.8%). 33 Founded in 2006 by the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe, the city of Stuttgart and 4 According to OECD (2013), 22% of married women from European Eurofound, the “European network of cities for local integration Union countries, and 26% from other countries arrive in their policies for migrants” (CLIP) is a network of 30 European cities. country of destination before their spouse. See www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/populationandsociety/ 5 The economic crisis in developed countries appears to have had clipabout.htm a greater impact on young people and less qualified workers, more 34 Cities of Migration, http://citiesofmigration.ca/ezine_stories/ so than on highly-skilled workers and women (OECD, 2013). recommendations-for-local-governments/Migration; MIPEX, 6 Among migrants, 45.2% of women have studied at the primary www.mipex.eu/. level compared to 42% of men, while 20.6% of women have higher 35 It was developed jointly by the European Commission education compared to 22.3% of men (Dumont et al., 2010). and the Council of Europe. Proportionately, more highly educated women migrate more than men with the same level of education (OECD & UN DESA, 2013). 36 For the model, see Wood (2009, p.17). 7 Someone seeking refugee status in another country because 37 See Eurostat (2011). Indicators of Immigrant Integration: A Pilot of persecution in their country of origin. Study. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-RA- 11-009/EN/KS-RA-11-009-EN.PDF 8 The Clandestino Project continues to maintain a database on irregular migration in the EU. 38 See www.nyc.gov/html/imm/bii/html/home/home.shtml 9 IOM (2013, p. 23) 39 Social Transformation System, Parktown, Johannesburg, South Africa. 10 Lyons et al. (2013, p. 624). 40 Kent (2014) Lauren Kent’s Masters research is focused 11 Correspondence with Professor Manon Jendly, University on children on and around the site. of Lausanne, February 2014. 41 The Social Transformation System is a methodology designed 12 France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the UK. and developed by Dr Barbara Holtmann and recorded in her PhD 13 Lee (2013, p. 277). in the Management of Technology and Innovation, Da Vinci Institute for Technology Management (Holtmann, 2010). 14 UNGA (2012, para.13). 42 Open Society Fellow, COMPAS, University of Oxford sarah. 15 The European Agency responsible for external border [email protected] management for all Member States of the European Union. 43 Carried out at the Centre on Migration Policy and Society, 16 See www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cmw/cmw.htm. See also University of Oxford with research assistance from Vanessa ICPC (2010) Chapter 2 for a summary of the international legal Hughes. 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Introduction justice sector as offenders, and a high proportion are victims of crime and violence. This is a global trend Urbanization and migration have come to be regarded that demonstrates similarities in risk factors for as one of the most pressing population problems indigenous peoples. It is generally accepted that col- (UN, 2010). It is increasingly the case that indigen- onization and the subjugation of indigenous peoples ous peoples comprise a significant percentage of the led to a loss of self-direction and disempowerment, internal and international migrant populations moving resulting in discrimination, social dysfunction and to urban areas, and currently more than half of the dependency and the rise of risk factors such as family indigenous population in many countries reside in violence, child abuse, school failure, low literacy cities (UN-HABITAT, 2011; UN-HABITAT & OHCHR, levels and unemployment/underemployment 2010; Yescas Angeles Trujano, 2008) (Figure 4.1). 1 (Ministry of Justice New Zealand, 2011).

City life for indigenous peoples can be a difficult Overall there is an absence of data and studies about experience. Urban indigenous peoples often lack indigenous populations migrating to cities, and a recognition of their status, tend to live in informal significant lack of in-depth understanding of the settlements, lack employment and income-generating issues at the local level. Further, little is being done activities, have lower wages on average than non- to incorporate city-based health and police data, and indigenous people, and lack job security.2 On every to include urban indigenous peoples in city informa- continent it appears that indigenous peoples who tion collection processes. There is also a deficiency of are mobile are at a greater risk of impoverishment, local-level government safety policies and dialogue exploitation, marginalization, disenfranchisement regarding rights, inclusion and governance of urban and discrimination that affects their access to stable indigenous peoples. However, at the international assistance (Levi & Maybury-Lewis, 2012, p. 108).3 level there has been considerable development in the past 15 years, including international declarations, Indigenous women are particularly vulnerable in guidelines and expert meetings on related topics. In urban areas, where they may experience barriers to addition, international institutions are increasingly proper housing and employment, and are especially the main sources of information contributing to an prone to unstable employment that can be exploitive improved understanding of the issues, and encour- such as human trafficking (UN-HABITAT, 2011). In aging States to implement policies that improve the terms of criminality and victimization, indigenous well-being of their indigenous peoples. There is also peoples are usually over-represented in the criminal an emerging indigenous middle class, notably in Canada, US, Australia and New Zealand, where the appropriation of the city by indigenous organizations Figure 4.1 Urban-based indigenous peoples and urban indigenous political bodies is enhancing as a percentage of their total population access to services, as well as providing a unified voice (selected countries) for the urban-based population.

Indigenous peoples as Percentage of The safety of indigenous peoples has been a topic of percentage of total indigenous peoples interest for ICPC for several years. Much of ICPC’s country population living in cities past work has focused on documenting developments New Zealand 14.9% 84% and promising practices to improve the well-being Australia 3.0% 60% of indigenous peoples. In recent years, ICPC has been Canada 4.3% 56% working more closely with indigenous groups in cities US 2.0% 71% to address the challenges of urban safety, integration and rights. This work has been inspired largely by Source: Statistics New Zealand (2013); Australian Bureau of Statistics (2011); Statistics Canada (2011); US Census Bureau (2010). the 1995 UN Guidelines for the Prevention of Urban Crime that highlights the link between safer cities the oneoutlinedinBox4.1, which provides themost (Hodgson, 2002, p. 138). This definition issimilarto the ILO, provides the only legally binding definition Tribal Peoples Convention 169, adopted in 1989 by developed by any UNentity. The Indigenousand world, noofficialdefinitionofindigenous Given thediversity ofindigenouspeoplesaroundthe Maybury-Lewis, 2012, p. 79). indigenous rights, discourses, andpractices(Levi & benefitted fromelectronicmediatoadvance modern transnational alliances(e.g. IWGIA), which have fundamental freedoms ofindigenouspeoples around that recognizetheindividual andcollective rightsand munity has adopted some significant declarations Over the past two decades, the international com- and developments International norms, standards Angeles Trujano, 2008, p. 14). reflecting different situations ontheground(Yescas levels, but thetermsvary fromcountrytocountry, common definition. Other definitions exist at national organizations, regionalnetworks (e.g. various forms, includingtheemergenceofumbrella human rightsviolations. These movements have taken diverse populations facing similar realities, such as to someextentpartofglobalmovements tounite region. The development of the term indigenouswas and many indigenous groupslive inmore thanone worldwide. They arefound inallregionsoftheworld, lion indigenous peoples located across 70 countries According totheUNPFII(2009), thereareover 370 mil Indigenous peoples debates aboutappropriate solutions. and access to services, and discusses some of the key ance oflocalactorsaddressinginclusion, recognition home thanthecity. The chapter underlinestheimport numbers ofindigenouspeoplescometoknow noother for increasedefforts at thelocallevel, asincreasing developments at theinternational level, andtheneed indigenous migrants. Itoutlinessomeofthepositive of data collection, andthechallenges encounteredby phenomenon ofurbanindigenousmigration, thelack ous peoples, anddraws attention tothegrowing This chapter builds onICPC’s work onurbanindigen the world. new andpositive developments takingplacearound phenomenon, andtheneedtoshareknowledge about report recognizestheexpandingnature ofthiscomplex to includeindigenousmigration inthiseditionofthe citizens’ rights and fundamental freedoms. The decision and equalityinclusion, andtherecognitionof WIMSA has been 4 ) and - - -

range of issues, provides a universal framework for ognizes therightsofindigenouspeoplesonawide (Article 1). Human Rights andinternational humanrightslaw” of theUnitedNations, the Universal Declaration of fundamental freedomsasrecognized intheCharter a collective oras individuals, ofallhumanrightsand ous peoples have the right to the full enjoyment, as a strongercasefor States torecognizethat: “indigen- between indigenous peoples and States. It provides establishes aframework for discussionsanddialogue indigenous peopleswithinthestate. The Declaration member states toprotecttherightsandresourcesof the international community andStates, andcommits Peoples inSeptember2007. of the UN significant initiative historically was theadoption and treatment ofindigenouspopulations. The most inclusive andegalitarianintheacknowledgement necessary steps to protect such rights, and to be more the world. These initiatives encourageStates totakethe The followingitemsdefineindigenouspeoples: Nations GeneralAssembly. advocate fortheirrights,suchasattheUnited may betreatedasonegroupinordertobetter determination. Attheinternationallevel,they of theirrights,includingtherighttoself- by variousgroupstoadvancetherecognition Indigenous isanumbrellatermemployed a commonlanguageandbeliefs. united byacommoncultureortradition,with instead ofpeopletosuggestagrouppersons The termIndigenouspeoplesisnowused  colonization (Blaser, Feit,&McRae,2004,p.53). to culturallydistinctgroupsaffectedby The legaltermIndigenouspeoplerefers a particularareaseenastheirtraditionalland. refers toanethnicgrouporcommunityin Indigenous, meaningnativeorbornwithin Box 4.1 Source: Cobo(2009).      

community astheirmember; at theindividuallevelandacceptedby Self-identification asindigenouspeoples distinctive peoplesandcommunities. ancestral environmentsandsystemsas Resolve tomaintainandreproducetheir Form non-dominantgroupsofsociety;and Distinct language,cultureandbeliefs; Distinct social,economicorpoliticalsystems; natural resources; Strong linktoterritoriesandsurrounding pre-settler societies; Historical continuitywithpre-colonialand/or Defining indigenouspeoples Declaration Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous 5 The Declaration rec-

91 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 92 Box 4.2 The International Expert Group Meeting on Urban Indigenous Peoples and Migration (2007) The Expert Group Meeting was organized by the UNHRP, and co-organized by UN-HABITAT, Secretariat of UNPFII, OHCHR, CELADE, ECLAC, and the IOM. The meeting aimed to facilitate a better understanding of living conditions and rights of indigenous peoples in urban areas through comprehensive research, and to develop practical approaches and policy recommendations for improving living conditions and human rights. The following recommendations were provided:  Relevant authorities need to address the rights of indigenous peoples in urban areas as an integral part of actions to improve their living conditions.  Public authorities need to understand the multiple identities of indigenous peoples within urban areas and their continuing relationship to their traditional lands and natural resources. Indigenous peoples should not be seen as divided between urban and rural, but rather as peoples with rights and a common cultural identity and facing similar challenges in adapting to changing circumstances and environments.  States need to adopt sensitive policies based on the recognition of religious, political, social, cultural, and spiritual rights, including indigenous peoples’ sacred sites.  States must work in collaboration with various stakeholders to adopt policies that enable indigenous peoples to take full advantage of the opportunities that exist in urban areas.

Source: UNPFII (2007).

The adoption of the Declaration was due in part to the peoples’ rights and the advancement of their well- advocacy work of the UNPFII, which was established being has been slow. The UNPFII suggests that this on July 28, 2000 by ECOSOC. UNPFII is mandated is due to: “insufficient reliable data available to the to discuss and advise on indigenous issues related [UNPFII] in critical areas... [which] negatively impacts to economic and social development, culture, the on the ability of the Forum and ECOSOC to evaluate environment, education, health and human rights. progress made towards integrating indigenous peoples It has hosted a series of important expert meetings on into broader United Nations goals and programmes urban indigenous peoples: such as the Millennium Development Goals” (UNPFII,  Urban Indigenous Peoples and Migration (2007) 2009, p. 220). Data is crucial for understanding the (see Box 4.2); issues and developing larger scale policies.  Combating violence against indigenous women and girls (2012); and More recently, there has been an increase in the  Indigenous youth (2013). number of policies and programmes supported by international and regional bodies8 and develop- Other important developments at the international ment agencies9 in several countries. The World Bank level include:  The Guidelines on indigenous peoples issues (UNDG, 2009) which assist the United Nations Box 4.3 The World Bank Indigenous Peoples’ 10 system to mainstream and integrate indigenous Policy peoples’ issues in operational activities and pro- The World Bank positions excluded groups, grammes at the country level. such as the indigenous peoples, at the centre 6  The UNIPP (2011) supports joint UN programmes of its development agenda. This includes: at the country level to facilitate the implementation  Strengthening the policy and institutional of the rights of indigenous peoples, in partnership frameworks affecting indigenous peoples and with indigenous peoples. their relations with other members of society;  The Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous  Building indigenous peoples’ capacity for Peoples (2007) forms part of the Human Rights self-development, based upon their cultural Council. It provides thematic expertise on the heritage and knowledge; rights of indigenous peoples to the Human Rights  Demonstrating the important role that 7 Council. indigenous peoples can play in the  The Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous management of fragile ecosystems and Peoples (2001) is responsible for examining ways biodiversity conservation and in Climate of overcoming obstacles to the full and effective Change Adaptation; and protection of indigenous peoples’ rights.  Disseminating experience and lessons learned from such indigenous development initiatives While major advancements have taken place at the to national governments and the international international level, the development of regional, donor community. national and local policies protecting indigenous tage. The a clear focus on overcoming Indigenous disadvan- link education, housingandhealthdepartments with called theClosingGapStrategy, improvements inservicedelivery. This initiative was health, early childhood development, jobsand fundamental reforms in remote areas on housing, mental forum in Australia, committed$4.6billion Council of Australian Governments, anintergovern- the creation of large-scale initiatives. In 2008, the indigenous andnon-indigenouspopulation through active inaddressingthedisparitiesbetween the The Government of Australia hasbeenespecially Further, five guidelines for actionregardingindigenous and specificprogrammesfor indigenouspeoples. policies advancing multiculturalism andinclusion, regard tourbanareas, thegovernment putinplace izations for indigenous community members. With and guaranteedseats inChileanpoliticalorgan created anew under-secretariat for indigenousaffairs, policies. As part of the reforms, the government ures designed to redefine the country’s indigenous In Chile, thegovernment unveiled several new meas measures. affected by displacement, andprovides for prevention to bepassedinMexicoproviding supportfor those society representatives. Itisthefirstlaw ofitskind drafted withthesupportofUNagenciesandcivil 2007 indigenousaffairs policy. The Mexicanbillwas in Mexicoby theChiapasstate congress, andChile’s on internal displacement that was passed in 2012 (UN-HABITAT, 2010). Otherinitiatives includeabill the recognitionofautonomy andself-governance ural resources and land, and in some cases include and informed consultation, regulating accesstonat - itions. The reforms alsofocus ontheneedfor prior their rights, including language, culture and trad reforms recognizingsomeindigenousgroupsand Peru and Venezuela have undertakenconstitutional Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, peoples. Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, working toimprove the well-being ofindigenous At thecountrylevel, somenational governments are of government. the growth ofindigenous-basedprojectsat alllevels in certaincountries, andhasbeeninstrumental to nition andadvancement ofindigenouspeoples’rights 4.3). This policy hasstimulated demandfor therecog Indigenous Peoples’ Policy isoneexample(seeBox Indigenous specificfunding over 10 years, todrive culture (IDB, 2012). areas; empowerment ofwomen; andpromotingtheir rights; improvement oftheirqualitylife in urban arenas; recognition of and strengthening of their communities’ participation inthepoliticalandsocial peoples were proposed:strengtheningindigenous Integrated Strategy to Close the Gap in 11 andaimsto in in - - - -

Indigenous Disadvantage includes: recommendations ofexpertmeetings, thedevelop- disaggregation onindigenouspeoples. This includes progress inadvancing data collectionanddata is rarely takeninto account. There has been some category and the diversity of indigenous groups are usually recordedinthenational censusasone regional locations. programmes to addressdisadvantage inurbanand provided undermainstreamandIndigenous-specific to coordinate, andtotargetthesubstantialfunding Strategy that commits governments at various levels There is also an Indigenous Urban and Regional is oftenonly compiledby state or national-level internally, aswell asthoseresidinginurban areas of indigenouspeoplesmigrating internationally and tion hasmadeitdifficulttoreach an overall figure Insufficient demographicandstatistical informa- Migration trends:Indigenouspeoples     at the local-level (i.e. incities). This typeofinformation indigenous peoples’offending andvictimization rates be challenging sincethereisalack ofinformation on criminal justicesystem. Documentingtheseissues can tion, and they tend to be overrepresented in the challenges inrelation toinequalityanddiscrimina- Indigenous peoplesmigrating tocitiesface significant Inequality and analyze data ontheirpeoples. indigenous organizations enabling them to collect peoples in data collection, and capacity building of ment of cooperation agreements to include indigenous Offices. collects immigration data from National Statistics network of researchers and activists, and the IOM The IWGIA gathers information from its extensive peoples, including UNcountryofficesandDESA, do compiletheirown information onindigenous by censuses (Newhouse & Peters, 2003). A few groups to informal urban areaswherethey arenotcaptured nized, donothave equalrights, andtendtomigrate the fact that many indigenousgroups are not recog- (UN-HABITAT, 2010). Poor data is in part attributed to

the Gap. Territory to adopt reforms contributing to between theCommonwealth andeach State and Setting up overarching Bilateral Indigenous Plans Ensuring servicedelivery; and ‘healthy homes’; Focusing onearly childhood, schooling, healthand employment andhigh-school attainment; literacy andnumeracy, early childhood education, Setting targetsfor life expectancy, child mortality, 12 Incertaincountries, indigenouspeoples 13 Closing

93 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 94 correctional services (see Box 4.4). Very little analysis Migration trends of city police data is undertaken, despite growing indigenous populations, and often it fails to record Migration, as discussed in Chapter 3, includes both the identity (i.e. indigenous status or ethnic group) of international and internal movement. For indigen- the victim or offender. A few studies have documented ous peoples, it is often a very unique experience. the situation in pockets of cities, primarily drawing Indigenous migration tends to be internal and on observations from organizations, citizens, police transitory, and concepts of residence (such as urban) services and city officials. differ from those of non-indigenous people. In some cases, cities were built on indigenous territory and

Box 4.4 Risk factors and crime and victimization (selected countries) US American Indian or Alaska Natives14 have an incarceration rate about 38 percent higher than the national rate and experience higher rates of rape/sexual assault, robbery, aggravated assault and simple assault than other races (OVC, 2013, p. 9). The rate of violent crime estimated from self-reported victimization for American Indians is higher than any other racial or ethnic group and is more than twice the national average (Truman, Langton & Planty, 2013).15 Women are particularly vulnerable, and are 2.5 times more likely to be raped or sexually assaulted than non-indigenous women in the US (AOC, 2012, p. 4) and more than one-quarter reported rape victimization in their lifetimes (OVC, 2013, p. 31). For both men and women, risk factors associated with offending and victimization include exposure to family violence and child abuse, school drop-out and low literacy rates, substance abuse, and unemployment/underemployment.

Canada Aboriginal people16 make up 23.2 percent of the federal inmate population (women 33.6 percent) and they are overrepresented in Canada’s correctional system (Office of the Correctional Investigator, 2013). Since 2000-01, the federal Aboriginal inmate population has increased by 56.2 percent (Office of the Correctional Investigator, 2013). In 2009, 37 percent of Aboriginal people aged 15 years or older reported having been a victim of at least one of the eight offences17 covered by the General Social Survey in the preceding 12 months compared to about one-quarter of non-Aboriginal people (Perreault, 2011). It has been shown that socio-demographic factors are associated with overall violent victimization, including age18, drug use, activity limitations and people using or selling drugs in the neighbourhood, and these were considered major risk factors (Perreault, 2011). When all of these known risk factors are taken into account, the risk of victimization is 58 percent higher than that of non-Aboriginal people (Perreault, 2011).

New Zealand The Ma¯ori19 make up 51 percent of the prison population, and over 60 percent of the female prison population (Statistics New Zealand, 2012). Further, there is a disproportionately high rate of crime and victimization among the Ma¯ori who are more likely to experience a high level of crime than victims from European and Asian ethnic groups, and are more likely to be chronic victims of crime (Ministry of Justice New Zealand, 2011). The risk of victimization is particularly high for serious offences, including sexual violence and violence by partners. Among Ma¯ori women, the rate of sexual victimization is twice as high as the national rate for all women. The profile of those most at risk of victimization include young Ma¯ori, those who are unmarried, are more economically vulnerable, living in rented accommodation, living in more economically deprived areas, living in sole parent households or households comprised of roommates or “other” family combinations, and living in metropolitan cities (excluding Auckland) (Kiedrowski, 2013).

Australia The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population20 is 15 to 20 times more likely than non-Indigenous people to be charged with violent offences, and imprisonment rates are around 12 times those of the rest of the Australian population (Wundersitz, 2010). They make up 40 percent of those imprisoned for assault offences, and rates of over-representation are even higher in juvenile detention. In terms of victimization, rates are two to three times higher than rates among the non-indigenous population, and rise to four to six times higher in the case of family violence (Kiedrowski, 2013). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples experience similar risk factors for violence as either an offender or a victim. This includes the misuse of alcohol, socio-economic disadvantage, childhood exposure to violence and abuse, a younger age profile, previous involvement with the criminal justice system and psychological distress (Bryant & Willis, 2008). The bestdata onindigenouspeoples’urbanmigration and forced removal; andreturn migration . Mexico (seeBox4.5). from New Zealand, Canada, Australia, the US and The mostcomprehensive country-level data comes Canadian urbanareasprovides anexcellentoverview. (2011) work onindigenous mobilityandmigration in terms ofcountry-basedstudies, Norris&Clatworthy’s tion ofterritoriesandstates. Italsoraisesquestions issues, andchallenges current notions of thedelinea- manner. This situation raiseslegalandrights-based status of migrant cannot be understood in the same internal migration, andurban living conditions. In exploring theirdistribution acrossLatin America, migration andmobilityisby DelPopolo etal. (2007), best regional studies of indigenous peoples’ urban Brazil andBolivia (UN-HABITAT, 2010). One ofthe in MexicoandGuatemala, toover halfinChile, region, from 1 in 3 indigenous peoples living in cities cities (UN-HABITAT, 2010). The rate varies across the region, justunderhalf(40percent)ofwhomlived in there were over 300millionindigenous peoplesinthe Latin America census. In2000itwas estimated that ous groups. The only reliableregionaldata isfromthe in partduetothelack offormal recognitionofindigen such as Africa and Asia data isalmostnon-existent, and mobility is at the country level. international rural-rural migration Trujano, 2008, p. 24). They alsoidentifyinternaland centres withinthecountryoforigin(Yescas Angeles and transformation of indigenous territoriesintourban cess ofabsorptionindigenouspeoplesintocitylife, places of origin to cities migration –themovement ofindigenouspeoplesfrom identifies two distinctprocesses:internal ber ofindigenouspeoplesincities. The IOM(2008) to urban migration, which explains the growing num the mostcommontrendappearstobevoluntary rural Despite the lack of a consensus onmigration trends, phenomenon. al., 2007, p. 35). Thus, indigenous migration isa complex or theadaptation processat destination (DelPopolo to migrate, characteristics ofindigenousmigrants, there is no consensus on the indigenous propensity nized undernational constitutions. At thesametime, their language, cultureandtraditionsarenotrecog- about thenotionofcitizenshipsincefor many groups, several indigenousgroupsspanborders on reserves” (Letkemann, 2004, p. 242). Internationally, spanners: “those whodivide theirtimeincitiesand are highly mobileandoftenconsideredboundary- one place to another. Further, indigenous peoples as returning to one’s native lands, or transiting from cities. Migration toanurbanareamay beenvisaged in many countries indigenous communities border on ; and urbanization 23 For afew regions, 22 ; displacement rural-urban – the pro 21 sothe et et - - -

majority undertheageof31, have gonemissingor Canada, many indigenouswomen andgirls, the case ofPeru violence andindigenousmigrant populations: The contribution by Olenka Ochoa Berreteaga Urban ability totrafficking andsexualexploitation (seethe migrants isamajorissue, aswell astheirvulner In Peru, thesexualassaultoffemale indigenous aggressive andrisky behaviour, andillegalactivities. be forced tosurvive onthe streetsandengagein trafficked intosexualslavery, and young boys may Young girlsinparticularmay beat riskofbeing may have beenforced intochild care(Carli, 2012). equal employment andeducation opportunities, and discrimination by thewidercommunity anddenied vulnerable. Indigenousyouth areoftensubjectedto are young peopleandwomen, bothofwhomare The majorityofthemigrantindigenous population urban andruralareas. migration, withlargeincomedisparitiesbetween economic disparitiesaremajordriving factors for such asMexico, underdevelopment andregional Housing Corporation, 2004, p. 38-41). In countries reason for migration tocities(CanadaMortgageand agencies found that lack ofhousingistheprimary their territories(Carli, 2012). In Canada, indigenous tion, socialrecognitionandotherbenefitsthey lack in employment, housing, education, political participa- peoples may also migrate to urban areas for better diseases inindigenousruralcommunities. Indigenous in rural areas, and the higher incidence ofpreventable as areflectionofmajordeficienciesinhealthservices (Yescas Angeles Trujano, 2008, p. 47). This can beseen factors in the internal migration of indigenous peoples Health isinfact oneoftheprincipalpush/pull related services(Lindstrom&Hernández, 2006). to citieswhich is oftenlinkedtoaccessinghealth- play an important part in the decision to migrate (UN-HABITAT, 2010). Indigenouswomen appearto Indigenous migration isincreasingly voluntary and impacts Urban migration–Thereasons indigenous migrants reportthat theireconomicand environmental degradation. In anumberofstudies, supplies, deterioration oftraditionallivelihoods, or tion ormilitarization oftheir lands, lack ofwater and refugeinurbanareas, becauseoftheexploita- At the same time, indigenous peoples may seek safety McKay-McNabb &Hampton, 2006). oppression thannon-indigenouswomen (Bourassa, are at greater riskofvictimization, poverty, and missing (RCMP, 2014). Ingeneral, indigenouswomen have beenmurdered inthat period, andsome225are firmed that over 1,000 indigenouswomen andgirls urban areas(NWAC, 2013). The RCMPrecently con- been murdered over thelast30 years, andoftenfrom at theendofchapter). Further, in -

95 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 96 Box 4.5 Trends in Indigenous migration New Zealand New Zealand has a large and growing indigenous population. One in seven people identified as being Ma¯ori in 2013, an increase of 5.9 percent since 2006 (Statistics New Zealand, 2013). The Ma¯ori population is young with a median age of 23 years in the 2013 Census, compared to 37 years for the non-indigenous population. Approximately 84 percent of Ma¯ori live in cities (Statistics New Zealand, 2013). Apart from increasing numbers, in the last 20 years Ma¯ori have become more mobile, partly because of improved economic conditions, employment opportunities and increasing inter-ethnic partnering (Statistics New Zealand, 2001). More than 60 percent of people of Ma¯ori ethnicity have moved at least once within New Zealand between 2001 and 2006. Over half of those migrants moved within or between the main urban areas. The majority of Ma¯ori migrants appear to be young adults with their children.

Canada Canada has a growing Aboriginal population. They accounted for 4.3 percent of the total population of Canada in 2011, a 20.1 percent increase since 2006 (Statistics Canada, 2011). Over half (56 percent) of them reside in urban areas. Due to recent changes in data collection24, information on the characteristics of those living in cities is limited, and dates from 2006. The 2006 Census reported that 28 percent of the urban Aboriginal population was less than 15 years of age, compared to 17 percent of the non-indigenous population. In addition, the urban Aboriginal population is very mobile – one in four living in a different residence one year prior to the 2006 Census, having moved within the same city, or from a different community.

US The American Indian and Alaska Natives population made up 2 percent of the total US population in 2012 (US Census Bureau, 2012). This marked a 0.3 percent increase from 2010 and the population increased almost twice as fast as the total US population. The number of American Indians and Alaska Natives alone, or in combination with other races, residing in urban areas grew by 34 percent, amounting to almost 1 million people (US Census Bureau News, 2013). In terms of mobility, urban indigenous peoples in the US exhibit higher rates of mobility than non-indigenous people, both within the same county and moving from one to another (Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, 2008).

Australia The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2011) estimates that the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population represents about 3 percent of the total population of Australia, and as of June 2011 one third lived in major urban areas. An overall pattern of migration from more remote areas to less remote areas was observed between 2001 and 2006, with very remote areas having the greatest net loss of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, and major cities the greatest net gain. Young Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (aged 20–39 years) are more likely to move to urban areas than other age groups and change addresses frequently (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2011). In 2006 the median age was 22 years, compared with 38 years for non-indigenous Australians (Australian Government Productivity Commission, 2013).

Mexico According to the INEGI (2011) Mexico has the largest indigenous population in Latin America, although they make up a smaller proportion of the total population (c. 10%).25 Rural to urban migration in Mexico grew 182 percent from 1980 to 1994, and 352 percent between 1980 and 2002 (Acharya & Codina, 2012, p. 144-145). Around 80 percent of indigenous peoples are located in the southern part of the country, and nearly 15 percent live in central Mexico (Hall & Patrinos, 2006). Studies by Pérez Ruiz (2007) have shown that indigenous peoples migrate primarily to Mexico City, where they comprise 19 percent of the population. There is also a growing presence of indigenous peoples in northern cities. While Mexico does collect data, most of the information is based on estimates, and exact numbers and the place of origin of migrants remains largely unknown (see the contribution by Rodrigo Elizarraráz Trends in internal indigenous migration in Mexico: The struggle to adapt to an urban context at the end of this chapter). housing (Carillo, 2009, p. 539). housing incitiesexacerbates thegrowth ofinformal countries theabsenceofaffordable landfor social These areas also tend to be far from services. In many in informal settlements in unhealthy living conditions. face barrierstoappropriate housing, oftenending up to vaccinations (Yescas Angeles Trujano, 2008). They may affordable and culturally appropriate healthcare, or coming. Indigenousmigrantsoften lack accessto better food andhealthcare, thisisnotalways forth While migrantsmoving tocitiesmay hopetoaccess traditions (UN-HABITAT &OHCHR, 2010, p. 21-22). and cut ties with their Indigenous languages and migrants feel compelled to conceal their identities at the end of this chapter). In some cases indigenous indigenous migrant populations: The caseofPeru adapt toanurbancontextand indigenous migration inMexico: The struggleto tributions referred toabove onTrends ininternal housing andlimitedaccesstoservices(seethecon- fringes ofsociety, living inpoverty inovercrowded Urban indigenouspeoplesareoftenfound onthe selves socially for fear ofdiscrimination andviolence. 4.2). Migrantsreportisolating andsegregating them- 2001; Dzib, 2003; Durin & Sheridan, 2003) (see Figure colour, dress, language, etc.) (Farfán & Fernández, attributed to their racial/cultural identities (e.g. skin reported highlevels ofperceived discrimination In Mexico, studiesofindigenousmigrantshave Heritz, 2010). proportions offemale loneparents(OHCHR, 2006; alized, andfamily instabilityiscommon, with high early to look for work, they are economically margin- 2013). Indigenous peoplestendtodropoutofschool (Carrillo, 2009, p. 538), ortoillegalactivities (UNPFII, ing entitlementtohealthorothersocialbenefits lead toparticipation intheinformal economy, exclud urban settings. Lack of job skills and illiteracy may associated with indigenous and migrant status in rights andculturalracialdiscrimination areall to humantrafficking andsexualexploitation, lack of poor health, lack ofaccesstohealthcare, vulnerability suggested above, unemployment andjobinsecurity, their homecommunities, andhostcommunities. As negative andpositive impactsonindigenouspeoples, Overall, therefore, migration tocitiescanhave both p. 85-87). modern Sámimiddleclass(Pedersen &Nyseth, 2013, identity”, andasaplaceofopportunitywithgrowing providing a “form offreedomtoconstructyour own arena for revitalizing orredefiningSámiidentity, 113). For the Sámi of Norway, the city represents an Durin &Sheridan, 2003;Environics Institute, 2010, p. loss oftheirculturalidentity(Pedersen &Nyseth, 2013; social conditions improved in urban settings, without 26

Urban violenceand - -

there arealsopositive impactsascertaingroups educational and economic opportunities. However, drain asindividuals seektobuild skillsandaccess communities, urban migration may result in a brain home and host urban communities. In terms of home The impactofindigenousmigration isalsofelt by social programmes, which inturn putsastrainon populations can resultinanincreasing demandfor For urbanhostcommunities, growing indigenous to assisttheircommunity, and build localcapacity. law, resourceextraction, education andhealthcare) competencies andskills(e.g. management, finance, may alsoreturnwithimproved healthandadditional munities back homeby sendingremittances. They have usedmigration toprotecttheircultureand com- remuneration andsocialsecurity. a situation madeworse by thelack ofcommensurate harassment by employers andtheir family members– risk of physical and psychological abuse and sexual work anaverage of14hoursperday andareoftenat towns andcities by theirimpoverished families. They workers areindigenous girls andadolescentssentto in Guatemala anestimated 65percentofdomestic Dzib, 2003;Durin&Sheridan, 2003). For example, discrimination incities(Farfán &Fernández, 2001; Indigenous women, especially domesticworkers, face Reason fordiscrimination Face discrimination migrants inMonterrey, Mexico Figure 4.2 Source: Acharya&Codina(2012,p.147) 40.3% 72.8% 91.2% Yes Not speakingSpanish Being amigrant Dress pattern 89.2% Discrimination facedbyindigenous 66.5% 89.1% No Cultural difference 10.8% Skin colour 27

97 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 98 government resources. This is especially the case in The urbanization of indigenous groups and their relation to internally displaced indigenous popu- increased visibility in cities has led to demands for lations (IDPs), who compete with the urban poor equal access and rights in several countries. In certain for social programmes (Carrillo, 2009, p. 528). Some cases, indigenous groups have been able to achieve IDPs living in cities are unable to become self-reliant some level of equality and rights through new forms and meet their basic needs in a sustainable manner of urban governance that involve indigenous organ- without permanent assistance from the government izations and community-based semi-autonomous and humanitarian organizations. This situation has institutions (see Box 4.6). These entities provide a caused growing tensions between IDPs and residents range of services to meet the diverse needs of their as well as insecurity in urban areas. peoples (e.g. healthcare, social services, justice/legal, childcare, education, housing and shelter, employment) Temporary indigenous mobility and lifestyle is prob- and can also act as parallel social and legal systems. lematic for health care and social service providers in urban centres. A study in South Australia found that It has been suggested that despite the presence the health and social services system is poorly set of urban indigenous governance structures, there up to deal with short-term mobility and temporary is continued reliance on government funding, and indigenous visitors (e.g. visiting family and friends) crime and victimization rates among indigenous (Kainz, Carson, & Carson, 2012). Providers have peoples continue to increase in urban areas. The limited capacity to follow clients, due to rigid funding ongoing disparities between indigenous and main- structures and a lack of inter-agency collaboration stream society have also been seen as a challenge and service coordination. They are also not prepared for intercultural differences, and mobile lifestyles are incompatible with an inflexible and stationary Box 4.6 Examples of urban indigenous service system. governance The National Centre of Indigenous Excellence, Migration from rural to urban areas can impact on Sydney, Australia32 indigenous peoples’ rights. For example, under the The Centre was officially set up in 2009 to Indian Act of Canada the federal government defines provide opportunities and build the capacities its responsibilities in terms of indigenous peoples of young Indigenous people through diverse residing on reserves, where they are entitled to social programmes and facilities. The Centre’s 28 services and health care. When they move to a city, activities include workshops on job and life there is a six month transition period during which skills, sports and recreational activities, arts they experience a service void, with no financial sup- programmes, healthy lifestyles information 29 port to access Health Canada services. While some sessions, and cultural activities. progress has been made, such regulatory and juris- dictional voids continue to aggravate the problems Native American Youth and Family Center indigenous peoples already face in cities (Carli, 2012). (NAYA), Portland, US33 In other countries, government policies can enforce the NAYA was established in 1994 and serves loss of Indigenous status once they emigrate from their self-identified American Indian/Alaskan Native traditional lands (UN-HABITAT, 2011). Issues of rights, youth and their families. The Center’s activities combined with the increasing numbers of indigenous are organized around the Relational Worldview peoples in cities have led to debates on integration, and Model that is a holistic approach to service demands for self-determination and self-government. provision (e.g. education, cultural arts programming, housing, economic development etc.) with the aim of reducing poverty. Governance and the right to the city Aboriginal Legal Services of Toronto (ALST), “Governance helps society to achieve its goals Toronto, Canada34 in solving difficult social problems, protecting ALST was founded in 1990 and provides indigenous cultures, managing lands and resour- assistance to indigenous peoples requiring ces, building productive economies, constructing access to legal resources, as well as information mutually beneficial relationships and promoting on the justice system and available options. 30 cooperation”. ALST supports alternatives to the mainstream Canadian justice system as a means of “Good governance suggests…citizens must be willing, preventing recidivism and dependency. active participants in the effort to build societies that ALST offers court workers, Gladue report35 work, empowering them to build those societies in caseworkers, a legal clinic, information on their own ways, and making them feel that the future, victim rights, and at times intervenes in cases. to a significant degree, is in their own hands”.31 1. main approaches tothecurrentdebate: The following provides abriefsummaryofthetwo determination and assimilation versus integration. lives, which arepartofalargerdebate onself- on the solutions for improving indigenous peoples’ on the reasons for continuing disparities, as well as 2. that those opposing self-determination have tended ing placebetween researchers andprofessionals, and It isimportanttonotethat thisdebate ismainly tak- (Walker, 2005, p. 409). to socialcohesionandthecompetitiveness ofcities

instead beonaddressingthedevelopment gap: and localaffairs”. government inmattersrelating totheirinternal peoples havearight“toautonomy orself- of theDeclarationthatstates thatindigenous 4.7) will: self-government and self-determination (see Box iveness (Walker, 2005). Instead, itisarguedthat amounts toassimilation andalossofdistinct- and values ofmainstreamsociety, sointegration indigenous culture are inconsistent with the laws The firstapproach argues that many aspects of (Widdowson &Howard, 2008). tem that willfurtherisolate indigenouspeoples and self-determination will create aparallel sys The secondapproach arguesthat self-government development.” pursue theireconomic,social andcultural determine theirpoliticalstatusandfreely of IndigenousPeoples:“therighttofreely Article 3oftheUNDeclarationonRights Self-determination isaddressedasarightin Box 4.7 Self-determination      

dependency onsocialassistance; social issues facing indigenous peoples, and their Failure tomodernizeindigenoustraditionalways close the physical isolation ofindigenouspeoples andwill society, andurbanmigration willprevent the Integration ofindigenouspeoplesintomodern stream evolution between indigenouspeoplesandmain- Significant gapsindevelopment andcultural Improve socialcohesion. their own socialandeconomicprogrammes; indigenous peoplesdesign, deliver, andgovern peoples andmainstreamsocietyby having Address the disparities between indigenous enlarges thedevelopment gap;and issues; and peoples and mainstream society on socio-economic Strengthen co-operation between indigenous society are the reason for the numerous development gap.

