heritage

Article Village and Heritage in China: A Discussion on the Influence and Future of Heritage Work in Rural Areas

Iva Stojevi´c

School of Cultural Heritage, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China; [email protected]



Received: 26 December 2018; Accepted: 14 February 2019; Published: 18 February 2019


Abstract: Over the past few decades, China has gone through a number of changes, and no community has been more impacted by these changes than the rural community. This paper takes a look at how heritage influences rural communities in these turbulent times. The paper focuses on three ways in which heritage is present in rural communities: Ecomuseums, rural tourism and archaeological heritage. While there are differences between all three modes, their similarities are defined by common issues addressed in this paper, such as the persisting top-down approaches, traditions in government systems, and issues native to rural areas that prevent active participation in heritage and sustainable tourism.

Keywords: Chinese village; ecomuseums; rural tourism; archaeology; heritage participation

1. Introduction Over the past few decades, Chinese rural communities have experienced fundamental changes, and have been struggling to find their footing in the midst of the social and economic turmoil of the new era. This paper explores the ways in which heritage influences rural communities, and what issues within those communities have been or can be addressed through heritage. The paper focuses on the most common way in which heritage is present in rural areas: Tourism. This paper discusses three aspects of the participation and development of heritage in rural areas: Ecomuseums, tourist villages, and archaeological heritage. The aim of this study is to research the relationship between heritage and rural communities, and to contribute to the ongoing discussion about the future of the Chinese village from the perspective of heritage work. As shown below, much scholarly attention has been given to the influence of ecomusuems and rural tourism on rural communities in China. The extensive research conducted at such tourist sites allows for a broader insight into the current conditions of heritage in rural communities across the country. On the other hand, the influence of archaeological heritage on those communities has not been adequately studied. In order to fill the gap in this field of research, this paper focuses on the relationship between archaeology and the local community at three major archaeological sites in China’s Shaanxi province. Even though the communities living near all three sites differ and have been directly affected by archaeology in different ways, there are common themes that can be put forward for discussion.

2. The Chinese Village and the New System In 1978, Chinese society experienced a deep transformation, and no group has been more affected by these new developments than rural populations. After land was decollectivized, households were given land that could be cultivated, thereby increasing their income [1]. However, with increased mechanization, loss of jobs in the countryside, and urbanization, China’s rural populations have faced one challenge after another. Social and economic changes did not influence all parts of China equally,

Heritage 2019, 2, 666–680; doi:10.3390/heritage2010043 www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage Heritage 2019, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 Heritage 2019, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 allHeritage parts2019 of ,China2 equally, and regional disparity in development presents another problem in the667 country’sall parts ofrural China areas. equally, There and are, regional however, disparity some challengesin development that canpresents be viewed another as problem the common in the denominatorcountry’sand regional rural for disparity theareas. entire There in developmentcountry. are, however, presents some another challenges problem that in can the be country’s viewed rural as the areas. common There denominatorare, however, for some the challengesentire country. that can be viewed as the common denominator for the entire country. 2.1. The Challenges of Those Who Left 2.1.2.1. The The Challenges Challenges of of Those Those Who Who Left Left Among the plethora of issues present in rural areas, some simply cannot be overcome through heritageAmongAmong work. the the The plethora plethora hukou ofsystem of issues issues and present present all that in in ruralderives rural areas, areas, from some some it is simplydefinitely simply cannot cannot one problembe be overcome overcome of that through through sort. Hukouheritageheritage (户口 work. work., hùk The Theǒu), hukou hukou i.e., household system system and and registration, all all that that derives derives organizes from from andit it is is definitelyclassifies definitely Chinesone one problem probleme households of of that that intosort. sort. twoHukouHukou groups ( 户口 depending,, hhùkùkou),ˇǒu), i.e.,i.e., on household householdone’s place registration, registration, of birth, organizesan organizesd defines and and them classifies classifies either Chinese Chinesas agricultural householdse households or into non- into two agricultural.twogroups groups depending Whendepending the on one’ssystem on placeone’s was ofplace implemented birth, of and birth, defines soanmed themdefines 50 years either them ago, as agriculturaleither it was as designed agricultural or non-agricultural. to monitor or non- migrationagricultural.When the within system When the was the country, implemented system and was the some implemented classification 50 years ago, sos me itwere was 50 not designedyears subject ago, to toit monitor waschange designed migration [2]. This to within inmonitor turn the causedmigrationcountry, rapid and within urbanization. the classifications the country, In 1978, wereand China’sthe not classification subject urbanization to changes were rate [2 ].not Thiswas subject in17.92%, turn to caused andchange it rapidreached [2]. urbanization.This 56.1% in turn in 2014causedIn 1978, [3]. rapidIn China’s 2017, urbanization. urbanizationChina Daily In rate[4] 1978, reported was China’s 17.92%, that urbanization and the itrate reached rose rate 56.1%to 58.52%,was in 17.92%, 2014 and [3 ].thatand In 2017,theit reached number China 56.1% Dailyof city [in4 ] residents2014reported [3]. reachedIn that 2017, the 810China rate million. rose Daily to 58.52%, [4] reported and that that the the number rate rose of cityto 58.52%, residents and reached that the 810 number million. of city residentsTheThe widespread reached widespread 810 urbanization million. urbanization and and loss loss of of jobs jobs in in rural rural areas areas started started a ademographic demographic shift, shift, as as villagersvillagersThe started widespread started to to leave leave urbanization their their homes homes and in in losssearch search of ofjobs of work, work,in rural and and areassubsequently, subsequently, started a mainlydemographic mainly accepting accepting shift, low low as payingvillagerspaying jobs jobs started in in towns towns to leave [5]. [5]. The their The impact impacthomes of ofin hukou hukousearch be becameofcame work, greater greater and subsequently,and and put put a astrain strain mainly on on the theaccepting majority majority low of of migrantpayingmigrant jobsworkers, workers, in towns because because [5]. manyThe many impact people people of who whohukou came came be fromcame from thegreater the countryside countryside and put were a were strain excluded excluded on the from majority from urban urban of healthmigranthealth care care workers, and and pension pension because benefits benefits many due people due to to their theirwho hous householdcameehold from registration registrationthe countryside status. status. were These These excluded migrants migrants from are are oftenurban often referredhealthreferred care to to as and as “the “the pension floating floating benefits population” population” due to their[5] [5 ](n.2). (n.2).hous Theehold The situation situation registration also also affectsstatus. affects Thesethe the children children migrants of of migrantare migrant often workers,referredworkers, seeingto seeing as “the as as schools floating schools admit admitpopulation” children children [5] based based (n.2). on onThe the the situation number number ofalso of registered registered affects the children, children, children notnot of resident migrant resident childrenworkers,children [6]. [seeing6]. Despite Despite as schools the the government’s government’s admit children efforts efforts based to to so solveonlve thethese these number problems, problems, of registered migrants migrants children,often often face face not additional additional resident feeschildrenfees (put (put [6].in in placeplace Despite byby thethe the schoolsgovernment’s schools to discourageto discourage efforts theto so enrolmentthelve enrolment these ofproblems, migrant of migrant migrants children), children), often and end face and up additional enrollingend up enrollingfeestheir (put children their in place children in academically by inthe academically schools inferior to discourage inferior schools scho set theols up enrolmentset by up the by migrants the of migrants migrant themselves themselveschildren), [6]. Parentsand[6]. Parentsend who up whoenrollingabandon abandon their villages villages children in searchin in search academically of workof work often ofteninferior opt opt to scho leaveto leaveols theirset their up families by families the migrants behind behind [6 themselves ][6] (p. (p. 3), 3), which which [6]. Parents leads leads to towhoa a phenomenon phenomenon abandon villages referred referred in search toto asas “left“left of work behindbehind often children” opt to leave ( 留守儿童 their families, liúsh liúshǒouˇu behind értóng).értóng). [6] This This(p. 3), phenomenon phenomenon which leads describestodescribes a phenomenon children children referredwho who are to leftleft as in in“left villages villages behind to to bechildren” be raised raised by (留守儿童 by their their grandparents, grandparentsliúshǒu értóng). while while theirThis their parentsphenomenon parents search searchdescribesfor work for work inchildren towns. in towns. who are left in villages to be raised by their grandparents while their parents searchInIn for2012, 2012, work the in GovernmentGovernment towns. Department Department of of Statistics Statisti [cs7] reported[7] reported that thethat number the number of migrant of migrant workers workerssurpassedIn 2012,surpassed 260 the million. Government 260 However,million. DepartmentHowever, over the pastover of year, Statistithe past governmentcs year,[7] reported government reports that indicate thereports number that indicate a generation of migrant that a of generationworkersmigrants surpassed isof slowly migrants returning260 is million.slowly to villagesreturning However, to to start over villages their the to ownpast start businessesyear, their government own [8 businesses]. reports [8]. indicate that a generation of migrants is slowly returning to villages to start their own businesses [8]. 2.2.2.2. The The Challenges Challenges of of those Those who Who Stayed Stayed 2.2. The Challenges of those who Stayed RuralRural residents residents who who choose choose to stay to stay in villages in villages are faced are faced with withunemployment, unemployment, depleted depleted or non- or existentnon-existentRural infrastructure, residents infrastructure, who pollution, choose pollution, and to stay scant and in accessvillages scant to access arequality faced to qualityeducation with unemployment, education and medical and medical care.depleted This care. oris alsonon- This whereexistentis also regional where infrastructure, regional disparity pollution, disparity becomes becomesand a scantcrucial a access crucial factor, to factor, quality because because education the thewestern and western medical regions regions care. of of ChinaThis China is alsoare are underdevelopedwhereunderdeveloped regional notdisparity onlyonly when whenbecomes it comesit comesa crucial to infrastructure,to infrastructure,factor, because but also but the regarding alsowestern regarding investments regions investments of in China education, arein education,underdevelopedas well as as science well asnot and science only technology andwhen technology [it9] (p.comes 208). [9]to (p.infrastructure, 208). but also regarding investments in education,AsAs work work as migrationwell migration as science progresses, progresses, and technology and and with with [9]no no (p.incentives incentives 208). to to stay stay in in villages, villages, the the population population living living inin rural ruralAs areas work areas is migration is getting getting older progresses, older [10]. [10]. On Onand the the with other other no hand, incentives hand, the the younger youngerto stay ingeneration generation villages, thein in rural population rural areas, areas, apartliving apart frominfrom rural the the “leftareas “left behind” is behind” getting phenomenon, phenomenon, older [10]. On is is alsothe also otherfaced faced hand,with with a the alack lack younger of of quality quality generation education, education, in numerousrural numerous areas, health healthapart issuesfromissues theand and “left malnutrition malnutrition behind” phenomenon,[11]. [11 ].Despite Despite governmentis government also faced programswith programs a lack that thatof qualityaim aim to to advanceeducation, advance education, education, numerous like like health the the OneissuesOne Charge Charge and malnutritionSystem System [12], [12], rural[11]. rural Despiteareas areas have have government the the highes highest programst dropout dropout rates,that rates, aim mostly mostly to advance have have low loweducation, quality quality schools, like schools, the andOneand generally Charge generally System lack lack the the [12], funds funds rural that that areas coul could haved help help the alleviate alleviatehighest thesedropout these issues issues rates, [13]. [13 mostly]. have low quality schools, and Education,generallyEducation, lack medical medical the funds care care and that and infrastructure coul infrastructured help alleviate are are stil still lthese lacking lacking issues in in many [13]. many a avillage village in in China. China. However, However, TheThe China ChinaEducation, Yearbook Yearbook medical of of Rural Rural care Household and Household infrastructure Survey Survey are[14] [14 stil ](p. (p.l 31)lacking 31) states states in that many that the the a level village level of of ruralin rural China. development development However, inThein the the China country country Yearbook has has improved, improved, of Rural andHousehold and household household Survey income income [14] (p.in in village31) village states communities communities that the level has has of almost rural almost development doubled doubled in in theinthe theperiod period country between between has improved,1999 1999 and and 2009 and 2009 onhousehold on a anational national income leve level.l. inReportsReports village also communities also show show that that hasthe the almostsituation situation doubled of of rural rural in householdsthehouseholds period betweenhas has been been 1999 improving improving and 2009 steadily steadily on a national all all over over leveChina Chinal. Reports [15]. [15]. Additional Additionalalso show measures that measures the situation have have also also of beenrural been takenhouseholdstaken to to promote promote has beensustainable sustainable improving development development steadily alland and over ecolog ecological Chinaical [15].approaches approaches Additional to to creating creatingmeasures energy, energy, have as also as well well been as as improvingtakenimproving to promote health health caresustainable care and and education, education, development and and bridging bridgingand ecolog the theical gap gap approaches that that was was left leftto behind creating behind after afterenergy, urbanization. urbanization. as well as AccordingimprovingAccording to health to the the Ministry Ministrycare and of of education,Civil Civil Affairs Affairs and [16], [ 16bridging], possible possible the solutions solutionsgap that include was include left turning turningbehind towards after towards urbanization. renewable renewable According to the Ministry of Civil Affairs [16], possible solutions include turning towards renewable