It isalsooutlinedinArticle 4 36 There aredivergent views 37 The focus should - poverty reduction programmes that target awider beneficiaries. They call for broad-basedgrowth and poorly implemented, anddonotreach theintended do notadequately tackle therealissues, areusually to reducedisparities. They tendtobepoorly designed, programmes targetedsolely toindigenouspeoplesfail (2012) whoarguethat, especially inLatin America, been strongly countered, includingby Hall&Patrinos and legalsystems. Nevertheless thisapproach has indigenous-specific servicesand for parallelsocial spent years gathering evidence toshow theneedfor living inthecity. Indigenousorganizations have for integration and co-existence between groups and culturally appropriate services, versus the need indigenous groupstoprovide indigenous-specific Canada and Australia, strugglewithdemandsfrom City officialsandlocalorganizations, particularly in issues. or knowledge amonglocalgroupstoaddressthese determination, andlack oflong-termvision, capacity political indifference, fear ofspeakingupagainstself-   strategy focuses on: safety strategy which isnow beingimplemented. The result was the development of a broader community taking allusersoftheareaintoconsideration. The officials who wanted amoreinclusive approach, criticized by non-indigenousorganizations andcity by indigenouspeoples. The projectwas initially appropriate services in an unsafe area frequented from indigenousorganizations for moreculturally- illustrates. The projectbeganfollowing arequest The CabotSquare Projectat theendofthischapter study Canada throughtheCabotSquareProjectascase These debates arecurrently beingtestedinMontreal, of thischapter). peoples, poverty andglobaldevelopment at theend (see thecontribution by HarryPatrinos Indigenous as those that have worked well in China and India population rather thanindigenous-specificones, such Further, dialogueislimitedduetofactors such as influences thelocallevel, yet itisrarely addressed. to bemarginalized. Itisadebate that significantly

Addressing theparticularrealitiesthat indigen- police andindigenousgroupstofindcollaborative Improving dialoguebetween cityofficials, the service system. to accessinghealthcare, housingand thesocial of otherswhofrequentthearea, such asbarriers ous peoplesface inthecity, aswell astheneeds solutions for improving well-being and integration; Strategy for Community Safetyand Well-Being:

99 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 100 The need for city-based strategies the Edmonton Urban Aboriginal Accord Initiative and policies (Canada); the Public Policy for Indigenous Peoples (Bogotá, Colombia); and the Strategy for Community The growing trend in urbanization among indigenous Safety and Well-Being – the Cabot Square Project groups, and ongoing disparities between the indigen- (Montreal, Canada) (see the case study at the end of ous and non-indigenous population in cities are rarely the chapter). The fourth example, the Proposal for the addressed in local-level policies. They are primarily participatory development of an urban indigenous dealt with by non-governmental organizations with policy in Chile, is a national initiative. The contribution local projects focusing on e.g. employment, arts, culture Indigenous peoples, poverty and global development or education. Such initiatives are usually poorly docu- at the end of the chapter also discusses the success mented, and knowledge transfer is limited. Further, of the national Oportunidades programme in Mexico. they often fail to attract government attention and influence public policy. In recent years the emergence of networks such as the World Indigenous Network38 Edmonton Urban Aboriginal Accord and the increasing use of social media have opened Initiative (Canada)40 up opportunities for showcasing local projects and connecting indigenous groups. Such networks have Edmonton is the capital of the Canadian province of mainly been set up by civil society organizations, but Alberta. Between 2001 and 2006, the Aboriginal popu- they play an important role in mobilizing city actors lation in the city increased by more than 25 percent, and putting pressure on governments. The examples a far higher growth rate than the non-Aboriginal from Montreal and Bogotá that appear later in the population rate of 9 percent.41 With a growing visible chapter highlight the importance of such networks. Aboriginal population and issues of lack of integra- tion and inequality, Edmonton began discussions in Building partnerships with indigenous communities 2003 about the role of the city. They partnered with to encourage dialogue and debate should be the basis the Edmonton Aboriginal Urban Affairs Committee to for developing city-based strategies.39 Such strat- discuss how to foster a better future for Aboriginal egies need to recognize indigenous peoples’ diverse people. The result was the establishment of the needs, and promote mechanisms for cohabitation and Initiative with the following objectives: equal opportunity. The framework for such a strategy  Improved relationships between the City and might include culturally appropriate capacity build- the urban Aboriginal communities (i.e. a rela- ing and self-empowerment, using a resilience model tionship agreement or an Accord between the that emphasizes well-being and confidence; a focus City Administration and the urban Aboriginal on youth, including encouraging their participation communities). in city affairs and a sense of citizenship; and a focus  Improved hiring and retention of Aboriginal staff on newly arrived indigenous populations, providing by the City. support services which help respect and preserve their  Improved City-mandated services for Aboriginal identify and culture (UN-HABITAT & OHCHR, 2010). people.  Facilitation of an inclusive process for action Some of the key lessons of contemporary crime pre- planning and stakeholder investment, based on pri- vention practice can be useful in avoiding common orities identified by urban Aboriginal communities. challenges faced by governments, such as those discussed by Homel (2009) among others: As part of the Initiative, Edmonton set up its first  Design a framework that involves a problem- Aboriginal office in 2004, to serve as a welcoming oriented analysis and is outcome-focused. place for members of Aboriginal communities and a  Involve multiple agencies and collaborative action, primary point of contact with the City on Aboriginal where integrated solutions to social problems are matters. In 2005, City Council approved an operating effective. budget for the Initiative and a dialogue process was  Build partnerships that have a clear mission or established with members of Edmonton’s Aboriginal purpose and joint outcomes, and include the sharing community. This led to the adoption of the dec- of information. laration Strengthening Relationships Between the  Create clear lines of communication and account- City of Edmonton and Urban Aboriginal People. ability between central agencies and local delivery. It also led to the establishment of a principle-based  Establish principles of inclusiveness, where certain relationship agreement (an Accord) between the City activities and mandates of specific agencies may be and Aboriginal communities, and a coordinated action exclusionary. This may demand systemic changes. plan to address their needs. The Accord is still in place, and other initiatives such as a welcome guide, A few initiatives have influenced local governments a newsletter, and data collection all help to identify to take action in relation to the growth of urban and monitor changes or improvements for the urban indigenous communities in their cities. They include Aboriginal population. indigenous groups, peoplesandorganizations in developed throughaparticipatory processwith its development. and historicallegacy, andtheirplaceinthecity particular needsofindigenouspeoples, theircultural over a12-year period, andfocuses onrecognizingthe Bogotá, andadoptedin2011. The         sets outguidelinesfor thepolicy onindigenous local government onFebruary 5, 2009. The Agreement tives, including the signing of Agreement 359 by the peoples. The publicpolicy stemsfromaseriesofinitia city, andtheadoptionofapublicpolicy onindigenous of the culturaldiversity of 14indigenousgroups in the cities. the forced displacementofmany indigenousgroupsto total population, andinclude87different groups. Indigenous peoples represent 3.4 percent of Colombia’s (Bogotá, Colombia) Public PolicyforIndigenousPeoples (Gobierno deColombia, 2011): peoples inBogotá, withafocus onaffirmative action Increasing armed conflict in rural areas resulted in concentration inBogotá. peoples living incitiesColombia, withthehighest about majorchanges such asthepoliticalrecognition developed inthecity. These lobbies have helpedbring population, indigenous networks and lobbies have

organizations. trust between thelocalgovernment andindigenous Promote sharedresponsibility, transparency and peoples inrelation tonon-violentpoliticalaction. Recognize and support initiatives by indigenous peoples. discrimination and inequality towards indigenous Eliminate prejudice, stereotypes and practices of social groups. intercultural citythat respectsallculturaland Promote Bogotáasaninclusive, multi-ethnic and Bogotá. indigenous andnon-indigenouspopulation in Promote interculturalrelations between the Strengthen cultural identity and the exercise of forced displacement. support servicestotheindigenouspopulation facing vide culturally appropriate, timely andcomprehensive In collaboration withthenational government, pro their living conditions. rights ofindigenouspeoplesinBogotá, andimprove Support thefunctioningofindigenouslobby groups. Public 43 Currently, thereareabout300,000indigenous was Policy for IndigenousPeopleswas 44 With anincreasingurban 45 It is being implemented Itisbeingimplemented 42 - -

and discrimination. areas. Those in cities frequently suffer from poverty areas (67percent), andjustover 30percentinrural     Indigenous peoplesrepresent4.6percent policy (Chile) development ofanurbanindigenous Proposal fortheparticipatory are effective andareimplemented at thenational level. with indigenousgroupstoensure that theinitiatives up in2007. There will alsobeaconsultation process urban indigenouspolicy andprogrammethat was set the Presidentaffirmedher continuedsupportofthe Following there-electionofMichelle Bachelet in2013,     aims to: the responsibilityofMinistryPlanningwhich Programme (Programa Indígena Urbano)under The Policy was accompanied by anew UrbanIndigenous   ment to: Indígena Urbana) announced anew urbanindigenouspolicy (Política In 2007 Michelle Bachelet the President of Chile ing objectives: Indigenous Policy. The proposal included the follow- policy draftedby the Advisory CommissiononUrban participatory development ofanurbanindigenous national meetings. The resultwas aProposalfor the involved 2,000 indigenous leaders and 20 local and on urbanindigenousissuesinmajorcities, which government initiated anational publicconsultation total population.

Create aninstituteofIndigenousculture. Integrate indigenouslanguages​​ to urbanindigenousprogrammesandprojects. by channelling resourcesandtechnical assistance egies toenhanceindigenouspeoples’productivity Promote entrepreneurshipandinnovative strat- Promote inter-cultural healthservices. Strengthen theirculturalidentityandpractices. their active participation insociety. Empower indigenous peoples in cities and support level. Set upIndigenousaffairs offices at the municipal indigenous peoplestopreserve theiridentity. non-indigenous populations incitieswhileallowing policy is implemented in urban areas in each region. Develop anIndigenousRegionalBureausothat the discrimination. indigenous peoples’rightsaswell asactionsagainst education, and cultural diversity), and promote infrastructure, strengthening identity, health, sport, (e.g. promotingentrepreneurship, housingand Improve the quality of life of indigenous peoples Promote equalopportunitybetween indigenousand 50 49

47 The majorityofthemlive inurban including 48 From 2006to2007, theChilean guidelines for govern- in schools. 46 ofChile’s

101 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 102 Conclusion

The migration of indigenous peoples to urban areas is a growing trend in most countries with such populations. Urban indigenous migration is often a very different experience from that of other migrant groups, given their distinct cultural heritage, and in general there is often a policy void in terms of respon- sibility for their well-being. Local governments often fail to understand their unique history, culture and traditions, and the particular challenges they face as migrants. Carefully tailored city policies can help to mediate the negative experiences of indigenous migrants, reduce their vulnerability to crime, exploit- ation and victimization, and promote safe and more equitable communities.51

In reality, policy development has been slow at the city level and the lack of local-level data has made it difficult to identify the issues. The good news is that a few cities offer concrete examples of how local gov- ernment can engage with indigenous communities to find creative ways of advancing integration and adaptation to modern urban society, while protecting their indigenous rights, identity and culture. This chapter has provided a brief overview of indigenous migration trends and their impacts, and some of the debates surrounding urban indigenous responses. It has also highlighted some promising city and national initiatives which respond to the complex realities urban indigenous peoples face in cities, and their valuable role in the urban environment. & Massey, 2004;Cornelius&Bustamante, 1989). borders, primarily totheUS, hastakenplace(Durand constant migration of indigenous populations across efforts tomeasurethecountry’s migrantpopulation, to indigenousmigration. migration statistics donotmakespecificreference Oaxaca andGuerrero(seeFigure 2), but national which mostmigrantsleftinclude Veracruz, Puebla, one state toanotherin2010(Figure 1). The States from that 3.2millionpeoplemigrated withinMexico, from unknown. Basedonthe2010Census, INEGIestimates but theexactnumberofindigenousmigrantsremains Mexico’s national statistics agency (INEGI) Hidalgo. Chiapas, Guerrero, Puebla, Veracruz, Yucatán and population isconcentrated inseven states: Oaxaca, indigenous language. senting 9.9%ofthetotalpopulation, speakan Some 11.1millionpeoplethroughoutMexico, repre Estimating trends apart fromafew cases, littleisknown aboutthem. present in Mexico City, Cancún and Acapulco, but Trujano, 2008). Indigenouspeoplearevery much migrated fromruraltourban areas(Yescas Angeles since the1970s, littleisknown aboutthosewhohave ignored. Although ithasbeenanimportanttrend Historically indigenousmigration inMexicohasbeen ber ofspeakersindigenouslanguagesby state and Source: INEGI(2010) (1990-2010) Figure 1 ElizarrarásRodrigo A. adapt toanurbancontext in Mexico:Thestruggleto indigenous migration Trends ininternal 2010 2005 2000 1995 1990 3,292,310 2,410,407 3,584,957 4,004,312 3,468,508 54 For aslongrecordshave beenkept, a Total interstatemigrantpopulation 53 However, 75%oftheindigenous 55 Information onthenum- 52

has made - living inlargecities. indicates thepercentageofindigenous populations Contribution and politicalreligious conflict. migration patterns develop inresponsetoviolence living conditions (Yescas Angeles Trujano, 2008). Other the centreandnorthinsearch ofwork andimproved facing economicproblems migrate fromthesouthto tion patterns inMexico. Itappearsthat all populations Rural tourbanmigration isoneoftheoldestmigra- Migrating fromruralareastothecity political andsocialfactors. from oneyear toanother dependingoneconomic, It shouldbenotedthat thesepopulations may fluctuate people migrated toanotherstate withinMexicoin2010. As Figure 3suggests, approximately 326,000indigenous of data onindigenousmigration withinMexico. from onestate toanother. a simpleestimate ofthenumbersmigrantsmoving To address the extent of indigenous migration, we made unknown. information ontheiridentity aslocalsormigrantsis municipality canbeobtainedfromothersources, but with asignificantindigenouspopulation(2010) Figure 2 Source: INEGI(2010) Campeche Quintana Guerrero Veracruz Yucatán Chiapas Hidalgo Oaxaca Puebla Roo 56

Population emigratingfromstates 1,611,089 300,624 491,919 618,008 713,735 919,145 999,476 109,734 55,003 57 Figure 3provides aselection 58 Figure 4below

103 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 104 Figure 3 States with the largest indigenous populations and percentage of emigrant indigenous populations (2010)

Percentage of state Indigenous population which is Total emigrant Emigrant indigenous State population indigenous population population

National 11,132,562 9.9% 3,292,310 326,268

Oaxaca 1,719,464 45.2% 103,085 46,621

Chiapas 1,511,015 31.5% 105,858 33,347

Veracruz 1,037,424 13.6% 236,542 32,106

Puebla 1,018,397 17.6% 135,568 23,887

México 985,690 6.5% 332,627 21,605

Yucatán 985,549 50.4% 37,932 19,117

Guerrero 635,620 18.8% 107,724 20,205

Hidalgo 575,161 21.6% 67,139 14,490

Source: Catálogo de Localidades Indígenas 2010 [2010 Indigenous City Index] (www.cdi.gob.mx) and 2010 statistics on internal migration (INEGI).

Horbath (2008) notes that 90% or more of the indigen- p. 24). Horbath (2008) states that indigenous peoples ous population in Mexico lives in poverty, whether migrating to cities, end up living in certain areas that in rural areas or cities (p. 20). In Mexico City, for become ‘ghettos’. Their children attend school but example, migrant indigenous communities remain suffer discrimination and abuse because they are close-knit, yet they experience severe poverty and indigenous and/or due to their lack of education and are often subject to marginalization and exclusion job skills.59 Most discrimination is related to their (Hall & Patrinos, 2005; Yescas Angeles Trujano, 2008, identity, and physical traits or manner of speaking

Figure 4 large cities in Mexico and the percentage of indigenous populations (2010)

Total Indigenous Percentage of Municipality, state population population indigenous population

Benito Juárez, Quintana Roo 661,176 153,816 23.26%

Mérida, Yucatán 830,732 193,061 23.24%

Ensenada, Baja California 466,814 47,404 10.15%

Chimalhuacán, México 614,453 58,724 9.56%

Valle de Chalco-Solidaridad, México 357,645 28,863 8.07%

Toluca, México 819,561 65,156 7.95%

Pachuca, Hidalgo 267,862 20,112 7.51%

Puebla, Puebla 1,539,819 100,353 6.52%

Naucalpan, México 833,779 53,751 6.45%

Chilpancingo, Guerrero 241,717 13,218 5.47%

Chalco, México 310,130 16,472 5.31%

Los Cabos, Baja California Sur 238,487 9,124 3.83%

Acapulco, Guerrero 789,971 26,971 3.41%

Distrito Federal 8,851,080 300,138 3.41%

Source: Catálogo de Localidades Indígenas 2010 [2010 Indigenous City Index] (www.cdi.gob.mx) factored into policy development. the other, underMexico’s legalsystem, ethnicityisnot tions. UNICEF, local authorities and civil society organiza or indigenous regionsinMexico. in thecreation ofsimilarprogrammes inotherstates assessment. Unfortunately, this has not resulted a modelfor quantitative andqualitative programme protocols for institutional care; and developing advancing genderequality; developing gender-based promoting rightsandproviding alegalframework; states ofChiapasandOaxaca”. Ithasfour maingoals: ties. gramme toaddresshumanrightsandintercultural the firstgender-based violence prevention pro- Nacional delasMujeres –INMUJERES)toimplement up with the National Women’s Institute (Instituto 2010, whenUNESCO’s fieldofficeinMexicoteamed ated by externalgroups. Oneexampledates from and safety tend to be situated in rural areas and initi The only programmesfocusing onindigenouspeoples of theirstatus as indigenous people andmigrants. ber andexcludedfromsocialprogrammesbecause indigenous population. in 2013 pays no specific attention to the country’s The national crimeprevention programmelaunched wise failed toconsiderthe safety ofindigenouspeoples. to addresssafety issues. There arenourban-based, municipal-level programmes only ahandful ofcasesbecomepublic. an interpreter at their trial. In the absence of data, people are convicted simply because they do not have also shown that asignificantnumberofindigenous 5.5% and4.9%respectively). Localorganizations have among indigenouspopulations were higher(15.3%, In Oaxaca, Yucatán and Chiapas, conviction rates 1.2% ofthetotal95,000convictions nationwide. indigenous originwere convicted ofacrime, about ous languageisavailable. In2012, 1,137 peopleof on convictions ofindividuals speakinganindigen- tistics do not record this information. are victims of crime in cities, given that criminal sta- It isdifficulttoassesshow many indigenouspeople Safety andindigenouspeoples bourhoods, mostdonot. in other ethnic communities in certain city neigh- terms ofintegration, whilesomemanagetointegrate construction ordomesticworkers (Horbath, 2008). In are usually employed insecond-rate jobs, mainly as (Durin, 2007). Further, urbanindigenouspeoples a specialfocus ongirls, boys andadolescents, inthe and prevention in indigenous communities, with to: “increase andimprove awareness onviolence communities living inmajorcitiesaresmallnum 64 65 OtherpartnersincludeECLAC, UNFPA, UNDP, The programmetargetsruralareasandaims 62 61 Ontheonehand, indigenous Federal authorities have like 60 However, data 63 On On - - - -

105 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 106 Urban violence and indigenous Contribution migrant populations: The case of Peru

Olenka Ochoa Berreteaga66

This contribution builds on previous research regard- such as suicide and alcohol and drug abuse.71 Adding ing urban violence and its effects on indigenous to the climate of insecurity is the fact that rural/ migrant populations in Latin America, and specifically urban migration may in some cases be controlled by in Peru. organized crime groups involved in human traffick- ing through ‘family channels’. In this case, indigenous There are 522 indigenous groups in the Latin American youth are brought to the city by ‘godparents’ offer- region. Over 80% of this population lives in Mexico, ing to care for them and educate them. Instead, they Bolivia, Guatemala, Peru and Colombia. In the case of become servants, domestic workers and/or victims Peru, 40% of the country’s population is of indigenous of sexual exploitation. Similarly, indigenous migrant origin. Over the centuries, indigenous Peruvians have men and women experience labour exploitation in identified themselves in terms of “rural communities”. cities, where there are countless reports of abuse Recently, they have experienced major changes as they in textile factories, in particular. Further, indigenous are increasingly migrating to cities and experiencing people in cities face discrimination as they are often acculturation. According to the UNPFII, violence is refused entry to restaurants and other places.72 an important issue; indigenous people are subject to acts of violence because of their identify and customs, Impunity and a lack of protection against violence by which are considered backward and disruptive of the state police and institutions have led to gang mem- status-quo.67 bers filling in the gaps and providing security in many urban areas. Further, there is a growing stigma In Peru, indigenous migrants living in cities are at that poor indigenous migrants are dangerous and even greater risk of discrimination, verbal abuse and suspected of terrorism, or of being a gang member psychological and physical violence that stems from or a criminal. The stigmatization of a people who are disparaging attitudes towards different languages, already at-risk of victimization leads to the violation races and appearance. Indigenous migrants’ expos- of their rights, and makes them victims of passive ure to urban violence increases exponentially when aggression by other citizens. combined with other factors such as ethnicity, gender and age.68 Some argue that contemporary violence against indigenous peoples is the product of a history The Cantagallo Shipibo-Conibo of domination where indigenous populations were community killed and displaced, and their cultural traditions eradicated. Historically – in times of both peace and The Amazon is home to many native communities war – indigenous women in particular have faced living on ancestral land who speak their own language systemic sexual violence which has largely gone and practice their cultural traditions. These commun- unpunished.69 ities have undergone a slow process of integration. Many Amazonians in Peru have migrated to cities in Poverty is one of the main factors determining the the interior of the country; a few have ventured to vulnerability of indigenous migrants. Many families the capital city, Lima. The Shipibo-Conibo people are have fled their communities to escape terrorism, drug- a particularly interesting case. Since migrating to related violence, or to seek a better future.70 They Lima they have maintained their communal structure have settled in peripheral urban neighbourhoods as well as a sense of belonging and identity. They even that are poorly serviced and protected by the police, created an urban settlement named Cantagallo. making these areas very dangerous. These neighbour- hoods have some of the highest rates of violence, and To gain some first-hand information about their situ- include femicide, gang-related violence, child abuse, ation, we conducted an exploratory study in Barrio sexual assault, and youth violence including that in de Migrantes Cantagallo in December 2013, using areas known as barras bravas. Young people are also in-depth interviews. In terms of violence, the migrants involved in self-inflicted forms of violent behaviour who were interviewed reported high rates of robbery but we stayed for work”. that, Iwanted tomove back homewithmy children, television set and the only gas canister we had. After for the landlord’s money, and in the end they took my and tiedmemy husbandup. They were looking we rentedaroominbiggerhome. Thieves camein danger Ifeel living inLima. When we firstarrived, “When Ilived in the Amazon, I never felt the fear and the Cantagallocommunity (Lima, Peru): Olinda Silvano, Secretaryfor Community Affairs for Personal accounts serenazgo (themunicipal police). others tocommunity membersandleaders, ortothe Comisaria (thelocalbranch oftheNational Police), report crimes, most community members go to the in theirhomesamongotherthings. For assistanceto and young people, andincreasingsecuritymeasures Police, adoptingprevention programmesfor children community, includingcoordinating withtheNational Source: OlenkaOchoa Berreteaga Picture 1 participants saidthey hadorganizedthemselves asa theft. To protectthemselves andtheirfamilies, the by youth in public places, child abuse and vehicle ity, thedeath ofayoung maninadanceclub, attacks transport, therapeof ayoung girlinthecommun- cases ofthesexualassaultateenagegirlonpublic groups ofpeople, attempted kidnappings, particular munity leaders reportedcasesofknife attacks by events involving family members or friends, com by municipal securitypersonnel. When askedabout city, andforceful confiscation oftheirbelongings attitudes and behaviours because of their ethni- They alsoreportedhaving toendurediscriminatory robbery oftheirartisanalcraftsfromhomes. in taxis, assaultandarmedrobbery inthehome, and and assaultinthestreetotherpublicplaces 74

- Source: OlenkaOchoa Berreteaga Picture 2 Murillo In the1950s, ruralpeoplewere bannedfromthePlaza rural people but cannot say so openly – unlike before. people andmigrantsaretreated. Cityresidents loathe there have beensignificant changes inthe way rural or university…Since Evo MoralesbecamePresident, never abletogoschool, tohave accesstocolleges sucios (dirty Indians) who are illiterate. They were folk have always viewed ruralpeopleasindigenas against andpoorly treated by peopleinthecity. City “Before, rural people were stared at, discriminated Women’s Centre)(Bolivia): Aymaras-CANDELARIA(CANDELARIA Aymaran Rosario Gutierrez, PresidentoftheCentroMujeres identity…without anidentitywe arenothing”. lack of understanding or recognition of the Shipiba discrimination we oftenexperiencecomesfroma are notLimans, we’re fromanotherworld, andthe and thewaiters refused toserve us”… “To themwe itional clothingthat “we went toarestaurantinLima She recalled one time when they were wearing trad- Association, Cantagallo community (Lima, Peru): Dmer Ramirez Munta, 36 years old, President of the 73 andgovernment offices.”

107 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 108 Indigenous peoples, poverty and global Contribution development

Harry A. Patrinos75

Many of the world’s largest economic problems can be in countries’ poverty rates and other social indica- directly related to an analysis of the socio-economic tors, with those for indigenous sub-populations, and situation of indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities provides comparable data for a wide range of coun- across the globe. Despite overall growth in recent tries all over the world. It estimates global poverty decades, economic collapse still threatens many numbers and analyzes other important development countries, and such an event would plunge us into indicators, such as schooling, health and social conditions not seen for several decades. protection. Our analysis is motivated by two main factors: (1) there is a growing concern among poverty To reach critical international development goals and analysts worldwide that countries with significant promote widespread growth, the global development vulnerable populations – such as indigenous peoples community must find ways to meet the key challen- – may not meet the Millennium Development Goals, ges of our time – including reducing global poverty, and thus there exists a consequent need for better eradicating malnutrition, and creating quality learn- data tracking conditions among these groups; and (2) ing opportunities for all. The development community there is a growing call by indigenous organizations, cannot afford to ignore indigenous peoples, who make including the UNPFII, for solid, disaggregated data up 4 percent (over 300 million people) of the world’s analyzing the size and causes of the development gap. population, but an estimated 10 percent of the poor. We are fast approaching the end of the Second The experience of Indigenous peoples in Latin America International Decade of the World’s Indigenous shows that despite progress on many fronts – polit- People (2005-2015) as declared by the UNPFII,76 which ical, social, educational, services and so on – poverty coincides with the end of the Millennium Development is not declining. The gaps in poverty rates between Goals decade, and unless we begin to focus on these indigenous and non-indigenous populations present populations we will be unable to eliminate extreme in the mid-1990s have remained constant and in some poverty. cases, increased (Hall & Patrinos, 2012).

In light of these issues we as economists with a The challenges are clear (World Bank, 2011): focus on Latin America, initially set out to estimate  The last of the excluded groups to be reached will poverty rates for indigenous peoples to compare with be the most difficult to reach. national rates, and discuss what policies might matter  They are likely to be vulnerable populations with in reducing those poverty rates (Hall & Patrinos, tenuous connections to the modern economy. 2006). Ultimately, we were advocating for more work  They are likely to come from ethnic groups and on indigenous peoples, as well as on the impact of indigenous populations, and speak a different lan- national policies for minorities. For cultures to survive, guage from the economic majority population. prosper, and develop on their own terms, they need to surpass a certain basic, minimum level of material When we extended our analysis to the global indigenous well-being. It is for this reason, and not because we (and ethnic minority77) population we expected to find: do not value alternative means of well-being, that  Higher poverty among indigenous peoples; we used traditional economic analyses and national  But improved social indicators over time; and poverty rates. We take for granted and accept the  Little or no improvement in incomes or in the reduc- premise that people have the right to self-identify. In tion of poverty rates. fact, self-identification is the starting point for our analysis. In Hall and Patrinos (2012) we document We find that indigenous peoples are poorer than poverty systematically for the world’s indigenous non-indigenous peoples – or minorities poorer than peoples in developing regions in Asia, Africa and non-minorities – as the case may be. Overall, indigen- Latin America. Our analysis is representative of ous peoples are the poorest of the poor. In addition, we 85 percent of the world’s indigenous peoples. It draws found some surprises as to where gains were made, on nationally representative data to compare trends which will be explained later. whelming evidence that programmes are poorly documentedorevaluated. There isno over significant leakage. Inmostcases, such programmes not reach theintended beneficiariesorexperiencing issue, and areusually poorly implemented. They do to bepoorly designed, fail toadequately tackle thereal enough do not work very well. These programmes tend is oftenthemechanism usedinLatin America, oddly grammes targetedsolely toindigenouspeoples, which Why ChinaandnotLatin America? We arguethat pro same rate (Dasetal., 2012). this hasbenefitedtheScheduled Tribes, but not at the reduction inpoverty andhealthy economic growth; population (seeFigure 1). Indiahasalsoseenrapid in termsofpositive performance oftheminority & Wang, 2012). Infact, nocountrydidaswell asChina China hasalsobenefittedfromgoodpolicy (Hannum further behind. stagnation, which leadsindigenouspeoplestofall (2006) onEcuador). Over timethiscontributes to (2012) on Vietnam, andLarrea&Montenegro Torres do notbenefitas much either(see, for example, Dang they donotsuffer asmuch, but duringanupturn, they not affect theminthesameway. Duringadownturn events, includingshocks, downturns and thelike, do the marketornational economy. Therefore, national ities. Indigenous peoples are generally not part of lagging progressfor indigenouspeoplesandminor the riskofunbalancedgrowth, socialturmoil, and Quality policiesthat benefitthewholecountryreduce et al., 2008). Chile topped the growth charts inthe 1990s (Kharas 1980s whennoothercountryinLatin America grew. with any recordedgrowth, especially duringthe and becameoneofthefew Latin American countries decades, Chile openeditseconomy, curtailedinflation, including Indigenouspeoples. Over thelastfew This growth tendstoimprove thesituation for all, that goodpublicpolicies canleadtoeconomicgrowth. enced significantdeclinesinpoverty, demonstrating Chile, theexceptionmentionedabove, hasexperi- or decliningremittances. last few years, perhapsduetothefinancialcrisisand/ Certainly thenon-indigenousarelosinggroundin Indigenous peoplesinMexicodoingalittlebetter? of anew trend(Hall &Patrinos, 2012). That is, are yet know if the last few years mark the beginnings Chile). Mexicofitsthispattern well, though we donot significant proportionofthepopulation (except for almost allcountrieswhereindigenouspeoplesarea tially noprogressintermsofpoverty reductionin social benefitsandpoliticalpower, thereisessen- in Latin America, where, despitesignificantgainsin terms ofclosingthegap. This iscertainly thecase We alsoexpectedtofindlessprogress over timein specifically - - -

targeting theindigenouspopulation willsubstan 100 percent ofthe country’s municipalities. Its design families in every state inthecountry andcovers programmes. The programmeassists6.5million capital througheducation, healthandnutrition generational cycle ofpoverty, by building human opportunities. Itsobjective istobreaktheinter policy inChile. Oportunidadespromotesequal programme in Mexico, and the general economic be Oportunidades, theconditionalcashtransfer The bestknown exceptionsinLatin America might non-indigenous (Hall&Patrinos, 2012). than non-indigenouschildren, therestfavour the one major school programme reaches more indigenous incidence ofreceiptby betteroff people. InPeru only strongly progressive, andinsome casesthereishigh non-indigenous children. None of these programmes is slightly favour indigenous children, and thefifth favors the five major school based nutrition programmes only – they were poorly implemented. In Guatemala, four of programmes could help – such as bilingual education forming targetedprogrammes, andeven incaseswhere In Latin America we only found evidence ofpoorly per absence of broad-basedgrowth andpoverty reduction. tially erasethegapbetween groups, especially inthe headcount rate,1983-2006(inpercentages) Figure 1 Source: HallandPatrinos(2012). Guatemala Indigenous Vietnam Ecuador Mexico Bolivia China India Peru Annual change in poverty Annual changeinpoverty 11.0% 17.0% 12.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.5% 0.9% 0.8% 1.5% 1.0% 2.5% 1.0% 3.0% 2.0% 4.0% Non-indigenous - - -

109 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 110 combines the issuance of conditioned cash transfers with coordinated interventions in health, nutrition and education. Oportunidades is not targeted to those who are indigenous, but rather to those who are poor. However, since indigenous peoples are more likely to be poor, they are well represented in Oportunidades, and in fact are overrepresented. Thus, a programme that is not targeted to those who are indigenous still benefits them. Moreover, Oportunidades is effective at improving access to education, health and nutri- tion services, and reducing poverty (Gertler, 2004; Fiszbein & Schady, 2009; Schultz, 2004). It is also effective at improving indigenous peoples’ outcomes (Bando et al., 2005).