Heritage 2019, 2 668 energy and green development, improving operation systems in rural areas and management systems, as well as mechanisms that provide support and protection [10].

3. Ecomuseums The new museum movement and new museology that brought about ecomuseums started with a reassessment of the role of museums in society and their engagement with the community. The reassessment claimed that museums have lost touch with the community and have become elitist [17,18]. In the West, the concept of ecomuseums is not necessarily the same as it is in China. However, an ecomuseum can be anything and everything heritage experts and the local population want it to be [17] (p. 80). The 1990s saw an increase in projects focusing on the preservation of local heritage in China, specifically in remote and impoverished areas inhabited by the country’s minority groups [19]. Museums that were opened through these projects aimed to preserve local culture and traditions in the midst of industrialization and urbanization, as well as to provide additional income to local people [20] (p. 233). Donghai Su, considered to be the father of Chinese ecomuseums, laid down the six principles for those museums, and emphasized that the community members had the status of owners and stewards of culture, and that the right of interpretation belonged to the community [21] (p. 29).

3.1. The Three Generations In China, the development of ecomuseums, or community museums, is commonly divided into three generations. The first generation includes ecomuseums in Guizhou, built in areas of three minority populations: Miao, Dong and Buyi. These museums were built in cooperation with the Norwegian government in the late 1990s, and were based on “the Scandinavian ecomuseum model” that turns a landscape into a museum with one visitor orientation “center” [17] (p. 238). At first, these museums served their intended purpose: For example, the Buyi museum received 100,000 tourists in 1999 alone, and tourism in that area substantially increased the quality of life of local residents [22]. The second generation once again employed the “Scandinavian model”, and introduced ecomuseums to other remote areas in China, namely Guanxi, Yunnan and Inner Mongolia [23] (p. 88). The Guanxi museum, for example, was imagined as a 1 + 10 system, with the Guanxi national museum as the “center” [24] (p. 29). When the author of this paper attempted to visit the Buyi museum, it became apparent that the museum had been closed, and probably abandoned for some time. This fate did not befall all first generation ecomuseums, as shown by the Dong minority ecomuseum, Tangan Dongzhai, which is still open and receives a steady flow of tourists every year. In the case of the Dong village, the area’s development surged when the nearest town of Congjiang was connected to Guizhou’s capital by a high-speed railroad. The entire area is now dedicated to tourism and strives to present Dong traditions, as shown by the railroad station in Congjiang that reflects Dong architecture. The development of tourism in that area not only took care of the surplus labor among the local Dong population, but it also brought in people looking for work from other provinces. The third generation of ecomuseums was marked by the physical shift of ecomuseums from impoverished areas settled by China’s minority groups to more developed areas in the east [25] (p. 140). The Zhejiang Anji ecomuseum opened in 2009, with the main goal of protecting Anji. At the same time, while adhering to the holistic aspects of ecomuseums, the main attribute of this museum, cited by its proponents, is the development of tourism [24,26]. The strong emphasis on developing the financial aspect of the area is in accordance with the initial purposes of the first two generations and is expected to help local communities thrive. Some ecomuseums do not fall within any of the generations, but were Heritage 2019, 2 669 also opened in an effort to preserve local heritage and attract tourists, such as the Ansai ecomuseum in the Shaanxi province, which opened in 2015.1

3.2. Challenges in Ecomuseums All three generations of ecomuseums in China have contributed to the development of roads and infrastructure and have become touristic revenues in remote and underdeveloped areas [19]. However, there is still a lot of room to increase community participation. The most commonly criticized aspect of the first two generations is the lack of local involvement, the lack of autonomy of local people, the persisting top-down approach [17,27], as well as a lack of legislature that would resolve these issues [20] (p. 234). The surge in the number of tourists was also seen as the cause of the commodification of local customs that led to traditional performances, like the ones of the Dong minority that are being adapted and executed with the sole aim of entertaining tourists [28] (p. 64). Additionally, the fact that those museums resembled their Western counterparts and were not compatible with local conditions is also commonly criticized [29] (p. 104). The third generation is relatively new, and it is still too early to determine whether or not this model of Chinese ecomuseums is successful enough to be implemented in other parts of the country. Fuye Yu [28] compared the museums in Guizhou and Anji and concluded that there is not much difference when it comes to the involvement of local people or their understanding of heritage.

4. Rural Tourism With changes in rural areas taking place all over the world (in terms of mechanization and a loss of jobs in those areas), the development of tourism has become a viable solution to issues that plague rural communities [30–32]. Ever since, tourist villages have become a place of leisure, recreation and consumption. Also, with the increased pressure brought on by urban life, rural areas have distinguished themselves as havens of a simpler and more peaceful existence [33]. As Sharpley and Roberts [30] (p. 120) point out, rural tourism is a domestic phenomenon that contributes to a wide range of definitions and practices. Rural tourism involves a variety of activities and different stakeholders who have different interests, but it also involves intensive cooperation with local residents [34]. The stakeholders are relying on both private and public cultural and natural resources [33] (p. 317). Seeing as this type of tourism takes place in smaller settlements where farming is usually the main source of income [35], adjusting villages for tourism undoubtedly influences the equilibrium of local communities. In light of this, sustainability [36,37] and authenticity [38] have been given more attention in the planning and management of rural tourism projects. Apart from the local environment and culture, publications have also focused on the influence of tourist activities on rural areas, and research has included the attitudes of local communities on tourism development [39–42]. The authors that discuss those effects focus on the welfare of the community that develops these projects, as well as on legislative solutions that allow for the creation of sustainable and fair projects in communities that have to redesign their way of life in the new era. Apart from ecomuseums, tourism and heritage-related activities, Chinese villages themselves are becoming new tourist hotspots. In that sense, they somewhat resemble China’s ecomuseums: They are often found in relatively underdeveloped areas and reflect the government’s effort to boost local economy through tourism [43] (p. 41). Another similarity is that the villages are also often inhabited by ethnic minorities. However, tourist villages inhabited by the Han majority are by no means an exception.2

1 Correspondence with the curator of the Ansai Ecomuseum, Xiaozhen Wu, 14 May 2018. 2 Villages like Yuanjia in the Shaanxi province, the Yulong River tourist attraction from the Sun J. and Bao J. paper (2007), and sites from the Huang and Wang study (2013) are just a few examples. Heritage 2019, 2 670

4.1. Rural Tourism as a Strategy for a New Era Tourism in China is government directed, and it has been used as a poverty alleviation strategy in rural areas since the 1990s [44] (p. 48). It is also a part of a government strategy that aims to develop a “new socialist countryside”. In 2006, the National Tourism Administration launched the “new countryside, new tourism, new experience, new trend” slogan, thereby announcing that year’s tourism theme: “China Urban and Rural Tour” [3] (p. 28). China’s tourism is developing fast: The World Tourism Alliance [45] reports that there were over a billion and a half tourist trips in the first half of 2017, and that the domestic tourism revenue exceeded 2 trillion RMB in the same period. It is also suggested that China will become the largest tourism market by 2020 [17] (p. 247). Not unexpectedly, this does not mean that all rural tourism projects are the result of investments made by the central government. As shown by some examples, such as the Xianrendong village, inhabited by the Sun Yi people in the Yunnan province, or the Yuanjia village in the Shaanxi province, Chinese villagers and local governments have no problems with taking the matter into their own hands. After realizing that their way of life was about to change due to the ongoing reforms in China, Xianrendong has transformed itself into a tourist attraction that now draws a steady flow of people hoping to experience the original Chinese village [46]. In Yuanjia, the development of rural tourism resulted in significant improvements in the lives of the local community, such as increases in employment, income, and recently, in investments in green energy and sustainable development [47].

4.2. The Impact of New Trends What do these developments mean for the Chinese rural community? Historically, Chinese society has been mainly agrarian. Transforming rural areas into tourist attractions is a way to cope with the surplus of labor in villages through the process of transforming production-based economies into service-based ones [48] (p. 50). Existing research on the participation of local communities in rural tourism shows different results [44,46,48]. Researchers have called for more community involvement, the empowerment of local residents [49,50], and including the opinions and rights of local residents into tourism development strategies [31,48,51,52]. The ideas of local involvement also represent a challenge to the long-held ideas of self-protective leadership [51] (p. 6), which are at odds with community-based trends in heritage. This means that the disenfranchisement, the gaps between developed and underdeveloped rural communities, and the power imbalance between stakeholders will often create conflict between the community and its leaders [44,48,51]. If we consider local participation in tourism not just in China, but in general, the negative aspects of tourism are often addressed by the general public after the site has reached a certain point in its development [53] (p. 99). With the rise of revenue accumulated through tourism, the planners are often tempted to adjust a tourist site to tourists at the expense of local inhabitants [54] (p. 40). In their comparative study on Chinese and Western community participation in tourism development in a social context, Jigang Bao and Jiuxia Sun [55] describe the difficulties of community participation in China. According to their research, communities are almost always passive participants in tourism, as China’s community participation focuses solely on economic interests [55] (p. 405). Rong Hu [56] discusses economic development and village elections in China based on rural areas in the Fujian province. The author concludes that the implementation of village elections and local participation are tied to the revenue and the living standards of local residents [56] (p. 43), meaning that the individuals who have high stakes in the development of their community are more likely to participate. When this is put in the perspective of rural tourism, which is often developed in poor areas where there is an inherent lack of financial resources and access to education and relevant business experience [55] (p. 406), the local populations are often left “at the mercy of development”. While Sun and Bao [48] see community participation as the task of future policies from the central government, some authors suggest that the participation of local communities in tourist activities has been observed through Western concepts. Tianyu Ying and Yongguang Zhou [57] consider that, Heritage 2019, 2 671 at this stage of China’s socioeconomic development, community involvement must revolve around shared benefits and the developing relevant regulations, rather than blindly reflecting the practices of developed countries in the West. Whatever the future of participation for local communities in rural tourism may be, the ideas behind direct community involvement have made the leap from academic theory into management practices [55].

5. Archaeology Unlike ecomuseums and tourist villages, archaeological sites cannot just appear in a poor area and help the community, so the assessment of their influence on the community has to be observed after the site has been researched and presented [19]. At the same time, archaeological projects cannot represent local effort, seeing as all archaeological research in China is directed by the government [58]. The first example of community involvement in archaeology appeared in the first decades of the 20th century at Anyang, a Shang dynasty site [59]. The direct influence of archaeology on that community included the construction of a building that was used as a primary school for the workers’ children and as a training center [59] (p. 46). The emergence of archaeology from workers and farmers (gong-nong kaoguxue) during the Cultural Revolution led to archaeology being utilized in a class struggle, thereby attributing many archaeological finds of that era to farmers and factory workers [60]. Political trends and the utilization of rural communities made archaeology a discipline which flourished in the Revolution era. However, with the major change in China’s political course, ideas behind this kind of archaeology have since been discarded [59]. The current trends are marked with consistent efforts to bridge the gaps between archaeology and the public through concepts of public archaeology (gongog kaogu), sometimes called archaeology for the masses (gongzhong kaogu) [61–64]. These new trends in archaeology have turned the conversation towards the need to educate and involve the community through community action, new media, and various educational efforts [62,65,66]. Nevertheless, since the archaeology of workers and farmers was discarded, there has been little research into the influence of archaeology on rural communities.

5.1. Methodology The data for this research was collected over a course of two years, from September 2016 to December 2018. This research was conducted using qualitative methods, mainly formal and informal interviews with the stakeholders of three archaeological sites: Qin Shihuang Mausoleum Site Museum, Qianling, and Zhaoling. Since there is a discrepancy in terms of the available publications that focus on the ways in which archaeology influences rural communities, the analysis of the relationship between archaeology and rural areas will be observed through these three sites. The interviews included heritage workers, local government and local residents. Interviews fall within the category of research that mostly relies on inductive reasoning and using data to generate a hypothesis, as opposed to deductive reasoning that uses data to confirm or negate a hypothesis [67] (p. 68). Wengraff explains that the purpose of conducting a research interview is to develop a model that will be in accordance with facts and to test an existing model against facts, or to do both [68] (p. 4). In qualitative research, conceptualization is often preceded by operationalization, as opposed to quantitative methods, where the creation of a concept is followed by the creation of measurement operations (Neuman 2014, p. 209). This means that instead of having a clear hypothesis, the researcher has “working ideas” that they use while collecting data [69] (p. 209). These “working ideas” (the facts that the data was tested against), as well as the interview questions, were all created through publicized reviews of current conditions in rural China, ecomuseums, rural tourism, and public archaeology in China. The questions used in the in-depth interviews used in this research are given in Table1. The semi-structured interview was constructed in an open way in order to decrease the possibility of predicted responses, and to prevent the researcher from “leading on” the interviewee. This allowed the researcher to improvise if a new interesting direction presented itself during the interview [68] (p. 5). The questions were also altered depending on who the researcher was talking to, whether it be Heritage 2019, 2 672 a heritage expert or a member of the local community. The researcher collected 30 interviews with local government officials, archaeologists, museum staff and local residents in the period between January 2017 and November 2018. The number of interview respondents is determined by the amount of information that can be gained on a particular topic. In case of these three sites, the number of respondents quickly came to a close, as there was no new information to be discovered.