China, by contrast, uses regional targeting, benefitting the poor areas and, therefore, poor minorities. This has been a key characteristic of national poverty allevia- tion efforts there (Hannum and Wang, 2012). China targets using information about overlapping dimen- sions of advantage and disadvantage. It also pairs poverty alleviation efforts, targeted at individuals in poor communities, with community development initiatives. However, without general economic growth, poverty reduction would not have been possible in China (Wang, 2004). China produced pro-poor growth through market-led economic growth. At the outset of the reform process China removed distortions and ensured relatively low inequality in access to the opportunities created (Ravallion, 2011).

Lessons from this work: 1. Targeting only indigenous peoples will not reduce poverty; one needs to target other characteristics such as poverty status, region, and ensure that there is a viable development policy. 2. Targeting disadvantaged populations and/or regions (in combination with individual incentives) does help to reduce poverty. Since invariably indigenous peoples are overrepresented among the disadvan- taged, such well-targeted programmes ‘work’ (cf. regional economic development programmes that promote opportunities and access to markets). 3. Indigenous peoples can move out of poverty if they are given the opportunities to build human capital and if development policy ensures they benefit from such programmes in the labor market. 4. We need real economic development programmes and programmes to extend opportunities for indigenous peoples. We cannot make progress on global poverty without considering the needs of the world’s indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities.

In conclusion, we need more work on indigenous peoples/ethnic minorities, and we need more data and specific examples of what works, so that policy officials can utilize that information to inform their decision-making. centres d’amitiéautochtones duQuébec, 2008). of offending andvictimization (Regroupement de marginalization, which in turn increases levels problems and substance abuse, often lead to increased factors, coupledwith a highincidenceofmental health of opportunities(Lévesque &Cloutier, 2010). These homelessness, socio-economicchallenges andalack face hardships onarrival, includingpoverty, isolation, many ofthemthrive inthecity, aconsiderablenumber Aboriginal Community Strategy Network, 2012). While nomic andeducational opportunities(MontrealUrban Aboriginal people often move to Montreal for eco apartment orhouse(Environics Institute, 2011). income of$10,000to$30,000, andlives inarented school orcollegequalification, an average household is female, between the ages of 25 and 44, has ahigh The “average” Aboriginal person living in Montreal growing groupamongeleven majorcities(Figure 1). In 2006 Aboriginal people in Montreal were the fastest (Statistics Canada, 2011;Environics Institute, 2011). 2011 witha42%increase(from11,160to26,285 people) steadily sincethe1980s, especially inthedecade2001to The Aboriginal population inMontrealhasgrown Source: StatisticsCanada (2006) with populationincrease,2001-2006 Figure 1 Marla Williams and Vivien Carli, Allison Reid (Montreal, Canada) The CabotSquareProject Safety andW Strategy forCommunity Vancouver Edmonton Calgary Saskatoon Regina Winnipeg Thunder Bay Toronto Montreal Ottawa-Gatineau Halifax Aboriginal population and proportion ofcensusmetropolitanareas (CMAs), Aboriginal populationandproportion ell-Being: 78 Aboriginal population

40,310 52,100 26,575 21,535 17,105 68,385 10,055 26,575 17,865 20,590 5,320 2006 2006 s -

Case study Strategy Network (NETWORK) In 2010, theMontreal Urban Aboriginal Community attracted many Aboriginal peoplefacing thesekinds (Peter-McGill Community Council, 2009). ing place” for Aboriginal people over the last 20 years person. Cabot Square has been an important “gather possession of stolen goods and crimes against the of homelessnessandcrime, includingfraud, cartheft, downtown area, it is has long been known for its issues of challenges. A parksituated tothewest ofMontreal’s     of concerns inCabot Square and itssurrounding area: Cabot Squareisinanareaofthecitythat has

arrivals, andalack ofintegration. Growing homelessness amongnew Aboriginal and thepolice. Poor communication between community groups Increased policepresenceandrepressive action Gentrification andfutureredevelopment plans for population. against parkusers, leading toadisplacementofthe tion usingit. the parkthat mightdisplacethevulnerablepopula Proportion of C Proportion 10.0% 2006 1.9% 5.1% 2.5% 9.3% 8.9% 8.3% 0.5% 0.5% 1.8% 1.4% M A

79 identifiedanumber

2001-2006 Change +27% +26% +22% +23% +31% +60% +52% +51% +9% +6% +9%

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111 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 112 The NETWORK began discussions with the federal emergency services for new arrivals. A safety commit- and provincial governments, Aboriginal institu- tee with the city, police and front-line organizations tions, and the City of Montreal on how to prevent the has been established to directly address issues of situation from deteriorating further. Initial project improving communication, and reducing crime and proposals for more culturally sensitive services were violence. Two front-line workers from an indigenous rejected. In 2012 the NETWORK presented a new pro- and a non-indigenous organization have been hired posal to the city – a Strategy for Community Safety to centralize front-line work in the Cabot Square and Wellbeing – focusing especially on the Aboriginal area, and a comprehensive monitoring and evaluation population in Cabot Square, and reducing the impacts system is being put in place. Future initiatives include of current and future displacement. The Strategy training sessions for front-line workers; the expansion aims to situate Montreal as a model city that fosters of hours and services at a local day centre; the reloca- local coordination, promotes social inclusion and tion of existing services; and implementation of plans co-existence, and provides efficient services to improve to improve cohabitation in the Square. well-being and safety. The Cabot Square Project highlights the vital role that From January to May 2013, the project team mobilized local networks can play in mobilizing city officials over 40 organizations that work directly or indirectly and services and developing creative solutions. It is with the vulnerable Cabot Square population, to develop important to note that the project team has accom- and implement the Strategy. To create a complete por- plished a significant amount of work in a short period trait of Cabot Square and the surrounding area, surveys of time, mainly due to the strength of the existing were conducted with the vulnerable population, service network, but also the city’s openness. They have been providers, community and governmental groups, and willing to improve communication with civil society the general public. More than 38 groups participated and a re-balancing of power, by sharing information in working meetings to help identify solutions.80 More and allowing local groups to take control of the project. than 70 recommendations resulted, from supporting front-line services, increasing the size of the gathering spaces for the target population (such as day centres and outdoor spaces), improving health, housing and cultural services, increasing communication between all stakeholders, to prompting cohabitation between all users of the space. The Strategy presented in July 2013 included the following objectives:  Targeting a broad population: indigenous and non- indigenous peoples accessing a specific public space of the city and who are considered to be “vulnerable” or “at-risk” of being victimized or committing a crime;  Providing additional services to improve well-being – beyond those provided by the social service and healthcare system – including mainstream and indigenous cultural services;  Addressing barriers to accessing housing and social services;  Improving co-habitation between the indigenous and non-indigenous population, including resi- dents and business owners in the borough; and  Building partnerships between indigenous and non-indigenous organizations to share expertise on front-line services for the target population.

Implementation of the Strategy began in September 2013, and is expected to continue for 18 months or more, depending on progress. Three committees were set up on front-line issues, health and housing, to identify gaps in services and facilitate access. Among their activities they have met with local clinics, identified training needs of front line workers, conducted surveys to identify existing services and barriers, undertaken a housing mapping exercise, developed specific hous- ing and health action plans, and developed a map of of householdpropertyandvandalism. property, breakingandentering, motorvehicle/parts theft, theft 17 of Canadafor indigenouspeoples). are consideredas Aboriginal (thetermusedby theGovernment Nations, InuitandMétis). Indigenouspeoplesliving inCanada 16 against American Indianor Alaska Natives was 19.5per1,000 people. 15 American IndiangroupsorSouth American Indiangroups. principal tribe, such asNavajo, Blackfeet, Inupiat, Yup’ik, orCentral as “American Indianor Alaska Native” or reportanenrolledor 14 demographic data. assistance for indigenousorganizations groupstoproducesocio- ECLAC andCELADE – Population Division have provided technical Censuses toincludeindigenouspeoplesasaseparate topic, and Principles andRecommendations for Population andHousing between theSecretariat oftheUNPFIIwithUNDESA;draft 13 border statistics and/orhousehold-basedsurveys. 12 and-regional-service-delivery-strategy-for-indigenous-australians programs-services/closing-the-gap/closing-the-gap-national-urban- 8 7 6 www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/IPeoples/Pages/UNIPPartnership.aspx 5 living inNamibia, South Africa, Botswana and Angola. 4 transhumant, semi-sedentary, etc. 3 population. up 25percentofthehomelesspopulation, but only 2%ofthecity’s 2 Trujano, 2008, p. 26). the EmberainColombiaandInuitCanada(Yescas Angeles followed by theMapuche inChile, theMaasaiin Tanzania, urbanization of any national indigenousornon-indigenousgroup, 1 11 www.dss.gov.au/our-responsibilities/indigenous-australians/ 709108~theSitePK:502184,00.html ,contentMDK:2553653~menuPK:4564185~pagePK:64709096~piPK:64 WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/EXTPOLICIES/EXTOPMANUAL/0, indigenouspeoples/overview; andhttp://web.worldbank.org/ 10 DevelopmentInternational Assistance. 9 on HumanandPeoples’ Rights, IDB, EuropeanUnion The mainhumanrightsbody oftheUN. The MaoripeoplesofNew Zealandhave experiencedthefastest WIMSA setsupcouncilstolobby onbehalfofindigenouspeoples E.g. World Bank, Asian Development Bank, the African Commission See UNGA(2007). Mobility takesvarious forms includingnomadic, seminomadic, For example, in Toronto, Canada, urban Aboriginal peoplemake E.g. Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation; Danish Endnotes There arethreemainindigenousgroupsinCanada(First This category includespeoplewhoindicate theirrace(s) Sexual assault, robbery, physical assault, theftofpersonal In 2010, therate ofaggravated assaultreportedby victims E.g. Indigenouspeoples’data collectioncooperation agreement IOM data isusually compiledfromadministrative registers, See The World Bank’s website: www.worldbank.org/en/topic/

social cohesionasnetworks andsocialcapital; social control;solidarityandreductioninwealth disparities; suggested: commonvalues andacivic culture;socialorderand 36 Criminal Code. of Aboriginal background, underSection718.2(e)oftheCanadian that acourtcanrequestwhenconsideringsentencingsomeone 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 and benefitofaband(i.e. First Nations group). with legaltitlevested in HerMajesty, andsetapartfor theuse 28 publications/2013/VAIWG_FINAL.pdf. 27 www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/ of Norway, Sweden, Finland, andtheKolaPeninsula ofRussia. 26 (INEGI). 25 long-form questionnaire. survey (i.e. National HouseholdSurvey) hasreplacedthemandatory 24 standardized data collectionlimitscomparisonacrosscountries. 23 resulting inarrest, abuse anddeportation. with lives; ittendstobeseasonalandshort-term. Itisalsoassociated This typeofmigration istheleastdisruptive toindigenouspeoples’ indigenous peoples, for reasonsofculturalandspatial proximity. 22 and countlessgroupsin Asia, Africa andSouth America. Kola Peninsula ofRussia, First Nations ofCanadaandtheUS, 21 20 19 married persons. persons is, respectively, 1.8and1.5timeshigherthantheriskfor The riskofvictimization amongseparated/divorced or single 6.2 times morelikely thanthoseaged55andover tobevictimised. 18 43 -demografia/censos 42 41 backgrounder.pdf 40 Indigenous People. of Action oftheSecondInternational Decadeofthe World’s for the Prevention ofCrime, andamajorfocus oftheProgram 39 38 www.worldindigenousnetwork.net/ to participate insociety. society haswidened, makingitmoredifficult for certaingroups ‘traditional’ culturalways ofindigenouspeoplesandmodern regards tootherpartsoftheworld. They arguethat thegapbetween 37 cohesion asplaceattachment andidentity(Beauvais &Jenson, 2002). -demografia/censos 44 of armedconflict. groups arenow consideredtobeat riskofextinctionasaresult The federal departmentin Canadaresponsiblefor health. The SamiaretheindigenousFinno-Ugric peopleinhabitingpart The National InstituteofStatistics andGeography, The Censushasundergonechanges andrecently avoluntary The indigenousPolynesian peopleofNew Zealand. The authorsrefer mainly toCanada, but have madeclaimsin While country-level data provides goodinformation, lack of A Gladue reportisapre-sentencingandbailhearing A reserve isspecified by the IndianActasatractofland, Age isthemostnotedfactor. Those aged15to24years are Five different conceptionsofsocialcohesionhave been See www.aboriginallegal.ca/ See www.nayapdx.org/ See www.ncie.org.au/ Cornell, Jorgensen, &Kalt(2002, p.17). Cornell, Curtis&Jorgensen (2004, p. 10). Internal rural-ruralmigration caninvolve settledornomadic For example, theSamipeoplesofNorway, Finland, Sweden, Considered thefirstpeoplesof Australia. Colombia’s ConstitutionalCourtclaims that at least 27 indigenous See 2005Census, www.dane.gov.co/index.php/poblacion-y See Census2006. See www.edmonton.ca/city_government/documents/PDF/ Partnership building isaprincipleofthe2002UNGuidelines See 2005Census, www.dane.gov.co/index.php/poblacion-y transborder migration, which can oftenbedangerous, Mexico

113 Chapter 4 Indigenous migration and local communities 114 45 District Decree 543 (Article 9): “Whereby a Public Policy for 65 See www.onu.org.mx/proyectos.html Indigenous Peoples will be adopted in Bogotá, DC” (Secretaría 66 Expert in Security/Local Development/Intercultural and General de la Alcaldía Mayor de Bogotá D.C., 2013). The policy Indigenous Policies, FEMUM ALC Council Board Member (Latin is associated with Affirmative Action Plans developed in 2008 American & Caribbean Federation of Women & Municipalities). as part of the constitution. 67 See Violencias y Mujeres Indígenas (Violence and Indigenous 46 Self-identified as indigenous peoples. Women), Enlace Continental de Mujeres Indígenas de las Américas 47 See Instituto Nacional de Estadística www.ine.es/en/ – ECMIA (Continental Network of Indigenous Women of the welcome_en.htm Americas) and CHIRAPAQ (Centre for Indigenous Cultures of Peru), First edition, Lima, July 2013. 48 See Instituto Nacional de Estadística www.ine.es/en/ welcome_en.htm 68 A cross-cutting approach – which comprehensively examines factors like ethnic origin, race, gender, age and economic status to 49 CONADI, Ministerio de Planificación. www.plasmadg.com/ assess the vulnerability of indigenous populations and particularly prueba_/index.php/programa-indigena-urbano girls – can provide insight into how violence occurs and is perpetuated. 50 Asuntos indígenas en los Programas Presidenciales 2013, see 69 CHIRAPAQ www.politicaindigena.org/adjuntos/ima_2534.pdf. 70 In the case of the northern VRAEM region, where narco- 51 A recommendation of the 2013 International Expert Group trafficking and armed groups are present. Meeting on urban indigenous peoples and migration (UNPFII, 2013). 71 With the support of the Canadian government, we undertook 52 Special thanks to Leslie Solis and Néstor de Buen for their a study in San Juan de Lurigancho, the country’s largest and most assistance with the preparation of this article. Rodrigo Elizarrarás heavily populated settlement, looking at gender-based violence A. is the Coordinator for the Programa de Seguridad y Justicia among women and in schools regarding child abuse, and the impact [Security and Justice Program] of México Evalúa: Centro de Análisis of terrorism on women’s lives. Thousands had fled to this settlement de Políticas Públicas [Centre for Public Policy Analysis]. in order to escape local violence. With funding and support from 53 Based on data from the 2010 Census. the World Bank, we also carried out an assessment of youth violence as part of the Defensores de la Paz (Defenders of the Peace) 54 The number of indigenous people may be higher than indicated. project, and in partnership with INCAFAM, a non-governmental As a result of migration from their home region to urban areas organization. some may have lost their native language, but maintain certain traditions and beliefs which can be considered indigenous. 72 CHIRAPAQ. For more information on the criteria used to identify indigenous 73 The main square in La Paz, Bolivia where the presidential palace populations in Latin American censuses, see Resano (1999). is located. 55 Yescas Angeles Trujano (2008) points out that this is common 74 Picture 1 & 2 were taken while during field research, in the in a number of developing countries. comunity Cantagallo, Lima, Peru, for this contribution. 56 The Comisión de Desarrollo Indígena (Indigenous Development 75 Manager, Education, World Bank, Washington DC. The views Commission) publishes data on indigenous populations as a expressed here are those of the author and should not be attributed percentage of the general population in each municipality. While to the World Bank Group. The excellent research assistance of it does not provide detailed information on place of origin or the Jessica Cross is gratefully acknowledged. indigenous language spoken, it helps identify a region of origin. 76 See http://undesadspd.org/IndigenousPeoples.aspx 57 Calculations are based on comparing indigenous population percentages in each state against the state’s total migrant 77 We use sources that are external to justify inclusion and extend population. our analysis to “ethnic minorities” that exhibit the characteristics usually ascribed to indigenous peoples. Thus, we study indigenous 58 In recent years, violence among organized crime groups peoples and ethnic minorities (and Scheduled Tribes) for the has influenced migration patterns, albeit ones which primarily countries with the largest indigenous/ethnic minority populations, affect upper and middle classes moving to less violent cities. namely India and China. This phenomenon does not directly concern the indigenous population, except perhaps the Tarahumara in Chihuahua and 78 Respectively Senior Analyst at ICPC, and former Supervisor of those living in certain regions of Michoacán. the Cabot Square Project; Coordinator of the Cabot Square Project; and former Project Officer of the Cabot Square Project. 59 A few cases have received media attention such as the bullying of a 16 year-old Mixtec girl by her classmates with no measures 79 See www.reseaumtlnetwork.com/eng/Home.aspx taken by school authorities (see www.eluniversal.com.mx/ 80 Participants included governmental bodies, community ciudad-metropoli/2013/procuraduria-cita-rendir-declaracion- organizations, health providers, shelters, day centres and other caso-ninia-969562.html, in Spanish) and the discriminatory service providers. treatment of a five year-old Mazatec boy by his teachers (see http://elmanana.com.mx/noticia/23540/Paquito-nio-mazateco- que-fue-discriminado-en-su-escuela.html). 60 In Mexico it is estimated that up to 92% of all crimes committed go unreported (INEGI, 2012). 61 See Chapa, L., Fernández, L. & Ley, S. 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Introduction ICPC’s 2012 International Report looked at trends in human trafficking, at the growth in national legisla- As suggested in the introduction to this report, human tion criminalizing human trafficking and at national trafficking – often referred to as modern slavery – action plans to combat and prevent it. It reported that continues to be a major concern within countries and in 2011, 140 countries out of 193 had enacted some internationally. It is an immensely complex problem form of national legislation relating to trafficking in involving the acquisition of people by force, fraud or persons, and that some 42% of countries had a related deception, with the aim of exploiting them for gain. It national action plan. The impact of international affects women and men, young people and children, norms and standards on countries is clear, since the primarily for labour or sexual exploitation, with a great majority of national activity has occurred in much smaller proportion of cases involving traffick- the decade following the adoption of the Protocol. ing for human organs or for marriage purposes. It is The extent to which such legislation and plans are not a new phenomenon, but since the adoption of the implemented is never easy to assess, but they are UN Protocol against Trafficking in Persons, as part important steps in recognizing the problem. The 2012 of the Transnational Convention against Organized ICPC report also noted that the majority of national Crime of 2000, there has been extensive activity to action plans included some element of prevention. In enact legislation to criminalize human trafficking, 2010-11 ICPC co-organized international and national to improve data collection to track patterns of activity, expert meetings and reviewed promising initiatives to identify and prosecute offenders, and to develop on the prevention of human trafficking, to inform protection and support services for victims. As with the development of a prevention strategy in Canada other issues examined in this report, gender and age (Barrett & Shaw, 2011; ICCLR, 2011; Dandurand, are very significant factors. 2012).2

At the same time in the course of the fourteen years This current chapter looks in more detail at some of since the adoption of the Protocol, the extent of traf- the recent trends in human trafficking for labour and ficking appears to have increased, and shows little sexual purposes, both internally and across-borders. sign of slowing down. It is seen as one of the world’s It examines the differential impacts on men, women largest and fastest growing criminal activities (IOM, and children, and some of the challenges in developing 2013, p. 37). It is highly lucrative. It is estimated that prevention policies for actions which are not always global profits for sexual exploitation are in the range well understood and recognized. The chapter does not of $99US billion and for labour exploitation $51US address many of the issues concerning legislation billion (ILO, 2014). It is also very costly to individuals and the prosecution of traffickers, or the provision of and countries. Traffickers have benefited from rapid services to victims – both of which are key components changes in communications technology, from the of trafficking strategies – but focuses on the factors increased demand for the services of trafficked per- which should shape prevention strategies. In particu- sons in countries of destination, and the seemingly lar it looks at developments at the local level where ceaseless supply of people anxious to improve their such exploitation takes place, as well as promising lives and who become trafficked victims. It remains prevention practices being developed in places or a crime which is very difficult to detect and prosecute, countries where traffickers recruit. and the number of successful prosecutions in most countries remains extremely low relative to the amount of attention the issue has received. The Protocol has also resulted in a large amount of funding for research and project development in many countries, much of which has helped to increase knowledge about the difficulties of responding to trafficking, as well as the benefits and disadvantages of policies initiated.1 was subsequently addedin2008, recognizingthe protection andprevention. A fourth p ‘partnerships’ on what areknown asthethreeP’s: prosecution, prevention:    policies includeanumberofprinciplesrelevant to for HumanRightsin2002onanti-humantrafficking The guidelines developed by the UN High Commissioner     trafficking includethe: Other international conventions relevant tohuman and to take or strengthen measures to reduce demand. as poverty, underdevelopment orlack ofopportunity, States totakemeasuresreduceriskfactors such In relation toprevention, age by any meansisdefinedastrafficking (Article3c). Protocol, theexploitation ofchildren under18years of Apart from the explicit emphasis on women in the    referred toas: outlines three basic elements of trafficking routinely in order to tackle this complex issue. The Protocol importance ofworking inpartnershipsacrosssectors in 2000 and became operational in 2003. especially women andchildren was initially adopted The UNProtocolagainsttrafficking inpersons, the preventionofhumantrafficking International normstosupport

UN Convention ontheRightsofChild1989, and izations shall ensurethat interventions address Principle 5:states andintergovernmental organ- demand asarootcauseoftrafficking. Principle 4:prevention strategies shalladdress dignity, particularly ofthevictim. should notadversely impacthuman rightsand Principle 3: “do noharm” –anti-trafficking policies Forms ofChildLabour; Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst regarded asthe “crux” ofthecrime. The purpose–the exploitation, which iswidely harbouring orreceiptofaperson. The act–therecruitment, transportation, transfer, on HumanRightsand Trafficking 2002. UN OHCHRRecommendedPrinciplesandGuidelines prostitution andchild pornography 2000;and the OptionalProtocolonsaleofchildren, child ILO Convention 182, 1999, onProhibitionand of prostitutionwomen; suppress trafficking in women andtheexploitation Article 6:States must takeappropriate measuresto Discrimination against Women 1979(CEDAW) Convention ontheElimination ofallForms of control over anotherperson”. benefits to achieve the consent of a person having also includes “giving orreceiving ofpayments or abuse of power or position of vulnerability, and of coercion, includingabduction, fraud, deception, The means–thethreat oruseofforce orotherforms the Protocolrequires 3 It focuses

ages states tocreate policies toreduce demand for In addition, Guideline7amongotherthingsencour trafficking andprotectvictims, such asthe2004 use immigration andrefugeelegislation tocontrol In additionaltocriminalcodes, many countriesalso action inalmost30Europeancountries(COE, 2013). as GRETA. ByFebruary 2014, GRETA hadevaluated Action against Trafficking inHumanBeings, known has beenmonitoredby theGroupofExpertson implementing the2008CouncilofEuropeConvention in theregion. Sinceitsadoption, countryprogressin first statistical reportontrafficking inhumanbeings EU Strategy in2012. In2013, Eurostat publishedits Trafficking Rapporteur was created in2010, andan Beings a Beings in2003. an tives have been adopted. In Europe, OSCE outlined At theregionallevel anumberoflegislative initia- disadvantaged groups. options, especially for women andothertraditionally as todevelop programmesthat offer livelihood exploitative commercialsexualservices, aswell  example, itisvery likely that thenumberofpeople within theborders ofacountry. Within Canada, for more publicattention thanthat which takes place Thirdly, transnational trafficking tendstoreceive far ognize when their exploitation amountstotrafficking. rights to fair wages and working conditions, or rec or constructionworkers, may not beaware oftheir programme, such asseasonalagriculturalworkers, people enteringacountryunderlegalworkers of people, has received less attention. For example, trafficking, which may involve much largernumbers ing for thepurposesofsexualexploitation. Labour Secondly, much of the focus has been on traffick more targetedawareness andinformation projects. to broadpublicawareness programmes, withafew programmes. Prevention hasbeenprimarily restricted to thedevelopment ofprevention strategies and and morerecently, totheprotectionofvictims, than the criminal law to prosecute and deter trafficking, countries have given greater attention totheuseof As isoftenthecaseinresponsetocriminalactivity, in personssince2003, threetrendshave beenevident. In termsofactionontheProtocolagainsttrafficking enacted in2001, withsubsequentamendments. and RefugeeProtection Act inCanada, initially all forms ofhumantrafficking, andtheImmigration Asylum andImmigration Act intheUK, which covers

Convention on Action against Trafficking inHuman and allforms ofdiscrimination. vulnerability factors, includinginequality, poverty involvement orcomplicityintrafficking. Principle 6:states shalleradicate public-sector Action PlantoCombat Trafficking inHuman which came intoforce in2008, aRegional Anti- 4 The CouncilofEuropeadopted - - -

121 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 122 trafficked internally, especially for sexual exploitation, people who have been smuggled into a country with greatly exceeds the number trafficked from outside their own consent, may become victims of trafficking the country. when the smugglers demand additional payments, take their documents, or require them to undertake It is also important to note that the contexts – in forced labour to pay their “debts”. terms of countries and cities – in which trafficking takes place vary enormously. Patterns of human Given its clandestine nature, international estimates trafficking are strongly affected by a country’s of the incidence and prevalence of human trafficking political, economic, social and cultural history, as are a major challenge, and seriously underestimate well as current circumstances and pressures. Low the extent and patterns of the problem. Traffickers and middle-income countries are often countries are very quick to change their routes and methods of origin for trafficking, and high-income countries in response to tightened security or changes in destinations. The geography of a country or city also legislation, making detection extremely difficult. affects its vulnerability to trafficking. The expansion In some regions, especially Africa, in the absence of of the European Union has resulted in some dramatic anti-trafficking legislation there is little information changes in migration patterns and facilitated traffick- (Njoh & Ayuk-Etang, 2013; US Department of State, ing for sexual and labour exploitation from poorer 2013). Even in countries which have legislation, police countries and regions, but the ease of access has also reports of trafficking cases are unlikely to provide an exacerbated the problems. Tensions between control- accurate picture. As with other forms of crime, the ling borders to keep out trafficked migrants versus extent of police resources given to detecting traffick- recognizing the need to provide supports to traffick- ing will impact the numbers of cases discovered, and ing victims have been one result. The contribution by many countries lack capacity. Moreover, trafficking Vincenzo Castelli at the end of this chapter on Human victims are usually very reluctant to talk to the police Trafficking in Italy illustrates some of these issues. for fear of reprisals from their traffickers, against themselves or people close to them, or fear of deporta- National, and in some cases, provincial or state tion. Many victims may not even be aware that they prevention strategies are extremely important in are victims of trafficking with attendant rights. The furthering the prevention of human trafficking and general public’s awareness of trafficking activities supporting victims. A number of countries includ- and their willingness to report them is often limited. ing Canada and many in Europe now have national action plans with a strong prevention component, as In addition, in countries where legislation exists, data well as national information coordination systems, on prosecuted cases seriously underrepresents traf- or rapporteur mechanisms to oversee policy on ficking activity since it is common for traffickers to human trafficking. Both the Netherlands and Finland be charged with crimes other than trafficking, such as for example, have National Rapporteurs on Human pimping or procuring, for which it is easier to obtain Trafficking. Action at the local level is less prevalent, a conviction. Trafficking cases end up, therefore, not although a range of tools which can be used by cities being recorded as such. and local governments is emerging. They include local coordination partnerships, the use of local safety Globally UNODC, ILO and IOM all maintain databases audits to guide the development of prevention strat- on human trafficking, but rely on different sources of egies adapted to the local context, and local protocols data. For example, UNODC estimates of trafficking vic- such as those involving business communities, hotel tims and perpetrators are based on officially detected owners and staff. cases provided by Member States, but do not enable estimates of the total number of victims to be made (UNODC, 2012). Between 2007 and 2010 they identified The lack of data on human trafficking some 43,000 victims, representing 136 nationalities detected in 118 countries (UNODC, 2012). The ILO As Chapter 3 has discussed, the links between focuses primarily on forced labour exploitation using migration, the smuggling of migrants, and human open sources, and estimates the number of cases at trafficking are intricate and intimate. They form part 20.9 million people globally, but the proportion that of a continuum with similar motivations and contrib- is trafficked is not known. IOM maintains a global uting causes. A number of observers have suggested database on victims of trafficking to whom it gives that trafficking cannot be addressed unless migration assistance, and by 2010 it contained over 20,000 names. is also addressed (Rao & Presenti, 2012). Human The annual US Department of State Trafficking in trafficking forms a very small proportion of overall Persons Report focuses on victim identification. Their migration, which was estimated to amount to some recent estimates suggest that some 27 million men, 232 million people in 2013 (UN DESA, 2013). Together women and children are trafficked globally at any one with migrant smuggling, trafficking forms part of the time, although they identified only 40,000 victims in irregular migrant population globally. In some cases 2012 (US Department of State, 2013, p. 7). Jokinen etal., 2011;Sikka, 2009a). tional backgrounds (Larson, 2010; Albanese, 2011; undereducated, andfromdifficult family orinstitu- dominately female, socially orculturally excluded, trafficking victimsoftentend tobe young, poor, pre- Apart fromtheirinterestinseekingabetterlife, As percentageofthetotalnumberdetectedvictimsineachsub-region Figure 5.2 Source: UNODC(2012,p.25). detected globally, 2009 Figure 5.1 Withintheregion or thecountry 17% Girls and theCaribbean Shares ofdetectedvictimswhoweretraffickedwithinorfromoutsidetheregion,2007-2010 Gender andageprofileofvictims Central America North America, 68.4% 10% Boys 31.6% South America 89.4% 14% Men Fromoutsidethe region 10.6% 59% W omen Central Europe Western and 68.1% Sub-Saharan 97.9% Africa 31.9% 2.1% exploitation inrecentyears, reflectingimproved noted the rapid increase in detected cases of labour latter primarily in Africa andtheMiddleEast). They illegal adoptions, forced marriageandorgans(the 36% for labour, and8%for otherpurposes, including were trafficked for the purposeofsexual exploitation, UNODC alsoestimated that 58%ofdetectedvictims (Figure 5.2). majority (45%)acrossborderswithinthesameregion within the same country, 24%transnationally, andthe estimated that 27%ofvictimsglobally aretrafficked In termsoftheoriginstrafficked victims, UNODC of victims. and theMiddleEast, wherethey accountedfor 68% globally, andthey were likely tobedetected in Africa age accountedfor some27%oftrafficking victims wide regionalvariations. Childrenunder18years of cases ofchild victims fromprevious years, but with (Figure 5.1). They alsoreportanincreaseindetected girls, while24%were menandboys (UNODC, 2012) 2009 were female (76%), 59%ofthem women and17% the overwhelming majorityofvictimstrafficking in gender information (29,000), UNODCestimated that Based on detected victims for whom they had age and Recent trends North Africaand Countriesnotcovered the MiddleEast 30.2% and CentralAsia Eastern Europe 99.8% 69.8% 0.2% 100% South Asia 0% Source: UNODC(2012, p.42). and thePacific 99.5% East Asia 0.5% 123 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 124 awareness and legislation, and detection capacities. importance of preventing it. In 2009, ILO estimated Again there are wide regional differences, with higher that some $2.5US billion were lost to victims in terms proportions of labour trafficking detected in Africa, of fees they were forced to pay, and underpayment of the Middle East and South East Asia and the Pacific, wages. Other costs include justice, legal and medical and more sexual exploitation in Europe, Central Asia costs, and intangible costs such as pain and suffering. and North and South America. Women are predomin- The contribution by Nicole Barrett at the end of this antly the victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation, chapter on The Economic Costs of Sex Trafficking: and two out of three child victims are female. Building the Case for Prevention discusses attempts to estimate some of these costs. In relation to trafficking perpetrators, the great majority of known cases are men. Two thirds of cases prosecuted or convicted between 2007 and 2010 Developing a prevention strategy were male, and one third female (UNODC, 2012). The for the complex problem of human involvement of women varies considerably between trafficking regions, ranging from 21% in Africa and the Middle East, to 77% of convicted trafficking cases in Eastern “Widespread understanding of human trafficking is Europe and Central Asia. UNODC (2012) suggests that often clouded by stereotype, bias and sensational women have a higher rate of involvement in traffick- media reports”.5 ing, especially for sexual purposes, than in other types of crime, and they are associated especially with the In developing prevention strategies, governments trafficking of girls. They report qualitative research at all levels face a number of problems in addition which suggests that women tend to be involved in to inadequate data. They include: low-level positions within trafficking hierarchies, are  Media biases which add to misconceptions about often themselves former trafficked victims, and are who trafficked victims include, and where they more vulnerable to detection as well as recruitment might be found; than men (UNODC, 2012, p. 29-30; Barberet, 2014;  The lack of awareness on the part of service pro- Siegel & de Blank, 2010; Aronowitz, 2009). fessions and people likely to come in contact with traffickers or victims;  Difficulties of distinguishing between exploitation, Regional trends forced labour and poor working conditions;  The tendency to focus on international cases at the Within the European Union, the first regional expense of domestic trafficking; and statistical report on human trafficking found an 18%  Different perspectives on social and moral issues increase in identified and presumed victims between such as prostitution, sex work and exploitation. 2008 to 2010 (Eurostat, 2013). Women and girls far outnumbered men and boys (68% and 12%, compared Given the strong focus on the use of the criminal law with 17% and 3%) so that females represented 80% of to respond to trafficking, a number of observers have victims. The majority of victims (61%) were trafficked suggested that there has been an overemphasis on the within the region from EU Member States, notably prosecution of traffickers, and that this has militated Romania and Bulgaria, but the percentage of non-EU against the protection of the human rights of victims victims increased over the period (from 18% to 39% for and the development of appropriate victim support females and 12% to 37% for males). Around two thirds and prevention strategies (Smith, 2011; Huijsmans of the victims were trafficked for sexual exploitation, & Baker, 2012; Copic & Simeunovic-Paric, 2011; a quarter for labour and the remainder (14%) for Dandurand, 2011). organ removal, begging and criminal activities, and child selling. At the same time the proportion of trafficking cases prosecuted in many countries remains extremely The rapidity of changing trafficking patterns has small (UNODC, 2012; Farrell et al., 2013; Eurostat, been noted in France where a parliamentary com- 2013). In Canada, for example, by March 2013 there mittee estimated that in the 1990’s 80% of prostitutes had been only 35 human trafficking convictions since in France were French-born, but by 2011 90% were the Criminal Code was amended in 2005 (Public foreign-born (Bousquet & Geoffroy, 2011). Similar Safety Canada, 2013b). Australia convicted 15 offend- changes in the origins of those working in the sex ers out of 346 investigations of human trafficking, trade have been noted in the Netherlands and other slavery and slavery-like offences between 2004 and European countries (Barnett et al., 2011). 2012 (Simmons et al., 2013). In the US in 2011-12, the Department of Justice convicted 138 traffickers (US Overall, the costs of human trafficking to both victims Department of State, 2013). UNODC reported that of trafficking and their families, and to countries of 132 countries that have criminalized trafficking, themselves, are very high, and help to underline the 16% had no convictions at all between 2007 and ment ofthelatter (Rao&Presenti, 2012). for trafficked victimsthan for migrants, tothedetri- government and publicsympathy tends to begreater than domestic victims, it has also been suggested that sympathies may bemoreattuned tointernational trafficking (Quartermanetal., 2012). Andwhilepublic exploitation tothedetrimentofotherforms ofhuman human trafficking, andreinforced animage ofsexual public information campaignsoftensensationalized ers andfront-lineworkers felt that awareness and In Canada, astudy inCalgaryreportedthat stakehold for domesticones. be greater for international trafficking victims than Scotland, 2013). In general, publicsympathies tend to suggesting they underestimated itsrole(IpsosMORI associated organizedcrimewithhumantrafficking, A Scottishstudy found that only 18%ofpeoplesurveyed tions andexploitation, especially of labourvictims. required to highlight the range of trafficking situa- The study suggests that greater public education is and least likely to focus on female domestic servitude. of young girls, thanofadults, oronmale labourcases, were much morelikely tofocus onsexualtrafficking estimated for theUKby ILOmethods. Mediaarticles Mechanism, andmuch lower thanthe7,000 cases the UK Human Trafficking Centre’s National Referral the officialfigureof1,186potentialcasesidentified by 172 ofsexualexploitation. This was far lower than Of these, 85 were victimsoflabourexploitation and forced labour in2012identifiedatotalof263 victims. analysis of2,270media articlesontrafficking and emerges inthepublicdomain(Dugan, 2013). An the UKwell illustrates thedistortedpicturewhich A study ofmedia reportsonhumantrafficking in 2011; Castelli, 2012). tied tocollaboration withthepolice(Winterdyk etal., In othercountries, such asItaly, victimsupportisless (Copic &Simeunovic-Paric, 2011;Dandurand, 2011). to collaborate inprosecutionsandactaswitnesses visas areoftendependentonthevictim’s willingness a numberofcountries, victimassistanceorresidence (Winterdyk, Perrin &Reichel, 2011;Munro, 2006). In and prosecution, over victim assistance and support and itsimplementation emphasizesbordersecurity considerably intheextenttowhich theirlegislation ficked; andfullresidencepermits. Countries vary them to stay in the countrytowhich they aretraf temporary visas or “reflection periods” to enable and supportservicesfor victims;theprovision of usually includethreemain components: assistance In termsofvictim “protection”, trafficking policies trafficking. tions of relying on the criminal law alone to prevent 2010 (UNODC, 2012). This underlines the limita - - -

and trafficking The continuumbetweensexwork Trafficking forsexualexploitation– Baker, 2012). children who want to migrate worse (Huijsmans & interventions have insomecasesmadethelives of between themany reasonsfor child migration, and an anti-trafficking perspective hasblurredthelines victims. Others have argued that in relation to children, where not all women may be or see themselves only as home between $5,000USand$32,000USaweek (Dank example, estimated that pimpsandtraffickers took mercial sexindustryineight towns intheUS, for extensive and lucrative. A recent study of the com The sex industryinmany countriesisextremely prostitution initsdefinitionoftrafficking (Article3a): The Protocolitselfspecifically refers toexploitation for and oftheexploitationprostitutionothers. Convention for thesuppression oftraffic inpersons The Palermo Protocolwas precededby the1949UN exploitation andprostitutiondate back many decades. forced towork. The linksbetween trafficking for sexual industry wheretrafficked women andgirlsareprimarily there areclosetieswithprostitution, sincethat isthe trafficking legislation. Inrelation tosexualexploitation, which donotmeetthestandardsofexploitation under between trafficking and forms oflabourexploitation As inthecaseofmigration, thereexistsacontinuum 2014; Chesney-Lind, 2014). when therealityismuch morecomplex(Barberet, poor helpless(female) victimsandevil traffickers, with astrongemphasisondichotomous view of human trafficking has become a “rescue industry” A number of peoplehave arguedin recent years that case inrelation totrafficking for sexualexploitation tolerating prostitution.” trafficking inhumanbeings at thesametimeas aware that itis nolongerpossibletocondemn France hasamajorresponsibilitytomakeEurope “The various countrieswhich we visitedtoldusthat or theremoval oforgans...” slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude forms ofsexualexploitation, forced labourorservices, exploitation oftheprostitutionothersorother Exploitation shallinclude, at aminimum, the giving orreceiving ofthepurposeexploitation. of power orofapositionvulnerability or of the of abduction, offraud, ofdeception, oftheabuse threat oruseofforce orotherforms ofcoercion, bouring or receipt of persons, by means of the “The recruitment, transportation, transfer, har 7 6 This isespecially the - -