Table 1. Questions of the semi-structured interview with the stakeholders of the archaeological sites.

Group Question • How would you (shortly) describe this site? • Why is this site important? The site • Please describe the archaeological and/or heritage activities that take place at this site (excavations, archaeological surveys, exhibitions, etc.). • How do/did those activities include local people? • During those activities, how did you cooperate with heritage experts (example: Locals as hired labor at the site, use of local knowledge/tales/legends during research)? • What is your opinion on getting local people involved with the site (example: As vendors, tour guides, locals as hired labor at the site, use of local Inclusion knowledge/tales/legends during research)? • In your opinion, how much is the local community involved with the site at the present moment? • How is heritage involved in your daily life? • What does community involvement mean to you personally? • Are there organizations that include local people in these activities? • Is there a program that involves local schools at this site? • How does archaeology affect local sense of pride? Effects on the • How does archaeology affect local economy? Local education? local • How does this site affect the local environment (example: enhanced traffic, more community trash, more pollution)? • What changes have you noticed since working here (in people, the environment)?

The data were analyzed by following the principles of grounded theory [70], wherein data analysis is done by coding (i.e., organizing raw data and creating themes or concepts) [69] (p. 480). All interviews, along with the notes and observations made during the research process, were transcribed and coded using RQDA software. The process used in coding, as described by Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin [71] (pp. 13–14), is divided into three parts: Open, axial, and selective coding. Open coding discerns the major themes, concepts, and labels of the processed data. During axial coding, the categories from the former process are connected to their subcategories and tested against the data. The final process, selective coding, unifies the categories from the former steps into core concepts that are further developed into a theory.