125 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 126 et al., 2014). Child sexual exploitation through the Internet is also of increasing concern as suggested Box 5.1 Fluctuations in prostitution policy in Chapter 2. in the Netherlands

 Tolerated in the Middle Ages. In most countries the exploitation of trafficked victims  First regulated and then suppressed in takes place in a range of venues including street pros- 16th century. titution, brothels, massage parlours, nail salons, adult  Laissez-faire approach in 17th century. entertainment strip bars and clubs, escort agencies,  Controlled in 18th century because of moral hotels and private homes. The venues may be legal or concerns among the growing middle class illegal, depending on the country or city. Increasingly,  Regulated in 19th century to protect soldiers in however, the sex industry is moving away from the the Napoleonic army (health checks and work street to private spaces, and communicating through permits required of women in prostitution). the Internet and mobile phones, making it much more  Tolerated and then legalized in 20th century. difficult to detect trafficking cases. This appears to  Increasing regulation in 21st century: including be the case in many developed countries including reductions in size of Amsterdam’s red light the US, Ireland, Sweden, Australia and New Zealand district due to an influx of organized crime (Barnett et al., 2011; Barrett & Shaw, 2014). and human trafficking from 2009.

The overlap between trafficking in persons and their Source: Adapted from Barrett & Shaw (2014). exploitation in the legitimate labour market raises a number of issues. The majority of trafficked victims in Australia, for example, are reported to be women Beyond these problems, as discussed above, the lines and girls brought from South East Asia to work in between victim and perpetrator are often blurred the sex industry, some coming voluntarily, but end- in the case of women who have been trafficked for ing up in debt bondage and sexual servitude (NSW, sexual exploitation, and subsequently become involved 2012). Many other people may work in forced labour in recruitment and victim control (Aronowicz, 2009; conditions which infringe labour laws, but do not Barberet, 2014). meet trafficking exploitation standards (Skrivankova, 2010; Jokinen et al., 2011). Many of those trafficked Perhaps most significantly – as a moral and social for sexual and labour purposes may work in legal issue – countries have frequently shifted their atti- occupations, but not be aware of their rights. In the tudes towards prostitution over time (see for example State of Victoria, Australia, a parliamentary report the case of the Netherlands, Box 5.1). Current legisla- noted in 2010 that all prosecuted cases of traffick- tive responses to prostitution range from making it ing or sexual servitude involved trafficked victims illegal for both sex sellers and sex buyers (e.g. most in legal premises (Parliament of Victoria, 2010). Lack states in the US), making it legal for sellers, but illegal of knowledge and awareness about trafficking by for buyers (e.g. Sweden), creating limited to full legality front-line service workers such as the police, customs via regulation and licensing (e.g. the Netherlands), and officials, border guards and other professionals is decriminalizing the entire industry (e.g. New Zealand) a further problem. (Barnett et al., 2011). In the past decade it is evident that countries and cities have continued to struggle The agency of women is often overlooked in discus- with the “best way” to control prostitution and prevent sions about trafficking for sexual exploitation. In trafficking for sexual exploitation, as they respond to many countries, there are strong support and advo- the UN Protocol, and in the face of changing migration cacy groups for women who work in the sex industry, patterns, and organized criminal involvement in the and governments have legislated to give them the sex trade. same rights and protections as other workers, and to ensure safe working conditions. Such women do not see themselves as victims of exploitation (van de Labour trafficking Meulen et al., 2013; Barberet, 2014). In recent years, for example, countries such as Germany, the Netherlands, Labour trafficking includes a wide range of people New Zealand and some states in Australia have shifted who are trafficked illegally into a country, including their focus away from prostitution as a “public those under false pretences for non-existent jobs nuisance” to focusing on improving the health and or forced labour; those smuggled across a border safety conditions of sex workers, and on their right to but forced to work to pay debts (debt bondage); as be treated like other professions. The contribution by well as those entering a country under a legal work Rosemary Barberet at the end of this chapter Sex work, programme such as seasonal agricultural labour pro- Prostitution and Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation: grammes, or temporary foreign worker programmes Implications for Crime Prevention discusses some (Figure 5.3). As suggested earlier, people entering of these issues. a country under work visas may not be aware of their often tiedtospecific employment, whileunscrupulous deportation, orbecause residenceorwork permitsare to seek help or leave abusive situations for fear of exploited migrantworkers areoften very reluctant 2013; Jokinen etal., 2011). As withsexualexploitation, on labourtrafficking inBalticcountries (Ollusetal., Finland hassimilarly undertakenanumber ofstudies Institute for CrimePrevention andControl(HEUNI)in trafficking (David, 2010; Larsen, 2010). The European human trafficking, includingdetailedstudiesoflabour ment has funded a series of research programmes on attention tolabourtrafficking. The Australian govern A numberofcountrieshave beguntogive greater prosecution services(Farrell etal., 2013) located inviceormoralitydivisions withinpoliceand ecutors, and the fact that most trafficking expertise is laws andregulations onthepartofpoliceandpros- to victimidentification areunfamiliarity withlabour The authorsconcludethat two ofthemainbarriers greater numberoflabourthansextrafficking victims. fact that theUSgovernment hasitselfassistedafar et al., 2013;McGough, 2013). This was inspiteofthe labour trafficking and89%insextrafficking (Farrell in the US, it was found that only 11% involved in sample oftrafficking casesidentified byauthorities public thansextrafficking. Inadetailedstudy of a ing cases are recognized by authorities or the general However, itisevident that far fewer labourtraffick- Social Justice, 2013;Jokinen etal., 2011; RCMP, 2010). State, 2013;Scott, Craig, &Geddes, 2012;Centrefor homes amongdomesticworkers (USDepartmentof food serviceandhotelindustries, aswell asinprivate sites for mining orlogging, food processing, andthe construction andmanufacturing industries, inremote a widerangeofunskilledjobs, rangingfromagriculture, Trafficking for forced labourislikely tobe found in they may betrafficked withinacountry. ognize whenthey arebeingexploited. Insomecases rights tofair wages and working conditions, orrec- Source: Ollusetal.(2013,p.13). labour andtheexploitationof(migrant)labour. Figure 5.3 Trafficking inhumanbeings,forced Exploitation of(migrant) Labour Forced labour Trafficking -

UNODC notedanincreasing globaltrendindomestic international. through breaches ofemployment standards, building gested that casescometoofficial attention primarily ignorance (Ollus et al., 2013). In Canada, it is sug employees takeadvantage oftheirvulnerabilityand all reportedvictims (UNODC, 2012). Insomecountries trafficking between 2007and2010, from19%to31%of much of the trafficking is domestic rather than China, thePhilippines, Canadaand the US, where in all regions, and in a number of countries including Trafficking peoplewithintheir own countryis found trafficking International versusdomestic of labourtrafficking) (ILO, 2009). vulnerability at destination (seeBox5.2for indicators work conditions;coercionat destination; andabuse of tion; recruitmentby abuse ofvulnerability;exploitative or transportation; coercive recruitmentortransporta each with a series of indicators: deceptive recruitment developed by ILOin2009. There aresixdimensions, for forced labour, aswell assexualexploitation, were Indicators to provide guidance onidentifying trafficking employers (RCMP, 2010). applicants, as well as exploitative businesses and provide accurate information, or knowingly deceive in countriesoforiginordestination, which fail to recruiting, placement and “labour leasing” agencies identified cases involve third party agencies, such as organized crime is notalways evident. Many of the or immigration laws (Sikka, 2013). The involvement of rather than because of clear breaches of criminal codes, occupational healthandsafety orlabourrights, Low indicatorofexploitation: Medium indicatorsofexploitation: Source: ILO(2009).          Strong indicatorofexploitation: Box 5.2

No accesstoeducation Wage manipulation Very badworkingconditions insurance etc.) No socialprotection(contract, No respectoflabourlawsorcontractsigned Low ornosalary Hazardous work Bad livingconditions Excessive workingdaysorhours ILO Indicatorsoflabourtrafficking - -

127 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 128 this relates to children trafficked from rural areas for labour exploitation. In some European countries Box 5.3 factors to consider in developing and North America, it is more likely to involve the a framework for the prevention of human grooming of young women by “boyfriends” and gang trafficking members for sexual exploitation. 1. Target exploitation, the crux of the crime. 2. Focus on trafficking for both sexual and In Canada, for example, the majority of trafficking for labour purposes. sexual exploitation would appear to involve domestic 3. Focus on domestic trafficking as well victims. While some young men are also involved, as international trafficking. they are usually young women and girls, recruited 4. Focus on both supply and demand. as young as 12-14, and often with a history of state 5. Develop national government leadership welfare care, childhood sexual or physical abuse, are to ensure a comprehensive prevention runaways or homeless, undereducated, and primar- framework. ily Aboriginal (Sikka, 2009a & b). A 2007 government 6. Build on existing structures as far as possible. report stated that Aboriginal girls and women were 7. Develop partnerships and coordination at the greatest risk of becoming victims of trafficking mechanisms. and sexual exploitation in Canada (Status of Women 8. Develop a good evidence base and build Canada, 2007). The report noted that some 40% of on existing data and sources. them live in poverty, more than half of those over 9. Monitor and evaluate initiatives. the age of 15 are unemployed, and more than half 10. Build capacity and community resilience. of those living in single-parent households needed housing. In some Canadian provinces, such as Source: ICCLR (2011). Manitoba, Alberta and British Columbia with large Aboriginal populations, the proportion of Aboriginal society organizations. It should take account of both women and girls involved in street prostitution far labour and sex trafficking, and domestic and trans- outnumbers non-Aboriginals. national forms, and include strategies which target the demand for, as well as the supply of, trafficked In the US, it is evident that the majority of sex traffick- persons (see Box 5.3). ing victims dealt with by prosecutors are US citizens (Farrell et al., 2013). American Indian or Alaska Native Canada’s National Action Plan to Combat Human women in the US in particular are at high risk of being Trafficking was launched in 2012 and includes trafficked for sexual exploitation (Farley et al., 2011). strategies for prevention, improving protection and assistance of victims, detection, investigation and prosecution of traffickers, and for increasing partner- National and state/provincial ships and knowledge (Public Safety Canada, 2012). prevention policy The prevention component includes five broad areas:  In Canada – training of front-line services workers; International conventions and declarations underline  Development of new awareness campaigns; that the complexity of human trafficking requires a  Development of tools to help local communities multi-layered and comprehensive response: tackling identify people and places at risk of trafficking; some of the causal factors, incorporating a gender  Internationally – the distribution of awareness perspective, and upholding the human rights of those literature through Canadian missions globally; and involved. This applies to the development of preven-  Targeted aid programmes to protect children and tion policies as much as to those concerned with youth from labour and sexual exploitation. prosecution and victim protection and support. In its first year of operation, Canadian aid programmes In 2011 the Canadian government initiated an inter- have included the development of programmes for national review of current practices and expertise on children at risk of sexual tourism in Cartagena, the prevention of human trafficking, and the factors Colombia; the mapping of sex tourism at-risk loca- which need to be taken into account in developing tions in Costa Rica, and support to local families and a national strategy (ICCLR, 2011; Dandurand, 2012).8 communities; and in China, life skills and information It was concluded that apart from being based on projects on labour trafficking with children, school international principles, a national strategy must students and women (Public Safety Canada, 2013b). be backed by strong leadership and support from national government. It needs to facilitate partner- As ICPC’s 2012 International Report notes, many ships between relevant services, such as the police national governments now have anti-trafficking and border services, with lower levels of govern- action plans. Countries such as Germany, Belgium ment and victim and other services, and with civil and the UK have developed national referral forestry, horticultural, shellfishgathering, food pro and work situations, especially inthe agricultural, and inspectdomesticotherlabourrecruitment established in 2005 with strong powers to regulate awareness, andvictimprotectionassistance. human trafficking enforcement withtraining, public of Homeland Security’s bringing togetherrelevant agencies. The Department Currently therearearound40 multi-agency teams, task forces andpolicetrainingonhumantrafficking. provided $64USmilliontofundlocalmulti-agency persons, since2004theDepartmentofJustice has US, apartfromtheannualreportontrafficking in changing trafficking patterns andneeds. Inthe This helps to ensure that policies take account of services andprocedurestoberegularly monitored. raise the profile oftrafficking issues, andenable Netherlands andFinland theNational Rapporteurs for example (COE, 2013). In countries such as the tory tomonitortrafficking inhumanbeings2008, support. Portugal establishedanational observa- There isconsiderableagreementthat acombination ment mechanisms areimportanttoolsfor prevention. or regulation backed upby inspectionandenforce - In relation tolabourtrafficking, the use oflegislation ensure effective investigation andcompliance. to. The authority has both civil and criminal powers to cessing and packaging industries. of conduct. forced labour and trafficking, and is regarded as a provides an example of a national initiative to prevent In theUK, TheGangmaster’s Licensing Authority (GLA) through theuseofethicalguidelinesandcodes important, as well as self-regulation by businesses, employers’ associations andtradeunionsisthusvery (Ollus etal., 2013). The roleoflabourinspections, targeting only themostseriouscasesofexploitation equality oflabourrightsfor allworkers, rather than ing for forced labourrequirescountriestopromote is concludedthat theeffective prevention oftraffick- basis ofdetailedstudiesinfour Balticcountries, it workers (Ollusetal., 2013;Skrivankova, 2010). Onthe protecting thehumanandlabourrightsofmigrant should beusedtoidentifytrafficking cases, while of labourregulation/enforcement andcriminaljustice society ing acrossdepartmentsandregions, andwithcivil mechanisms which ensure close partnerships work good practice by ILO. health and safety standards are not being adhered that a range of work, accommodation, treatment, pay, license which canberevoked ifinspections indicate as recruitmentagencies, arerequiredtohave aGLA bondage andforced labour. All thosehiring, oracting to prevent theirexploitation, particularly by debt safeguard thewelfare andinterestsofworkers and organizations, especially to strengthen victim 10 The Licensing Authority was Authority Licensing The Blue Campaign combines 11 Its mission is to 9

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in Canadaenacted theWorker Recruitment and the police andothers. awareness andtrainingtoolsfor front-lineworkers, tion activities, and has developed a series of on-line 2007, which coordinates victimsupport andpreven- an OfficetoCombat Trafficking in Persons(OCTIP)in to Combat Human Trafficking in2013. Itestablished In Canada, BritishColumbialaunched its Action Plan causes oftheproblems(Barrett&Shaw, 2014). courts, which trytoaddressthe broadercontextand are modeledonspecializeddomesticviolenceordrug and help them exit trafficking situations. The courts assistance, healthcare, education andjobtraining, as drugtreatment, temporary housing, immigration They willbeabletorefer defendants toservicessuch The law considerssextrafficking asthemostsevere In federal countries, many state orprovincial govern- implemented inPoland andtheRussianFederation. Norway, andSweden. A parallelprojectisbeing Denmark, Germany, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, exploitation. with theprevention oflabourtrafficking and The regionalinitiative Adstringo to handleprostitutionandsextrafficking cases. of specializedHuman Trafficking Intervention Courts In addition, thestate hascreated astate-wide system youth. focus prosecutionontraffickers rather thanexploited trafficking victimsrather thancriminals, inpartto which regardsjuveniles charged withprostitutionas a of apossibleprisonsentence. New York alsopassed where prostitution islegal, andincreases the severity establishing that sextourismisillegal, even inplaces It includesafocus onthedemandfor sexpurchasing, form ofprostitutionpromotion(Barrett&Shaw, 2014). comprehensive humansextrafficking law in2007. action plans. IntheUS, New York State passeda ments have enacted their own legislation or developed The participating countriesincludeEstonia, Finland, awareness anddialoguenationally andregionally. tion ofexploitation, andcreating greater political recruitment agenciesandemployers onthepreven - their practices. Itisalsodeveloping guidelinesfor research onrecruitmentagenciesandemployers and sector personnelintheBalticregion, andfurther campaigns targetinggovernment andwithprivate national stakeholders, regionalawareness raising development of adialogue mechanism between key exploitation in the region. The project includes the of themechanisms which facilitate migrantlabour regional partnerships, andincreasingunderstanding prevent labourtrafficking by enhancingnational and in theBalticregion. The objective oftheprojectis to builds onitsrecent research onlabourtrafficking Safe Harborfor ExploitedChildren Act in2010, 12

Coordinated by HEUNIinFinland, it 15 The Province of Manitoba is alsoconcerned 14 13

129 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 130 Protection Act (WRAPA) in 2008, which specifically Among the tools which can be used at the local level, regulates foreign worker recruitment. All employers in addition to national or provincial/state legisla- must register with the province, and third parties tion, are local by-laws such as planning and zoning must apply for a license before recruiting internation- laws regulating the use of streets, residential areas ally. They are all subject to inspection. In addition, and public spaces, the licensing of liquor, bars, adult recruiting agencies are not allowed to charge the entertainment and businesses, and the regulation workers fees, which has been a common practice used of work places and working conditions. Regulation and to exploit those arriving. Manitoba also passed legis- licensing have been used extensively by the city of lation on child sexual exploitation in 2012 and has Amsterdam, for example, to control the sex trade and a series of action plans to combat sexual exploitation prevent the involvement of trafficking and organized and domestic trafficking since 2002 (Barrett & Shaw, crime (Barrett & Shaw, 2011). Licencing and by-laws, 2014).16 however, need to be enforced with regular inspections.

A number of other regulation and legislative options Other prevention initiatives involve the development for trafficking prevention are used at provincial/state of protocols, for example, with local hotels, travel levels. For example, in some Canadian provinces, agents and businesses, on their willingness and existing child welfare and child protection legislation responsibilities to ensure that human trafficking and has been used to provide safety to young women who exploitation does not take place, and is not enabled. have been sexually exploited or are at risk of being Training and education on trafficking are also import- trafficked. Community safety legislation, highways ant tools. Local awareness campaigns and media and traffic acts, the legislation and licensing of health education about trafficking to alert local communities services, and liquor control legislation has similarly to the kinds of labour and sexual trafficking and all been used to limit trafficking opportunities and exploitation which can take place are valuable, so long activities. as they avoid stereotypical and unbalanced reporting and images. Finally, developing targeted awareness and education with populations most at risk, and pro- Developing prevention strategies viding hotlines and information on support services at the local level are all valuable initiatives. Box 5.4 below taken from the Canadian Local Safety Audit Guide summarizes Human trafficking has very specific implications for the key components of a local prevention strategy for local communities. Exploitation takes place in local human trafficking for sexual and labour exploitation streets and neighbourhoods. Young women and girls purposes (Public Safety Canada, 2013a). are sexually exploited on the street or in local bars, businesses and hotels. Victims of labour trafficking The following section looks at some current examples can be found among domestic workers in private of promising prevention projects and initiatives homes, in local industries and restaurants, fast food which can form part of an overall strategy. outlets or construction sites.

At the local government level there is consider- Good prevention practices able scope for improving communication between key people involved, as well as public awareness A range of useful tools and compilations of good and training (Quarterman et al., 2012). This can be practices have been produced by international achieved through developing a local plan to guide the organizations such as UNODC and UNGIFT, many of development of policies and interventions, based on them focusing on improving legislation, training and a careful analysis of the local context. One of the key criminal justice responses to trafficking.19 The Global requirements for developing such a local strategy is Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking – UNGIFT – to establish a local task force or forum to establish which was created in 2007 by ILO, OHCHR, UNICEF, good communication between stakeholders, and to UNODC, IOM and OSCE, has been especially active collect information and data which helps identify in the dissemination of knowledge and tools. IOM risky places, and populations at risk of trafficking and carries out public education campaigns and provides exploitation. A local safety audit guide on human traf- technical assistance to countries in developing ficking was developed by EFUS in 2007 (EFUS, 2007).17 monitoring and information systems. They have also More recently, the Canadian government published published handbooks and other tools especially on a Local Safety Audit Guide: To Prevent Trafficking in victim services and supports. As part of its monitor- Persons and Related Sexual Exploitation, with the aim ing role in Europe, the Council of Europe’s GRETA of assisting cities and municipalities in developing mechanism publishes regular reports on country good trafficking prevention strategies (Public Safety evaluations, and highlights good practices (COE, Canada, 2013a).18 2013). EFUS also has a database of international and European trafficking prevention projects.20 Legislation Source: PublicSafety Canada(2013,p.21) Interventions prevention neighbourhood Community and awareness raising Targeted awareness raising General prevention Situational Governance Box 5.4 Continuum ofpreventionoptionsfortraffickingandrelatedexploitation protocols Local/provincial/territorial Practice post careorcustodygroups groups, reintegrationfor Interventions withhighrisk and services Projects toprovidesupport Local campaigns raising Education andawareness Internet awareness Media awarenessraising advice andhelp numbers forreporting, Hotlines andpublic User awarenesscampaigns awareness raising Public educationand of hotspots Patrolling andsurveillance enforcement Local regulationand information andaction mechanisms tocoordinate local taskforceorforum; Establish permanent Provincial legislation Sexual exploitation business sector;NGO’s etc. social services;with police/ municipalityand E.g. Protocolsbetween enforcement Regular inspectionand working insextradeetc.) alcohol use,homeless, circumstances (drug, women indisadvantaged children; youthgangs; out ofcare;Street Children incare,coming training; supportedhousing work, educationandskills Drop-in centres,outreach help residents tohowtheycan business sector, alert invite discussionswith support atriskpopulations, Inclusive projectswhich groups communities, fosterparent Aboriginal families/ Schools, youthclubs, youth groups With parents,schools, provincial andlocalmedia Information sessionswith the impactsofdemand Who aretheusers,what leaflets Local media,posters, body rub,beautysalonsetc. Regulation ofbars,massage, Inspection ofworkplaces

Labour exploitation work sites,factoriesetc. municipality andindustrial Protocols between inspection andenforcement and employmentsituations; Regulation ofworkplace and conditions information aboutrights agencies toprovide Work withthirdparty workers workers, localagricultural Projects tosupportmigrant associations hotel industry;agricultural Industry staffandworkers; provincial andlocalmedia Information sessionswith the impactsofdemand Who aretheusers,what leaflets Local media,posters, private employers and conditionsincluding Inspection ofworkplaces regularly go temporary workersmeet, where migrantand Leaflets andinformation 131 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 132 Initiatives which encourage the private sector to work chain of suppliers. This is one of several examples proactively to prevent trafficking and exploitation in highlighted in Good Practices to Prevent and Combat their area include the Athens Ethical Principles.21 Human Trafficking (UNGIFT, 2010). These were first adopted by business leaders in 2006, and include a zero-tolerance policy for working Education and awareness projects which involve far with any entity that benefits from human traffick- more than posters or brief media campaigns, include ing. The principles have now been signed by over those which work with survivors of trafficking. 12,000 organizations either individually or through Two Canadian examples include Les Survivantes in their industry federations (OSCE, 2010). In the US, Montreal, Quebec, developed by the Montreal police, the State of California’s Supply Chains Transparency and Walk With Me, an NGO founded by a woman who Act requires large businesses with a turnover of had been trafficked from Europe, and which works more than $100US million to disclose their actions closely with the Peel Regional Police in Ontario (see to prevent trafficking and exploitation in their Box 5.5).

Box 5.5 Police, survivor and service provider partnerships

Les Survivantes, Montreal, Quebec, Canada22 The title of this project refers to a group of women who are survivors of human trafficking – especially sexual exploitation, and who work in partnership with a special team from the city police in Montreal (SPVM – Service de Police de la Ville de Montréal). The project was created in 2012 by the “Morality” section of the SPVM. The police officers work together with the survivors (survivantes). They conduct training and education sessions, and work with individual victims of trafficking, and those at risk, who have been identified by the police, social agencies, or in some cases their families. The training and education sessions take several hours, but vary in length depending on the audience. They include detailed information and training on human trafficking and sexual exploitation and its local manifestations, and powerful personal presentations given by one of the women survivors. Sessions are given to police officers, front-line and other social and health workers, and vulnerable groups. Presentations are not given to the general public or schools. So far over 100 presentations have been made, and over 1000 police officers have received training. In some cases the project supports victims in making complaints to the police – something which they are often fearful of doing – and puts them in touch with prosecutors if they decide to make a formal complaint. In all such cases the project ensures their safety and protection. The project works closely with local NGO’s including victim support groups, as well as youth justice institutions such as the Youth Centre (Centre de Jeunesse). The latter alert the project to young women and girls who are especially vulnerable to sexual exploitation and abuse. A survivor meets with individual young women or girls for one-on-one sessions. In cases where parents ask for help, the project works with their daughters if they are under the age of 18.

The group of survivors are exceptional women who made formal complaints to the police, and whose cases have been completed. It usually includes 5 or 6 women at a time, and they receive support from the police service and others to further their own education and training when they move on from working with the project. They come from all types of backgrounds, including those who initially began working as exotic dancers or as “hostesses” or escorts, and in some cases to pay university fees, before being trafficked and exploited. The majority, however, are from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Walk With Me Canada Victim Services23 Founded by a survivor of human trafficking – Timea Nagy – in 2009, Walk With Me began working with the Peel Regional Police in Ontario, Canada to provide advice on trafficking and victim support, and developing training for the police, victim organizations and other agencies. The organization now works with police services and organizations across the country. It provides a crisis line, and delivers and coordinates shelter and support services for victims of trafficking. It is involved on an expert witness basis in labour and sex trafficking cases before the courts.

Walk With Me undertakes public education to raise awareness about trafficking, through public speaking and media resources including videos and public service announcements. It has developed a number of education and training resources. They include Timea Nagy’s own story, and series of books for police officers such as The Mindset of a Human Trafficked Victim, and a manual for police officers on domestic sex trafficking The Game – your daughters shouldn’t play. local organizations, churches and clubs, including community awareness, aswell asproviding resources Houston-area non-profitandfaith-based organiza Coalition against Human Trafficking, which brings projects and events, anditselffounded the Ottawa developed anumberofanti-trafficking awareness in 2004torespondtrafficking issues. Ithas PACT Ottawa, inOntario, Canada, isanNGOfounded issues. awareness to educate the public on labour exploitation a volunteer programme, andisdeveloping fair-trade campaign andatravelling artshow. The coalitionruns ness month”, anddeveloped amultilingual media in Spanish, hasdesignated a “human trafficking aware and technical assistance, itoffers presentations to been developed for girlsandfor boys. Intermsof victims. Two separate prevention programmeshave enforcement, and on under-age domestic trafficking tailored programmesfor healthcareworkers andlaw It provides front-lineprofessional trainingwith trafficking intheGreater HoustonMetropolitanarea. growing concernaboutthe prevalence ofhuman The HRRC was established in 2005 in response to tions, andgovernment andlaw enforcement agencies. (HRRC) in Texas in the US. This is a coalition of include theHoustonRescueandRestore Coalition Examples ofcity-basedcoalitionsandpartnerships sex andlabourpurposes. control over individuals inrelation totrafficking for to explainthelinksbetween theuseofpower and educational explanatory “power andcontrolwheel” assistance. Among othertoolsithasdeveloped an states, aswell asundertakingtrainingandtechnical of anti-trafficking services and information for all for phonecalls ortexts, andmaintainsdetailedmaps It has established a national 24-hour toll-free hotline sively onhumantrafficking andslavery issues. (NHTRC) –calledthePolarisProject. Itworks exclu- is the National Human Trafficking Resource Centre In theUS, anational resource developed by anNGO tion oncontactingthepolice. flights, anddistributes literature includinginforma- airports andstations, totravel businesses andduring Switzerland, andincludedapublicityfilmshown at was inspiredby similaronesin Austria, Germany and with thenational policeandECPAT. The campaign Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, in collaboration reporting suspectedcases. tourists by notencouraginghumantrafficking, and awareness, andencouragetravellers toberesponsible UN haslaunched anon-lineinitiative tocreate greater In relation tochild pornography andsextourism, the ists andtravellers. Itwas developed in2010by the awareness campaign Don’t lookaway targets tour In Sweden, ananti-child exploitation andtrafficking 27

26 24

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of initiatives to prevent and reduce the trafficking the aim of developing a strategic plan with a range on humantrafficking andsexualexploitation, with currently beingevaluated. and NGOpartners acrosstheUK. The campaignis campaign in the UK. exploitation include the targeted toyoung peopletoprevent child sexual Other prevention programmeswhich are specifically transport hubs. campaign has been diffused in local and international wish toexitexploitative situations. Since2010the victims ofviolence, andaidisoffered towomen who ated in partnership with an organization for women Thai. A 24-houremergency linehasalsobeencre- including English, Romanian, Russian, Spanishand The campaign istranslated intomany languages, at riskofsexualexploitation whowork inSweden. board intheStockholm region. Ittargetswomen support oftheStockholm countryadministration the publicawarenessCampaign SafeTrip In Sweden, ataskforce onhumantrafficking developed centre amongotherpartners. initiative –theOttawa Police Service, andawomen’s Crime Prevention Ottawa –thecity'sprevention project includesworking inclosecollaboration with and exploitation ofwomen andgirlsinthecity. The together localandfederal partners. packs for schools, which have beenusedby government Resources includeawebsite, avideo, and educational cifically concernedwithdomestic child exploitation. the UKHuman Trafficking Coalitionand partnersspe film andeducational resources. It was developed by through school-based sessions usinghighquality of young people, includingdomestictrafficking, awareness ofthesexualexploitation andtrafficking The project ispilotingthelocalsafety auditguide Ministry for theStatus of Women over two years. Project imPACT isbeingfundedby theFederal A currentPACT trafficking prevention initiative with otherprovinces andinternationally. Province ofOntario, andshareditsresourcematerial paign hasengagedwithlocalcommunities acrossthe for evidence oftrafficking andexploitation. The cam- industry (thetrucking industry)well placedtolook Campaign, specifically targetingtheplacesand PACT has also developed the as consumersinfluencetrafficking onaglobalscale. peers may be at risk. They illustrate how theirchoices students to protect themselves and recognize if their and thegroomingofpotentialvictims, and help They focus onsuch topicsastrafficker recruitment presentations for children ingrades7-8and9-12. Youth Coordinator todevelop age-appropriate school Province ofOntario, includedtheappointmentofa trafficking initiatives, ProjectProtectfundedby the 30 The campaign aims to raise My Dangerous Loverboy TruckStop Awareness 28 Among its Among with the 29 -

133 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 134 In the Netherlands, the government initiated a The development of “social/cultural mediators” has prevention plan targeting loverboys as part of its been pioneered in Europe. These are people who make 2011 national action plan on trafficking, to prevent direct contact with vulnerable people of the same the exploitation of children coming out of care or cultural background. This enables them, as a first transition houses. They are especially vulnerable to point of contact, to establish some degree of trust, and recruitment and grooming because of their isolation gain their confidence without problems of language and lack of close family supports. The initiative was or cultural difference. Many initiatives using cultural developed by the Ministries of Security and Justice, mediators have been developed in Bulgaria, France Health, Social Welfare and Sport, and municipalities. and Italy (Danish Red Cross, 2005). The organization It used social media sites such as Twitter and internet On the Road in Italy has made specific use of cultural sites, conducted education campaigns in secondary mediators since 2004. As an umbrella organization schools, and developed a guide for the police on which focuses on the places, rather than the popu- working with presumed loverboys and their victims. lations of most risk, On the Road employs mobile Information for parents, schools, potential victims, street workers on the streets, in railway stations and and a film have also been produced.31 airports, and other public places where exploited trafficking victims work or are recruited; places A number of non-government organizations combine which are likely to be well frequented but anonym- service provision to victims of trafficking, with ous (see the contribution by Vincenzo Castelli at the public education and advocacy. The organization end of this chapter and Castelli, 2012).34 The cultural Liberty Asia, established in 2011, comprises a group mediators are usually social workers from the same of professionals from various industries who aim geographic and linguistic area as presumed victims. to develop coordinated responses to slavery in the After making contact, they assist the street workers in corporate sector, and provide support to NGOs work- offering information to victims and asking about their ing on these issues.32 Where possible they work with health and social or economic needs or concerns, in existing organizations to avoid duplication and to a non-judgemental way. They help them communicate ensure resources are used efficiently. While there are with social, health and other services. On the Road many anti-trafficking organizations working in Asia, also runs Reception Centres where women wanting to very few work collaboratively, and they often lack leave prostitution can meet with social workers and resources. Liberty Asia helps to coordinate activities, street mediators, get information on social and legal particularly across-borders, and to share information, problems, health care, career advice, and participate expertise, and operations. It provides a regional point in workshops. of contact for victims. It has also created a number of school-based education and awareness programmes and campaigns, to broaden knowledge of slavery Conclusion across Asia. Its on-line school curriculum includes five interactive modules for students and teachers. Global concern about human trafficking has grown There is an anti-slavery club manual for schools, and – along with its incidence – in the fourteen years video material. since the adoption of the UN Protocol on trafficking in persons, especially women and children. As coun- In Colombia, the NGO Corporación Espacios de Mujer tries continue to legislate against it, adopt national founded in 2003 in the city of Medellin and Valle plans of action, and improve their data collection, de Aburrá, assists women working in prostitution, the numbers of detected cases and victims continues those at risk of exploitation, and victims of human to increase. Demand for the services of trafficked trafficking.33 It supports their human rights, includ- victims shows little sign of a decline, nor does the ing to be treated fairly and without discrimination willingness of people to leave their countries, or or exploitation, provides services, and promotes the ability of traffickers to exploit and avoid detection. their empowerment. It has developed a number of trafficking education and awareness projects, The close links between trafficking, smuggling and including in the local communities, to help create migration patterns are evident. Services to victims social change, and runs the Athena School. This is have increased, but in many countries are still inad- a 15-week education programme for vulnerable equate, and their rights are not always protected women to strengthen their knowledge of citizenship as they should be under international conventions. and their rights, and encourage harm reduction, Nevertheless, prosecutions for trafficking remain very self-care and self-protection. The organization col- low, and its costs to countries and victims are high. lates information on human trafficking in the region Relying on the deterrent powers of the law, while and publishes reports on human trafficking within fundamental to anti-trafficking action, is not an Colombia and in neighbouring countries, as well as effective way to prevent trafficking, and to change outside the region. the attitudes which condone, enable or ignore it. The prevention of human trafficking and exploitation boys, andwomen andgirlsindeveloping responses. to takeaccountofthedifferent experiencesofmenand trafficking concerns. What is evident isthat they need This chapter hashighlightedsomeofthepolicies exploitation takesplace. tors fail torecognizethe broadercontextsinwhich treat allwomen asvictimsandallmenperpetra- as perpetrators and victims varies, and policies which a significantrole. The involvement ofmenand women is a complex phenomenon in which gender plays governments. This hashelpedtounderlinethat it is emergingwiththeincreaseinfundsfromnational texts of different forms of trafficking and exploitation More detailed knowledge and research on the con trafficking, isreceiving more attention. which insomecountriesfar exceedsinternational into exploitation andtrafficking. Domestictrafficking, attention tothepathways ofchildren andadolescents trafficking for sexual purposes alone. There is more to labourexploitation andtrafficking, rather than Greater attention isnow beinggiven by governments experience. and informed by regionalandcountrytrends years, andinterventions have becomemorefocused has beenreceiving greater attention inrecent of countries andregions, tailored totheir particular and goodpracticesbeingimplementedinanumber -

135 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 136 Human trafficking in Italy Contribution Vincenzo Castelli35

Human trafficking is a well-established and organized majority of cases involved forced prostitution, and system of exploitation in Italy. While forced street the rest agricultural labour exploitation and begging. prostitution remains the most well-known and visible In terms of the geographical distribution of these destination for trafficked victims, the last decade has cases, 61% were in the north of the country, 25% in the seen an increase in the number of identified cases of centre and 14% in the south and in the islands off the trafficking for exploitation in other contexts such as coast. In terms of age, young people between the ages agriculture, sheep farming, construction, manufactur- of 18 and 25 were mainly exploited through prostitu- ing and domestic work. The economic crisis and, above tion (more than 50%). In terms of their origins, most all, a precarious, unregulated and flexible labour mar- trafficking victims came from Nigeria and Romania, ket are high risk factors that provide fertile ground however, there have been increasing numbers of for exploitation and trafficking. The past few years victims from Brazil, Morocco, Albania and China. have seen the appearance of “new” forms of trafficking, with the coercion of victims into illegal activities and The main factors that appear to drive people to multiple forms of exploitation affecting both men and migrate and, in some cases, to fall victim to trafficking, women. Apart from prostitution they include forced include poverty, unemployment, gender discrimina- begging, drug dealing, and being forced to sell goods. tion, discrimination against ethnic minorities, inadequate social welfare and development policies, In Italy, official data on trafficking victims only failed or non-existent migration policies, and regional includes those identified and assisted by social pro- conflicts, while the demand for unskilled labour is a tection agencies provided by the Department for Equal pull factor. These factors have been exacerbated by Opportunities36 and by local authorities, under human the persisting global economic crisis. In most cases, trafficking and immigration legislation (Articles 1337 the migratory path starts with a voluntary decision and 1838). Between 2006 and 2012, 166 interventions to leave the country of origin, less frequently migration have been carried out under Article 13, assisting is the result of coercion. The organization of criminal a total of 3,770 people. Between 1999 and 2012, networks and individuals has changed over the years, 665 interventions have been funded under Article 18. as have their methods of recruitment, control and The Department for Equal Opportunities and local exploitation. Increasingly these are criminal groups authorities have been able to reach more than with deep roots in countries of destination and with 65,000 people, all of whom were offered assistance transnational links. These groups have an ability to such as information, psychological counselling, legal link trafficking and exploitation to other activities, aid, health and social care. Of those, 21,378 people both illegal (e.g. smuggling of migrants, drugs and agreed to enter a protection and social assistance weapons) and legal (e.g. money laundering through programme in order to obtain a “temporary residence regular business activities). permit for humanitarian reasons”, which is valid for six months. This is renewable for up to 18 months, The routes into Italy are numerous and constantly and can be replaced by a residence permit for work, subject to change because of border controls. They study or otherwise, providing the necessary require- differ according to the type of exploitation, the place ments are met.39 of origin of the victims, and the organizational needs of the criminal groups involved. In terms of sexual A national survey conducted in 2013 by Bianchini et al. exploitation, the main routes are through Eastern (2013) offers insight into the trafficking phenomenon Europe, the Maghreb, into Sicily and European in Italy. This study is the first nation-wide attempt countries within the Schengen area. The two main to document trafficking in persons and exploitation. routes used for labour trafficking are through Eastern The study found that in 2012 street units40 made contact Europe and the Maghreb to Sicily, while trafficking with a total of 23,878​​ victims: 21,491 women and girls, for forced begging is almost exclusively through 781 men and boys and 1,606 transgender people. The Eastern Europe.   The following areamongsomeofthecriticalissues: the street). (e.g. construction workers, caregivers, peddlers in tion, it is visible but not often recognised as such commuting, usingtheinternet)andtypeofexploita- of its integration in everyday activities (e.g. shopping, exploitation has become normalized, both interms in agriculture, nursingorothersectors. The placeof demand for sexualservices, aswell asseasonaljobs also becomingameetingpointfor thesupply and constant flow ofpedestriantraffic. TheInternet is centres andonpublictransport, wherethereisa street, but are increasingly found around shopping Those forced into begging operate mostly on the or placeswherelegalimmigrantlabourisrecruited). shopping malls, areas in the vicinity of hospitals underground andrailway stations, bus terminals, more ofteninareasofhighhumandensity(including streets, apartments, hotels, and night clubs, but prostitution arenolongerfound only incertain nentially over thepastdecade. Those forced into The places of exploitation have multiplied expo

local authoritiesandNGOs). (such asthejudiciary, police, inspection bodies, anti-trafficking interventions by publicauthorities and theirpublicpolicies, andharmonization of more coordination between different ministries the recentapproval ofaLaw Decree, therewillbe difficulties ofimplementinglong-termstrategies. complex proceduresfor acquiringfunds, andthe protection. Otherongoingchallenges include affecting anti-trafficking interventions andvictim to programmescovered by Articles 13and18is scarcity andprogressive cutsinfundingallocated Programmatic and operational: The uncertainty, the EC Directive 36/11 on human trafficking, National Rapporteur. Itis hoped that following of anational anti-trafficking programmeora in personsItaly. This isevident intheabsence is beinggiven tothephenomenonoftrafficking Political andinstitutional:Inadequate attention 41 and -

assistance onlegalmatters, professional training, trafficked persons. The help-desksoffer advice and has help-desksintheform ofdrop-incentresfor on theavailability oflocalservices. The Association professional training;legaladvice; andinformation hygiene kits;accesstotreatment programmes; care andaccesstohealthservices;harmreduction; tion by providing servicessuch aspreventive health assists allvictimsoftrafficking for sexualexploita- Organizations (NOVA), founded in1998. On The Road ization and part of a National Consortium of Social The Association OntheRoadisanon-profitorgan- (NOVA Consortium) trafficking –AssociationOntheRoad Providing assistancetovictimsof to besupplementedby toolsandmethodology. operating procedures arewell defined. This would need standing whereroles, responsibilitiesandstandard authorities, and governed by memoranda of under and private anti-trafficking bodies, coordinated by local networks couldbe madeupofrepresentatives ofpublic that localmulti-agency networks beestablished. These To respondtosomeoftheseproblems, itisrecommended Romania, etc.)tocarryoutitswork. of origintrafficking victims(e.g. Nigeria, Albania, works closely withlocalorganizations andcountries victims whoareasylumseekers. The Association of labourexploitation (mainly men), andtrafficking exploitation (mainly women and children), victims (for 6-8 months) for victimsoftrafficking for sexual emergency sheltersfor victimsandlong-termhousing authorities andlawyers. The Association alsoprovides ings with the justice system, the police, immigration employment, andhousing. They alsomanageany deal- - 137 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 138 The economic costs of sex trafficking: Building the Contribution case for prevention

Nicole Barrett42

It is well known that human trafficking, and sex traf- are difficult to quantify, they are not any less real ficking in particular, is very profitable for traffickers. In than the cost of visiting the emergency room. Based 2014, the ILO released estimates of the “startling” profits on recent UK court awards to sex trafficking victims, traffickers receive from forced sexual exploitation: and applying the concept of diminishing marginal $80,000US per year per victim in developed economies, utility, where the first month of victimization induces with an average of $21,800US profit per year per victim more pain and suffering than the second month, the worldwide (ILO, 2014, p. 15, 27).43 Little work has been approximate average cost of pain and suffering for done, however, to quantify the significant economic two years of being trafficked for sexual purposes has costs of sex trafficking on individuals and societies. been found to be approximately $552,964US.

In order to calculate these costs, we have developed a framework that itemizes the numerous costs of sex Medical costs trafficking to both the trafficked individual and to society (Barrett, 2014).44 The framework, summarized The medical costs of a human trafficking victim are in Figure 1 below, considers both direct and indirect typically quite substantial. A 2003 five-country study costs of the crime. It was developed based on infor- interviewed individuals trafficked into Europe and mation from formerly trafficked individuals, court found that nearly half of the women interviewed had awards made to sex trafficking victims, and existing been confined, raped, or beaten during the journey to studies from various countries on human trafficking, their new location (Zimmerman, et al. 2003).45 Extreme domestic violence, prostitution, sexual abuse, child cases of abuse during trafficking can lead to immedi- abuse, migrant workers and exploited labourers. With ate health care expenditures, such as ambulance further specific information from formerly trafficked and emergency unit use. Increased rates of sexually individuals, this framework can be used to compute transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV/AIDs due to the total cost of sex trafficking in a particular country. sex trafficking also result in substantial health care The resulting cost information will be highly relevant costs: the lifetime cost for a single person with HIV/ for those creating anti-human trafficking policy, AIDs is estimated to be $181,129US. Even where there particularly as the cost is likely to be so substantial is no initial abuse, long-term health conditions often that human trafficking prevention programmes and result with associated future medical expenses, such policies will be shown to be well worth a country’s as drug and alcohol addiction, depression, anxiety investment. Relevant Canadian studies, discussed and hostility. Social services to care for sex trafficking below, highlight the extent of these potential savings victims are also extremely costly. for one country.

The six major sex trafficking cost categories in the Legal costs framework are worth highlighting, beginning with four direct costs, and moving to two indirect costs. The law enforcement and judicial costs associated with human trafficking are also unusually large. Human trafficking cases can require long, complex Pain and suffering investigations that can involve many networked indi- viduals or organized criminal groups. International The most significant costs incurred during an indi- human trafficking cases may require international vidual’s trafficking experience are the substantial cooperation with foreign law enforcement agencies psychological costs. Not only are trafficked individuals to gain information, interview witnesses and assist frequently exposed to numerous forms of violence, with evidence collection. In addition, translators may they are also isolated from their families and commun- be needed throughout the investigation and prosecution ities and experience shame and psychological damage for victims and/or witnesses who cannot speak the resulting from trafficking. While these intangible costs local language. If a case proceeds to trial, these (Borne byvictim) Victim costs victim. Individualco-paysmayalsoapply incertainnationalizedhealthcaresystems. * Thischartassumesanationalhealthcaresystem.Incountrieswithoutsuchsystem, thesethird-partymedicalcostswouldbeborne,instead,bythe Figure 1 (Borne bysociety) costs Third-party Required costcategoriesforafullassessmentoftheonesextraffickingvictim Sex traffickingdirectcosts         

    Additional burdenon:      Justice systemcosts:       Medical costs:* Fraction ofmedical/therapistfees(co-pays)* Dental services reunification, civilsuits) Legal services(immigration,guardianship, Leaving/exit fees cases) Transport costs(particularlyininternational Pain andsuffering(intangible)

Job trainingprogrammes Long-term publichousing Transition homes Shelters against traffickers Enforcement ofcivilprotectionorders Legal aid    Corrections costs     Prosecution costs    Investigation costs Therapist/s Addiction services STI treatment Physician visits Acute hospitalization Emergency roomvisits

probation monitoring incarceration (e.g., temporaryresidencepermitcosts) possible immigrationservices possible translation possible internationalcooperation complex victimmanagement possible translation possible internationalcooperation complex victimmanagement      Sex traffickingindirectcosts

  protection systems Additional burdenonchild Social support(welfare)      Lost earnings,dueto: Intergenerational costs Lost taxes(duetolostearnings) 

group homes opportunities foregone marriage reduced capacitytofunction lost yearsoflabour lost experience lost educationalopportunity institutional care foster homes 139 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 140 translation costs can amount to tens of thousands of to higher welfare and social assistance usage. Finally, dollars in developed countries. High witness manage- the costs of foregone marriage opportunities must ment costs may be incurred, as victims are frequently be considered, which leads an individual to lose the reluctant to testify against their trafficker, may not possible economic benefits of having a spouse. consider themselves crime victims, and may continue to be coerced by their trafficker. In cases where there are ongoing coercion or threats, witness protection Intergenerational costs may be necessary, which again adds substantial costs. Finally, it is crucial to consider the intergenerational Further, trafficked persons, particularly those who are costs of sex trafficking. The economic disadvantage of internationally trafficked, often have a range of legal productivity losses and foregone education frequently needs that have nothing to do with the prosecution carries forward into the next generation. There is of their case. These needs can include immigration a substantial body of economic literature from status issues, family reunification, identity theft, different countries that demonstrates the significant criminal defence for crimes committed under coer- intergenerational correlation between education and cion, tax issues and civil litigation seeking monetary income: lost income and education for one generation damages from their trafficker. can mean lost income for the next as well.

In addition, studies on child maltreatment sug- Transportation and leaving fees gest intergenerational transmission of abuse. If an individual suffers abuse at the hands of a trafficker International human trafficking victims often pay at a young age, they have a higher probability of a fee to their traffickers to gain entrance to a coun- subsequently mistreating their own children. A child try and a job that promises a better life. Although does not need to be directly physically or sexually these same costs are not borne by those trafficked maltreated for the costs to be notable. Neglect or domestically, domestic victims are often isolated witnessing intimate partner violence can result in from their communities and may acquire significant substantial educational and behavioural problems costs in the process of relocation. Traffickers may for a child, including long-lasting effects on mental also require trafficked individuals to pay “leaving health, drug and alcohol problems, risky sexual fees” once they arrive at their destination in order behaviour, obesity, and criminal behaviour. One to gain their freedom. These fees are often difficult study found the economic costs of child abuse in to pay, as victims frequently do not keep the majority a developed country of 35 million people, to be over of their earnings. $15US billion, estimating the average annual earnings losses for a victim of physical abuse to be $4,131US.46

Opportunity costs: Once the costs in the above framework are calculated, Lost income and taxes three further steps are needed to arrive at an overall cost estimate of human trafficking on society. First, In addition to the direct costs of sex trafficking men- a comparator group must be developed, based on tioned above, opportunity costs must be calculated. interviews with a reasonably large sample of traf- Opportunity costs are a significant indirect cost that ficked or formerly trafficked individuals to determine considers what the victim would have been doing their “counterfactual lives.” This determination would during the time they were trafficked and afterwards be rooted in an assessment of the individual’s socio- had they not been trafficked. These costs include, economic background in order to estimate what their for example, earning money in the labour market or life would have looked like if they had not been traf- attending school. The most basic economic model of ficked. Second, values from existing data sets can then lifetime earnings includes a period of human capital be used to build this counterfactual-lives comparator accumulation, typically associated with schooling, group. From this comparator group, a relatively precise and eventually followed by a period of wage employ- estimate of the cost of sex trafficking per individual ment, asset accumulation and eventual retirement. could be calculated. Finally, the resulting number can Greater human capital translates into higher future be scaled by the best estimate of the number of sex wages and, once in the labour force, every year of trafficking victims in the country.47 The results will work experience also translates into higher future most likely underscore the cost-effectiveness of many wages. If an individual becomes a victim of sex human trafficking prevention programs. trafficking, this typical life course is interrupted. Specifically, each year trafficked equals either a year Two Canadian economic studies on the costs of exiting lost in school, which translates into future losses in prostitution provide a conservative baseline idea of earnings, or a year lost in the labour force. This loss the costs of sex trafficking for one country (DeRiviere, of income and possible employability often also leads 2006; DeRiviere, 2005). Although sex trafficking is In sum, thesignificantcostsofsextrafficking, which framework above. costs and lost individual earnings, as detailed in the cost-saving investments. appear to be not only wise and humane, but also make humantrafficking prevention programmes can becalculated usingtheframework above, quickly sell theirbodies, re more extremethansomeonewhoinitially “chose” to of beingtrafficked for sexual purposesarelikely tobe (Gupta etal., 2011). Further, thepsychological impacts victims asaresultofservingmoreclientsperweek sexually transmitted infections isgreater for trafficked than for those inconsensualprostitution, astherate of costs for trafficked persons would alsolikely behigher resulting inincreasedcostsfor theindividual. Medical profits would partially orentirely gotothetrafficker, involuntary sexsellingwould likely beeven higher, as voluntarily inprostitution. The costsresultingfrom is notclearhow many inthestudy’s samplegroupwere likely underestimate thecosts ofsextrafficking, asit Although theseestimates soundsubstantial, they (RCMP, 2013). April 2013(n=132), thetotalisover $100USmillion sex trafficking cases inCanadabetween 2007and individual cost by the number of confirmed domestic the totalisjustunder$60USmillion. human trafficking serviceprovider inOntario, Canada, number ofcalls(n=79)inoneyear toonefront-line $759,004US. Multiplying thisindividual costby the person involved intheCanadiansexindustryequal fiscal, labour market and personal costs for one young significant: $553,265US per individual. Thus, the total services andcostsonthejusticesystem, areeven more public resources, such associalservices, medical sex selleronsociety, which lookat theutilization of substantial: $205,739US. The socialcostsofayoung cost totheindividual ofsellingsexinCanadais individuals will, thus, besimilar. The netpersonal sex acts. The costs of supporting and treating these as those trafficked for sexual purposes: commercial posed ofindividuals engagedinthesameactivities in mostcountries, thestudy’s samplegroupiscom legally distinctfromprostitutioninCanada, asitis sulting inincreasedtherapeutic 48 Multiplying the - 141 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 142 Sex work, prostitution and trafficking for sexual Contribution exploitation: Implications for crime prevention49

Rosemary Barberet50

In the 1980s and 1990s, a number of forces converged sex workers are offenders under local law, whereas to create a global movement against trafficking in per- others are victims. Those who are offenders are sons, which culminated in international and national subject to deportation, punishment or restrictions. efforts to redefine the exploitation of others for sex or Those who are victims, receive protection and ser- labour as human trafficking. This change was so suc- vices. Empirically and legally, these distinctions are cessful, uniting forces from the political left and right, problematic. that not only have laws and policies been changed to now focus on human trafficking, but a whole literature Yet feminists are divided as to whether, just because in social science has developed around this ‘new’ in heterosexual sex sales, women tend to sell sex, and phenomenon. This paradigm shift has not occurred men tend to be the ones buying it, the nature of sex without heavy, even acidic debate, which continues work is akin to violence against women and should to this day. It has brought virtually every discipline thus be abolished. There is room for much opinion and (law, criminology, economics, international relations, much ideology, and the most important question – do women’s and gender studies, anthropology and health) prostitutes really work on their own volition or are to bear on an issue that, heretofore, was dealt with by they forced – is really not an empirical question. only a handful of scholars and activists. Feminist abolitionists believe that all sex work The global feminist movement’s view of women´s rights is harmful to women and epitomizes the negative as human rights came down on the abolitionist side of consequences of gender inequality. Prostitution prostitution. Human trafficking came to be linked to dehumanizes and commodifies women. It is another organized crime, illegal migration, and national secur- form of violence against women. Indeed, UN texts on ity. Some types of prostitutes and labourers became women´s human rights generally refer to forced pros- defined as victims, not offenders. A conceptual split titution and trafficking as violence against women, between smuggling (which involves smugglers and even before the 2000 Human Trafficking Protocol. The undocumented migrants, who violate immigration 1993 Declaration on Elimination of Violence Against laws) and trafficking (which involves traffickers as Women includes “trafficking in women and forced offenders and the trafficked as victims) was made. prostitution” in its definition of violence against Thus, both activism within prostitution abolitionist women. CEDAW Article 6 states, “States Parties shall camps, as well as the linking of discourse to other take all appropriate measures, including legislation, powerful discourses of crime and security, resulted to suppress all forms of traffic in women and exploita- in international and national efforts to criminalize tion of prostitution of women.” ‘human trafficking’. Yet there is another contingent of feminists who see The creation of terms, the meaning of terms, the the selling of sex by women as women´s right to choice as to their use, and what the ramifications are do as they please with their bodies, and a product of using certain terms are part of the social construc- of women´s free will and choice. From their point tion of a social problem. At different points in time, of view, women sell sexual services the same way they terms regarding the selling of sex have been claimed sell other bodily services, and should not be judged by different groups to have good or bad connotations. as immoral or depraved for doing so. Because of the inequalities involved in how society views sex work, Advocates for the rights of sex workers complain that including the social stigma applied to it, sex workers due to human trafficking definitions, a ‘migrant sex need rights and guarantees, not rescue. This latter worker’ will have trouble crossing borders without group is wary of regulation, because regulation often being confused with a victim of human trafficking tends to serve the needs of male clients, or the mascu- for sexual exploitation, and is thus denied his or her linized State. It is not in favor of abolition. Often, this human rights to migrate. Similarly, the ramifications contingent is in favor of harm reduction techniques. of the definition of human trafficking mean that some So, the social structure should be reformed so that about vulnerable female victims. But the complexity Women and genderareevident only instereotypes trafficking orreifyingitsmoststereotypical aspects. have spent agreat dealofeffort denying human a socialconstruction, acrime, abusiness. Feminists has beenlostintheresearch on human trafficking as anecdotal evidence. Strangely, agenderperspective vignettes, orstudieswithconvenience samples, and on generalizations combined with anonymous case field ofhumantrafficking research nurtures itself tiple oppressionofwomen whoaretrafficked? The What, thendowe know about genderandthemul- legal instrumentslinksotheroppressionswithgender. and assessment of the measures.” Neither of these two mainstreaming in the development, implementation aim to promote gender equality and use gender in applying measuresreferred tointhis chapter, principle anddefinitions’)notes, “Each Party shall, the Protocol(‘Purposes, scope, non-discrimination UN Trafficking Protocol. Article17ofChapter 1of more expressly mentionsgenderinequalitythanthe Action against Trafficking inHumanBeings(2005) Protocol. The CouncilofEurope´sConvention on on theirvulnerability, isafeature ofthePalermo The linkingofwomen andchildren, andtheemphasis sex work, genderedexplanations arevery relevant. Given thegenderednature ofhumantrafficking and fight humantrafficking. to their domestic and international commitments to least incountriesthat have healthy budgets toapply and othersnow call the “rescue industry” (2007), at authorities andtheserviceindustry, what Agustín bling humantrafficking isviewed anddealtwith by has changed thelandscapefor how anything resem- The growth infunding, aspreviously mentioned, ization anddenying themtheir agency. thus infantilizing them, reifyingtheirpassive victim- women in with children as vulnerable populations, that the currentdefinitionofhumantrafficking lumps and sextrafficking (Kelly, 2005). Stillothersargue manipulation, andacontinuumbetween smuggling a continuum, including ‘softer’ forms offorce such as have researched sexwork arguefor theimportanceof with theempiricalevidence onsexwork. Scholars who and thedefinitionofsextrafficking, areoutoftouch claims ofabolitionistsaboutthenature ofsexwork, of sexwork. Scholars ofsexwork arguethat the to women, so is the empirical debate about the nature debates about prostitutionandtrafficking asharmful As important as ideological assumptions are to the or retire. be facilitated for thosesexworkers whowishtostop should beremoved fromsexwork, andexitshould should bepracticedsafely andwithdignity, stigma entry intoprostitutionisatruechoice, sexwork

extreme ofa continuum of violence within sex work, Kelly (2003) argues that human trafficking is at the other exploitative occupations, men andwomen; andtransitionstosexwork from commodified nature ofmany relationships between industry, andinoutofsellingsexgeneral;the women between trafficking andthemigrant sex work of sex work as a survival strategy; the drift of class contextofwheresexwork occurs;thenature differences in sex work. These include the social ally. Scholars have identifiedimportantcontextual even greater whenwe expandourgazeinternation - The problematization ofvulnerabilityandforce is pimps, but alsoat thehandsofclients. and violence, not only at the hands of managers or Italways shows women´s agency innegotiating risk tinuum offorce andcoercionthroughoutsexwork. as a means for exploitation, by showing the con- to questiontheissueofforce, coercionanddeception, tional hazardsofsexwork. This body ofwork serves stigma andexit. These areallrelated totheoccupa- consent, force andexploitation, riskandviolence, workers andattempted to theorizeabout choice and show the complexity of the lives and choices of sex In contrast, much sexwork research hassoughtto in thesocialscienceliterature onhumantrafficking. have beenrelatively unexploredthroughagenderlens traffickers. Trafficking victims need a broader range prevention, protection ofvictims, andprosecution of The responsestohumantrafficking generally include services oravoid deportation. workers toconstructscenariosasvictims receive ers. Italso perverts justicesystemsby obliging sex interpersonal violenceexperiencedby many sexwork victims ofexploitation –ignoresthestructuraland human trafficking over othersex workers –andother fairness. To prioritizesexworkers whoarevictimsof about policiesandresponsesisequity and institutionalresponses. The firstimportantdebate These debates have importantimplications for policy among them.” passive andignoranterasesimportantdifferences and “trafficker,” presentingall women involved as migrant andentrepreneur, boyfriend, sugardaddy, infinite array ofrelationships ispossiblebetween all. Agustín (2005) agrees, arguing that “Because an women arenotvictimsifthey display any agency at What is more at stake is the conceptualization that argues that force cannotbethedeterminingfactor. prostitution isviolenceagainstwomen. But shealso its existenceandcannotdeny the fact that forced and doesexist. Shearguesthat feminists cannotdeny justice authorities, theirexperiencesassurvivors, of women´s lives, theirinteractionswithcriminal -

143 Chapter 5 The Prevention of Human Trafficking 144 of services than those provided to other crime victims such as legal advocacy, shelter, transitional housing, medical and dental care, counselling services, language Endnotes acquisition and job training. These services should be gender-sensitive and empowering. Many service organizations tend to pathologize trafficking victims, and victims often buy into that self-concept. This tends to create services that are limiting of victims’ agency. In most countries, law enforcement and service provid- ers do not have enough language skills or knowledge of other cultural contexts to respond well to victims of human trafficking. 1 Recent special journal editions on human trafficking include the Prevention is key, particularly because prosecution Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, March 2014, 653(1) which includes empirical studies on labour and appears to be so challenging. Prevention means sex trafficking in a number of countries; and Crime, Law and Social reducing the push factors in origin countries and Change, March 2014, 61(1) which examines the under-performance expanding opportunities for women, as well as of anti-trafficking campaigns in the US and elsewhere. debunking myths about what are false job offers 2 The 2010-11 study was conducted for Public Safety Canada, abroad, especially in times of crisis and post-conflict. in partnership with ICCLR. It also means taking a gendered look at the global sex 3 The Protocol against trafficking in persons, especially women and children, is one of three protocols which form part of the UN industry and analyzing the demand in greater detail Convention against Transnational Organized Crime adopted in for motivation, recruitment, and modus operandi. 2000. The other Protocols are Smuggling of Migrants by Land Sea Attention needs to be paid to the continuum of violence or Air, and Trafficking in Firearms. affecting all sex workers, since indeed it sets the stage 4 OSCE Decision No. 557 24th July 2003. as a precursor to the brutality and exploitation of 5 RCMP (2010). trafficking; women´s agency needs to be acknowledged 6 In the US, a recent operation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and fostered, as opposed to their passivity as victims; in 76 cities targeted child prostitution, and announced that it has multiple oppressions should be acknowledged in “rescued” 105 young women and girls aged 13-17, and arrested 150 pimps, all of whom would likely be charged under prostitution international context and guide service provision; and legislation. No clients were arrested. It is suggested that many structural violence in communities of origin needs to of those rescued are from foster care or dysfunctional family be addressed within a framework of development. backgrounds and use street prostitution as a survival strategy. They have not been helped by heavy cuts to juvenile justice and family support services (Chesney-Lind, 2013). 7 “Les divers pays que nous avons visités nous ont dit que la France avait une responsibilité majeure pour faire prende conscience à l’Europe qu’il n’est plus possible de condemner la traite des etres humans tout en tolérant la prostitution.” Geoffrey, G. (2013, janvier 24) Comptes rendus de la delegation aux droits des femmes. Bousquet, D. & Geoffroy, G. (2011) sur Prostitution, www.senate.fr/ comte-redu-commissions/20130121/femmes.htm 8 The study was undertaken by ICCLR and ICPC on behalf of Public Safety Canada. 9 www.dhs.gov/end-human-trafficking 10 ILO maintains a database on good practices on a range of issues including migrant workers. See www.gla.defra.gov.uk 11 It was established following the drowning deaths of 24 Chinese workers recruited to collect cockles on a sea estuary in the north of England in 2004. 12 See HEUNI’s website for more information on Adstringo. www.heuni.fi 13 New York Penal Law 230.34. 14 Rashbaum, W. (2013, September 13). With Special Court, State Aims to Steer Women Away from Sex Trade. New York Times. 15 www.pssg.gov.bc/octip 16 For more information see www.manitoba.ca 17 It was based on and accompanied the Guidance on Local Safety Audits: A Compendium of International Practice also published by EFUS in 2007. 18 The Guide is currently being piloted in several municipalities in Canada, see PACT Ottawa later in this chapter. 44 investments andlow operating costs. to thehighdemandfor sexualservices, highpricespaid, low capital all otherforms offorced labour. This extreme profitabilityisdue billion ofprofitper year, which issixtimesmore profitable than 43 Donna Feir, Assistant Professor ofEconomics, University of Victoria. Hall Law Schools. This analysis was doneincollaboration with Human RightsClinic, University ofBritishColumbiaandOsgoode 42 in humanbeingsandprotectingitsvictims. 41 intercultural mediation, etc. them tosocialandhealthcareservices, providing legalassistance, to individuals involved inprostitution. This includesaccompanying 40 gov.it 39 placement, jobsearch supportandwork experience. mediation, healthandsocialcare, vocational training, work psychological counselling, legalaid, linguisticandcultural according totheirspecificneeds. This canincluderesidentialcare, services andactivities, basedonanindividual careplandeveloped grants victimsoftrafficking theopportunitytoaccessarangeof 38 of trafficking. interventions ontheuncovering andidentification ofvictims 37 Number 800290against Trafficking. trafficking andimmigration laws, andrunsthenational Toll-Free policy. Itmonitorsandassessesallrelevant projectsfundedunder national coordination ofrelevant trafficking andimmigration 36 The America for ItalianCooperation, MinistryofForeign Affairs. and SupervisoronSecurityProjectsMarginalGroupsinLatin NOVA (aconsortiumofItaliansocialorganizations), and Adviser 35 34 www.ontheroadonlus.it 33 www.espaciosdemujer.org 32 http://libertyasia.org by theparties. MinistryofSecurityandJustice. (2012, May) p. 23. Convention on Action against Trafficking inHumanBeings evaluation oftheimplementationCouncilEurope 31 30 http://mydangerousloverboy.com 29 http://safetrip.se/en/ 28 www.pact-ottawa.org 27 www.houstonrr.org/about-us/current-projects-activities/ Domestic Abuse Intervention Program. 26 25 www.polarisproject.org a collaboration between UNODC, UNESCOandUNTWO. 24 23 22 www.spvm.qc.ca principles.pdf. Ethical Principles, www.ungift.org/docs/ungift/pdf/Athens_ 21 Trafficking_e_WEB.pdf 20 http://efus.eu/files/fileadmin/efus/secutopics/EFUS_ www.ungift.org Justice ResponsetoHuman Trafficking. Vienna: UNODC. Seealso 19

The reportestimates forced sexualexploitation resultsin$99US Vincenzo Castelliisresponsiblefor projectsintheConsorzio The wheelisadaptedfrommaterial developed by theDuluth Amounts citedarein2012dollars. Nicole BarrettisDirectoroftheInternational Justice and Directive 2011/36/EUonpreventing andcombating trafficking Street unitsareteamsofsocialworkers whoprovide assistance Department for EqualOpportunities, seewww.pariopportunita. Law Decreen. 286/98relates toimmigration. This article Law 228/2003relates tohumantrafficking. This articlerefers to Response oftheNetherlandstoQuestionnaire for the www.bearesponsibletraveller.org The campaignis www.walk-with-me.org End Human Trafficking Now! Campaign. (2006)TheAthens E.g. UNODC(2010). Needs Assessment Toolkit ontheCriminal Department for EqualOpportunitiesisresponsiblefor