5.2. Archaeology and the Rural Community at the Studied Sites The general state of influence on all three sites was observed through site visits and interviews with all stakeholders at the site. In an effort to understand the relationship between archaeology and the rural community, this paper discusses the data collected in communities that live close to three major archaeological sites in the Shaanxi province. The first site is the tomb of the first emperor of China, located in Lintong: Emperor Qinshihuanq’s Mausoleum Site Museum, better known as the Terracotta Warriors and Horses. The site is a major tourist destination. It is situated in the vicinity of the provincial capital and has thoroughly transformed its surroundings over the past two decades. Every minute, a number of buses go from Xi’an to the museum, and local workforce has been employed in the development of the site from the initial stages. The second site is the tomb of the first and only empress of China, sovereign ruler Wu Zetian, buried Heritage 2019, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 7 Heritage 2019, 3 FOR PEER REVIEW 7 Table 1. Questions of the semi-structured interview with the stakeholders of the archaeological sites. Table 1. Questions of the semi-structured interview with the stakeholders of the archaeological sites. Group Question Group Question • How would you (shortly) describe this site? • How would you (shortly) describe this site? • Why is this site important? The site • Why is this site important? • Please describe the archaeological and/or heritage activities that take The site • Please describe the archaeological and/or heritage activities that take place at this site (excavations, archaeological surveys, exhibitions, etc.). place at this site (excavations, archaeological surveys, exhibitions, etc.). • How do/did those activities include local people? • How do/did those activities include local people? • During those activities, how did you cooperate with heritage experts • During those activities, how did you cooperate with heritage experts (example: Locals as hired labor at the site, use of local (example: Locals as hired labor at the site, use of local knowledge/tales/legends during research)? knowledge/tales/legends during research)? • What is your opinion on getting local people involved with the site • What is your opinion on getting local people involved with the site (example: As vendors, tour guides, locals as hired labor at the site, use of (example: As vendors, tour guides, locals as hired labor at the site, use of Inclusion local knowledge/tales/legends during research)? Inclusion local knowledge/tales/legends during research)? • In your opinion, how much is the local community involved with the • In your opinion, how much is the local community involved with the site at the present moment? site at the present moment? • How is heritage involved in your daily life? • How is heritage involved in your daily life? • What does community involvement mean to you personally? • What does community involvement mean to you personally? • Are there organizations that include local people in these activities? • Are there organizations that include local people in these activities? • Is there a program that involves local schools at this site? • Is there a program that involves local schools at this site? • How does archaeology affect local sense of pride? • How does archaeology affect local sense of pride? • How does archaeology affect local economy? Local education? • How does archaeology affect local economy? Local education? Effects on the • How does this site affect the local environment (example: enhanced Effects on the • How does this site affect the local environment (example: enhanced local community traffic, more trash, more pollution)? local community traffic, more trash, more pollution)? • What changes have you noticed since working here (in people, the • What changes have you noticed since working here (in people, the environment)? environment)? The data were analyzed by following the principles of grounded theory [70], wherein data The data were analyzed by following the principles of grounded theory [70], wherein dataanalysis is done by coding (i.e., organizing raw data and creating themes or concepts) [69] (p. 480). analysis is done by coding (i.e., organizing raw data and creating themes or concepts) [69] (p. 480).All interviews, along with the notes and observations made during the research process, were All interviews, along with the notes and observations made during the research process, weretranscribed and coded using RQDA software. The process used in coding, as described by Anselm transcribed and coded using RQDA software. The process used in coding, as described by AnselmStrauss and Juliet Corbin [71] (pp. 13–14), is divided into three parts: Open, axial, and selective Strauss and Juliet Corbin [71] (pp. 13–14), is divided into three parts: Open, axial, and selectivecoding. Open coding discerns the major themes, concepts, and labels of the processed data. During coding. Open coding discerns the major themes, concepts, and labels of the processed data. Duringaxial coding, the categories from the former process are connected to their subcategories and tested axial coding, the categories from the former process are connected to their subcategories and testedagainst the data. The final process, selective coding, unifies the categories from the former steps into against the data. The final process, selective coding, unifies the categories from the former steps intocore concepts that are further developed into a theory. core concepts that are further developed into a theory. 5.2. Archaeology and the Rural Community at the Studied Sites 5.2. Archaeology and the Rural Community at the Studied Sites The general state of influence on all three sites was observed through site visits and interviews The general state of influence on all three sites was observed through site visits and interviewswith all stakeholders at the site. In an effort to understand the relationship between archaeology and with all stakeholders at the site. In an effort to understand the relationship between archaeology andthe rural community, this paper discusses the data collected in communities that live close to three the rural community, this paper discusses the data collected in communities that live close to threemajor archaeological sites in the Shaanxi province. major archaeological sites in the Shaanxi province. The first site is the tomb of the first emperor of China, located in Lintong: Emperor The first site is the tomb of the first emperor of China, located in Lintong: EmperorQinshihuanq’s Mausoleum Site Museum, better known as the Terracotta Warriors and Horses. The Qinshihuanq’s Mausoleum Site Museum, better known as the Terracotta Warriors and Horses. Thesite is a major tourist destination. It is situated in the vicinity of the provincial capital and has site is a major tourist destination. It is situated in the vicinity of the provincial capital and thoroughlyhas transformed its surroundings over the past two decades. Every minute, a number of thoroughly transformed its surroundings over the past two decades. Every minute, a numberbuses of go from Xi’an to the museum, and local workforce has been employed in the development of Heritage 2019, 2 673 buses go from Xi’an to the museum, and local workforce has been employed in the developmentthe of site from the initial stages. The second site is the tomb of the first and only empress of China, the site from the initial stages. The second site is the tomb of the first and only empress of China,sovereign ruler Wu Zetian, buried in Qianling (乾陵), located about 5 kilometers from Qianxian sovereign ruler Wu Zetian, buried in Qianling ( 乾陵), located about 5 kilometerskilometers fromfrom QianxianQianxian ( (乾县乾 ). Even Even though though heritage heritage work work has has employed local people in the past, the site’s development plan 县). Even though heritage work hasemployed employed locallocal peoplepeople in the the past, past, the the site’s site’s development developmentHeritageHeritage plan planis 2019 isstill 2019 is, 3 stillFORon, 3 FOR the onPEER PEER theway, REVIEWway, REVIEW and and the therelative relative distance from the more developed provincial capital has 8had 8 an still on the way, and the relative distancedistance from from the more developeddeveloped provincialprovincial capital capital has has had had animpact an impact on on the the number number of of tourists tourists who who venture to the empress’ tomb. The third site is Zhaoling (唐昭 impact on the number of tourists whoventure venture to theto the empress’ empress’ tomb. tomb. The The third third site site is is Zhaoling Zhaoling( 唐昭陵( (唐昭陵 (唐昭) in)) in inLiquan Liquan Liquan County County County ( (礼泉县 (礼泉县),), thethe), the imperial imperial mausoleum mausoleum wi thwi ththe the greatest greatest number number of of imperial mausoleum with the greatest number of subordinatesubordinatesubordinate tombs. tombs. The tombs. site The isThe notsite site asis not wellis not as connected wellas well connected connected to theto the capital, capital, it is it notis not as famousas famous as theas the other other two two to the capital, it is not as famous as the other two sites, andsites,sites, it doesand and it not does it drawdoes not not a draw large draw a number large a large number of number tourists, of tourists,of tourists, despite despite its itshistorical historical significance. significance. All All three three sites sites despite its historical significance. All three sites have beenhavehave excavated been been excavated excavated (though (though some(though notsome some completely) not not co mpletely)completely) and and presented presented to theto the public. public. and presented to the public. 5.2.1.5.2.1. The The Influence Influence of Archaeologyof Archaeology 5.2.1. The Influence of Archaeology In Inthe the first first stages stages of ofthis this rese research,arch, respondents respondents were were divided divided into into groups groups based based on onthe the site site they they In the first stages of this research, respondents werewere dividedwere connected connected into groupsto toand and basedtheir their role on role theat theat site the site. they site. These These groups groups were were heritage heritage expe expert, rt,government government official official were connected to and their role at the site. These groupsandand were local local heritage resident. resident. expert, The The interviews government interviews with with official heritage heritage experts experts lasted lasted up up to toan anhour, hour, while while the the interviews interviews and local resident. The interviews with heritage experts lastedwithwith the up the totwo antwo remaining hour, remaining while groups the groups interviews lasted lasted up with up to to20 20minu minutes.tes. The The length length of ofthese these interviews interviews is alsois also an an the two remaining groups lasted up to 20 minutes. Theindicator lengthindicator of theseof ofthe interviewsthe relationship relationship is also between anbetween indicator the the loca local communityl community and and archaeological archaeological heritage. heritage. While While of the relationship between the local community and archaeologicalarcheologistsarcheologists heritage. and and museum museum While staff archeologists staff had had an anexpectedly and expectedly better better insight insight into into these these issues issues and and answered answered in in museum staff had an expectedly better insight into theselength, issueslength, the and the responses answered responses of in localof length, local residents residents the responses and and local local gove governmentrnment officials officials were were mostly mostly short short and and concise. concise. of local residents and local government officials were mostlyDuring shortDuring and the the concise.described described coding coding process, process, data data from from each each individual individual site site resulted resulted in ain unique a unique set set of of During the described coding process, data from eachcodescodes individual that that tell tell a site storya resultedstory of oflocal inlocal a archaeology unique archaeology set and and its itscommunity. community. For For example, example, Qingshihuang’s Qingshihuang’s of codes that tell a story of local archaeology and itsMausoleum community.Mausoleum Site ForSite Museum example,Museum and Qingshihuang’sand Qianling Qianling are are surrou surroundednded by bycommunities communities who who are are experiencing experiencing the the Mausoleum Site Museum and Qianling are surroundedsame bysame communitiesissues issues as ruralas rural who populations populations are experiencing all allover over China: the China: A loAss lo ofss jobsof jobs in farmingin farming and and a decrease a decrease of populationof population same issues as rural populations all over China: A loss ofdue jobsdue to in towork farming work migration. migration. and a decrease Communities Communities of population around around Zhaolin Zhaoling, g,on onthe the other other hand, hand, live li vein inthe the vicinity vicinity of of due to work migration. Communities around Zhaoling,Yuanjia,Yuanjia, on the a otherprosperinga prospering hand, to live uristtourist in village, the village, vicinity which which of has has had had a positivea positive impact impact on onthe the local local economy economy and and Yuanjia, a prospering tourist village, which has had ademography. positivedemography. impact Even Even on though the though local the the economysites sites affected affected and the the surrounding surrounding communities communities in indifferent different ways, ways, there there demography. Even though the sites affected the surroundingareare common common communities denominators denominators in different for for all ways, allthree three theresites. sites. The The current current relationship relationship between between archaeology archaeology and and the the are common denominators for all three sites. The currentcommunitycommunity relationship can, can, between based based on archaeology oncodes codes created created and from the from the the inte interviewsrviews with with heritage heritage experts, experts, be bedivided divided into into community can, based on codes created from the interviewstwotwo phases withphases heritagethat that are, are, experts,for for the the bepurpose purpose divided of intoofthis this research, research, defined defined as asactive active and and passive. passive. The The general general two phases that are, for the purpose of this research,characteristics definedcharacteristics as active of ofall and allrespondents respondents passive. Theand and generalthe the distribution distribution of oflocal local respondents respondents involved involved in inthese these phases phases characteristics of all respondents and the distribution ofat local differentat different respondents sites sites can involved can be beobserved observed in these in Tablein phases Table 2. at 2. different sites can be observed in Table2. TableTable 2. 2.The The general general characteristics characteristics of ofinterviewed interviewed respondents respondents and and the the distribution distribution of oflocal local Table 2. The general characteristics of interviewed respondentsrespondents andrespondents the distribution involved involved of in local thein respondentsthe two two phases phases involved in the two phases. ParticipantsParticipants ParticipantsParticipants HeritageHeritage LocalLocal LocalLocal ParticipantsParticipants Participants1 1 Participants Heritage Local Local SiteSite Participants in inActive Active in inPassive Passive Site 1 in ActiveExpertsExpertsin Passive GovernmentGovernment ResidentsResidents in inNone None Experts Government Residents in None PhasePhase PhasePhase Phase Phase QSHQSH 4 4 1 1 7 7 5 5 2 2 0 0 QSH 4 1 7 5 2 0 QL 4 0 8 0 8 0 QL 4 0 8QL 04 8 0 0 8 0 8 0 ZHL 2 1 3ZHLZHL 0 2 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 0 0 1 1 2 2 Total 10 2 18TotalTotal 14 10 10 11 2 2 2 18 18 14 14 11 11 2 2 1 Note: QSH stands for Emperor Qinshihuanq’s Mausoleum Site1 Note: Museum,1 Note: QSH QSH QL stands forstands Qianling, for forEmperor Emperor ZHL for Qins Zhaoling. Qinshihuanq’shihuanq’s Mausoleum Mausoleum Site Site Museum, Museum, QL QL for forQianling, Qianling, ZHL ZHL for forZhaoling. Zhaoling.

5.2.2.5.2.2. The The Active Active Phase Phase 5.2.2. The Active Phase TheThe active active phase phase starts starts with with the the discovery discovery of ofa sitea site and and excavations. excavations. It isIt ismarked marked by bythe the The active phase starts with the discovery of aparticipation siteparticipation and excavations. of oflocal local people people It is as marked asmanual manual by laborers, thelaborers, or orthe the providers providers of housingof housing and and local local food. food. During During participation of local people as manual laborers, or thethis providersthis phase phase the of thehousing community community and is local actively is actively food. involved During involved in archaeologyin archaeology and and is given is given direct direct access access to it.to Theit. The local local this phase the community is actively involved in archaeologypeoplepeople and are are is involved given involved direct not not just access just as toaslaborers, it.laborers, The but local but also also as asstorytellers: storytellers: people are involved not just as laborers, but also as storytellers: “When“When we we discover discover a site, a site, we we usually usually set set up up a local a local workstation, workstation, and and when when the the locals locals are are “When we discover a site, we usually set up a local workstation,available,available, we and we employ whenemploy them the them locals as asthe arethe main main labor labor force force … …and and when when we we discovered discovered the the site, site, we we available, we employ them as the main labor force ... andaskedasked when the the we locals discoveredlocals about about the the the legends site, legends we they’ve they’ve been been told, told, and and did did detailed detailed investigations investigations of of asked the locals about the legends they’ve been told, andthose didthose detailed places, places, investigationsin inhopes hopes of of offinding thosefinding related related si tes.sites. Through Through interviews, interviews, we we gained gained more more informationinformation for for our our archaeological archaeological research, research, such such as asthe the possible possible distribution distribution of ofthe the site.” site.” (Heritage(Heritage expert, expert, Qinsgshihuan Qinsgshihuang Mausoleumg Mausoleum Site Site Museum). Museum). It isIt inis inthis this phase phase that that heritage heritage workers workers create create a bonda bond with with the the local local community, community, the the sort sort of of comraderycomradery that that comes comes with with working working at atan anarchaeological archaeological site. site. Even Even though, though, according according to toheritage heritage

Heritage 2019, 2 674

places, in hopes of finding related sites. Through interviews, we gained more information for our archaeological research, such as the possible distribution of the site.” (Heritage expert, Qinsgshihuang Mausoleum Site Museum).

It is in this phase that heritage workers create a bond with the local community, the sort of comradery that comes with working at an archaeological site. Even though, according to heritage experts, local people participated in this phase at all three sites, all respondents that participated in this phase were found in Emperor Qinshihuanq’s Mausoleum Site Museum, while the remaining two sites yielded no respondents that were actively involved in archaeological excavations. Some respondents from the Emperor Qinshihuanq’s Mausoleum Site Museum participated in both phases, and the archaeological research at the site is still in progress. Despite the lack of respondents who participated in the active phase at the other two sites, all three sites represent important parts of China’s imperial past and the efforts made by local people to contribute to the uncovering of the past that is still a source of pride.

“During the excavations, ... , we used local people’s food, their residence and payed local people to work [at the site], ... They also [developed] a kind of respect for local culture, they felt honored ... and they were also happy that they could make money. In addition, during the excavations, we all uncovered new things every day, [when that happened] they were happy, and we were satisfied.” (Heritage expert, Zhaoling)

5.2.3. The Passive Phase The passive phase begins when the site has been adjusted for tourism. At that point, the local community is only marginally involved in archaeology through selling goods or providing services to tourists, and the bonds of comradery remain only in the memories of those who participated in the excavations.

“[The site] does not affect [the community], it can help the villagers to a point, like the old ladies who make crafts and make money [off them], [for example] to afford for a child to go to school.” (Local resident from the area around Qianling).

“I think the museum should let the people [who] found [the site] visit for free now. If they want to look back on the original place [they excavated], they should [be able to] do that, right? But the museum does not give us this opportunity, nor do they treat the local people well.” (Local government, Xiahe village near Qingshihuang Mauseolem Site Museum).

Local residents who are part of this phase were found at all three sites, with Zhaoling having the least amount of respondents in general (due to the fact that it is situated near another tourist attraction—Yuanjia village, and archaeology does not play an important role in that area) [72]. The ways in which the local population was involved with their respective site was also not regulated or organized by a group or society, but rather scattered around the sites. This creates friction between those who are in charge of the site and local people who are trying to make a living off of it:

“[They] should be encouraged to participate in some cultural activities related to these sites, but they should be standardized, not [scattered and disorganized] as they are now.” (Heritage expert, Shaanxi Department for Cultural Relics)

“So the current situation may not be able to satisfy everyone. For example, you can see tour guides without [proper] certificates issued by the state, and they will pull you to "come [with them so they can show you the site]". [Because they had] no professional training, they might make mistakes and give you wrong [information] ... Can they all be eliminated? They also have to [make a living], [so if] you don’t let them [do it] today, they will come again Heritage 2019, 2 675

tomorrow. From the point of view of management, this is not a lack of discipline [on the part of the management], this is [an indicator of] the current situation [of local residents].” (Management, Qingshihuang Mausoleum Site Museum)

The observed rural communities were preoccupied with ensuring their livelihood, and kept away from archaeology that does not leave room for their participation:

“We are farmers ... . And farmers cannot work [in archaeology]. Archaeology does not need farmers.” (Local resident from the area around Qianling)

Just like the other two examples, when it comes to archaeological heritage in rural areas, there is a persisting top-down approach that creates a sort of “stay in your lane” attitude amongst local communities. In those communities, archaeology is perceived through the direct benefits it generates: Archaeology does or does not build roads, it does or does not create jobs. If observed through the prism of challenges faced by rural communities, for example work migration and loss of jobs in the countryside, archaeology has made no systemic effort to address the issues present at the sites.

“Local people support [heritage work], but the excavations and discovery did not bring much benefit to the development of local people.” (Local government, Xiahe village near Qingshihuang Mauseolem Site Museum)

All of the communities’ livelihoods are still tied to agrarian jobs, and education and community action are not issues that archaeology was meant to solve [71]. As the lack of cooperation and communication between the stakeholders persists, both local residents and local heritage experts are affected:

“Local people do care for the site, but they must first consider their own survival. So they have their fields, orchards and trees at the site. This is their income. If you don’t let them plant land and apples here, they will not have an income. But if you plant apples here, it will certainly affect the site.” (Archaeologist, discussing Zhaoling).

“The site did develop local pride. Everyone knows that the people [who live] inside the Terracotta Warriors are proud of this ... [But] nothing has changed. Still, as before, [for local people] it’s hard work and [trying to make] a living. [Archaeology had] no impact.” (Local resident who worked on the excavations of the Qingshihuang’s Mausoleum Site Musem)

6. The Future of Heritage in Rural Areas China’s tourism industry is quickly developing and it remains to be seen how these new trends will affect its rural populations. On one hand, those are the communities whose lives were most affected by the reforms introduced over the past few decades, and tourism seemed to be the answer to their troubles. Issues like the residential statuses of rural inhabitants are deeply rooted in China’s past and cannot be solved by heritage workers or tourism development. However, heritage work in China’s rural areas has been one of the ways of tackling the challenges of the new era, and it has, to a certain extent, helped solve the issues of poverty, the depleting infrastructure and the lack of traffic connections. On the other hand, these heritage projects have had varying success, often due to the quality of education and training that people in rural areas receive, as well as to the lack of appropriate legislature and mechanisms of involvement. In the new era, where tourism is one of the most common tools used in the effort to improve the lives of rural populations, it is obvious that changes will have to be made in order to ensure those projects become sustainable. But who will carry out the necessary changes? Those who remain in rural areas are mostly the older generation, who are often tasked with taking care of grandchildren while their parents are off to work in the cities. It is not likely that this generation will be the barer of change, or the target of educational efforts, which means that the New Socialist Countryside will not be created by merely Heritage 2019, 2 676 investing in heritage in rural communities, but by also having a plan that draws the younger, educated crowd into villages, giving that generation a stake in their own heritage. As demonstrated by the examples listed above, the investments in heritage are almost always government directed. Some migrants are coming back to the villages, but heritage does not play a decisive role, as their decision was made in the hope of starting their own business. This reveals the one common denominator for all three described ways in which heritage is present in rural areas, and that is the lack of a bottom-up approach. The lack of direct involvement by the community is connected to China’s tradition of governing and leadership that tends to be centralistic and self-preserving. These long-standing traditions will not be challenged by regulations or laws, but by creating circumstances that give local residents a stake in heritage, which in turn makes them more active participants in heritage and tourism. For the community, tourism development represents a way out of poverty, and poverty-stricken communities are less likely to care about the negative effects of tourism. Whether it is a transformation of the environment through the construction, or the distortion of local customs in order to accommodate mass tourism, local people are often willing to accept the downsides, because ensuring a means of survival largely shapes the way in which every project set in rural areas is observed. Simply creating mechanisms of involvement will not make a community actively participate in heritage if the residents cannot see the direct benefits of heritage project.