NewJustice, York. International Crime &Justice, John Jay CollegeofCriminal 50 Routledge, www.routledge.com/9780415856362 Women, CrimeandCriminalJustice: A GlobalEnquiry. 49 domestically trafficked victims. 48 victims. States, 62%, or5907, ofwhomarethoughttobesextrafficking estimating 9528 victimsofhumantrafficking intheEUMember scaling approach that couldbeused. SeealsoEurostat (2013)– 47 of Canada(inflated from 1998 dollarsto2012dollars). 46 Thailand, andtheUK. 45 This contribution isdrawn fromBarberet, R. (2014). The ILO’s 2012methodology initsforced labourreportisone Walk With Me Annual Report(2011). Figure only includes Professor &DirectorMasterof Arts DegreeProgramin Bowlus, A. etal. (2003). ReporttotheLaw Commission Based oninterviews in Albania, Italy, theNetherlands,

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Zimmerman, C., Yun, K., Watts, C., Shvab, I., Trappolin, L., Treppete, M., Bimbi, F., Jiraporn, S., Beci, L., Albrecht, M., Bindel, J. and Regan, L. (2003). The health risks and consequences of trafficking in women and adolescents. Findings from a European study. Retrieved from http://genderviolence.lshtm.ac.uk/files/ Intimate partner violence against women 150 Intimate partner violence against women

Introduction 30% of women who have been in a relationship have experienced some form of physical or sexual violence Violence against women (VAW) has become a major by a current or former partner, and as many as 38% public concern since the 1970s in many countries of murders of women are committed by an intimate around the world. The advancement of women’s rights partner (WHO, 2013a). Despite a general decrease has brought increased awareness of gender inequal- in violent crimes since the 1990s, as Chapter 2 has ities, and recognition of forms of violence which indicated, some countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin disproportionately affect women.1 A shift in mental- America have alarmingly high rates of female intimate ities has occurred especially in relation to domestic partner homicide, and it also accounts for the great or intimate partner violence against women (IPV). The majority of intentional female homicides in regions violence experienced by women in their homes and with low homicides rates, such as Europe (UNODC, at the hands of intimate partners is now recognized 2014; SAS, 2013). as a breach of criminal law, and no longer considered a minor or private social issue (see Box 6.1). Although a range of international surveys and indica- tors have been developed to systematically document Greater attention has also been given to the violence and monitor the incidence of VAW across countries, disproportionately experienced by women in public getting accurate data on IPV remains difficult. It spaces by virtue of their gender – ranging from sexual is violence which most often occurs in private and harassment and violence, to rape – and the respon- is unwitnessed; it is rarely reported to the police or sibility of society to promote the safety of women, other authorities. Frequently the acts may not even rather than blame them for inappropriate actions or be recognized as violence. IPV is also complex since behaviour. Significant legislation and policies to address it involves several types of abuse, including physical, both IPV and women’s insecurity and risk of violence in sexual, emotional and economic violence and control, public spaces, have been developed in many countries. and can occur over time, including after an intimate Further, there has been recognition of a wide range of relationship has ended. It is also strongly influenced other forms of VAW globally, from the use of rape as by the social, cultural and political environment in a weapon of war, to female infanticide and genital which it occurs. mutilation (UNGA, 2012a). IPV is now viewed as a form of gender-based violence. However, while major advancements have been made Indeed, evidence suggests that gender inequalities over the past 30 or more years, progress towards the increase the risk of acts of violence by men against elimination of VAW, whether in private or public, has women, and hinder the ability of women to leave abusive been uneven, and many challenges remain. Much of situations or seek support (WHO, 2010). Because of their the activity has focused on responding to VAW and sex (physical attributes) and their gender (sociocultural IPV through the criminal justice system or services attributes, and the roles, attitudes and behaviours that for victims, both of which are essential – but such ensue), women and girls are particularly affected by this systems can only respond after an event has occurred. form of violence that reflects the social norms allowing Less concerted attention has been given to estab- men power and control over them. lishing robust prevention initiatives to reduce the incidence of VAW in the first place. The promotion of gender equality is, therefore, a critical component of the prevention of IPV and other forms of IPV is one of the most common and persistent forms of VAW. From a public health perspective, for example, IPV VAW across countries. While some men and same-sex impacts individual women and their families, infringes couples also experience IPV and sexual violence, women the rights of women to full participation in society, are by far the greatest recipients of such violence, and and imposes high health and social costs on society. at the hands of men. Global estimates indicate that Recent international agreements have emphasized the Public Spacesoutlinessomeoftheachievements of of thischapter by Kathryn Travers Women’s Safetyin environments for women. The contribution at theend odology andcommunity-based actiontocreate safer the useofparticipatory women’s safety auditmeth- in CitiesInternational (WICI)which hasdeveloped also beeninspiredby itssisterorganization Women practices andpolicies(ICPC, 2008b). ICPC’s work has which was accompaniedby acompendiumofrelated of ICPC’s ColloquiuminQueretaro, Mexicoin2008, Safety: A Shared GlobalConcernwas alsothetheme International Report 2008(ICPC, 2008a). Women’s 2004) andachapter onwomen’s safety inthefirst a comparative international reportin2004(ICPC, on women’s safety inpublicspaces. This hasincluded ICPC’s previous work on VAW hasfocused primarily behaviours inthemany communities whereitoccurs. level toaddressIPV, but alsotoinfluence attitudes and for action, aswell asacoordinated response at the local importance ofdeveloping agender-sensitive framework Sources: UNGA(1993); WHO&PAHO (2012). as wellhelpingtoholdgovernments andinstitutionsaccountable. versus feminicide,itisargued thattheyareusefulinhighlightingthegenderednature offemalekillings, case offemicide/feminicide, alsobyastranger. Despitedebatessurrounding thenotionsoffemicide describe intentionalfemale homicides committedbyanintimatepartnerorafamily member, orinthe Various termssuchasfemicide,feminicide,honourkillings, andcrimesofpassionhavebeenusedto victim athighriskforsevereviolence. and threats,increasinglypossessivecontrolling behaviouronthepartofabuser, placingthe “Battering” specificallyreferstoanescalatingpatterncharacterized bymultipleformsofabuse,terrorization threats ofharmincludingagainstchildren. movements andrestrictingaccesstofinancialresources, employment,educationormedicalcare;and sexual intercourseandotherformsofcoercion; humiliationandintimidation;monitoringone’s IPV ismostoftenexpressedinawiderangeofacts,such as:slapping,hitting,kicking,andbeating;forced same-sex partners. is perpetratedbymenagainstwomen,italsoincludesviolencewomenandbetween It mayinvolvecurrentorformerspouses,partnersdatingrelationships.WhilethemajorityofIPV physical, psychologicalorsexualharmexpresslywithinanintimaterelationship(WHO&PAHO, 2012). More recently, IPVhasbecomethepreferredterminternationally. Itreferstoanybehaviourthatcauses children, otherfamilymembersanddomesticworkers)isnotalwaysclear. family violence,whichincludesvictimsofallagesandrelationshipstotheperpetrator(i.e.partners, violence isstillthepreferredterminsomecountries,althoughdistinctionbetweendomesticand personal violence,familyspousalandmostcommonly, domesticviolence.Domestic Many termshavebeenusedtodescribeVAW occurringin intimaterelationships,including or arbitrarydeprivationofliberty, whetheroccurringinpublicorprivatelife”(UNGA,1993). in, physical,sexualorpsychologicalharmsufferingtowomen,includingthreatsofsuchacts,coercion “Violence against womenmeansanyactofgender-based violencethatresultsin,orislikelytoresult Article Iofthe1993DeclarationonEliminationViolence AgainstWomen defines VAW asfollows: Box 6.1 Defining Violence againstW omen and Intimate Partner Violenceomen andIntimatePartner actors for change. Several innovative strategies have and theinvolvement ofmenandboys aspositive These includeearly intervention withyoung people, and effective approaches, especially at thelocallevel. and prevention strategies; andtohighlightpromising in implementinginternational normsinlegislation women and girls; to consider progress by countries IPV anditsmeasurement, andthespecificrisks for ent toreview currentknowledge ontheprevalence of in policiesandpracticesconcerning VAW, itispertin- in thischapter. After morethan30years ofchanges indicates that there isaneed toexamineitspecifically and citiesaboutitspervasiveness andpersistence, concern amonginternational organizations, countries Nevertheless, theburden ofIPV, andtheincreasing policies toreduce VAW at thenational andlocallevel. such violence. Both need to be strong components of cannot beachieved withoutalsopaying attention to to beasignificantproblemandtheprevention ofIPV this work. Women’s safety inpublicspacescontinues

151 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 152 also emerged to respond to changing populations Box 6.2 Indicators on gender and IPV and contexts, such as those which take account of the specific needs of victims and vulnerable groups, Over the past ten years, considerable progress notably migrant and indigenous women. has been made at the international level to aid countries in measuring VAW and assessing their progress to reduce it. In particular, the Progress in measuring the extent of IPV lack of data collection on VAW or data which is disaggregated in terms of sex or relationships etc. has made it difficult to measure its extent Wide regional variations in many countries. The UN Statistics Division has now established a minimum set of gender A growing number of population studies have been indicators (UN ECOSOC, 2014). These include conducted nationally and internationally to assess three indicators specifically concerned with IPV the incidence and prevalence of VAW, most of under the domain “Human rights of women them with a major focus on IPV. With international and girl children”: the rate of partnered women support, new methods of data collection, and tech- subjected to physical violence in the last nical assistance to developing countries, a number of 12 months by an intimate partner; the rate of comparative cross-national studies have been carried partnered women subjected to sexual violence out (Johnson, 2013).2 These have been influenced by in the last 12 months by an intimate partner; and feminist research on sexual violence and IPV, which the percentage of women aged 20-24 years old showed that dedicated victimization surveys of VAW who were married or in a union before age 18. provide much higher estimates of its extent than police reports or administrative data. The national In 2013 UN Statistics Division published Violence Against Women Survey developed in Canada Guidelines for Producing Statistics on Violence in 1993, incorporated multiple behaviourally-specific against Women. The core topics include: questions about physical and sexual violence, as well physical violence, sexual violence, psychological as acts of emotional abuse and control by intimate violence, and economic violence as well as partners. It was pioneering in its methodology, ensur- severity of violence, relationship of victim ing that women who responded were able to do so in to perpetrator, marital/relationship status, and safety and with follow-on support if necessary. This age (UNSD, 2013a). A new Gender Statistics model was subsequently adopted for the International Manual to support the Guidelines has also Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS) which has been published (UNSD, 2013b). Optional topics been conducted in eleven countries, and by national include attitudes towards VAW, reporting VAW surveys, as well as Demographic and Health to authorities/seeking help, and personal Surveys (DSH).3 Other international surveys using characteristics of respondents and intimate a similar methodology have been undertaken by WHO partners, measures of social tolerance, state and PAHO. responses, access to justice, victim protection, prevention, and training (UN ECOSOC, 2013). Over 90 countries have now undertaken victimization surveys on VAW or IPV at the national level, or in In 2013, 40% of countries were producing regions or cities, the majority focusing on IPV rather gender statistics on VAW regularly and 31% than non-intimate sexual violence (Johnson, 2013). irregularly, while 27% were not producing Although comparison across countries remains far any (UN ECOSOC, 2013). from perfect because of differences, for example, in definitions, sample selection methods, counting, and reference periods, these surveys take into account the prevalence of IPV. The results show that globally, in methodological and ethical principles for sound infor- 2010, 30% of women aged 15 and over had experienced mation on VAW, and enable estimates of its prevalence physical and/or sexual IPV in their lifetime. Estimates to be made, as well as putting national police data were modeled for 21 global regions, with the lowest into perspective. See Box 6.2 on recent developments rates observed in East Asia (16%) and in Western to support improved data collection. Europe (19%), and the highest rates in Andean Latin America (41%), in South Asia (42%), in West Sub- A recent systematic review of much of the survey Saharan Africa (42%), and in Central Sub-Saharan data so far collated on VAW provides estimates of the Africa (66%) (Figure 6.1). global prevalence of IPV against women, and reveals wide regional variations (Devries et al., 2013). Based An earlier review suggests that IPV during pregnancy on studies with representative samples at national is similarly more pronounced in some regions than or subnational levels and global surveys, data from others. Based on studies from 19 countries, it found 81 countries is used to estimate women’s lifetime rates ranging between 2% to 13.5% (Devries et al., nologies (Johnson, 2013). of moresophisticated methodologies and new tech- target populations and groups, as well as the use greater detailandspecification concerningspecific IPV, Holly Johnson notes anincreaseddemandfor In reviewing advancements inthemeasurement of of IPV Recent advancesinthemeasurement high levels. country, itisstillregardedasbeingat “staggeringly” While there hasbeen anoverall decline inIPV that illustrated by recentfiguresfromtheUS(seeBox 6.3). ively developed interventions toreduceitsincidence, is even thosewhich have longcriminalizeditandact The continuingoccurrenceofIPVinmany countries, women tobeashigh40%(Shamu etal., 2011). studies found theprevalence ofIPVagainstpregnant rates insomesettings. A systematic review of African A few facility-based studieshave found much higher relative totheEuropeanand Asian countriessurveyed. was higherin African andLatin American countries most at riskofIPVduringpregnancy. The prevalence 2010). Younger women andgirls(aged15–35)were Source: Devriesetal.(2013) Figure 6.1 Sub-Saharan Africa,Southern North America,highincome Sub-Saharan Africa,Central Sub-Saharan Africa,West Asia Pacific,highincome Sub-Saharan Africa,East North Africa/MiddleEast Latin America,Southern

Latin America,Andrean Latin America,Tropical Latin America,Central Prevalence ofIPVbyregion Europe, Western Europe, Eastern Asia, Southeast Europe, Central Asia, Central Asia, South Australasia Caribbean Asia, East Oceania 0% 10% 20% -

Source: Auchter&Backes(2013,p.714). and contextsofthesecrimes.” these interventionsandthe underlying causes well asthesystematicstudy oftheimpact indicate aneedforcontinued interventionsas of domesticviolenceremainstaggeringand the statisticsonprevalenceandincidence variety oftargetedprogramsundertheVAWA, surveyed (Blacketal.,2011).Despitefundinga intimate partnerinthe12monthspriortobeing experiencing theseformsofviolencebyan or almost7.0millionwomenintheUS,reported partner inherlifetime.Approximately5.9%, 1 in10(9.4%)hasbeenrapedbyanintimate violence byanintimatepartner, andnearly women (32.9%)hasexperiencedphysical at somepointintheirlifetime.Onethree violence, and/orstalkingbyanintimatepartner 42.4 million)haveexperiencedrape,physical of womenintheUS(35.6%,orapproximately “Recent datasuggestthatmorethanonethird of domesticviolenceintheUS Box 6.3 30% The prevalenceandincidence 40% 50% 60%

70% 153 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 154 The US National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence chapter Violence Against Women in the European Survey (NISVS) launched by the Centers for Disease Union summarizes some of the main findings and Control and Prevention (CDC) is one such initiative. recommendations of the survey. This survey collects data annually, and incorporates a number of important advancements on previous US studies. They include a sample design to enable Surveying men national and state levels of partner violence to be estimated, and separate samples of female military One of the most innovative recent developments has personnel, female spouses of military, and people of been surveying men about their attitudes to and American Indian and Alaska Native origin (Johnson, experiences of using IPV. Notably, the International 2013; Black et al., 2011). The methodology includes Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) developed landlines and mobiles telephones, and uses incen- a survey on men’s attitudes and practices – along with tives to reduce sample bias. Findings from the first women’s opinions and reports of men’s practices. year of the survey conducted in 2010 confirmed that It covers a wide variety of topics related to gender women are disproportionately impacted by IPV com- equality, including gender-based violence (Barker et pared with men: in particular, 1 in 4 women (25%) had al., 2011). From 2009 to 2010, household surveys were experienced severe physical IPV, compared to 1 in 7 administered in six countries in different regions: men. Female victims also experience multiple forms Brazil, Chile, Croatia, India, Mexico, and Rwanda. An of violence, while male victims most often experience initial comparative analysis of results from the men’s only physical violence. questionnaires found that they reported lifetime rates of perpetration of physical IPV ranging from Another innovative example is a PAHO study of VAW 25% to 40%, with women reporting slightly higher in Latin America and the Caribbean. It is the first rates. Men’s reports of perpetration of sexual violence report to present a comparative analysis of nation- against women and girls ranged from 6% to 29%, the ally representative data on VAW in the region, based majority of the acts reported in India and Mexico on data from twelve countries (PAHO, 2012). Thirteen were against a current or former partner. Some of surveys and standardized indicators were developed the significant factors associated with men’s use to maximize comparability of the data gathered. of violence were rigid gender attitudes, work stress, The results indicate that IPV against women is experiences of violence in childhood, and alcohol use. widespread in every country where the surveys were Men who owned firearms or carried out other violence conducted, confirming that Latin America is one of or criminal behaviour were also more likely to report the high prevalence regions. Between one-fourth and having used IPV. one-half of women reported experiencing IPV in their lifetime in most of the countries surveyed. A majority Similarly, the UN Multi-country Study on Men and of the women who had experienced physical violence Violence in Asia and the Pacific aimed to generate reported severe acts, such as being hit with a fist, knowledge on how masculinities relate to men’s threatened or wounded with a knife or other weapon, perceptions and perpetration of VAW (Fulu et al., as well as emotional abuse ranging from 61% to 93% 2013). The interviews were conducted between 2010 of respondents. and 2013 with men aged 18-49 and women in nine sites over six countries, using same sex interviewers The most recent and ground-breaking multi-country respectively.4 The quantitative component of the study on VAW is that conducted by the European study indicated that men’s use of violence against Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA). Covering intimate female partners was pervasive across the 28 European countries, the survey was conducted in Asia-Pacific region, but that prevalence varied across 2011-2012 (FRA, 2014). It included women’s “every- sites. Overall nearly half of the ever-partnered men day” experiences of violence by current and former interviewed reported using physical and/or sexual partners in the past 12 months, since the age of violence against a female partner, ranging from 26% 15, and before the age of 15. The survey looked in to 80% (between 30% to 57% in most sites). From 16% to particular at the frequency and severity of violence, 57% also reported economically abusive acts against taking into account experiences in different settings, a female intimate partner in their lifetime, and from such as the home or workplace. It also asked about 41% to 83% for at least one emotionally abusive act. forms of violence and harassment using new com- Results showed that IPV was driven by factors related munication technologies, such as text messaging or in particular to gender inequality, childhood experi- internet-based networking sites. In total, 22% of the ences of abuse, alcohol abuse problems, depression, respondents reported having experienced physical and low socio-economic status. and/or sexual violence by a partner since the age of 15, and 43% psychological violence by an intimate partner. The contribution by the FRA at the end of this employment opportunitiesfor women. Violence was to their entry into the workforce with increased their maritalstatus orby thereaction ofhusbands likely towork. This couldbeexplainedby changes in and that women whohadexperiencedIPVwere more physical VAW increased separation or divorce rates, costs ofIPV(Agüero, 2013). The resultsshowed that health survey data estimates some of the intangible A study inLatin America and the Caribbean using In addition, anumberofstudieshave indicated an a victimofsuch violence later in life (UNICEF, 2006). More specifically, exposuretodomesticviolence ated withwitnessingIPVagainstamotheraschild. criminal activity, andexperiences of violence asa in school-age children (WHO&PAHO, 2012), while poor school performance, andnegative healthoutcomes and socialconsequencesincludinganxiety, depression, disorders. Many studieshave shown negative health suffer from a range of emotional and behavioural 2013a). Furthermore, children whowitnessIPVmay ability tocarefor themselves andtheir children (WHO, participation insocialandcivic activities, andlimited isolation, inabilitytowork, lossofwages, lack of clearly established. Women victimsmay suffer from The wider social and economic costs of IPV are also of infant and child mortality andmorbidity. weight, andithasbeenassociated withhigherrates stillbirth, pre-term delivery, fetal injury, and low birth IPV inpregnancy increasestheriskfor miscarriage, and fibromyalgia (WHO& PAHO, 2012). Inparticular, conditions” such asvarious chronic painsyndromes disorder, andailmentsreferred toas “stress-related difficulties, eating disorders, post-traumatic stress problems, othersexually transmittedinfections, sleep and, insomeregions, are1.5timesmorelikely to experience depressionandalcoholabuse problems, enced partnerviolencearealmosttwiceaslikely to such violence(WHO, 2013a). Women whohave experi who experienceIPVreportaninjuryasaresultof long-term effects. Itisestimated that 42%ofwomen consequences for thewomen affected by IPV, including studies incorporate questionsrelated tothehealth health, social, and economic impacts of IPV. Most More attention isnow beingbeenpaidtothehigh impacts ofIPV The costlypersonalandsocial the singlebestpredictorofbecomingaperpetrator or same household(Holt, Buckley & Whelan, 2008). association between IPVandchild abuse withinthe perpetrator and/or victim in later life, are also associ such assubstanceabuse, sexualriskbehaviour, and and sensorygrowth (UNICEF, 2006). Risky behaviour infants andsmallchildren andimpairtheircognitive emotional stresscanharmthebraindevelopment of issues include unintendedpregnancies, gynecological acquire HIVthanwomen whohave not. Otherhealth 5 is is - -

$4.1US billionfor directmentalandhealthservices, violence exceeds$5.8USbillionannually, including CDC’s assessment of health-related costs of domestic as aresultrangedfrom16%to20%. IntheUS, the reported having tomissor stop money-earning work other obligations (PAHO, 2012). The percentagewho so severe that they could not complete their work or previous 12monthsreportedanxietyordepression found that 49%to68%offemale victimsofIPVinthe and intangiblecostsmoreprecisely. The PAHO study have attempted toquantifysomeofthesetangible Although notalways easytomeasure, somestudies to buffer thenegative effects ofIPV. to suggest that the mother’s education and age tended the authorsestimate that thetotalamountnearly criteria andmethodologies vary between countries, cost ofpain, suffering, andlostqualityoflife. While of incomefor missingwork and productivity loss, out ofpocket expenditure for accessingservices, loss to 2% of GDP (Duvvury et al., 2013). These included Uganda, UK, US)found that costsrangedfrom 1.2% Bangladesh, Chile, Morocco, Nicaragua, Vietnam, A recentstudy basedondata from9 countries(Australia, cern includinginlow andmiddle-incomecountries. human capital formation continue to be of major con decreased productivity, and negative impacts on future expenditures onserviceprovision, lostincome, The significanteconomiccostsofIPVinterms (7%) for justicesystemcosts(Zhangetal., 2012). costs and losses toemployers; and$545.2CAN million for thirdpartycostssuch associalserviceoperation damages, painandsuffering; $889.9CAN million(12%) victim costssuch asmedicalattention, lost wages, $7.3CAN billion, including$6.0CAN billion(80%)for total economic impact of spousal violence in 2009 was Similarly, inCanada, aconservative estimate ofthe Thoennes, 2000). and court, shelterandfoster carecosts(Tjaden& $10US billionannually, takinginto accountpolice of thisviolenceeach year. The costs would addup to 5.6 million days of household productivity, as a result of IPVlosealmost8milliondays ofpaidwork, and and Control, 2003). Ithasbeenestimated that victims ity orwages (National Centerfor InjuryPrevention and $1.8US billion for indirect costs of lost productiv next generation –although therewas someevidence health outcomes for women and their children – the a causalrelationship between violence and negative to women experiencingdomesticviolence, confirmed Centros Emergencia Mujer which provides services than others. A casestudy inPeru, usingdata fromthe their babiestendedtohave lower weight andheight were less likely to make required prenatal visits, and Pregnant motherswhoexperiencedphysical violence important short-term health outcomes for children. negatively linkedwithwomen’s healthandaffected - -

155 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 156 equals government spending on primary education Overwhelmingly, women are the main victims of IPV as a proportion of GDP, illustrating the particularly homicide. Among 18 primarily European countries, significant costs in low- and middle-income countries 79% of IPV homicide victims were female, and 21% male. relative to key development expenditures. It is noted that more analysis is needed to estimate the true At the regional level, based on data from 51 countries, scale of the impact of IPV on economic growth and rates of intimate partner/family-related homicide economic development, for example, how education range from 0.6 to 1.7 per 100,000 people, with higher and health conditions, or women’s economic activity rates in Africa and the Americas, where other types interact with the prevalence of IPV over time. of homicide are also more prevalent (UNODC, 2014). Nevertheless, intimate partner/family-related homi- cides account for a larger share of total homicide Risks and vulnerabilities victims in Asia, Europe and Oceania than other regions. Since intimate partner/family-related homicide levels Knowledge about the factors which place women tend to remain fairly stable over time, the share of this and girls at risk of VAW including IPV has grown type of homicide tends to increase in countries with enormously over the years. Extensive research has very low (and decreasing) homicide rates. Women vic- established the major correlates which are strongly tims of IPV, therefore, become more prominent among associated with IPV. They include (Johnson, 2013, homicide victims in countries with low homicide rates. p. 106):  Age – younger men and women and early marriage. A systematic review on the prevalence of intimate  Having multiple children. partner homicide concluded that it is the leading  Male partner substance abuse. cause of homicides of women globally (Stöckl et al.,  Indigenous status. 2013). Estimates obtained for 66 countries indicated  Disability – women with mental and physical that at least one in seven homicides globally, and more disabilities. than a third of female homicides are perpetrated by  Family history of violence between parents. an intimate partner. The overall estimates of intimate  Childhood experiences of violence. partner homicide worldwide were 13.5% of all homi-  Gender inequality in marital relationships. cides, the proportion being six times higher for female  Using violence in other contexts – such as outside (39%) compared to male homicides (6%). The median the home. percentages of intimate partner homicides among murdered women were notably higher in high income The evidence for other contributing factors such as countries, but the regional differences observed may poverty, unemployment and rural residence, while result from lack of data in low-income countries, often associated, is less strong and appears to vary especially in Asia and Africa. This review stresses the across contexts and countries.6 Recent research has scarcity of information about intimate partner homi- identified a range of types of IPV which appear use- cide in many regions, and the large amount of missing ful in the development of a better understanding of information about the victim–offender relationship, IPV and in the development of prevention strategies. even in countries with advanced homicide monitoring They include “coercive and controlling” IPV which data systems. is primarily male-perpetrated, “situational couple violence”, “violent resistance” and “separation- The Small Arms Survey looks at the significant role instigated violence” (Ansara & Hindin, 2010; Johnson of firearms in intimate partner homicides, injury, and & Dawson, 2011). intimidation (Shaw, 2013). Data from 111 countries and territories indicates that more women than men are killed, injured or intimidated by firearms in the Intimate partner homicide context of IPV, and around one in three intentional female homicides are committed with a firearm. The “At least one in seven homicides globally and more risk of lethal IPV is increased by the presence of than a third of female homicides are perpetrated by guns in the home, including work-related guns (most an intimate partner.”7 gun owners and workers in professions using guns, are men). Women are at high risk in countries and The ultimate and most serious consequence of IPV regions with high levels of firearm violence, such is death, and women are at much higher risk as as South Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. intimate partners than men. As suggested earlier, Nevertheless, firearms are also implicated in IPV IPV accounts for the majority of intentional female deaths in countries with low homicides rates. homicides in many countries, ranging from 40-70% (UNODC, 2011a). In 2013 it was estimated that 47% In addition to the murder of women by intimate (43,600) of all female homicide victims were killed by partners, the great majority of murder-suicide9 events intimate partners or family members (UNODC, 2014).8 involve IPV. They are almost all committed by men, reported perpetrating actsof physical abuse and male college students in Ethiopia found that 16% dating violence(Swart etal., 2002), andasurvey of 13-24 years reported ever experiencing physical in South Africa found that 42%offemales aged number ofculturalcontexts. For example, astudy Dating violence appears to be very pervasive in a increases therisksfor spousalabuse. nature oftheunion, inacontextofgenderinequality, frequent agedifference fromtheirpartner, andforced 2012). Inthecaseofgirlsmarriedat ayoung age, the settings wheregirlsmarryyoung (WHO andPAHO, girls indating relationships, aswell asincultural est risk (UN DESA, 2010a). In adolescence, IPV affects older women, withthoseaged15–24areat thegreat- girls andyoung women areat greater riskofIPVthan the risksfacing young women andgirls. Adolescent increasing number of studies have begun to explore Age isoneofthemainriskfactors for IPV, andan such asruralandurbansettings. between countries in relation tospecific contexts, communities. All these factors may vary across and drugs, and membership in marginalized and excluded cing violenceasachild, harmfuluseofalcoholand PAHO, 2012). These includewitnessing orexperien- been consistently identified(UNGA, 2006a; WHOand or employment status), someindividual factors have interpersonal disparitiesineconomic, educational (e.g. ahistoryofmaritalconflictandsignificant ing poverty andlow status) andrelationship factors to it. Besidescommunity andsocietalfactors (includ- men, certaingroupsareespecially likely tobeexposed While women are generally at greater risk of IPV than and migrantwomengirls Vulnerable groups:Young, indigenous, factor for women whoexperienceIPV(Shaw, 2013). the presence of firearms in the home is a major risk countries and the US, has led to the conclusion that number of countries including South Africa, European Liem etal., 2011). This research andotherstudiesina Germany andFinland (Liem&Oberwittler, 2012; rates ofgunskeptinthehome, such asSwitzerland, 1990 and2005, especially incountrieswithhigher weapon inIPVmurder–suicide incidentsbetween countries found that gunswere thepredominant the Americas, acomparative study ofseven European firearms arelesscommonly usedinEuropethan mon method(Statistics Canada, 2005). Similarly, while then committedsuicide. Firearms were themostcom 97% involved women killed by their husband, who family member, andofthosecommittedby aspouse, found that 75%ofallmurder-suicides involved a example, homicidedata covering more than 40 and usually withfirearms(Shaw, 2013). InCanada, for years - IVAWS. Aboriginal women were reportedtobealmost were presentedinthe Australian Componentofthe their lives asaresultoftheviolence. Similar findings non-Aboriginal victims to state that they feared for addition, Aboriginal victimswere morelikely than compared with6%ofnon-Aboriginalwomen. In victimized inthefive years precedingthesurvey, who had acurrent or former spouse reported being 2011). Fifteen percentofthe Aboriginal women injured asaresultoftheirvictimization (Brennan, the victimofspousalviolence, andtohave been more likely than non-Aboriginalwomen tohave been Surveyshowed (GSS) that Aboriginal womenwere Canada, victimization data fromtheGeneralSocial documented inrelation toindigenouspopulations. In IPV hasbeenobserved globally, itiseven lesswell affected by VAW, including IPV (see Chapter 4). While Indigenous women arealsodisproportionately episode ofsexualviolence(Hébertetal., 2014). the past12 months, and20%experiencedat leastone one episodeofphysical violencefromapartnerin found that 16%offemales hadexperiencedat least ( In Quebec, Canada, astudy ofhighschool students forced or early marriage, which can be used to gain of deportation. Honourkillings, andpractices such as which discouragesthem from seekinghelpfor fear be vulnerablebecauseoftheir legalorpoliticalstatus advice, apartfromlanguagebarriers. They may also and limitedknowledge ofhow toaccessservicesand cultural practiceswhich discourage help-seeking, their rightsandthecriminallaw inrelation toIPV, face anumberofbarriersintermsknowledge of 3). New orrelatively recentwomen migrantsoften the countriestowhich they emigrate (seeChapter different culturalpracticesandgenderrelations from displaced and refugee populations, often with very cities in their own or in foreign countries, as well as include predominantly ruralpopulations migrating to of IPVfor women andgirlsintheircommunities. They settings hasalsofocused attention ontherisks ethno-cultural minoritypopulations living innew As aresultofmigration, theincreasingnumbersof population (Mouzos&Makkai, 2004). of homicides, although they represent only 2.2% of the than non-Aboriginalwomen, andtoaccountfor 15% forty times more likely to be victims of family violence of physical violence(Knowledge Networks, 2011). reported actual physical or sexual abuse or threats Poll, revealed that oneinfive college women (22%) recent survey, the College Dating Violence and Abuse of dating violence(Silverman etal., 2001). A more college females reported experiencing some form or sexually abused by adating partner, and19%of high school studentsreportedbeingphysically and/ study indicated that approximately 20%offemale sexual violence (Philpart et al., 2009). In the US, one Enquête surlesparcours amoureux desjeunes) 10