7. Conclusions This paper discusses changes in China’s rural areas and the impact of heritage on those changes, and it is only fair to concede that heritage has a limited reach in what are currently very challenging times. The examples of heritage participation in China discussed above point to the fact that a community heritage project set in a rural area has to be set up in such a way that it improves the financial status of the local residents. Ecomuseums and tourist villages were originally set up in order to assist development in rural areas. Despite their contribution to developing tourism, all three generations of ecomusuems have been criticized because of the lack of community involvement. The same goes for rural tourism: The communities are passive and accepting of all negative aspects of tourism if it improves their living standards. Archaeology, on the other hand, has not participated in rural development, other than in cases when archaeologists were able to conduct research. Developing community involvement in archaeology would create an arena for that to change. Because rural development is mostly directed through government investments, it often happens that the communities are not consulted, but are simply left to make the best of the situation. When developing community participation projects, heritage workers will have to consider regulatory solutions. In order to ensure the active participation of local residents however, they will first have to face the practical issues inherent in those communities.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: The author would like to thank the Chinese Government Scholarship Council for supporting her work. The author would also like to thank her mentor, Junmin Liu, PhD, for his guidance, as well as all students of Northwest University who assisted in this research. A special thanks is due to Vitomira Lonˇcar, PhD, for taking the time out of her day to help me. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References

1. Friedman, E.; Pickowicz, P.G.; Selden, M. Revolution, Resistance, and Reform in Village China; Yale Books: New Haven, CT, USA, 2007. 2. Chan, K.W. The Chinese Hukou System at 50. Eurasian Geogr. Econ. 2009, 50, 197–221. [CrossRef] 3. Liu, B.; Ren, C. How to Develop Chinese Rural Tourism in the Context of New Urbanization. Asian Agric. Res. 2016, 8, 27–28. Heritage 2019, 2 677

4. China Daily. China Makes Steady Progress in Urbanization. 2018. Available online: http://www.chinadaily. com.cn/a/201809/11/WS5b97257da31033b4f4655574.html (accessed on 23 December 2018). 5. Fan, C.C. Rural-Urban Migration and Gender Division of Labor in Transitional China. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 2003, 27, 24–47. [CrossRef] 6. Ren, Q.; Treiman, D.J. The Consequences of Parental Labor Migration in China for Children’s Emotional Well-Being. Soc. Sci. Res. 2016, 58, 46–67. [CrossRef][PubMed] 7. Government Department of Statistcs. 2012 Nian Quanguo Nongmin Gong Jiance Diaocha Baogao [Survey Report on National Monitoring of Migrant Workers in 2012]. 2012. Available online: http://www.stats.gov. cn/tjsj/zxfb/201305/t20130527_12978.html (accessed on 21 December 2018). 8. Wang, X. Migrants Returning Home to Start Businesses. China Daily, 2017. Available online: http://www. chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-09/30/content_32673003.htm (accessed on 21 December 2018). 9. Fan, S.; Zhang, X. Infrastructure and Regional Economic Development in Rural China. China Econ. Rev. 2004, 15, 203–214. [CrossRef] 10. Liu, N.; Sun, P. An Analysis about Agricultural Labor Force Aging and Regional Differences in China. Sci. Res. Aging 2015, 3, 21–28. 11. Zhou, C.; Sylvia, S.; Zhang, L.; Luo, R.; Yi, H.; Liu, C.; Shi, Y.; Loyalka, P.; Chu, J.; Medina, A.; et al. China’s Left-Behind Children: Impact of Parental Migration on Health, Nutrition, and Educational Outcomes. Health Aff. 2015, 34, 1–9. [CrossRef] 12. Liu, Q.; Zhu, X. Problems and Countermeasures of One-Charge System Implementation—The Study Report on ‘One-Charge System’ of Shaanxi Rural Education Province. J. Shaanxi Inst. Educ. 2005, 21, 40–44. 13. Brown, P.H.; Park, A. Education and Poverty in Rural China. Econ. Educ. Rev. 2004, 21, 203–214. [CrossRef] 14. Department of Rural Surveys, National Bureau of Statistics. 2010 China Yearbook of Rural Household Survey; Zhang, W., Ed.; China Statistics Press: Beijing, China, 2010. 15. Wen, T.; He, X.; Wang, Y. The overall pattern and prospect of Chinese farmers’ income growth in forty years of reform and opening up. Xinan Daxue Xuebao (Shehui Kexueban) J. Southwest Univ. (Soc. Sci. Ed.) 2018, 44, 43–55. [CrossRef] 16. Ministry of Civil Affairs of the People’s Republic of China [Zhonghua Renimin Gong He Guomin Zhengbu]. Zhonggong Zhongyang Guanyu Tuijin Nongcun Gaige Fazhan Ruo Ganzhong Da Wenti De Jueding. [Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Several Major Issues in Promoting Rural Reform and Development]. 2015. Available online: http://sw.mca.gov.cn/article/yw/jczqhsqjs/xzjs/ zcwj/201512/20151200878578.shtml (accessed on 23 October 2018). 17. Davis, P. Ecomuseums: A Sense of Place, 2nd ed.; Continuum International Publishing Group: New York, NY, USA, 2011. 18. McCall, V.; Gray, C. Museums and the ‘new museology’: Theory, practice and organizational change. Mus. Manag. Curatorship 2013, 29, 1–17. [CrossRef] 19. Stojevi´c,I. Public Archaeology and Heritage Participation in China: Three Case Studies in Shaanxi Province. Presented at the 24th EAA Annual Meeting, Barcelona, Spain, 5–8 September 2018. 20. Zhao, Y. Qiantan Dui Zhongguo Shengtai Bowuguan Fazhan De Renshi Ji Xiangguan Sikao [A brief discussion on the understanding and relevant considerations in developing China’s ecomuseums]. Zhongguo Minzu Bolan [Chinese National Expo]. 2017, pp. 232–236. Available online: http://kns.cnki.net/kns/detail/detail.aspx?QueryID=1&CurRec=1&recid=&FileName= MZBL201702115&DbName=CJFDLAST2018&DbCode=CJFQ&yx=&pr=CJFU2017;&URLID= (accessed on 1 November 2017). 21. Zhao, Y.; Yang, X.; Yan, T. Luguhu Shengtai Bowuguan de Jianshe Lujin Gfenxi—Yi Luguhu Bo Shu Cun Wei Li. [Analysis of the method of developing Lugu Lake Ecomuseum—A case study of Boshu Village of Lugu Lake]. Xin Beibu [New West] 2017, 14, 29–30. Available online: http://kns.cnki.net/ KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFQ&dbname=CJFDLAST2017&filename=XXBL201719019&v= MjI2MTBSc0Z5SGdWYjNMUFRYSllyRzRIOWJOcG85RWJZUjhlWDFMdXhZUzdEaDFUM3\protect\ kern+.1667em\relaxFUcldNMUZyQ1VSTEtlWmU= (accessed on 1 December 2017). 22. Liu, J.; Jin, L. An Anthropological Study on Ecomuseums and Heritage Tourism: Taking Zhenshan Buyi Ecomuseum in Guizhou. Bowuyuan [Museum] 2017, 5, 35–41. Heritage 2019, 2 678