157 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 158 legal entry to host countries and to maintain ties A significant number of global initiatives have sup- with communities of origin, are also of increasing ported these resolutions. Notably the UN Secretary concern in a number of countries (Samad and Eade, General’s UNiTE to End Violence against Women 2002; Timmerman, 2006). Johnson suggests that campaign launched in 2008, and UN WOMEN’s Say there are important gaps in the study of VAW among No to Violence Against Women Campaign12 begun in minority and migrant populations (Johnson, 2013, 2009, both aim to raise public awareness and increase p. 108). In particular, it is important to document political will and resources for preventing and ending the experiences of women and girls before and after all forms of VAW. To improve information on practices their arrival (e.g. sexual violence, forced pregnancy and programmes, the UN Secretary General’s Database and abortion, and various forms of financial abuse on VAW was launched in 2009, and the UN Trust Fund and control) in order to understand their needs and supports the consolidation of knowledge, project the barriers to assistance. development and evaluation on VAW. Funding and other resources, including model legislation, indicators and guides (discussed above), and handbooks such as Recent international, regional, UNODC’s Handbook on Effective Police Responses to and national developments Violence against Women, all support improved legisla- tion, data collection, policy development and practice (UN DESA, 2010b; UN Women, 2012; UNODC, 2010). Increasing international activity A Handbook for National Action Plans on Violence Against Women was published in 2012 (UN Women, IPV and other forms of VAW have received increasing 2012). One of the first initiatives of the newly created attention internationally over the past decade. The UN Women was the launch of the Safe Cities Free of 2006 UN Secretary General’s In-depth Study on All Violence Against Women and Girls Global Programme Forms of Violence Against Women highlighted the 2010-2017 (see Chapter 2 and the contribution on persistence of all forms of VAW across the world, Women’s safety in public spaces at the end of this and the need to strengthen political commitment and chapter). joint efforts to prevent and eliminate it. Between 2006 and 2009, the UN General Assembly adopted annual WHO regards VAW as a public health issue, and part resolutions on the Intensification of efforts to elim- of its wider violence prevention programme. Recent inate all forms of violence against women. In 2011 valuable resources on the prevention of IPV include a resolution on Strengthening crime prevention and Violence prevention: the evidence (WHO, 2010), which criminal justice responses to violence against women reviews the effectiveness of IPV and sexual violence was accompanied by the Updated Model Strategies prevention programmes, and clinical and policy and Practical Measures on the Elimination of VAW in guidelines for practitioners on evidence-based clin- the Field of Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, ical interventions, emotional support, and reporting first published in 1997. These guidelines emphasize (WHO & LSHTM, 2010; WHO, 2013b). the importance of adopting a systematic, compre- hensive, coordinated, multi-sectorial, and sustained approach. The 2012 resolution on the Intensification Regional developments of efforts to eliminate all forms of violence against women encourages States to develop comprehensive In the Americas the Convention of Belém do Pará integrated national plans on VAW. (Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against These resolutions highlight the vulnerability of Women), was adopted in 1994 by the Organization of women and girls in armed conflict, and the higher American States (OAS). 13 Now in its twentieth year, risk of IPV for women belonging to minority groups, a number of initiatives to mark the anniversary are indigenous, refugee and internally displaced women, taking place, including translation into 13 indigen- migrant women, women living in rural or remote com- ous languages, a review of regional strategies, and munities, and destitute women (UNGA, 2012b). They the publication of good practices. In 2009, ECLAC underline the importance of the prevention of VAW launched the Observatory on Gender in Latin America by strengthening women’s empowerment and access and the Caribbean in partnership with UN agencies, to education, health and social services, and the links and domestic violence prevention is one of the key between education, health, poverty, marginalization, objectives of IDB’s Citizen Security framework which food security, and peace and security. The creation has been developed over the past decade (Abizanda of UN Women in 2010 raised the profile of the UN’s et al., 2012). work in relation to women, and one of the main objectives of the new entity is to strengthen and In Africa, the Maputo Protocol (Protocol to the African consolidate action to eliminate VAW.11 Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa) was adopted by the African Union 64% in Asia and73% in Africa, tomorethan95% in violence ranged from38%ofcountries in Oceania, ing countries. Legalprovisions toprevent domestic countries 96%hadboth, compared to65%ofdevelop- domestic violence(UNDESA, 2011). Among developed had adoptedlegalmeasures orpoliciestoprevent that 93%of193countries for which they haddata At the national level, UN DESA reported in 2011 National legislationandactionplans communities (COE, 2009). protection andrehabilitation ofvictimsfrommigrant aging memberstates todevelop strategies for the faced by migrantwomen by migrantwomen, encour recognized theparticularriskofdomesticviolence by countries. An earlierresolutionadoptedin2009 ensure effective implementation ofitsprovisions a specificmonitoringmechanism (GREVIO)to and counselling services, and legal aid. It includes sion ofservices, such ahotlines, shelters, medical prevention, protection, prosecutionandtheprovi- The Convention establishesminimum standardsfor into force on 1st August 2014. domestic violence). Initially adoptedin2011, itcame venting andcombatingviolenceagainstwomen and Convention ( A major development inEurope istheIstanbul partnerships between stakeholders. in national plans, and strengtheningcapacityand integration oflegislation, policiesandmeasures and cultural patterns. The Declaration calls for the women and children, notably by modifying social efforts ofmemberstates topromotetherightsof It acknowledged theimportanceofintensifying Elimination of Violence against Children on theEliminationof Violence against Women and (ASEAN) re-affirmedits2004treaty intheDeclaration In Asia, the Association ofSoutheast Asian Nations engage menandboys asactorsofchange. countries evaluated, andfew planswere inplaceto marital rapewas notcriminalizedinseven ofthe advance genderequality(Sonkeetal., 2013). However, acknowledged theneedtoaddresssocialnorms sive definitionofgender-based violence, andseveral and laws indicated that mostoffered acomprehen- countries. An assessmentof11countries’policies part duetotheunstablepoliticalsituation inseveral had signedit, but nofollow uphasbeeninitiated, in in July 2003. As of 2010, 46 of the 53 member countries help women andgirlsfacing violentacts.” will oblige governments to take concrete steps to whom thehomeisaplaceofdanger… This treaty “This isadefiningmoment for women inEurope for Council ofEuropeConvention onpre- 14

in 2013. 15 -

removing perpetrators fromthehome, teaching chil 2013). Similardevelopments areunderway inother immigrants withoutresidency permits(McRobie, expands protectionfor vulnerable women, including domestic abuse, sexualviolence, andstalking, and decree settingstricterpenaltiesfor perpetrators of In Italy recent national legislation includes a2013 2012). Saudi Arabia adopted theProtectionfrom violation of a protection or restraining order (Zedlin, she requestsit, andtoarresttheperpetrator for any possessed by the perpetrator, torelocate thevictimif to useprotectionordersand toseizeany weapons of theirmaritalstatus. Itgives thepoliceauthority for victims. The law appliesto all women, regardless improve protection and enhance support services ViolenceAgainst Women was passedin2012to in Turkey. The Groundbreaking legislation hasrecently beenpassed because ofabuse (CopenhagenPost, 2013). dency to non-Danish women who leave their partners example, basedonaNorwegian model, grantsresi- The MariadaPenha Observatory was establishedto cities withover 60,000inhabitants(UN Women, 2011). and supportservices, includingwomen’s shelters, in number ofwomen’s policestations, andprevention lished special courts to hear cases, and increased the the penaltiesfor domesticviolenceoffences, estab- significant change inresponsesto VAW. Itincreased Family Violence and In Brazil, theMariadaPenhaLaw onDomestic in theseverity ofsentences(Sweden, 2011). ships was viewed cumulatively, andthiswas reflected majority ofprosecutions, violenceincloserelation - evaluation ofthelegislation in2009found that inthe abuse experiencedby awoman tobeassessed. An effects. The actrequireseach instanceofviolenceand nized thelongtermnature ofIPV, anditscumulative Women (1998),against sinceitrecog - on Violence Act In Sweden animportant landmarkwas theSwedish worth noting. legislation, someinnovative national initiatives are Caribbean. Inspiteofthechallenges ofimplementing Europe, Northern America, and Latin America and the European countries. A new law inDenmark, for professionals toreport suspectedcases. dren aboutdomesticviolence, andrequiringmedical the implementation ofarangemeasuressuch as to thepolice, rather thanonly thevictim, andrequires empowers any witnessofdomesticviolencetoreportit against women (Wecker, 2012). In2012, new legislation and punishmentofviolencediscrimination Colombia enactedlegislation in2008onthePrevention activities, and to helpinform national policy on VAW. monitor theimplementation of the law andstate-level Law toProtectFamily andPrevent enacted in2006alsomarkeda

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159 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 160 Abuse Law in 2013 which aims to protect women, to combat VAW (2011-2013) similarly focuses on meet- children, and domestic workers against all forms of ing emerging challenges, with the establishment of domestic abuse, and provide for shelter and social, more shelters across the country for victims and their psychological, and medical aid (Al Jazeera, 2013). children, initial training and continuing education Notably, the law gives those who report abuse the for professionals, and information and awareness right to remain anonymous, and women are no longer campaigns, notably in schools and among migrant required to be accompanied by a male relative to file girls and women. The plan also funded a research a complaint. programme to improve understanding of VAW, and evaluate the effectiveness of policies (France, 2011). Many countries have developed and implemented national actions plans on VAW, or specifically on IPV, Sweden implemented and evaluated a comprehensive over the years, but not all are updated or evaluated on Action Plan to combat male violence against women, a regular basis. In fact the FRA has detected “action violence in the name of honour and violence in plan fatigue” among some countries in the region (see same-sex relationships (2007-2010), and a major sub- the contribution by the FRA at the end of the chapter). sequent innovation was the appointment of a Swedish UN Women’s Handbook for National Action Plans on Domestic Violence Coordinator in 2012. Her role is to VAW provides very comprehensive coverage of the increase the effectiveness, quality, and sustainability components of such plans (UN Women, 2012). of IPV prevention, by improving collaboration between agencies and organizations. To increase knowledge, The UK provides a good example of a country which the Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention has made changes to its national policies (and legisla- has been tasked with developing a national survey of tion) in the light of emerging concerns around VAW. domestic violence, and the National Board of Health It published the strategy paper Call to end violence and Welfare with developing programmes for non- against women and girls in 2010, which became the custodial violent abusers (Sweden, 2012). basis of its 2011 action plan. This was updated in 2013 and 2014, in particular in relation to domestic and More recently, the Norwegian government launched an sexual violence, with a focus on earlier intervention updated Action Plan against Domestic Violence (2014- to change attitudes and behaviours, and increased 2017) (Norway, 2014). Based on a review of the previous support for women and girls with particular vulner- 2008-2011 action plans, which included one against abilities.16 A Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act forced marriages (Norway, 2008), the priorities are to was also adopted in 2007, and a Forced Marriage improve collaboration between agencies and services, Unit established to provide information and support and develop measures to reach vulnerable groups. The services.17 In addition, the UK has developed initiatives action plan covers prevention and awareness-raising, targeting potential migrants in their countries of the development of knowledge and competence, origin, such as an education campaign commissioned enhanced services for all groups of victims, criminal by the British High Commission in Islamabad on prosecution, and coordination of services. In addi- domestic abuse and “honour” killings in the context tion, the Regional Centres for Violence, Traumatic of forced marriages. In March 2014 the government Stress and Suicide Prevention are mandated to assist widened the definition of domestic violence to include municipalities that wish to develop local action plans, young people aged 16-17; and extended Domestic based on standards established with the Norwegian Violence Protection Orders and the Domestic Violence Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies. Disclosure Scheme18 nationally, following successful By 2011, 25 municipalities had adopted such a plan pilots (UK, 2014). Protection orders were found to be (Saur et al., 2011). effective in reducing rates of re-victimization, espe- cially for chronic cases (Kelly et al., 2013). Legislation In the Asia-Pacific region Australia’s National Plan to to make domestic violence a specific offence, and reduce violence against women and their children allow sentences to reflect a pattern of abusive (2010-2022) focuses on domestic and family violence behaviour is also being considered (Doward, 2013). and sexual assault. Measures are centred on primary prevention, services improvement, building the evi- The Finnish Government re-introduced its Action dence base, and prosecution, with special attention to plan to reduce violence against women (2010-2015), the situation of Indigenous women (Australia, 2010). in connection with its Action Plan for Gender Equality The overall plan is being implemented through a series (2008-2011) (Finland, 2008, 2010). The renewed plan of three-year action plans. focuses in particular on changing attitudes and behaviours relating to VAW, methods for identifying Honour violence has also received national attention and intervening with vulnerable groups, and building in Canada, especially following the murder of three capacities among authorities and service provid- female members of a family. The federal government ers, all areas which previous action plans have not has funded a series of prevention and intervention included. In France, the Third inter-ministerial plan strategies, under the Working Together: Engaging to domesticviolence victims, supportmedium-term tion systemto provide short-termimmediate support exchange. Itestablishedacomprehensive informa- for cooperation, capacity building, andknowledge 25 people fromrelevant organizations, responsible The municipal health departmentcreated ateamof and socialstructures supports (EUCPN, 2014). tudes andbehaviour, andstrengthencommunity and developed anintegrated plantochange atti- commitment toprevent domesticviolencein2006 The City of Brno in the Czech Republic, made a public recent examplesarediscussedlater inthischapter. wide have developed such actionplans, andsome therefore, very important. A numberofcitiesworld- support andservicestothoseaffected by violenceis, of women andgirlsoutsidethehome;toprovide of localstrategies toprevent IPV; toensurethesafety neighbours andlocalcommunities. The development (especially infatal cases)arefelt very directly by in thehome–alocalcontextanditsimpacts Intimate partnerviolenceby definitiontakesplace Strategic actionplansincities at thelocallevel ofaction The importance 2013; Auchter &Moore, 2013). responses, and the challenges faced (Auchter &Backes, knowledge about the issues, theeffectiveness of Alaskan Native women hasdramatically advanced violence, and violence against American Indian and the specific issues of domestic violence, teen dating and evaluation on criminal justice responses, and on able contribution. Since1994fundingofresearch by the Institute should be recognized for its valu primary prevention, theevaluation research funded responses toviolenceagainstwomen, rather than een years hasbeenoncriminaljusticeandvictim the National Institute ofJustice over the past eight- In theUS, whilemuch ofthefocus ofthework of (Quebec, 2013). vention offorced marriage, andawareness-raising of theUK, tofocus ontraining, riskevaluation, pre the adoptionofanactionplan, inspiredby theexample 2012). A recentreportonhonourcrimesrecommended women in migrant and minority communities (Quebec, others vulnerable to domestic violence, including and tomeettheneedsofFirst Nations, Inuit, and children, toprovide helpfor perpetrators ofviolence, ensure the safety and protection of victims and their action planondomesticviolence2012-2017, aimsto At the provincial level in Canada, Quebec’s renewed Girls Communities to End Violence Against Women and programme (Status of Women Canada, 2012). 19 - -

Leeds, 2013). plan since2004undertheSaferLeedsStrategy (Safer of Leeds has updated its domestic violence action 2005 regardingforced marriage. IntheUK, theCity youth prevention, with a specific programme since awareness campaigns, trainingofprofessionals, and for victims, supportfor community organizations, VAW. The policy focuses onhousingandsupport directions, andinstitutionalpartnerstofight to coordinate civil societyactors, administrative In Paris, France, localsecuritycontractsareused prevent crimeandviolencehasimpacted levels ofIPV. city’s public policy to promote human security and In themetropolitanregionof Medellin, Colombia, the approaches have alsobeen effective inreducingIPV. More far-reaching neighbourhoodprevention and theirfamilies (Chicago, 2013). and increaseservicesfor domesticviolencevictims response tohigh-riskdomesticviolenceincidents; for policeofficers;amoreproactive law enforcement with threegoals:todevelop state-of-the-art training and theDepartmentofFamily andSupportServices, State’s Attorney’s Office, the Chicago Police Department, nership between theMayor’s Office, theCookCounty address domesticviolence. The taskforce isapart inter-government taskforce inChicago2013to Other examplesintheUSincludecreation ofan Edmonton &theCityof(2011). tion withserviceproviders andbusinesses (REACH as well as a publiceducation campaigninconjunc- Council of Women’s Shelters to engage corporations, programme isbeingdeveloped withthe Alberta violence inthebusiness community. An education to increase awareness of the impacts of domestic Mayor’s Initiative onFamily Violence which aims prevention policy. Oneofitscomponentsisthe Communities. Itforms partofitsoverall localcrime and REACH Edmonton, thecity’s Councilfor Safe launched in2011 by theCityofEdmonton, Canada Similarly, a campaigns. a growing numberofmediapartners in its awareness accordance withemergingpriorities, anditinvolves collaboration systemhasbeen modifiedeach year in of prevention andgeneral publicawareness. The changes inpractices, andlong-termenhancement perpetrators. force development anddeveloping programmesfor activities, citywide and local partnerships; work- the provision ofservicesthroughcommissioning attitudes towards the use of IPV; improvement of vention throughearly intervention, andchanging The latest priorities defined for 2013-2014 are pre- Domestic Violence Services, withauniquehelpline. all community basedservicesinaconsortium, Leeds

20 Violence Reduction Action Plan was In2011, thisplanledtothepoolingof -

161 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 162 The PREVIVA programme (Prevención de conductas access by victims and provide an enhanced response de riesgo para la vida) includes large-scale urban and (Willman and Makisaka, 2010). While there are indi- social transformation in the northeast of the city.21 cations of increased satisfaction regarding victims’ Over a four year period between 2004 and 2008, a 66% experience, it is not always clear whether this type of reduction in rates of violence overall was achieved, approach also increases participation in counselling while rates of physical IPV were reduced by 50% (from or in legal proceedings, as a recent evaluation of two 17.5% to 8.5%) (Cerdá et al., 2012; Duque, 2010; Perez, Swedish projects suggests (Bogestam, 2013). 2011).22 Following this experience, in 2007 committees of “civic coexistence and security” were created in all The establishment of specialized domestic violence the Medellin Metropolitan Area municipalities, with courts in a number of countries continues to increase. support from PREVIVA to adapt or design the projects They bring together investigation and legal proceed- chosen. Some projects target the prevention of IPV in ings, as well as related support services, enabling families of former members of illegal armed groups, domestic violence incidents to be responded to in a others include the prevention of domestic and family holistic way, and by professionals who fully under- violence in the general population. stand the risks and impacts of IPV. The contribution by Carmen Gill at the end of the chapter Specialized The components of national and city level strategies domestic violence courts in Canada reviews the include a variety of prevention, prosecution and victim expansion of such courts in one country, and their support services, and developments in relation to benefits over traditional court processes. prevention approaches are discussed in the following section. In parallel with the growth of specialized courts, interventions with male perpetrators (both volun- tary and court mandated) have been a major topic Preventing IPV of action research and evaluation for many years, but their effectiveness in preventing re-offending has often been questioned (Johnson, 2013; Auchter Criminal justice interventions, holistic & Backes, 2013). There have been extensive trials of approaches and risk assessments “batterer” programmes and other police and justice system interventions to reduce IPV and re-offending, Local level planning on IPV often encompasses multi- especially in the US. It has, however, been argued that agency criminal justice interventions, in particular there is little convincing evidence of the effectiveness to enhance victim support and prevent re-offending of batterer programmes in reducing recidivism, or by abusers. One example is the Domestic Abuse of some other court mandated approaches, in part Intervention Programs (DAIP) – widely known as because of the complexities of evaluating complex “the Duluth Model” from the northern Minnesota city programmes (Heise, 2011; Auchter & Moore, 2013; where it originated. The Duluth Model was one of Auchter & Backes, 2013). It is suggested that interven- the first examples of an integrated approach to VAW tions for the perpetrators of IPV need to be carefully bringing together all the components of prosecution, adapted to individuals and contexts, rather than legal aid, victim support services and treatment assuming that a broad programme will “work” for programmes, creating community-wide interventions everyone (Auchter & Backes, 2013). to reduce domestic violence. Interventions include advocacy and education groups for women, non- There is still a continuing need for such programmes, violence classes for men, supervision of family visits, and evaluation needs to be built in. Recent examples and coordinated community responses (DAIP, 2014). include programmes such as Changing Ways23 and Evaluation of the model showed a significantly lower Pro-gam inc.24 in Canada, Men Ending Domestic Abuse recidivism rate after the project was fully operational, (MEND)25 in Ireland, and Dialogue Against Domestic and this has also been found in other settings which Violence in Denmark, which provide services for men have implemented the model, such as Spartanburg, including one-to-one and group sessions, and for South Carolina (Babcock et al., 2004). their partners or former partners to support them and enhance their safety. Other criminal justice interventions which have received extensive attention over the years include Many police services have developed specific action the use of one-stop crisis centres, domestic violence plans to respond to IPV in partnership with local courts, court-ordered interventions, perpetrator pro- services and organizations. In Canada, for example, grammes, and the use of women only police stations the Fredericton Police Department in New Brunswick in countries such as Brazil, Nicaragua and India. recently created an IPV Coordinator position under Several countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, the department’s Neighbourhood Action Team, to for example, have established one-stop crisis centers improve collaborative work on domestic violence offering a range of integrated services to facilitate cases in the city, and reduce the risks of re-offending.26 and confidentialityina multi-agency response(within issues such asinformation sharing, data protection, p. 48). Italsoprovides guidelinestoaddresscontested in usedifferent countries(Albuquerque etal., 2013, identifies anumberofriskassessmenttoolscurrently professionals toview theprobleminaholisticway, and The on-line resource underlines the multiple conse domestic violence. plays acoordination roleonthecity’s roundtableon and training(SPVM, 2013;ICPC, 2010). The SPVM vulnerable groups, and improving police practices putting emphasis onthepossibilityfor victimstostay in theProvince of Antwerp, Belgium, andinitiatives tion ofpolice, justice, andsocialservices (CO3Project) of such practices includetheclientcentredorganiza agreed limitsandwiththevictim’s consent). Examples The manualprovides anassessmenttooltoenable other words not just the risks of physical abuse alone. poverty, homelessness, suicide, andsocialisolation, in homicide alone(Albuquerque etal., 2013). They include with assessing amuch wider range ofrisksthan risk of quences ofdomesticviolence/IPV, andis concerned European Manual on Risk Assessment (E-MARIA). The EuropeanCommission recently publisheda confiscation insomecases(Shaw, 2013). This includesrestrictionson theuseofgunsortheir ning, supportservices, supervision, andmonitoring. put inplace, includinglegalmeasures, safety plan- injury. They enableariskmanagementprocesstobe cases at highriskoffuturehomicideorserious increasingly by interveners andcourtstoidentify has beenwell established, andthey arebeingused The predictive validity oftheseriskassessmenttools (Campbell, 2005;Campbelletal., 2009;Olive, 2007). about currentrelationships andviolenceexperiences established screeningtoolsusingkey questions The extensive work of Campbell among others has the danger of futureviolence for women in IPV cases. the growing useofrisk assessment toolstoassess One innovative development inrecentyears hasbeen system’s goals. a balancebetween victims’needsandcriminaljustice success identifiedarethe multi-agency principleand community responses (COE, 2012). The elementsof investigations andprosecutions, andcoordinated and support, specialization ofservices, victimless collection/monitoring systems, investigation training attrition indomestic violencecaseshighlightsdata An EUhandbookofbestpolicepracticesonovercoming munity ofpractice” model, on joint interventions, and consolidation of the “com- greater continuityofservicesbetween stakeholders local partners. Prioritiesidentified for 2013-2017are violence since2010, inconsultation witharangeof had specificresponseplans for domesticand family The Montrealpoliceservice(SPVM)inQuebec, has 27 extendingaccesstoall 28 29 - -

Home Leaving Violence Home at home, such asMakingSafeintheUK targeted education and awareness programmes (WHO and participatory approaches, andgeneral in school andneighbourhoodcontexts, empowerment childhood interventions, those targetingyoung people dence ofIPVinthefirstplace. They rangefromearly have beendeveloped toprevent andreducetheinci- the fact –anincreasingly widerangeofprogrammes largely throughdeterrenceandtreatment –andafter criminal justicesystemandvictimservices, which act Apart fromprevention initiatives focused aroundthe and evaluationissues Gendered IPVpreventionprogrammes been systematically implementedorevaluated. Many othersareseen as having potential, but have not and changing socialandculturalgendernorms” (p.1). efforts toreduceaccessandharmfuluseofalcohol; women combined withgender—equality education; effectiveness include “micro-finance programmes for of effectiveness. Those withsomeemergingevidence of ing relationships –meetstheirvery stringentcriteria school-based programmes to prevent violence in dat many show promise, only one strategy – the use of from infancy to adulthood. They conclude that while to reducetheriskfactors for IPVandsexualviolence societal ones), they examineevidence-based studies family and relational factors, tocommunity and wider and girlsat riskofviolence(fromindividual and ecological modelofthecausalfactors placingwomen days” (WHO & LSHTM, 2010, p. 1). Based on the WHO that evaluation–based prevention is “still in its early sexual violenceagainstwomen by WHO, itisargued In ausefulreview ofstrategies toprevent IPV and violence againstwomen andgirls. which work to change cultural attitudes to the use of to generate change, such as through programmes and amuch greater focus onengagingmenandboys ing amongstudentsat collegesanduniversities; prevent IPV among girlsandyoung women, includ- a greater focus on young people, with strategies to promoting employment and awareness of theirrights; women’s own power throughcommunity programmes and culturally influenced attitudes, increasing groups. These includeinitiatives tochange gendered the development of programmes targeted to specific decades isthegreater focus ongenderequality, and & LSHTM, 2010). What haschanged fromearlier Australia. formed for successive generations.” occur, is also where habits and behaviours are the family, wherethevast majorityofviolentacts efforts to reduce violence more broadly – because “…partner violenceisastrategic entrypointfor 31 in New South Wales (NSW), 32 30 andStaying -

163 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 164 In a subsequent review of empirical evidence of “what participation in community decision-making processes works” to prevent IPV, Heise concludes that most of (Willman and Makisaka, 2010). Evidence shows that the evidence comes from high-income countries, and well-trained facilitators, community ownership, and that there is a scarcity of programmes in low- and men’s involvement increase the effectiveness of these middle-income countries, as well as a lack of funding programmes. This helps to counteract the fact that for their evaluation (Heise, 2011). Her review examines some activities to raise women‘s economic power and evaluated interventions only, and does not cover all social status may increase violence by their partners. types of intervention. She similarly uses the WHO This is especially the case in countries with rigid ecological model and selects six main areas of interest gender roles (WHO & LSHTM, 2010; and see Box 6.4 with strong links to IPV: gender-related norms, includ- below). One successful microfinance programme is ing masculinity and female subordination; exposure the Intervention with Microfinance for AIDS and to violence in childhood; male alcohol abuse; women’s Gender Equity (IMAGE) in Limpopo Province, South economic empowerment; and legal and justice sys- Africa, which targets women in poor rural villages. tem interventions, reviewing the evidence for their It combines financial services with training and effectiveness. Again she concludes that programmes skills-building sessions (Sisters for Life) in the wider in many of these areas show some promise, especially community. 35 Another successful intervention is the in high-income countries. Parenting programmes in Stepping Stones36 programme, implemented in Africa particular appear to be especially effective in reducing and Asia, which offers life-skills training with women child aggression and antisocial behaviour, known to and men in separate and mixed-groups, as well as in be precursors to partner violence. community meetings (WHO & LSHTM, 2010).

Community level initiatives, especially those increas- An increasing number of programmes designed for ing connections to school and family, are seen as male peer groups to address attitudes to VAW and entry points to violence prevention, and appear to be engage men in violence prevention now exist. They especially important in reducing risk levels (Willman include Men As Partners in Africa, Asia, Latin America, & Makisaka, 2010). One notable shift in recent years is and the US, Program H in Brazil and India, and initia- the much greater emphasis being put on participatory tives run by the organizations Sonke across Africa processes and community ownership of initiatives. and Sahayog in India.37 All have resulted in promis- ing changes in attitudes, but require more rigorous School-based programmes have long been a major evaluations (WHO & LSHTM, 2010). A multi-country component of prevention strategies to increase project by the Instituto Promundo and partners, with knowledge about VAW and IPV and to change gender a range of activities including educational workshops stereotypes and attitudes (WHO & LSHTM, 2010). with men on gender equity, and training programmes Generally, gender-based and dating violence are on prevention, have shown positive results (Instituto discussed in reproductive health class, incorporated Promundo et al., 2012). with other health risks such as sexually transmitted diseases, or in specific educational sessions, with Public awareness campaigns using television, radio, male and female youth together. Evaluations suggest newspapers, social media, and other print and digital that these interventions can increase knowledge materials have become a major prevention resource about dating violence and improve attitudes towards for changing attitudes towards gender norms (WHO it. They may be effective at reducing levels of actual and LSHTM, 2010; and see Box 6.4). The most success- abuse towards females, although studies have largely ful seem to be those which target a specific audience focused on short-term outcomes. Strong positive and engage with its members to develop content. results have been observed in the long-term e.g. with It is difficult, however, to measure the extent to which the Safe Dates prevention programme in the US and changes in levels of violence directly result from the Youth Relationship Project in Canada, which are such campaigns. One of the first such campaigns is both community-based.33 Since there is some evidence Soul City in South Africa, which produced a series that programmes presented to all-male groups may of radio and television episodes about IPV, date rape, be more effective in changing attitudes than mixed and sexual harassment, accompanied by cartoon male and female groups, a number of initiatives work books and information booklets.38 Similar projects solely with male peers (Brecklin & Forde, 2001). One in other countries such as the Abused Goddesses example is the Men of Strength (MOST) Club34 in the campaign developed in India by the NGO Save Our US, a youth development programme for mobilizing Sisters, portrayed deities with bruises and wounds, young men to prevent sexual and dating violence. to illustrate the contradictions about the treatment of women in India.39 In the UK the government campaign Community interventions are being used to address This is Abuse uses web videos specifically targeting gender norms and attitudes, particularly in devel- teenagers.40 It underlines that they are potential oping countries. They aim to empower women by victims or perpetrators of controlling behaviour and strengthening their economic position and their abuse, and provides information on referral services. concerned withissuesofsexualconsent. services, initiated aDon’t Be That Guy campaign partnership with the city, thepoliceandother local Prevention Ottawa (CPO)which works inclose ual violenceamongyoung people. InCanada, Crime and anumberofprojectstotackle dating andsex- strong pressure toremainsilentaboutit. matization oftheircommunities, wheretheremay be attitudes from mainstream organizations, and stig- victims ofIPVmay fear discriminatory orinsensitive 2009). Further, as with some indigenous populations, systems in their new country of residence (Yoshihama, language, andknowledge ofthelegalandsocial particular challenges concerningtheirlegalstatus, and refugeepopulation groups, but that they face it appears that IPV is not more prevalent in migrant Although available literature onthesubjectislimited, and awareness programmes. has beenputinplaceaswell astargetededucation of countries legislation concerning forced marriage mation andservices. As discussedabove, inanumber significant barriersthey often face inaccessinginfor migrant andindigenouscommunities, given the aim toimprove awareness andinterventions among A growing number ofprogrammesinmany countries Targeting vulnerablepopulations work oftheInternational White Ribbon campaign Other projects targeting men and boys include the encuentro women’s rightsandtoempowerthemopposedomesticabuse.Notably, theorganizationPuntosde Following theSandinistarevolution,civilsocietygroupshavecontinuedtocampaignpromote health programmetoaddressgenderandsexualabuse(WHO&LSHTM,2010). Sources: adaptedfromWHO&LSHTM(2010,Box5,p.56)andSolórzanoetal.(2008). to oversee,amongotherresponsibilities,theavailabilityofshelters,andreformnationalreproductive Box 6.4 a networkofpolicestationsforwomen(ComisariadelaMujer),MinistryFamilyAffairsMiFamilia) Nicaragua haspioneeredanumberofinitiativessince2000toaddressVAW andIPV. Thesehaveincluded of focusingIPVpreventionstrategiesonmentoo,topreventsuchabacklash,andnotjustwomen. domestic conflictbecauseofwomen’s greaterassertiveness.Thesefindingsreinforcetheimportance international law, andthusgreaterwillingnesstoreport,butmayalsohaveresultedfromincreased to greaterawarenessamongwomenthatsuchdomesticviolenceisprohibitedbyNicaraguanand to theComisariadelaMujerincreaseddramatically(WHO&LSHTM,2010).Thishasbeenattributed Between 2003and2004thenumberofactsdomesticsexualviolenceagainstwomenreported programme, andpublishesafeministmagazine(LaBoletina)withlargenationalcirculation. long-term results.Itnowconductsawarenesstours,producesanewtelevisionseriesandyouthradio communities inNicaraguaandotherLatinAmericancountries,topromotesocialchangeachieve the programmes(Solórzanoetal.,2008).Theorganizationusescapacitybuildingandbuildsallianceswith and communityactivities,resultedinpositivechangestowardsgenderequityamongyouthexposedto initiative (We aredifferent,We areequal),whichincludedatelevisionseries,radiotalkshowforyouth, Public campaignstochangeattitudesVA 43 hasusedmasscommunicationtochangeattitudes.TheirSomosDiferentes,Iguales 42

41 - ,

W –TheNicaraguanexperience ing helplocally. hotline andhandy cardswithinformation onfind- range ofcommunication tools, advertises a24-hour ethnic minoritycommunity networks. Itoffers awide Silence” representsasuccessfulexampleof involving approach. Denmark’s national campaign “Break the in recentyears andareabletotakeamoredirect and culturalcommunities have beendeveloped A numberofprogrammesadaptedtospecificsocial cultural communities about gender-based violence, with leaders limited toraisingcommunity awareness andengaging themselves asengagedinIPVintervention, andare these organizations may avoid openly identifying a prevention purpose(Runneretal., 2009). However, to reportabuse. This canalsoempower themandserve environments wherewomen feel comfortable enough employment assistance, social activities etc.) tocreate an array of services (e.g. language classes, education, racist assumptions. A number of organizations provide without creating anegative reactionorreinforcing term prevention andcommunity-change strategies, victims andgaintheirtrust, aswell astopromotelong- The challenge is, therefore, toreach potentialoractual Services in Quebec, Canadian organization, theShieldof Athena Family collaboration withgovernment agencies. violence prevention andintervention servicesin the work to set up the Family Safety Programme in Ontariohasbuilt onresearch andpartnership Centre for SocialSupportandIntegration (MRCSSI) Family HonourProject, which provide family . 44 InCanada, theMuslimResource 46 developed a strategy to inform 45 Another and

165 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 166 including honour crimes, and provide training to IPV needs to be addressed on multiple levels to liaison workers. A similar resource, the Immigrant change legal and sociocultural norms. It needs a Women’s Domestic Violence Service (IWDVS) in gender-sensitive approach to influence attitudes and Victoria, Australia, provides services across the state behaviours, and to reinforce protection and assistance and puts an emphasis on building networks among for victims. A number of promising initiatives have immigrant and refugee women, and within their local been discussed in this chapter, and they are indicative communities and services.47 of the progress which has been made in recent years, but IPV persists in many countries at high levels, and Following the same principles, the Aboriginal Family there still exist wide regional variations revealing Violence Prevention and Legal Service Victoria (FVPLS critical situations in some settings. Furthermore, Victoria), also active in this Australian State, provides war and post-conflict situations, as well as issues holistic assistance to victims of those communities, of development, also affect the risks of IPV against as well as community education and awareness women, and need far more attention. programmes.48 In the US, the Native Health Domestic Violence Project was launched by the National Health The evaluation of different types of prevention Resource Center on Domestic Violence in 2002, in approaches targeting the risk factors for intimate partnership with more than 100 Indian, Tribal and partner violence is still relatively scarce, and few Urban health care facilities to improve responses, approaches have demonstrated strong positive in particular for primary prevention and early identi- reductions in IPV over time and in different contexts. fication (Futures Without Violence, 2014). Nevertheless, a variety of initiatives to promote gender equality and prevent violence are seen as Additionally, the accessibility of culturally appropri- promising. These include laws concerning women’s ate services for migrant and indigenous men has social and economic rights (such as in marriage, been raised in a number of settings. It appears to be divorce, property ownership, inheritance, and child an essential element in addressing their experience custody and support), neighbourhood interventions of changing gender dynamics, as well as their social (including improvements to urban environments and and economic conditions, and that of their commun- social relationships, and access to services), parenting ities (Flood, 2013). One example is the Non-Violence interventions to foster healthy child development, Awareness Campaign For Aboriginal Men launched by school-based programmes to reduce dating violence, Quebec Native Women Inc., including a resource guide and gun control policies. Multi-sector criminal justice (Aboriginal Approach to Family Violence) which takes interventions including the development of special- into account the historical and current contexts of ized police and courts systems and civil procedures their lives and draws on indigenous cultures to develop have achieved mixed results in terms of reducing programmes which include both the family and the re-offending. Risk assessments tools to reduce future community in a comprehensive healing process.49 violence appear to be increasingly used. Beyond rais- ing public awareness about the prevalence of IPV and its impacts and costs to society, assisting and Conclusion empowering women and girls, targeting youths, and engaging men and boys in their communities are all IPV is a pervasive phenomenon which persists recognized as essential components of prevention despite declining rates of violence globally. While strategies. efforts by international organizations to prevent it have intensified in recent years, it requires political Development, globalization, and migration are major commitment and comprehensive action by countries. issues which often affect the status of women and It also requires local authorities to recognize their girls and men and boys in quite different ways. The crucial role by working in partnership with local interactions between host cities and communities services and community-based organizations, and of origin, and the particular risks for migrant and to develop strategies which combine programmes to indigenous communities are now receiving greater prevent both IPV and violence against women by non- attention, and need to be carefully assessed in col- intimates. Both are deeply rooted in attitudes and laboration with those communities, to help tailor cultures which legitimize such treatment of women prevention programmes and services appropriately. and girls, and require local governments to work to Finally, improvements in data collection and monitor- increase the safety of women and girls in all contexts. ing and evaluation on IPV are crucial for assessing the impacts of policies and programmes, and adapting In prevention terms, the strong emphasis on criminal to new challenges and changing contexts. justice approaches to prevent IPV, through deterrence and recidivism reduction, is now balanced by greater numbers of prevention programmes targeting risk factors and vulnerable populations. thereof) inurbanpublicspaces andtransitsystems. understanding women’s experiences of safety (orlack trend, it is more critical than ever that we invest in and withthecurrent ‘feminization ofurbanization’ spaces. With morepeopleliving incitiesthannot, it ismuch morepresentinprivate thaninpublic shaken one of the long-held beliefs about VAWG, that girls’ experiences of street harassment in cities have Rights, 2014). Recent studies about women’s and the police” (EuropeanUnion Agency for Fundamental their mostseriousincidentofnon-partnerviolenceto ate partnerviolencetothepolice, and13%reported women reported their most serious incident of intim- remains chronically underreported, with “only 14%of and employment. benefit fromurbanopportunitiesincludingeducation mobility, restrictingtheirmovements andabilityto public transport. Lack of asense ofsafety affects their home, theschool, theworkplace, streets, parks, and different spaces women and girls use, including the violence orthethreat ofsuch violencepermeates the 2010).within andoutsidethehome“(UNDESA, This “physical, sexual, psychological andeconomic–both world, andmanifests itselfindifferent ways, including ent, affecting theminevery community andcityinthe Violence against women and girls (VAWG) is omnipres scope andbreadthofeach. VAWG, initsmany forms, However, much work remainstofully understandthe violence againstwomen andgirlsinpublicspaces. years that the same attention has been paid to partner violenceinsidethehome. Itisonly inrecent done toaddress, prevent andrespondtointimate Over the past decades, there has been much work leisure, etc.).” education, politicalparticipation, resourcesand cultural and political life (access to employment, and women inallthespheresofsocial, economic, same timepromotingequalopportunitiesfor men elimination of gender-based violence, while at the all spheres. A safe cityisonethat promotesthe and civil society guarantee women’s rights in “A safe city is one inwhich both the government Kathryn Travers in publicspaces W omen’s safety 51

50

- obstacle toachieving genderequality. Itlimitstheir girls face isa violation oftheirhumanrightsandan The violenceand threat ofviolencethat women and tributes totheirlack ofsafety (WICI, 2010a). number one personal-identity related factor that con and DaresSalaam, Tanzania identifiedgenderasthe Rosario, Argentina; Petrozavodsk, Russia;Delhi, India; Programme (2009-2012)revealed that women in Street surveys aspart oftheGenderInclusive Cities women’s (un)safetyinpublicspaces of The prevalenceandpertinence Contribution cities and countries are still notcollectingsex- of men (Crabtree et al., 2012). Unfortunately, many alone at nightintheirneighbourhoodversus 66% gender gaps–only 32%ofwomen feel safe walking since it is a country with one of the greatest safety hoods at night. However, thisiscompletely misleading not disaggregated, we mightconclude that 49%of average an8%gap(seeFigure 1). Ifthisdata were average a23% gap, thaninlow-income countriesthat is moreprevalent inhigh-incomecountriesthat differently. Further, thefindingshighlightthat this same placesat thesametimesexperiencesafety gender gap”, meaning that men and women in the Results froma2011GallupPoll point toa “safety Women (CEDAW). Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against rights, as established by the 1979 Convention on the environment. This is a direct violation of women’s for their personal safety as they negotiate the urban daily tasks and opportunities are shaped by concern gain economicindependenceisthreatened. Women’s transportation, herability toaccessemployment and example, ifawoman doesnotfeel safe usingpublic ity toasserttheirrightsthecity(Moser, 2012). For and freely ascitizensthereby denying themtheabil- freedom ofmovement andcapacitytoparticipate fully girls learnto expect thesebehaviours onbuses and against young women andgirlsissopervasive that The normalization ofsexualharassmentandviolence differentiated data. Algerians feel safe walking aloneintheir neighbour - - ­

167 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 168 sexual harassment had the second-highest rate Figure 1 In the city or area where you live, experienced by women with 95.5% of women report- do you feel safe walking alone at night, or not? ing cases” (Basil El-Dabh, 2013). On May 8, 2014, the Percentage ”yes, feel safe” among women and men UK-based Everyday Sexism project encouraged people in each country to share their experiences of unwanted touching on Twitter using the hashtag #Grabbed. According to the Women Men Gap International Business Times, the hashtag had been New Zealand 50% 85% -35 used more than 6,000 times, and was the top trending 52 Algeria 32% 66% -34 topic in the UK by that evening. Both of these examples demonstrate that the street harassment which women Malta 48% 82% -34 and girls face is often physical. Cyprus 57% 85% -28 Italy 40% 68% -28 Public transit consistently emerges as a key place Albania 54% 81% -27 where women and girls experience harassment, intimidation and fear (WICI, 2010a). In a recent study France 51% 78% -27 of over 1,000 adolescent girls in Cairo, Delhi, Hanoi, Australia 51% 78% -27 Lima and Kampala, it was found that across all United States 62% 89% -27 cities, girls reported feeling uncomfortable, Finland 66% 92% -26 unsafe and disrespected when travelling on buses.