23. Pan, S. Theoretical Discussion on the Third-Generation Ecomuseums and the Construction of Anji Ecomuseum Cluster. Southeast Cult. 2013, 6, 86–93. Available online: http://kns.cnki.net/kns/detail/detail. aspx?QueryID=2&CurRec=1&recid=&FileName=DNWH201306019&DbName=CJFDHIS2&DbCode= CJFQ&yx=&pr=CJFU2013;&URLID= (accessed on 17 January 2018). 24. Pan, S. The Ecomuseum (Community Museum): Chinese Experiences and Critical Discussions. Southeast Cult. 2017, 6, 115–128. 25. Yu, F. Guizhou Shengtai Bowuguan Qun Yu Zhejiang Anji Shengtai Bowuguan Qun Zhi Yitong Yanjiu [A study on the similarities and differences between the group of Guizhou Ecomuseums and the group of Zhejiang Anji Eco-Museums]. Cansang [Vicissitudes] 2014, 2, 140–142. [CrossRef] 26. Dan, J. Ji shengtai bowuguan jianshe de hexin linian [Core ideas behind the construction of the Anji Ecomuseum]. Jinri Zhejiang [Zhejiang Today] 2011, 2, 56–57. Available online: http://kns.cnki. net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFU&dbname=CJFD2011&filename=JRZJ201102033&v= MDE3MDFYMUx1eFlTN0RoMVQzcVRyV00xRnJDVVJMS2VaZVJzRnlIaFc3dkJMei9SWkxHNEg5RE1y\ protect\kern+.1667em\relaxWTlHWjRSOGU= (accessed on 16 May 2018). 27. Yi, S.H. The Model of Chinese Ecomuseums- Benchmarking, Evaluation and a Comparison with Australian Open-Air Museums. Ph.D. Thesis, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia, 2013. 28. Gong, N. Minorities and Tourism: Residents’Gaze and Perception: A Case Study on Zhaoxin and Tangan Dong Villages of Guzihou. Guizhou Ethn. Stud. 2018, 39, 61–66. [CrossRef] 29. Tang, X.; Wang, D. The Research on the Traditional Villages Preservation from the Perspective of Ecomuseum Orientation. J. Kunming Univ. Sci. Technol. (Soc. Sci. Ed.) 2017, 17, 102–108. [CrossRef] 30. Sharpley, R.; Roberts, L. Rural Tourism—10 Years on. Int. J. Tour. Res. 2004, 6, 119–124. [CrossRef] 31. Gao, J.; Wu, B. Revitalizing Traditional Villages through Rural Tourism: A Case Study of Yuanjia Village. Tour. Manag. 2017, 63, 223–233. [CrossRef] 32. Augustyn, M. National Strategies for Rural Tourism Development and Sustainability: The Polish Experience. J. Sustain. Tour. 2010, 6, 191–209. [CrossRef] 33. Cawley, M.; Gillmor, D.A. Integrated rural tourism: Concepts and Practice. Ann. Tour. Res. 2007, 35, 316–337. [CrossRef] 34. Ertuna, B.; Kirba¸s,G. Local community involvement in rural tourism development: The case of Kastamonu, Turkey. Revista Turismo Patrimonio Cultural 2012, 10, 17–24. [CrossRef] 35. Okech, R.; Haghiri, M.; George, B.P. Rural Tourism as a Sustainable Development Alternative: An Analysis with Special Reference to Luanda, Kenya. Revista Cultra Turismo 2012, 6, 36–54. 36. Blancas, F.J.; Lozano-Oyolaa, M.; González, M.; Guerrero, F.M.; Caballero, R. How to use sustainability indicators for tourism planning: The case of rural tourism in Andalusia (Spain). Sci. Total Environ. 2011, 412–413, 28–45. [CrossRef][PubMed] 37. Morosi, J.; Amarilla, B.; Conti, A.; Contín, M. Estancias of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina: Rural Heritage, Sustainable Development and Tourism. Int. J. Herit. Stud. 2008, 14, 589–594. [CrossRef] 38. Henderson, J.; Teck, G.K.; Ng, D.; Si-Rong, T. Tourism in Ethnic Communities: Two Miao Villages in China. Int. J. Herit. Stud. 2009, 15, 529–539. [CrossRef] 39. Copus, A.; McLeod, M. Indicators of Rural Well-being. In Rural Tourism and Recreation: Principles to Practice; Roberts, L., Hall, D., Eds.; CABI Publishing: Oxon, UK, 2001; pp. 31–34. 40. Manson, P.; Cheyne, J. Residents’ attitudes to proposed tourism development. Ann. Tour. Res. 2000, 27, 391–411. [CrossRef] 41. Lindberg, K.; Dellaert, B.G.C.; Rassing, C.R. Resident tradeoffs: A choice modeling approach. Ann. Tour. Res. 1999, 26, 3554–3569. [CrossRef] 42. Williams, J.; Lawson, R. Community issues and resident opinions of tourism. Ann. Tour. Res. 2001, 28, 269–290. [CrossRef] 43. Lu, S.; Zhang, J. Residents’ Life Satisfaction and Community Construction in Ancient Villages Tourism: A Case Study of a World Cultural Heritage, the Ancient Villages in South Anhui Province. Tour. Sci. 2009, 23, 41–47. 44. Long, M.; Zhang, Y. Minzu cunzhai shequ canyu lüyou fazhan de fupin xiaoying yanjiu [Research on the effects of village community participation in tourism development on poverty alleviation.]. Nongye Jingji [Agric. Econ.] 2014, 5, 48–50. [CrossRef] Heritage 2019, 2 679

45. World Tourism Alliance. China Tourism Statistics in the First Half of 2017. 2017. Available online: http://www.wta-web.org/eng/sjzx_4026/lytjgb_4027/201710/t20171013_842557.shtml (accessed on 23 December 2018). 46. Xu, J. Community Participation in Ethnic Minority Cultural Heritage Management in China: A Case Study of Xianrendong Ethnic Cultural and Ecological Village. Pap. Inst. Archaeol. 2007, 18, 148–160. [CrossRef] 47. Li, S.; Chai, X. Cost Efficiency Analysis of Leisure Agriculture in Yuanjia Village of Shaanxi Province. J. Shanxi Agric. Sci. 2014, 42, 636–639. [CrossRef] 48. Sun, J.; Bao, J. Anthropological Tourism Analysis on Community Participation: The Case Study of Yulong River in Yangshuo. Chin. Sociol. Anthropol. 2007, 39, 50–68. [CrossRef] 49. Pan, Z.; Liang, B.; Wu, Y.; Lin, Y.; Cao, T. Community empowerment:An effective way to realize community involvement in tourism development. Tour. Forum 2014, 7, 43–49. [CrossRef] 50. Wang, C.; Huang, F. From Community Involvement to Community Empowerment—A Case Study of Kaiping Watchtower and Villages. Hum. Geogr. 2013, 129, 141–149. 51. Xu, K.; Jin, Z.; Tian, F. Community Leadership in Rural Tourism Development: A Tale of Two Ancient Chinese Villages. Sustainability 2017, 9, 2344. [CrossRef] 52. Liu, G.; Liu, H.; Liu, H. Model Building for Community Participating in Rural Tourism and Game Analysis of Core Stakeholders. Asian Agric. Res. 2016, 8, 17–20. 53. Simmons, D.G. Community Participation in Tourism Planning. Tour. Manag. 1994, 15, 98–108. [CrossRef] 54. Matarasso, F.; Landry, C. Balancing Act: Twenty-One Strategic Dilemmas in Cultural Policy; Cultural Policies Research and Development Unit, Policy Note No. 4; Council of Europe Publishing: Strasbourg, France, 1999. 55. Bao, J.; Sun, J. A Contrastive Study on the Difference in Community Participation in Tourism between China and the West. Acta Geogr. Sin. 2006, 61, 401–413. 56. Hu, R. Economic Development and the Implementation of Village Elections in Rural China. J. Contemp. China 2005, 14, 427–444. [CrossRef] 57. Ying, T.; Zhou, Y. Community, Governments and External Capitals in China’s Rural Cultural Tourism: A Comparative Study of Two Adjacent Villages. Tour. Manag. 2007, 28, 96–107. [CrossRef] 58. Wei, Q.; Zhao, L. Places in Interaction: The National Archaeological Park Project as an Integrated Approach to Public Archaeology in China. Public Archeol. 2018, 1–17. [CrossRef] 59. Wang, T. Public Archaeology’ in China: A Preliminary Investigation. In New Perspectives in Global Public Archaeology; Okamure, K., Matsuda, A., Eds.; Springer: London, UK, 2011; pp. 43–56. 60. Wang, T. The Workers’ and Farmers’ Archaeology of the Cultural Revolution. In Sharing Archaeology: Academe, Practice, and the Public; Stone, P., Zhao, H., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2015; pp. 109–116. 61. Wei, Q. Summary on the current research of public archaeology abroad. Cult. Relics South. China 2010, 3, 110–114. Available online: http://kns.cnki.net/KCMS/ detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFQ&dbname=CJFD2010&filename=LFWW201003018&v= MjM1MjViRzRIOUhNckk5RWJJUjhlWDFMdXhZUzdEaDFUM3FUcldNMUZyQ1VSTEtlWmVSc0Z5cmtVYjdNS1N2Y2U= (accessed on 4 November 2017). 62. Yang, Y.; Chen, X. Researches on rock art from the perspective of public archaeology. Sichuan Sichuan Univ. Arts Sci. J. 2017, 27, 100–104. 63. Gao, M. Kaogu Haowanr; Fudan Daxue Chubanshe (Fudan University Press): Beijing, China, 2011. 64. Zhang, H. Youguan xinmeiti zai gonggong kaogu lingyu yingyong de ji dian sikao [Some thoughts on the application of new media in public archaeology]. Beifang Wenxue 2017, 12, 209. [CrossRef] 65. Qiao, Y. New ideas on professional platforms for public archaeology. South. Cult. 2017, 2, 239–244. 66. Gao, M. Creating a new space for public archaeology in Cultural Relics in Southern China column “Public archaeology”. Cult. Relics South. China 2017, 2, 219–220. 67. Thorne, S. Data Analysis in Qualitative Research. Evid.-Based Nurs. 2000, 3, 68–70. [CrossRef] 68. Wengraf, T. Qualitative Research Interviewing; Sage Publications: London, UK, 2001. 69. Neuman, W.L. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 7th ed.; Pearson Education Limited: Harlow, UK, 2014. 70. Glaser, B.; Strauss, A. The Discovery of the Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research; Aldine Transaction: London, UK, 1967. Heritage 2019, 2 680

71. Corbin, J.; Strauss, A. Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons, and Evaluative Criteria. Qualit. Sociol. 1990, 13, 3–21. [CrossRef] 72. Stojevi´c,I. The Emperor’s Neighbors: An Investigation into Public Archaeology in China. Presented at the CHAT ACT: Agency, Action and Advocacy, Aarhus, Denmark, 26–28 October 2018.

© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).