Sweden 65% 91% -26 For many girls, bystander apathy was a key factor affecting their insecurity. In fact, only 2.2% of girls Ireland 58% 83% -25 from Lima reported “always feeling safe” when using Portugal 51% 76% -25 public transportation (Plan International et al., 2013). Yemen 56% 80% -24 Sexual harassment in public transit is so rampant Belgium 52% 76% -24 that the American cities of Boston, Washington and Philadelphia launched anti-harassment campaigns Malaysia 34% 58% -24 in their transit systems to address the issue, and Japan 57% 81% -24 encourage people to report and support in the event Estonia 46% 69% -23 of harassment. More recently, the British Transport Czech Republic 48% 71% -23 Police launched “Project Guardian” which aims to

Slovakia 48% 70% -22 “reduce sexual assault and unwanted sexual behav- iour on public transport in London.”53 Netherlands 69% 91% -22

Latvia 39% 60% -21 Moldova 40% 61% -21 What is being done to increase Germany 67% 88% -21 women’s safety in public spaces United Kingdom 62% 82% -20 In spite of these daunting and depressing figures, Taiwan 54% 74% -20 increasing numbers of creative and innovative efforts Poland 50% 70% -20 are underway in cities around the world to challenge the culture and systems that allow VAWG to flourish Source: Crabtree et al. (2012) in urban environments. Building on much of the work that began in Canadian cities in the late 1980s and when walking in the street, accepting them as daily 90s, initiatives led by UN-HABITAT’s Safer Cities fixtures in urban life (Hlavka, 2014). In Kampala, 80% Programme, Women in Cities International and the of adolescent girls said that they did not feel safe in Women and Habitat Network of Latin America, began the public spaces of their city (Plan International et exploring questions around urban safety from a al., 2013). gender perspective in cities around the world. They worked to adapt and develop new tools and method- Investment in understanding the prevalence of street ologies to actively engage local women in diagnosing harassment is relatively recent and much work the security issues they face in their communities, remains to be done. Early findings do point to the and proposing recommendations for improving their shocking frequency with which this occurs. For perceived and real safety in their cities. These projects example, a 2013 UN Women study revealed that 99.3% recognized the key role of municipal governments and of Egyptian women have experienced some form of worked to engage the women in the process. A tipping sexual harassment. The study found that “96.5% of point was recently reached when different UN agen- women in their survey said that sexual harassment cies (UN Women, UNICEF) and large international came in the form of touching, which was the most NGOs (ActionAid, 2013) launched their own safe common manifestation of sexual harassment. Verbal cities for women and girls programming, building developed inDelhi, essentially digitizedthewomen’s of thepiecesdenouncesexualharassmentand and have generated huge amounts of data about anonymously. These have becomevirtual ‘safe spaces’ blog, allow userstoreportandsharetheirstories Sexism Project, andtheHarassmenton Translink back, StopStreetHarassment, HarrassMap, Everyday (apps). Mobileappsandwebsites, such asiHolla- through the development of mobile applications of sexual harassment and assault has been harnessed Internet andmobiletechnology toreportincidences accessibility ofsmartphones, the power ofthe With theincreasingavailability, affordability and Technology andcrowdsourcing series torepresentwomen indifferent cities. The artist is planning to expand and scale up the Don’t callmebaby; Myoutfitisnotaninvitation). with “captions that speakdirectly tooffenders” (e.g. of drawn portraitsofwomen placedinpublicspaces Telling Women toSmile” artseries. Itfeatures aseries is Brooklyn-based artist Tatyana Fazlalizadeh’s “Stop assault Egyptian women experience. Another example street arttofocus on women’s empowerment. was bornwith localwomen artists usinggraffitiand particularly inCairo. The Women on Walls project ledgement totheharassmentwomen face inEgypt, Arab Spring was that the media gave global acknow - issues. For example, anunexpectedoutcomeofthe organized, campaigns are introduced to address is oftendoneusingart, andwhengroupsaremore of VAWG in public spaces. This awareness-raising ers toinvest inpreventing andreducingincidents first stepstobeingablemobilizekey stakehold- Naming and recognizing the problem is one of the andawarenesscampaigns Art spaces ontheagenda. issue ofwomen’s andgirls’safety inurbanpublic traction andmediaattention, andhelpingtoputthe championed many new initiatives that aregaining leaders in cities around the world have recently to work on theseissues, young women andgrassroots While thebiggergroups, mentioned above, continue and girls”. to asa “global movement for safer citiesfor women Women’s Safety in Delhi, 2010, this was being referred By thetimeof Third International Conference on on the knowledge and success of the previous work. app for women’s safety is “Safetipin”. spots’ throughoutthecity. Another importantmobile important information for targetedprevention in ‘hot Much ofthisdata isgeo-tagged, which provides unreported incidentsof VAWG inurban publicspaces. 56 This app, This 54 Many 55

women’s rightstolive incitiesfreeof VAWG. They are is leadingaregionalprogrammeaimedat promoting municipal government subsequently formalized the and placedthemthroughouttheircommunity. The women therefore painted names on pieces of wood safer if their streets had names (WICI, 2010b). The es Salaam, Tanzania determinedthat they would feel For example, women inaninformal settlement in Dar be short-termandinexpensive, andhave animpact. tions ofagroupelderly women), solutionscanalso Canada was redesignedfollowing therecommenda- be long-termandexpensive (e.g. aparkinGatineau, responses to the problematic issues documented can surveillance, andmaintenance. While subsequent ing onsuch issuesaslighting, informal andformal around principlesofdesignfor women’s safety, focus- hinder awoman’s senseofsafety. These arebased menting thefactors inthe built environment that The women’s safety auditslargely focus ondocu- Urban planningforwomen’s safety safety auditshave beencompletedusingtheapp. it was launched inNovember 2013, morethan6,000 tagged andisshown onamap-basedplatform. Since their cityusingphones. The information isgeo- safety audittool, allowing userstodosafety auditsof girls’ needs, ensuringthat thephysical infrastructure sibility tounderstand andrespondtowomen’s and As ourcitiescontinuetoexpand, we have arespon- Conclusion andfuture orientations women’s safety inthecity. this willtransform policepracticestobetterpromote about how tohandlecasesof VAWG. The hopeisthat ing topoliceinstitutionsaboutgenderequality, and organizations and the police, and are providing train working tostrengthencollaboration between women’s the training. responding. Almost 4,000drivers have participated in sexual harassment, andbrainstorm different ways of and usingrole-plays, bus drivers learntorecognized stereotypes and assumptions. Located on city buses gender discrimination, seeking tobreakdown gender ing sexualharassmentinthebroadercontextof of female passengers. The trainingfocuses onground NGO Jagori hastrainedbus drivers aboutthesafety urban public services. For example, the Delhi-based focuses on providing training to people delivering women’s andgirls’safety andinclusionincities, A finalcategory of work beingundertakentoimprove Improving urbanservices names given tothestreetsby thewomen (WICI, 2012). 57 InLatin America, RedMujeryHabitat 58

- - 169 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 170 and built environment is gender inclusive. Urban policies and programmes that create space for women’s meaningful participation in shaping urban develop- ment and governance must be introduced. We have only just begun to understand the expansive scope of the sexual harassment women and girls face as they navigate the urban environment. Greater resources must be put into understanding not only the scope of the problem, but the actual impact of proposed solutions. UN Women’s Global Programme Safe Cities Free of Violence against Women and Girls aims to begin to fill this gap through a comprehensive impact evaluation (UN Women, 2013). Further investment is also required to understand how issues of gender exclusion and VAWG interact with other urban issues such as basic services. While WICI and Jagori, and ActionAid have done some work in this area, much more needs to be done. As with any successful urban prevention initiative, multi-level, multi-sectorial and multi-stakeholder engagement is essential for success. As more and more safe cities for women and girls initiatives are developed and introduced around the world, it is essential that they continue to build on the lessons and experience of what has been accom- plished so far.

“Making cities and communities safe for women and girls can expand their full social, economic, cultural and political participation as equal cit- izens. Cities and communities that are safe and free from violence against women help to create equal opportunities for men and women. When they are safe and comfortable, public spaces in cities and communities offer countless possibilities for the participation of women and girls in the areas of work, education, politics, and recreation. The cre- ation of safe cities and communities for women and girls depends on the elimination of the violence and insecurity that prevent women and girls from using public spaces freely as citizens with equal human rights to opportunity and safety.”59 harassment (GenderEqualityDirective (recast) funding programme)aswell aslegislation onsexual to research initiatives (e.g. through the DAPHNE phenomenon. These includetheprovision offunding ures andlaws which focus onvarious aspectsofthe there have beenanumberofEU-level policy meas- comprehensively address violence against women, preventing andcombattingviolenceagainstwomen the Councilof Europe adopted the Convention on Alongside thesedevelopments withintheEU, in2011 the Europeanprotectionorder process that took over two years, consulting a variety FRA tookgreat careindeveloping thesurvey ina repeated, andtheavailable data isnotuptodate. many violenceagainstwomen surveys have notbeen allowed these surveys toberepeated –asaresult victimization data collection, which would have been integrated as a part of the national system of few countrieshave violenceagainstwomen surveys In contrasttocrimevictimization surveys, inonly a formulation, targetpopulation andresearch methods. of violenceduetolack ofharmonisation inquestion an overview of theextentandnature ofvarious forms Member States, and it has not been possible to have – however, thesesurveys have notbeendoneinall seen national surveys onviolenceagainstwomen In thelast20years many EUMemberStates have Council oftheEuropeanUnion. that was later echoed by theEUMemberStates inthe data onviolenceagainstwomen intheEU–arequest to collect, for thefirsttime, comparableandreliable Agency for FundamentalRightsinNovember 2009 the EuropeanParliament askedtheEuropeanUnion nature andconsequencesofsuch acts. As aresult, experience ofviolenceanddetailsontheextent, have faced a lack ofcomparabledata onwomen’s Europe. Despitethesedevelopments, policy makers is the first legally binding instrument in this area in and domesticviolence(Istanbul Convention) legislation for its28MemberStates While the European Union (EU) doesnothave of stakeholders andagroupofsurvey expertsto matters mutual recognitionofprotectionmeasuresincivil victims ofcrimeintheEU(EU Victims’ Directive for FundamentalRights The European Union Agency survey Results ofa28-country in theEuropeanUnion– Violence againstwomen 64 , andadirective concerningtherightsof 63 andaregulation on 60 61 that would 66 , which 62 65 ), ), ). ).

Contribution to thepolice in 14%ofcasesandthemost serious reported the most serious incident of partner violence serious incidentofviolence. Specifically, victims or victimsupportorganization – following the most tion or service – such as a health care service provider contacted either the police orsomeother organiza- one quarterofvictimsnon-partner violence(26%) One thirdofvictimspartnerviolence(33%)and non-partners. age of15, includingincidentsby partnersaswell as experienced physical and/orsexualviolencesincethe over theirlifetime, asoneinthreewomen (33%)has have beenvictimsofphysical and/orsexualviolence 12 months prior to the survey. Many more women have experiencedsexualviolenceinthe courseof interviews, and some 3.7 million women in the EU violence inthecourseof12monthsbefore thesurvey 13 The results ofthesurvey show that anestimated Extent oftheproblem survey questionnaire. in March 2014, togetherwithatechnical reportandthe awareness. FRApublishedthedetailedsurvey results 15) and questions on fear of victimization and rights stalking), victimization in childhood (before the ageof sexual cyberharassment), stalking (including cyber women’s experiencesofsexualharassment(including psychological violence, thesurvey askedquestionson national surveys. Inadditiontophysical, sexualand against women, insomerespectsgoingbeyond existing The survey addressedanumber offorms ofviolence place inaconfidentialandsensitive manner. for the topic and to ensure that the interviews take their extensive interview experience, topreparethem a two-day training programme, building ontopof interviewers taskedtocollectthisdata underwent total of42,000face-to-face interviews intheEU. The dom sampleofwomen (ages18-74)–summinguptoa States thesurvey interviewed arepresentative, ran- evidence-based advice. Ineach ofthe28EUMember needs of policy makers for reliable and comparable ensure that the survey is able to respond to the million women in the EU have experienced physical 67 -

171 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 172 incident of non-partner violence in 13% of cases. For On average, 33% of women have experienced physical about a quarter of victims, feeling ashamed or embar- or sexual violence by an adult in childhood – that rassed about what had happened was the reason for is, before they were 15 years of age. Some 12% of not reporting the most serious incident of sexual women indicate that they experienced some form violence by a partner or a non-partner to the police of sexual violence by an adult before the age of 15, or any other organization. When asked which type of which corresponds to about 21 million women in the help would have been useful, women indicate that, as EU. Perpetrators of physical violence in childhood a result of the most serious incident of violence, first mainly came from within the family. More than half and foremost they wanted to have someone to talk of the women who experienced some form of physical to and support them (33% – 54% depending on the type violence before the age of 15 identify their father as a of violence and perpetrator), followed by protection perpetrator (55%), and almost half of women name the (12% – 25%) and other practical help (13% – 21%). mother as a perpetrator (46%) (in the survey women, based on their experiences, could indicate one or more In the EU-28, 18% of women have experienced perpetrators). Almost all (97%) perpetrators of sexual stalking since the age of 15, and 5% of women have violence against girls are men. Every second woman experienced it in the 12 months before the survey who was a victim of sexual violence in childhood interview. This corresponds to about 9 million women states that the perpetrator was a man she did not in the EU-28 experiencing stalking within a period know before. of 12 months. The most common forms of stalking involve repeated, offensive and threatening com- munications – for example, some 14% of women have From survey results to action received offensive or threatening messages or phone calls repeatedly from the same person, while 8% Based on the mandate of FRA, the Agency includes have been followed around or experienced somebody in its reports opinions to advise EU institutions and loitering outside their home or workplace. Member States on possible courses for action in view of the evidence collected and presented in the One in ten women (9%) has been stalked by her previ- Agency’s expert capacity. ous partner. Out of all women victims of stalking, one in five (21%) has experienced stalking that lasted more EU Member States are encouraged to use the results than two years. Cyberstalking – stalking by means of from the survey in the process of signing and ratifying email, text messages or the internet – concerns young the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and women in particular. Of all 18- to 29-year-old women, combatting violence against women and domestic 4% have experienced cyberstalking in the 12 months violence, which is the first legally binding instrument before the survey interview, compared with 0.3% of its kind in Europe. The survey results document of women who are 60 years old or older. the particular needs of, and challenges in providing services for, women victims of sexual violence, and All in all, 55% of women in the EU-28 have experienced therefore the EU Member States should pay attention one or more forms of sexual harassment since the age to meeting these needs when implementing the EU of 15, and one in five women (21%) have experienced it Victims’ Directive. The Directive recognises the height- in the 12 months before the survey interview. Among ened needs of various groups of vulnerable victims, women who have experienced sexual harassment at including victims of gender-based violence, in addition least once since the age of 15, 32% indicated somebody to setting a number of other goals concerning crime from the employment context – such as a colleague, victims’ access to support services and preventing a boss or a customer – as a perpetrator. ‘secondary victimization’ during the criminal justice proceedings. The risk of young women aged between 18 and 29 years becoming a target of threatening and offensive advan- Taking into consideration the scale of the problem ces on the internet is twice as high as the risk for – with physical and sexual violence affecting one women aged between 40 and 49 years, and more than woman in three since the age of 15 in the EU – policy three times as high as the risk for women aged between actions which follow the EU’s Stockholm Programme68 50 and 59 years. Sexual harassment is more commonly should ensure that violence against women is experienced by women with a university degree and addressed as an abuse of fundamental rights. by women in the highest occupational groups: 75% of Involvement of the private sector would be essential women in the top management category and 74% in many ways, from addressing violence and sexual of those in the professional occupational category harassment in the work place to having social media have experienced sexual harassment in their lifetime. platforms and other online service providers taking a more proactive role in helping victims report the abuse taking place through these services. in recordedincidents. and it is possible to examine the volume of and trends that violenceagainstwomen does not stay hidden, they publish thisdata in asex-disaggregated way, so they collectdata onviolenceagainstwomen andthat tem andotherserviceproviders shouldensurethat by involving meninthisprocess. Criminaljusticesys- women tospeak openly abouttheirexperiences, and of violenceareprosecuted, but alsoby encouraging than a private one – in terms of the way incidents and itshouldbedealtwithasapublicmatter rather violence againstwomen isaddressed anddiscussed, Further attention needsto bedevoted totheway communication technology sectors, tonamejustfew. the education, healthaswell asinformation and against women need to include measures that address multi-agency cooperation. Actions tocombat violence day andeverywhere, andthiscallsoutfor effective the resultsindicated that violencetakesplaceevery have expiredwithoutbeingrenewed andrefocused, action planstocombat violenceagainstwomen plan fatigue” insomeEUMemberStates, where While it may be possible to detect a form of “action

173 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 174 Domestic violence specialized courts Contribution in Canada

Carmen Gill69

Over the past thirty years, the criminal justice system programmes, services for victims, and treatment in Canada has assumed a pro-active and interven- agencies for offenders) that support and work with tionist role in response to domestic violence, such as courts (Busby, Koshan & Wiegers, 2008). Compared developing new law enforcement policies and legisla- to traditional processes, specialized processes have tion (Federal-Provincial-Territorial Ad Hoc Working a more holistic approach that can help respond to Group on Family Violence, 2013; Gill & Thériault, domestic violence situations (Elley, 2005). They bring 2010; Johnson & Dawson, 2011; Ursel et al., 2008b). together trained professionals who understand One major innovation in criminal justice responses the issues, monitor sentencing conditions, support has been the creation of specialized courts dedicated positive outcomes for victims, establish a respon- to domestic violence cases. Specialized courts have sive system that encourages and supports offender also been established in countries such as Australia accountability, and promote a coordinated approach (Stewart, 2011), New Zealand (Knaggs et al., 2008), across police units, prosecutors, victim services, and the UK (Cook et al., 2004) and several states in the US probation officers (Dawson & Dinovitzer, 2001; Gill (Labriola et al., 2008) as an alternative to traditional & Tutty, 2005; Ursel, 2002). The goal is to reduce the adjudicative approaches that were not responding number of domestic violence cases by working with adequately to the complexity of the issue. key community partners to ensure timely access to support services for victims and intervention Domestic violence cases are clearly recognizable and programmes for offenders. identifiable in specialized courts. Research has shown the difficulty of identifying such offences in non- In general, specialized courts have been shown to specialized courts, since they are often not recorded increase court-mandated specialized treatment for as domestic violence (Gill & Ruff, 2010). For example, first-time offenders, and have resulted in higher domestic violence crimes can encompass various incarceration rates for repeat offenders (Moyer and forms of violent crime such as assault, criminal Associates, 2000). Re-offending has also been shown harassment, firearms use etc.; property crimes such to decrease under specialized court systems (Hoffart as breaking and entering, theft, stealing; and other & Clark, 2004). Indeed, specialization shows a more Criminal Code offences such as administration of expedient court process for domestic violence cases justice violations, disturbance of the peace, counter- when compared to non-specialized processes (Gill & feiting, etc. Under specialized courts, every possible Ruff, 2010). A timely and appropriate court process offence related to domestic violence is processed as is seen to increase the safety of the victim, and to a domestic violence crime. decrease the likelihood of victim statement recants. By providing a coordinated response and a prosecu- Specialized courts were developed to address challen- tion team that is attentive to the unique reality of ges faced through traditional procedures in domestic domestic violence, some specialized courts have in violence situations. Concerns about traditional justice effect redefined the measures of success in a justice include the re-victimization of the victim during the response to domestic violence cases, and have been judicial process; frequent occurrence of victim state- more successful than the conventional system in ment recants and victims declining to testify; lack of meeting the diverse needs of victims (Ursel, 2002). protection and counselling for victims and witnesses Shorter wait time for court process, support for the before, during, and after sentencing; and long delays victim, assessment of risk of re-offending of the in court proceedings, etc. accused and safety of the victim, available interven- tion programmes, court or probation monitoring, and The term specialized court is used for a broad range court-mandated treatment of offenders, are among of specialized processes including investigation, the factors that improve victim safety and offender charging, prosecution, and the court process itself. accountability under specialized courts. It encompasses various related services (community More recently, Nova ScotiaimplementedaDomestic judges, courtandcorrections(Urseletal., 2008a). including police, victimservices, crown prosecutors, in 1990. The entirecourtprocessisspecialized, Canada was establishedin Winnipeg, Manitoba, The firstDomestic Violence SpecializedCourtin Violence, 2013). offenders (FPT Ad Hoc Working GrouponFamily court models, andvigorousprosecutionfor high-risk three models:early intervention models, therapeutic courts andthey generally pursue oneofthefollowing universal model for domestic violence specialized to victims(Weber, 2000, andseeBox1). There isno others have specialized staff that provide support some handleanarray offamily violenceissues;yet effective processingofdomesticviolencematters; others have changed courtprocessestoensuremore courts that handleonly domesticviolencecases; and territories(Jackson etal., 2013): ized processesareinplacethefollowing provinces today, domesticviolencespecializedcourtsorspecial Behchoko inthe Northwest Territories in2013. As of Violence Treatment OptionCourtwas establishedin Violence CourtProgramPilotin2012, whileaDomestic federal CriminalCode. Somejurisdictionshave created territorial jurisdictionsinCanada, but appliesthe violence specialized courts falls under provincial and The development andimplementation ofdomestic Yukon Northwest Territories Nunavut Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Box 1 Specialized courts and court processesinCanada andcourt Specialized courts (not specialized inDVbutacceptscases). Domestic Violence Treatment OptionCourt andCommunityWellness Court in BehchokoeffectiveApril2013. Domestic Violence Treatment OptionCourt inYellowknife effectiveMarch2011and Rankin Inlet:Court-basedabusive partnerprogramme. Domestic Violence CourtProgramme Pilot(inactionsinceJune2012). Provincial CourtDomesticViolence (MonctonJurisdiction). a serviceforpsycho-socialevaluations,information,support andreferrals. Montreal hasaspecificcourtroomdedicatedtodomestic violence casesandoffers Ontario offersaDomesticViolence CourtProgramme. a dozencommunitiesoutsideofWinnipeg,includingNorthern Manitoba. out ofWinnipegbyspecializedcrownsandvictimservice workers aswellhalf Specialized crownsandvictimserviceworkersinWinnipeg, 4circuitcourtshandled the ProvincialandSuperiorCourtLevels.Componentsofspecialization include: Manitoba maintainsaFamilyViolence CourtinWinnipegfrombailtotrialsatboth Battlefords, andafullservicecourtinSaskatoonthatincludestreatmentoption. Saskatchewan offersaDomesticViolence Treatment OptionCourtinReginaandthe Grande Prairie,FortMcMurray, Airdrie(circuitcourt),andMedicineHat. Alberta hostsdomesticviolencecourtsinCalgary, Edmonton,Lethbridge,RedDeer, violence courtprocessesintheprovincebeingledbyjudiciary. Island inDuncanandNanaimo.Thereareseveraladditionalspecializeddomestic British ColumbiahostsatleasttwoadhocdomesticviolencecourtsonVancouver -

researchers to look closely at information gathered complexity of the issue. In the first year of the estab to domesticviolencecasesitispossiblecapturethe domestic violencesituations. With acourtdedicated crimes. The numberofdomesticviolencecases significant in 2007, theprovince ofNew Brunswick witnessed a lishment ofthedomesticviolencecourtinMoncton because offences arenotexplicitly connectedto it isvery Thériault, and non-specialized(Fredericton) courts(Gill& about domesticviolencecasesinspecialized(Moncton) A have beenconductedinCanada(Gill&Ruff, 2010). cases underspecialization andnon-specialization very few comparative studiesofdomesticviolence (Hoffart &Clark, 2004;Urseletal., 2008b). Further, have beenpublishedorareaccessibletothepublic Canada, very few have been evaluated, and few reports different domestic violence specialized court models in As mentionedabove, whilethereareanumberof as well to other jurisdictions across the country This is not unique to New Brunswick and applies recording ofcasesduetoachange inthecourtprocess. regions in appeared toincreaseinMonctoncomparedother specialized courtsareinvolved indomesticviolence, comparative study conductedinNew Brunswick led 70 2010). The results clearly demonstrate that hard toidentifywhich accusedinnon- the province, reflecting a more accurate impact onrecordeddomesticviolence -

175 Chapter 6 Intimate partner violence against women 176 (Ursel et al., 2008a). Further, a comparison of special- ized and non-specialized courts shows that length of incarceration and probation conditions were longer Endnotes and more specific under specialization, compared to regular court processes. Probation conditions of no contact with the victim, abstaining from alcohol consumption, and no firearms were more common in specialized than non-specialized courts. Thus it is essential to identify domestic violence cases early in the court process in order to understand how they relate to offending patterns, and can be dealt with in the criminal justice system.

1 See Box 6.1 for definitions of VAW and IPV and an explanation Specialized courts are among promising practices of related terms. that provide better court processing time and more 2 Holly Johnson (2013) provides a valuable review of the appropriate sentencing for domestic violence related development of surveys on VAW over the past 30 years, and offences. In this sense, continued reviews of court this section draws extensively on her analysis. cases are needed, and can help to provide a better 3 Household surveys of large nationally representative samples understanding of the role domestic violence special- carried out primarily in low- and middle-income countries. ized courts play in responding to and preventing 4 The countries were Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, future violence. Sri Lanka and Papua New Guinea. 5 The term domestic violence rather than IPV is used when it is the term used in the source cited. 6 For a review of the impact of neighbourhood environments on IPV see Beyer et al. (2013). 7 Stöckl et al. (2013, p. 859). 8 Women are much more likely to be killed by partners than by other family members. 9 Murder–suicides are generally defined as violent events in which the perpetrator kills one or more people and subsequently commits suicide within a short period of time (Shaw, 2013, p. 26). 10 Teen dating violence prevention forms part of the US National Institute of Justice programme on VAW (Auchter & Moore, 2013). 11 This was the main topic of the meetings of the UN Commission on the Status of Women in 2013. 12 http://saynotoviolence.org/ 13 It has been ratified by 32 of the 35 member states. While many countries initially enacted legislation to make domestic violence a crime, a review of progress up to 2008 found a lack of enforcement, resources and training, with many programmes being provided by non-government organizations rather than being supported by governments (OAS-ICM, 2008). 14 At least 10 countries are required to ratify the treaty for it to come into force. Denmark became the 11th such country in April 2014. Twenty five others have signed the Convention. 15 Gauri van Gulik, global women’s rights advocate for Human Rights Watch, www.hrw.org/news/2014/04/24/Europe-treaty -violence-against-women-take-effect 16 The underlying principles of prevention, provision of services, partnership working, justice outcomes, and risk reduction remain part of the action plan. 17 The act aims to protect victims without criminalizing the family, and provides for injunctions and sanctions in case of non-compliance. 18 Under Clare’s Law, the police are allowed to disclose details about a partner’s previous history of domestic violence or violent acts to individuals. 19 These articles appear in a special issue of the journal Violence Against Women devoted to “The Violence Against Women Research and Evaluation Program” funded by the National Institute of Justice over a period of 18 years. 20 Safer Leeds is the Community Safety Partnership for the city, set up following the Crime and Disorder Act in 1998. information/how_we_tackle_crime/project_guardian.aspx 53 and gropedwithoutconsent.” TheGuardian . 52 modules/view/12-safe-cities.html International andRedMujeryHabitat. www.endvawnow.org/en/ Women andGirls, Safe CitiesModule, developed by Women inCities 51 Quebec, Canada. 50 -campaign-for-men 49 48 www.fvpls.org/ 47 46 45 44 www.voldmodkvinder.dk/ 43 -against-women 42 41 www.whiteribbon.ca/ 40 http://thisisabuse.direct.gov.uk/ -goddesses-campaign-condemn 39 www.buzzfeed.com/regajha/indias-incredibly-powerful-abused www.soulcity.org.za 38 www.sahayogindia.org activities/activities-posts/program-h/; Sonke, etal. 2013;Sahayog, men-as-partners.php; ProgramH. www.promundo.org.br/en/ 37 36 communication, andIPV. Program (RADAR) onHIV/AIDS, gendernorms, culturalbeliefs, developed by theRural AIDS andDevelopment Action Research 35 34 www.mencanstoprape.org/The-Men-of-Strength-Club/ org/index.html go/safedates; 33 32 work_with_us/our_funding_programs/shlv.html 31 www.community.nsw.gov.au/docs_menu/for_agencies_that_ 30 slachtofferbeleid/co_3_project/ 29 28 E-maria.eu Safety, Chapter8. International ReportonCrimePrevention andCommunity 27 (CBC, 2014). McQueen Fergusson Centrefor Family Violence Research 26 25 24 23 by PREVIVA inthecommunities involved intheinitiative. 22 and thedecentralization ofmunicipal entities. other services, improvements tocommerceandbankingservices, city (Metrocable), theconstructionoflibraries, publicspacesand 21 The policehave worked incollaboration withtheMuriel This includesanew transportation systemtothecentreof British Transport Police: www.btp.police.uk/advice_and_ Bates, L. (2013, May 16). “Too many women are touched, grabbed UN Women Virtual Knowledge CentretoEnd Violence against Executive Director, Women inCitiesInternational, Montreal, www.faq-qnw.org/dossiers/non-violence-awareness www.iwdvs.org.au/ http://shieldofathena.com/ http://mrcssi.com/ www.puntos.org.ni/index.php/es/ www.crimepreventionottawa.ca/en/initiatives/violence Soul CityInstitutefor Health&Development Communication Men aspartnerswww.engenderhealth.org/our-work/gender/ Stepping Stoneswww.steppingstonesfeedback.org/ Sisters for Lifeisaparticipatory learningandactioncurriculum Prevention programmefor dating abuse www.hazelden.org/web/ Heise (2011, p. v). www.idas.org.uk/interagency_making_safe.html www.provant.be/welzijn/zorg_en_hulp/geweld_en_ See theContribution by MarcParent inICPC’s 2010 www.mend.ie/ www.pro-gam.ca/pages/fr/accueil.php www.changingways.on.ca/ Based onsurveys ofvictimization andviolenceconducted Youth Relationship Projectwww.youthrelationships.

http://fra.europa.eu/DVS/DVT/vaw.php in furtherdetail, particularly at thelevel ofeach MemberState: Interactive data explorercanalsobeusedtobrowse theresults http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2014/vaw-survey-main-results. a technical reportandthesurvey questionnaireareavailable at: English, French andGerman), afactsheet (in22EUlanguages), Office oftheEU. This report, alongwithasummaryreport(in against women: An EU-wide survey. Luxembourg:Publications 67 convention-violence/about_en.asp 66 Council Framework Decision2001/220/JHA, OJ2012L315. the rights, supportandprotectionofvictimscrime, andreplacing Council of25October2012establishingminimum standardson 65 measures incivil matters, OJ2013L181. Council of12June 2013onmutual recognitionofprotection 64 OJ 2011L338. Council of13December2011ontheEuropeanprotectionorder, 63 and occupation (recast), OJ2006 L204. and equaltreatment ofmenandwomen inmatters ofemployment Council of5July 2006on the implementation ofequalopportunities 62 Sweden andthe UK. Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, 61 are protected. For moreinformation seehttp://fra.europa.eu. to ensurethat the fundamentalrightsofpeopleliving intheEU Parliament andCommission)theMemberStates. FRAhelps to provide expertadvice totheinstitutionsofEU(Council, one oftheEU’s decentralisedagencies. These agenciesaresetup 60 59 58 jagori.org/news/gender-trainings-with-dtc-our-experiences/ 57 56 55 http://stoptellingwomentosmile.com/About 54 procedures and/orcollaboration withservicesfor victimsoroffenders. 68 See aside todealonly withdomesticviolencecasesand/orspecialized indicate that therewould bespecialdays orpartsoftheday set some courtprocessesfromacrossthecountry. Courtprocesses 70 for Family Violence Research, University ofNew Brunswick. 69 2010:115:FULL:EN:PDF The fullsurvey findingsarepresentedinFRA(2014). Violence The EuropeanUnion Agency for Fundamental Rights(FRA)is This tablepresentsa combination of specializedcourtsand Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, theCzech For moreinformation seewww.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/ Directive 2012/29/EUoftheEuropeanParliament andthe Regulation 606/2013oftheEuropeanParliament andofthe Directive 2011/99/EUoftheEuropeanParliament andofthe Directive 2006/54/ECoftheEuropeanParliament andofthe www.endvawnow.org Red Mujey yHabitat: www.redmujer.org.ar/programas.html Jagori Safe DelhiCampaign, official website: http://safedelhi. www.safetipin.com http://womenonwalls.com/ Carmen Gill, Director, MurielMcQueenFergusson Centre http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C: . . .

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